Cogent Education

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Does vocational passion matter? Minority case of

Indonesian Christian educators

Jonathan Gozal & Martinus Tukiran

To cite this article: Jonathan Gozal & Martinus Tukiran (2023) Does vocational passion matter?
Minority case of Indonesian Christian educators, Cogent Education, 10:2, 2280311, DOI:
10.1080/2331186X.2023.2280311

To link to this article: https://doi.org/10.1080/2331186X.2023.2280311

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Gozal & Tukiran, Cogent Education (2023), 10: 2280311
https://doi.org/10.1080/2331186X.2023.2280311
Received: 19 January 2023
Accepted: 02 November 2023
*Corresponding author: Jonathan
Gozal, Department of Business &
Management, Pelita Harapan
University, Jl. MH Thamrin Boulevard
1100, Klp. Dua, Kec. Klp. Dua, Kota
Tangerang, Banten 15811, Indonesia,
E-mail: jonathan.gozal@gmail.com
Reviewing editor:
John Lee, Education University of
Hong Kong, Hong kong
Additional information is available at
the end of the article
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP & MANAGEMENT | RESEARCH ARTICLE
Does vocational passion matter? Minority case of
Indonesian Christian educators
Jonathan Gozal1* and Martinus Tukiran2
Abstract: This study investigated the role of vocational passion in the relationship
between well-being, psychological distress, and job satisfaction among
Indonesian Christian educators, who form part of a minority in a predominantly
Muslim country. The research surveyed 2,421 active local Christian educators. We
then conducted a confirmatory factor analysis and bootstrapping using SmartPLS.
Indonesian Christian educators’ well-being and vocational passion have a direct
positive effect on job satisfaction. Psychological distress has a direct negative
effect on both job satisfaction and well-being. Notably, Indonesian Christian edu­
cators’ well-being partially mediates psychological distress and job satisfaction,
indicating that educational institutions must address Indonesian Christian educa­
tors’ psychological distress rather than enhancing their well-being to improve their
overall job satisfaction. Moreover, vocational passion negatively moderates the
relationship between well-being and job satisfaction. This may be attributed to
religious values and norms, and social expectations placed on Indonesian
Christian educators. Last, vocational passion does not moderate the relationship
between psychological distress and job satisfaction, indicating that, while voca­
tional passion is essential, it may not serve as a buffer for the adverse effects of
psychological distress on job satisfaction. Efforts should prioritize addressing well-
being and psychological distress rather than relying solely on vocational passion
to mitigate its impact.
Subjects: Schools & Schooling; Teachers & Teacher Education; School Psychology
Keywords: job satisfaction; well-being; psychological distress; vocational passion;
education; minority case
1. Introduction
Since March 2020, educational institutions have dealt with the impact of the government’s
COVID-19 policy changes. Enforcing safety protocols, closing school buildings, and adopting
distance learning were inevitable. As these changes had to be implemented in a short period,
educators had insufficient time to receive proper training and adjust to the distance learning
methodology or even for schools to plan and implement such changes properly (Chan et al.,
2021). The situation was further exacerbated by the lack of readiness, expertise, and tech­
nology skills among educators, along with a lack of suitable facilities and infrastructure to
support the implementation of distance learning. Consequently, educators have begun to
question how long they can afford to continue, despite their passion for education and
© 2023 The Author(s). Published by Informa UK Limited, trading as Taylor & Francis Group.
This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution
License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), which permits unrestricted use, distribu­
tion, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. The terms on
which this article has been published allow the posting of the Accepted Manuscript in a
repository by the author(s) or with their consent.
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continued desire to support students. Chan et al. (2021) found that nearly half of the
surveyed educators in the United States experienced high psychological stress during the
first few months of teaching during school closures; this is supported by surveys conducted
by Alberta Teachers’ Association (ATA), Ottawa-Carleton District School Board, and Canadian
Teachers’ Federation (Canadian Teachers’ Federation, 2020; Janzen, 2020; Pringle, 2020).
Unfortunately, even after almost two years into the COVID-19 pandemic, the situation has
not changed in the region. ATA later conducted a study in January 2022 and reported that
85% of teachers still feel high levels of stress and anxiety coming into the second year of the
pandemic (Edwardson, 2022). These data also apply to Indonesia; educators working in DKI
Jakarta, West Java, and Banten experienced high stress and anxiety as the pandemic con­
tinued (Fauzan et al., 2022; Indra et al., 2021).

