Methane recycling between hydrate and critically pressured

stratigraphic traps, offshore Mauritania

Richard J. Davies and Amy L. Clarke
Centre for Research into Earth Energy Systems (CeREES), Department of Earth Sciences, University of Durham, Science Labs,
Durham DH1 3LE, UK

ABSTRACT covers ~1,881 km2 (Fig. 1). The high vertical

Three-dimensional seismic reflection data from offshore Mauritania reveal a base and lateral resolution provided by three-dimen-
hydrate reflection, beneath which are 56 stratigraphically trapped gas accumulations (~0.08 sional (3-D) seismic data allow for the detailed
Gt methane). Only 2 are sealed by the base of the hydrate (~0.004 Gt methane) and there- analysis of the ~200-m-thick succession imme-
fore constitute the free gas zone. Some of the stratigraphically trapped gas accumulations diately below the BHSZ, where the free gas
are critically pressured. There are also 360 gas chimneys beneath the gas hydrate, but not zone commonly extends (Hornbach et al.,
outside the region covered by it. They are evidence for repetitious leaking from the accu- 2004). It provides the capability to discriminate
mulations. Only 12 of the chimneys terminate at a contemporaneous seabed, showing that between gas trapped at the base of the hydrate
methane venting was not significant. Instead, upward resetting of the base hydrate triggered (i.e., the free gas zone) and free gas sealed strati-
gas dissociation and caused the traps to become charged and critically pressured. Vertical graphically by surrounding low permeability
leaking to intermediate, shallower stratigraphic traps or to the gas hydrate itself, where it sediment. We describe the geophysical evidence
was reincorporated, occurred once the seal capacity was exceeded. Most (95%) of the free for the leakage of free gas from such traps and
gas is stored stratigraphically and re-migrates in this way, and this trapping mechanism may propose a model for methane recycling between
be typical of fine-grained passive margin continental slopes. Only 5% of the gas is within the the hydrate and stratigraphic traps.
free gas zone. The role of recycling of methane between the hydrate and stratigraphic traps
has not previously been recognized and represents a store for this greenhouse gas that is not SEISMIC OBSERVATIONS
susceptible to changes in ambient conditions. There are no faults within the studied inter-
val which represents sediments spanning the last
INTRODUCTION Huene and Pecher, 1999; Haacke et al., 2007). 5.2 m.y. (Vear, 2005), during which time sedi-
Gas hydrates are crystalline compounds of Dissociated gas could instead be stored in mentation rates averaged at ~80–90 m m.y.–1.
gases and water that occur along continental stratigraphic traps sealed by surrounding low- There are no major unconformities in the suc-
margins (Kvenvolden, 1993; Milkov and Sas- permeability sediment. Storage and recycling cession. The 3-D reflection survey comprises
sen, 2002). Below a few hundred meters of of methane between the hydrate and these seismic lines that have a 12.5 m spacing. Rock
burial, at well-defined temperatures and pres- independent stratigraphic traps has not been strata >10 m thick can be resolved and a black-
sures, gas hydrate becomes unstable and gas considered, but may represent an important red reflection represents a decrease in rock den-
and water exist in a free gas zone (Hornbach et methane store that is not climatically sensi- sity and velocity consistent with the base of a gas
al., 2004). In deepwater continental margins this tive. The volume of methane stored this way is hydrate or gas-charged sand. These data reveal
transition, known as the base of the gas hydrate perhaps comparable or even greater than in the a bright, black-red reflection termed the BHSZ
stability zone (BHSZ), is commonly marked free gas zone. (marked in blue in Fig. 2A). It has a curved
by a high-amplitude seismic reflection that is We examine a previously unidentified gas form, cross cuts other reflections (Fig. 2B), and
parallel to the seabed but has the opposite seis- hydrate reservoir offshore of Mauritania that intersects the seabed at ~636 m. 360 gas chim-
mic polarity (Shipley et al., 1979). The BHSZ
can reset upward or downward in response to
changes in temperature, pressure, or salinity. A Fig 1 17° W 15° W
B Fig. 4 Chinguetti-6-1
These changes may be driven by sedimentation exploration well
or erosion (Dickens, 2001).
1 km Chinguetti-V1
20° N