Indeed, research related to the above will contribute significantly to educational institu­
tions in making strategic policies and providing support. However, previous research has a
common denominator, namely the use of a popular sample target. People from minority
ethnic groups are under-represented; without their participation, we would not uncover the
existence of these disparities in the education literature or understand their underlying
causes (Redwood & Gill, 2013). Therefore, this research aims to promote inclusivity and
close the gap of the SAT literature by exploring Indonesian Christian educators, who are a
minority in a predominantly Muslim country. Understanding the factors influencing
Indonesian Christian educators’ job satisfaction in the minority group can inform the devel­
opment of institutional strategic policies tailored to their needs. In addition, these findings
can provide valuable knowledge for educational institutions globally, especially in multicul­
tural environments, by highlighting its importance in shaping educator job satisfaction. In
addition, Holmes et al. (2020), on behalf of The United Nations Educational, Scientific and
Cultural Organization, also advocated studying the effects of the pandemic to apply this
knowledge in the future. This research was conducted from December 2021 to January
2022, when there were several new changes and developments in the situation compared
to previous studies. By being conducted at a time when there are new changes and devel­
opments in the pandemic, this study contributes to the existing literature by capturing the
unique circumstances and challenges that educators face. This study uses educators’ job
satisfaction (SAT) as the dependent variable, with two independent variables—educators’
well-being (WEB) and educators’ psychological distress (DIS)—and one moderating variable
—educators’ vocational passion (PAS)—to explain SAT. Based on the background and problem
identification, the following research questions were formed:

(1) Does WEB or PAS among Indonesian Christian educators positively influence their SAT?
(2) Does the presence of DIS negatively affect SAT or WEB in Indonesian Christian
educators?
(3) Does WEB mediate the impact of DIS on SAT of Indonesian Christian educators’?
(4) Does PAS of Indonesian Christian educators moderate the relationship between their WEB
and SAT, as well as the relationship between DIS and SAT?

This study aims to gain new knowledge about the relationship between the above variables, which
will be considered by stakeholders of educational institutions when designing educator coaching
strategies and developing the SAT models of Indonesian Christian educators, and to serve as
reference material for further research.

2. Literature review
Figure 1 shows the proposed research model and hypotheses.

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Figure 1. Proposed research

model.

2.1. Educator’s job satisfaction

SAT is a central issue in human resource (HR) management within various organizations, including
educational institutions. In educational institutions’ HR management strategies, assessing educator
job satisfaction is crucial as a performance indicator. Different scales have been used to measure this
construct. Chan et al. (2021) employed an adapted version of the Teacher Stress Inventory, Pepe et al.
(2017) relied on the Teacher Job Satisfaction Scale (TJSS), and Margolis et al. (2019) developed the
Riverside Life Satisfaction Scale, each focusing on different dimensions such as work environment, co-
worker relations, and overall life satisfaction. The concept of job satisfaction has evolved over time.
Hoppock’s seminal work in 1935 framed SAT as being influenced by psychological, physiological, and
environmental circumstances (Aziri, 2011). Various theoretical frameworks have been used to inves­
tigate SAT. For example, Maslow’s hierarchy of needs has been applied to understand how job
satisfaction is tied to fulfilling a range of needs, from basic to self-actualization (Noori, 2023).
Herzberg’s two-factor theory categorizes job elements into “Hygiene Factors,” which can prevent
dissatisfaction but do not effectively promote SAT, and “Motivators,” which have the potential to
genuinely satisfy and engage employees in their work. The job characteristics model refines this
further by focusing on specific job attributes like task variety and autonomy. However, these classical
theories often fail to capture the multidimensional nature of SAT, as recently acknowledged in the
literature. Ahrari et al. (2021) highlight that SAT is a complex construct with different meanings for
different individuals. Moreover, Ntimba et al. (2021) and Adeka and Mede (2022) emphasize additional
dimensions, such as compensation and interpersonal relations, which are increasingly important for
educators’ SAT. Building on existing research, this study defines SAT as a subjective assessment of
psychological satisfaction experienced by Indonesian Christian educators in fulfilling their teaching
and learning responsibilities, including classes, classroom interactions, materialistic compensation,
and relationships with colleagues, students, and educational institutions.

This study uses the Job Demands-Resources model as its theoretical framework. According to
this model, DIS is seen as a job demand that can cause strain and decrease SAT. Conversely, WEB
is viewed as a job resource that can protect against the negative effects of job demands and
increase SAT. Additionally, PAS is considered a personal resource that may potentially moderate
the relationships between these variables. This research aims to gain a broader understanding of
the factors that impact SAT among educators, particularly among minority groups like Indonesian
Christian educators.