Hydrate dissociation and methane release exploration well

may have played a role in ancient climate Mauritania
change (e.g., Dickens et al., 1995), although Study area
Fig. 2A Fig. 2B
this is still questioned (e.g., Svensen et al., N
2004). Rather than venting, dissociation of gas 2300 m X
caused by upward resetting of the BHSZ can elf
18° N

1500 m
1000 m

Sh
200 m
100 m
2000 m

500 m

be stored in the free gas zone, which is sealed

by the hydrate (e.g., Haacke et al., 2007). Many 636 m
free gas zones are thought to be critically pres-
sured, therefore additional free gas could cause Chimney top
clustering pe
fault slip within the hydrate, allowing methane Mauritania at BHSZ Slo
release to the seabed (Hornbach et al., 2004). Chimney top
Basin floor
clustering at
Without leakage, methane may be repetitively deeper levels
recycled between the hydrate and the free gas
zone by upward and downward resetting of the
BHSZ driven by changes in the temperature or Figure 1. A: Location map of the offshore Mauritania gas hydrate. B: Map of base of
pressure at the seabed. This process is known the gas hydrate stability zone (BHSZ); positions of the 360 gas chimneys that are seis-
as hydrate recycling (Pecher et al., 1996; Von mically resolved are indicated. X marks the intersection of the BHSZ and the seabed.

© 2010 Geological Society of America. For permission to copy, contact Copyright Permissions, GSA, or editing@geosociety.org.
GEOLOGY,
Geology, November
November 2010
2010; v. 38; no. 11; p. 963–966; doi: 10.1130/G31058.1; 5 figures; Data Repository item 2010269 963
Figure 2. A: Representa- n = 348 40 400 m

Number of chimney tops

BHSZ
tive seismic line from the
Clusters of chimney tops 600 m
three-dimensional sur- 30
D
vey showing location of
the present base of the 20
C B 1
gas hydrate stability zone
10 1000 m Z
(BHSZ). Vertical blow- BHS
Z
out chimneys intersect
0
amplitude anomalies 540 460 380 300 220 140 5.6 Ma
Meters below seafloor (mbsf) 1 Chinguetti-V1
and the BHSZ (marked
d 0m exploration well
X). Some anomalies are
1400 m S
eabe
also located outside 100 m 8.2 Ma
the limits of the hydrate 200 m X Y Chinguetti-6-1
exploration well
Chimneys
(marked Y) but chimneys
are rarely identified here. 300 m
Inset graph: Number of
chimney tops versus
400 m 2 km
depth of the top of pipes, A 500 m
showing tendency for 10 20 10 20
pipes to cluster around C D
Temp °C Temp °C
specific depths, inter-
preted to be present and 1 400 m 400 m
previous positions of the
2

Depth below sea level (m)

Depth below sea level (m)

base of the gas hydrate
or the gas accumula-
tions. Inset seismic data: 600 m 600 m
Examples of two vertical
3 sb
BHSZ
seismic chimneys and 1
amplitude anomalies 2 800 m 800 m
interpreted as gas ac- sb
cumulations (marked Z). BHSZ
B: Close-up of present 3
location of BHSZ, with 1000 m 1000 m
three through-going re- BHSZ
flections (1, 2, 3) marked, B
demonstrating that the
reflection cross cuts stratal reflections and cannot represent a palaeo-seabed or unconformity. C and D: Estimated graphs of temperature
profile (assuming 33 °C/km geothermal gradient and seabed [sb] temperature of 7 °C) and hydrate stability curves (assuming seawater salinity
in the pores; Kvenvolden, 1993) against depth for locations on the seismic line. In D, the BHSZ is almost coincident with the seabed; in C, the
seabed is ~200 m above the BHSZ.

neys (Figs. 1B and 2A) penetrate low-amplitude
or anomalously high-amplitude reflections
(herein termed amplitude anomalies) below
the BHSZ. The anomalies occur throughout the
study area below and outside the region covered
by the hydrate (e.g., marked Y in Fig. 2A). The
chimneys are closely associated with the anoma-
lies but only occur where a BHSZ reflection is
mapped, and rarely outside this area (examples
are marked X Fig. 2A). A graph of the frequency
of chimney tops against depth below seabed
(calculating depth using a velocity for the sedi-
ment of 1700 ms-1) (inset in Fig. 2A) shows that
they cluster at specific depths: 60% cluster at
~220 mbsf (meters below sea floor) which is
the present maximum depth of the BHS; 37%
cluster at deeper levels. 97% have “blind” upper
terminations with no evidence for an erosional
depression indicative of a pockmark at the sea-
bed; 3% of chimneys (12) show good evidence
for pockmark development, indicative of vent-
ing to the contemporaneous seabed (Fig. DR1 in
the GSA Data Repository1).
Some of the chimneys terminate at the anoma-
lies (marked X in Fig. 3) and a map of one such
feature, which is located immediately below
the BHSZ, shows it has an elongate form that is
parallel to the dip of the slope (inset, Fig. 3A).
We examined 102 amplitude anomalies located
within an interval 200 m below the BHSZ and
covering areas of 0.75–269 km2. Here we high-
light four representative examples (Fig. 4) that
are spatially extensive features that have vertical
extents of 140–340 m. Most of the updip termina-
tions of the anomalies are marked by reductions
in reflection amplitude that are not coincident
with the BHSZ (e.g., accumulation D in Fig. 4).
INTERPRETATION
The reflection BHSZ clearly crosscuts stratal
reflections, and therefore it does not represent
a palaeo-seabed or an unconformity (Fig. 2B).
There are no accurate seabed temperatures or
geothermal gradients for this region, but a tem-
perature profile with increasing depth can be esti-
mated for locations on the seismic line by using
a generalized hydrate stability curve (which
1
GSA Data Repository item 2010269, Figure DR1
(dip and strike seismic across erosional depressions
and dip map showing cluster of 12 pockmarks) and
Table DR1 (calculations of the mass of methane
trapped stratigraphically and in the free gas zone), is
available online at www.geosociety.org/pubs/ft2010.
htm, or on request from editing@geosociety.org or
Documents Secretary, GSA, P.O. Box 9140, Boulder,
CO 80301, USA.
assumes seawater salinity in the pores; Kven-
volden, 1993), a geothermal gradient of ~33 °C/
km, and a seabed temperature of ~7 °C. Results,
shown in Figures 2C and 2D, indicate that the
BHSZ intersects the seabed at ~600 m and deep-
ens to ~200 m below the seabed with increasing
water depth, which is what we observe in the
seismic reflection data. The curved shape of the
reflection (Figs. 2A and 2B), which intersects
the seabed as the depth of the seabed decreases,
conforms to the theoretically predicted shape of
the hydrate stability curve (Milkov and Sassen,
2002). This is a rarely documented characteris-
tic of BHSZs (e.g., Tréhu et al., 1995; Milkov
and Sassen, 2002; Viola et al., 2005)
Based upon standard geophysical and geolog-
ical criteria for recognizing gas-charged sands
versus other lithology-related effects (Brown,
2004), 56 of the amplitude anomalies are inter-
preted to be gas filled. They probably represent
thin deepwater sands or silts that have been
reported from commercial boreholes along this
part of the margin (Vear, 2005), most of which
are below tuning thickness (< 10 m). Only two
terminate at the present position of the BHSZ,
indicating active sealing by the hydrate (e.g.,
accumulation E in Fig. 4A); the other 54 accu-
mulations are stratigraphically trapped indepen-