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2.2. Educator’s well-being

Understanding the importance of WEB in HR management is crucial, as it directly affects SAT (Adeka &
Mede, 2022; Dreer, 2021; Yee et al., 2022). WEB is a complex concept with varying definitions in the
literature. Huppert (2009) defines WEB as a combination of feeling good and functioning well, incorpor­
ating positive emotions, control over life, and meaningful relationships. Maddux (2018) describes it as a
construct that considers material conditions, subjective experiences, and emotions. Ruggeri et al. (2020)
and Kundi et al. (2021) describe WEB in terms of both hedonic experiences of pleasure and eudaimonic
experiences of meaning and purpose. Adeka and Mede (2022) suggest that WEB arises from the harmony
between environmental factors and personal needs and expectations. Previous empirical research has
utilized various methods to operationalize WEB. Schat et al. (2005) employed a modified version of the
Physical Health Questionnaire (PHQ), which includes questions such as “How often have you had difficulty
falling asleep at night?” and “How often have you had to be careful about what you eat to avoid stomach
upsets?” Kobau et al. (2010) took a different approach and adapted the Autonomy, Competence &
Relatedness Scale. Their questions included “I get along well with the people I interact with.” In
examining various definitions and operationalizations of WEB, some researchers, like Dreer (2021),
have turned to Seligman’s model, which includes positive emotion, engagement, relationships, meaning,
and achievement (PERMA) as domains of WEB. Dreer (2021) found that only positive emotions were
significantly correlated with SAT among the PERMA components. Likewise, Yee et al. (2022) focused on
investigating the psychological dimensions of WEB. Based on this related research, this study defines
WEB as a measure of educators’ subjective assessment of their welfare in terms of health, economy, and
social relations, as influenced by their work experience. Aligned with this definition, the PERMA model
provides a comprehensive approach to understanding WEB, encompassing emotional health, engage­
ment in tasks, relationship quality, the pursuit of meaning, and the sense of achievement. These aspects
align with the broader evaluation of educators’ welfare in terms of health, economy, and social relations
in this study, providing a holistic framework for the research. Due to the variability in how WEB is
conceptualized and measured, this research employs a comprehensive and systematic approach.
Specifically, this study uses the PERMA model, as well as other relevant frameworks, to measure WEB
as comprehensively as possible.

Several previous studies have empirically supported a direct positive relationship between WEB
and SAT (Adeka & Mede, 2022; Dreer, 2021; Yee et al., 2022). Adeka and Mede (2022) used a mixed
method approach to determine that English-as-a-Foreign-Language teachers in Istanbul have a
positive impact on SAT through WEB. Similarly, Dreer (2021) found that German school teachers’
WEB also positively affected SAT. Yee et al. (2022) reported a significant correlation between
preschool teachers in Perak’s WEB have and SAT (r = 0.39, p < 0.01). However, in contrast, the
meta-analytic study conducted by Bowling et al. (2010) found a two-way relationship between
WEB and SAT. Ultimately, consistent with other studies, the effect of WEB on SAT is stronger than
the reverse. Thus, the tested hypothesis is as follows:

H1a: WEB has a positive effect on SAT.

2.3. Educator’s psychological distress

DIS is a major concern in HR management, especially in the field of education, where it impacts
educators’ WEB (Allahyari et al., 2018; Tran et al., 2022) and SAT (Allahyari et al., 2018; Anastasiou &
Papakonstantinou, 2014; Bonsaksen et al., 2021; Chan et al., 2021; Friganović et al., 2019; Viertiö et al.,
2021; Xie et al., 2021; Zhang et al., 2021). Prior research, such as Dalrymple et al. (2013), used modified
items from the Clinically Useful Social Anxiety Disorder Outcome Scale to measure DIS, such as “I was
extremely afraid of social situations.” Similarly, Baker et al. (2019) used the Anxiety Symptoms
Questionnaire (ASQ) with items measuring anxiety and nervousness, while Sarafis et al. (2016) used
the Expanded Nursing Stress Scale to assess work stressors like conflicts with colleagues. Additionally,
Chan et al. (2021) employed the Maslach Burnout Inventory Educators Survey (MBI) with statements like
“I feel emotionally drained from my work.” DIS varies among individuals and is influenced by teaching-
related factors such as frustration, emotional disturbance, burnout, and anxiety (Anastasiou &
Papakonstantinou, 2014; Horwitz, 2007; Kokkinos, 2006; Maslach et al., 2001; Viertiö et al., 2021;

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Wheaton, 2007). According to Horwitz (2007), DIS is a result of exposure to stressful events that harm
physical or mental health, leading to emotional turmoil due to ineffective coping. Marchand and Durand
(2011) define DIS as a mental health outcome characterized by psychophysiological and behavioral
symptoms. Goodwin et al. (2013) equate DIS with poor mental health, while Drapeau et al. (2012)
consider it a normal emotional reaction to stress. Anastasiou and Papakonstantinou (2014) and Sarafis
et al. (2016) define DIS in terms of negative emotions and work-related factors. Bonsaksen et al. (2021)
highlight that DIS severity varies depending on the work context or type. To capture the complexity of DIS,
this study adopts the transactional theory of stress and coping (TTSC) as a guiding framework. Building on
previous literature, this study defines DIS as an assessment of the psychological stress experienced in
work, including frustration, emotional disturbance, fatigue, and perceived anxiety.

Negative feelings arising from psychological stress, such as frustration, emotional disturbance,
fatigue, and anxiety, will make it difficult for educators to achieve WEB and SAT. When educators
consistently encounter challenges without practical solutions, it leads to frustration, an increase in
DIS, and hinders their sense of accomplishment; consequently, this results in a decrease in WEB
and SAT (Agyapong et al., 2022). This also applies to emotional disturbance from stressful situa­
tions, such as managing challenging students or classroom disruptions, which further add to the
challenge of maintaining WEB and SAT (Agyapong et al., 2022). The demanding nature of the
teaching profession, such as extended hours, heavy workloads, and multiple responsibilities con­
tributes to fatigue, also making it difficult for educators to find joy and fulfillment in their work,
ultimately diminishing their WEB and SAT (Agyapong et al., 2022). In line with previous descrip­
tions, the pressure to meet educational standards, achieve positive student outcomes, and meet
parental expectations can also induce significant DIS, eroding educators’ confidence and further
impacting their WEB and SAT.

This is supported by Anastasiou and Papakonstantinou (2014)’s research where DIS was observed as a
crucial determinant of WEB and SAT. Previous empirical studies also support a negative relationship
between DIS and SAT (Allahyari et al., 2018; Anastasiou & Papakonstantinou, 2014; Bonsaksen et al.,
2021; Chan et al., 2021; Friganović et al., 2019; Viertiö et al., 2021; Xie et al., 2021; Zhang et al., 2021) and
DIS and WEB (Allahyari et al., 2018; Tran et al., 2022) directly. Anastasiou and Papakonstantinou (2014)
found that DIS negatively affects SAT. In Epirus, younger secondary education teachers, as well as female
secondary education teachers, reported higher DIS compared to their older and male counterparts,
respectively (Anastasiou & Papakonstantinou, 2014). Friganović et al. (2019) literature review found that
emotional disturbance has the most significant impact on SAT as a subscale of DIS. However, there was
no indirect negative relationship between DIS and WEB-mediated SAT. Therefore, this study examines
the negative indirect relationship of DIS on SAT mediated by WEB. Based on this description, the
formulation of the tested hypotheses is as follows:

H2a: DIS has a negative effect on SAT.

H2b: DIS has a negative effect on WEB.

H3: WEB mediates DIS and SAT.

2.4. Educators’ vocational passion

The PAS factor is originally not a part of any SAT model. However, this study examines PAS
because of the effect it entails. PAS has mainly been studied concerning sports and leisure
activities, but it also lends itself to work contexts like workaholism and organizational
commitment (Spehar et al., 2016). This indicates that PAS is a valuable addition to the
work engagement and organizational literature, as reflected by its ubiquity in popular and
empirical discourse. Nevertheless, the latest studies need more scientific consensus on the
definition of PAS relevant to workers across various vocations. In the early 2000s, researchers
defined PAS as a purely affective experience (Chen et al., 2020). Vallerand and Houlfort (2003)

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offered the first definition of PAS that recognized components of this experience beyond mere
positive affect: a strong inclination toward an activity that people like, that they find essen­
tial, and in which they invest time and energy. According to Chen et al. (2020), PAS means
strongly identifying with a line of work that one feels motivated to engage in and derives a
positive effect when performed (Chen et al., 2020). In operationalizing this construct, prior
empirical research (Chen et al., 2020) developed the Work Passion Scale, which includes
questions such as “How much do you love doing your work?” and “How often do you feel
positive about your work?” This scale is designed to assess aspects of work passion such as
emotional attachment, frequency of positive feelings, and the centrality of work to one’s
identity. Based on the aforementioned description, this study defines PAS as a measure of the
Indonesian Christian educator’s subjective assessment of how much they love the world of
education, and whether they possess the desire to keep moving forward despite unfavorable
circumstances.