964 GEOLOGY, November 2010

 the base of the hydrate (Flemings et al., 2003;
A 2 km
B Hornbach et al., 2004; Tréhu et al., 2004), but
not for stratigraphically sealed free gas accumu-
200 m lations immediately below hydrates. Discrete
vertical seismic chimneys or “blowout pipes”
Free gas are well known in seismic reflection data and
B X are interpreted as zones of fractures within
Vertical chimney
otherwise impermeable strata that allow verti-
BHSZ
Y Y’ Vertical chimney cal fluid flow to take place (Løseth et al., 2001;
Free gas Cartwright, 2007). They show that the gas con-
centration in the accumulations is high enough
2 km for it to form a connected, buoyant column.
Low seismic 1 km The coexistence of both gas accumulations and
amplitude
chimneys beneath the hydrate only but not out-
High seismic 100 m side its extent suggests a causative link between
amplitude Y Y’
the hydrate and repetitious leak from the accu-
Figure 3. A, B: Example of a vertical gas chimney terminating at an amplitude anomaly im- mulations through the blowout pipes.
mediately below the base of the gas hydrate stability zone (BHSZ); inset is a map of the We estimate a volume of methane at atmo-
amplitude of the seismic reflection showing its elongate form. This anomaly is interpreted to spheric pressure in each of the 56 accumulations
be a gas-charged deepwater channel, and constitutes part of the free gas zone.
(assuming 40% porosity, bed thickness of 5 m,
and water saturation of 12%) and convert this
5 10 15 20 25 5 10 15 20 into gigatons of methane (717 g methane per
800 800
B C cubic meter of methane). The 54 accumulations
1000
TA 1000 TA store ~0.08 Gt methane; the two accumulations
1200 1200 that are sealed by the gas hydrate store a small
LP
BA fraction of this (~0.004 Gt methane) (Table DR1
HP

1400 1400
LP in Data Repository). The absolute mass of meth-
1600 10 15 20 25
BA 1400 TA ane is not of particular importance here, but the
HP

E
1800
15 1600 TA percentage of methane held beneath the BHSZ
5 10 20
HP

800
D LP
is significant, as it is only 5% compared to 95%
1800
1000 in the stratigraphic traps.
BA
SZ
TA 2000 BH
1200 LP
STRATIGRAPHIC RECYCLING MODEL
1400 D The BHSZ has probably been reset from
HP

BA
C deeper levels to its present position, which is
A
B Low seismic
consistent with continuous sedimentation over
amplitude the past 5.2 m.y. The clustering of chimneys
High seismic
amplitude
at specific depth levels may indicate the posi-
E 1 km tion of present and past (deeper) positions of
100 m X X’
the BHSZ or may be coincident with the gas
Z
BHS accumulations. During upward movement of
100 m Updip seal the BHSZ, water and gas dissociated. The gas
Z
BHS against hydrate
TA and phase reversal
migrated vertically upward until it intersected
1 km
permeable and porous sand and silt beds, which
progressively filled until the seal capacity of the
X X′
surrounding fine-grained sediment was reached
Figure 4. A: Representative seismic line showing high-amplitude reflections interpreted to be or exceeded (Figs. 5A and 5B). If the resultant
gas charged sands below the base of the gas hydrate stability zone (BHSZ). B–E: Graphs of blowout pipe did not intersect one of the strati-
hydrostatic (HP), lithostatic (LP), and gas pressures (dashed lines) for amplitude anomalies graphic traps, then gas migrated upward to form
marked on the seismic section. Vertical axis—depth below sea level (m); horizontal axis— gas hydrate at the level of the new BHSZ. A
pressure (MPa). Lithostatic gradient is 0.021 MPa/km, hydrostatic gradient is 0.010 MPa/km,
and gas gradient is 0.00011 MPa/km. TA and BA are top and base accumulation, respectively.
significant number of chimneys terminate at the
Inset (bottom right): Close-up of accumulation (E) that terminates at the BHSZ coincident present BHSZ or penetrate the lower parts of the
with a reflection phase reversal (circled area). Inset (bottom center): Seismic cross section hydrate; this is direct evidence for some con-
and amplitude map of seismic reflection revealing an amplitude anomaly that has a sharp ventional hydrate recycling (e.g., Haacke et al.,
updip termination against the BHSZ and the resulting phase reversal. Inset (top right): Updip 2007). The progressive filling of stratigraphic
terminations to the amplitude anomalies.
traps may be assisted by gas leaks from other
accumulations or deeper thermogenic sources.
dent of it. Seismic amplitude does not discrimi- (Fig. 4A) are marked by the change from high to This is consistent with gas charge in accumu-
nate between high and low gas saturations, but if low seismic amplitude (marked TA in Fig. 4A). lations that lie outside the area of the hydrate.
one assumes that the pores are connected, they Here the buoyancy pressure of the gas would be There is no requirement for overpressure of pore
would represent gas accumulations that have close to lithostatic pressure (Figs. 4B–4E) and water beneath the stratigraphically trapped gas
column heights of between 140 and 340 m. The susceptible to catastrophic leakage. This has columns (cf. Flemings et al., 2003) for criti-
shallowest regions of the gas accumulations been described for sediments that are sealed by cal pressures to be reached. Stress and tensile

GEOLOGY, November 2010 965

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McMillen, K.J., Ladd, J.W., and Worzel, J.L., 1979,
mulations is not exceeded, so the methane could than those trapped below the hydrate (i.e., the Seismic evidence for widespread possible gas hy-
be stored for significant periods of time without free gas zone). Methane exchange is triggered drate horizons on continental slopes and rises: Bulle-
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rather than venting as the dominant process. discriminating between free gas trapped by the 1995, A seismic reflection profile across the Cascadia
This could result in methane being removed hydrate and that contained in conventional traps. subduction zone offshore central Oregon: new con-
straints on methane distribution and crustal structure:
from the hydrate-free gas system for significant These data sets will also be important in deter- Journal of Geophysical Research, v. 100, p. 15101–
periods of time. The stratigraphic recycling pro- mining the role of conventional stratigraphic 15116, doi:10.1029/95JB00240.
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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS p. 1217–1232.
may occur in three different domains, conven- Viola, G., Andreoli, M., Ben-Avraham, Z., Stengel, I., and
We thank Darren Gröcke, Neil Goulty and Joe Cartwright
tional stratigraphic (and plausibly structural) for discussion, Dave Stevenson and Gary Wilkinson for man- Reshef, M., 2005, Offshore mud volcanoes and on-
traps (Milkov and Sassen, 2002), the hydrate aging the seismic interpretation facility and Petronas and land faulting in southwestern Africa: Neotectonic
Tullow Oil for permission to use and publish seismic data. implications and constraints on the regional stress
itself, and the free gas zone immediately below field: Earth and Planetary Science Letters, v. 231,
The Landmark University Grant Program is gratefully ac-
it. Deepwater slopes are susceptible to changes knowledged for providing seismic interpretation software. p. 147–160, doi:10.1016/j.epsl.2004.12.001.
Von Huene, R., and Pecher, I.A., 1999, Vertical tectonics
in ambient conditions (Dickens, 2001) but are We also thank Mads Huuse and two anonymous reviewers
and the origins of BSRs along the Peru margin: Earth
for their constructive comments.
also typically characterized by these thin, rela- and Planetary Science Letters, v. 166, p. 47–55, doi:
tively steeply dipping, porous, and permeable 10.1016/S0012-821X(98)00274-X.
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966 GEOLOGY, November 2010