Carbonneau et al. (2008) study among educators found that PAS is positively correlated with
SAT. Spehar et al. (2016) also found that PAS has a direct positive effect on SAT. In line with
previous research, Pathak and Srivastava (2020) also found that PAS positively affected SAT both
directly and indirectly. However, there is currently a lack of existing literature exploring the
moderating effects of the variable PAS on the relationships between WEB and SAT, as well as
DIS and SAT. It is expected that PAS should positively moderate the relationship between both
WEB and SAT, and DIS and SAT. PAS is often associated with increased motivation, which is a
source of inspiration and drive (Chen et al., 2020). This enables educators to find WEB and SAT in
their work, even in challenging circumstances. Furthermore, passion can also act as a buffer
against negative effects such as DIS, enabling them to maintain SAT despite the presence of
stressors. Therefore, this study examines the moderating effect of PAS on the relationship between
WEB and SAT, and between DIS and SAT. Based on this description, the formulation of the tested
hypotheses is as follows:

H1b: PAS has a positive effect on SAT.

H4a: PAS moderates the relationship between WEB and SAT.

H4b: PAS moderates the relationship between DIS and SAT.

3. Research method
This study uses a descriptive quantitative approach with a cross-sectional method because data
were collected once from each sample (Malhotra, 2019). The data collected were obtained directly
from the primary source through a questionnaire, which was then processed using SmartPLS 4,
and analyzed.

A purposive sampling technique was used, where the researcher selects a non-probability
sample based on population characteristics and research objectives, relying on subjective judg­
ment, a mixture of hunches, and prior knowledge to conduct the research survey (Sukumar et al.,
2016). Although there is a standard rule for measuring minimum target samples, such as calculat­
ing 10 times the indicator (Hair et al., 2011; Kock & Hadaya, 2018), Hair et al. (2017), in another
opus, suggested a different calculation method using Cohen’s power primer, which is used in this
research. A link to the questionnaire was shared with 2,800 target samples, yielding 2,443
responses. Later, a careful data-cleaning process was conducted, identifying and excluding a
small number of perfunctory responses by utilizing reversed questions to detect inconsistent
responses. A final dataset of 2,421 respondents was obtained, reflecting an 86% response rate.
Ethical review and approval were not required for the study on human participants in accordance
with the local legislation and institutional requirements. Informed consent was obtained from all
individual respondents involved in the research.

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The questionnaire was adapted from several sources, translated backward using two indepen­
dent translators (Tsang et al., 2017), and distributed to respondents. The questionnaire for mea­
suring WEB was adapted from Schat et al. (2005) and Kobau et al. (2010) with sample items such
as “I reach my daily nutritional intake goal regularly” and “I have enough time to spend with
people I love.” The questionnaire for measuring DIS was adapted from Dalrymple et al. (2013) and
Baker et al. (2019) with sample items such as “When I work, I always feel like I am at the end of a
rope” and “I do not care what happens to my students.” The questionnaire for measuring PAS was
adapted from Chen et al. (2020) with sample items such as “Becoming an educator is my passion”
and “I will continue to be an educator even under unfavorable conditions.” Last, the questionnaire
for measuring SAT was adapted from Pepe et al. (2017) and Margolis et al. (2019) with sample
items such as “I am satisfied with all my responsibilities as an educator” and “I am happy with the
teaching-learning interactions that I experience.” Table 1 presents the complete operational
definitions for each variable.

Many similar studies conducted in Indonesia only used popular samples. However, this study
examines active educators; That is, Christian Indonesian educators who have been actively teach­
ing since 2019. This group represents a minority within the broader population and can be further
classified based on their social determinants, such as gender, education level, work domicile,
school type, age, work experience, categories of educator, employment status, marital status,
number of household members, household status, and monthly expense. The data analysis
technique used in this research was the structural equation model (SEM) with the partial least
square (PLS) method. In addition to obtaining an evaluation of the measurement and structural
models (Hair et al., 2017), PLS-SEM was used because the research model is complex, uses a
pathway model, and has latent variables (Hair et al., 2021; Sarstedt et al., 2021).

Based on several previous studies, the five-point Likert scale is more widely understood by
respondents (Bouranta et al., 2009) and enables them to express their views (Marton-Williams,
1986). It enhances response rates and quality while reducing respondents’ frustration levels
(Buttle, 1996). With an odd and minimal number of points, this scale includes a neutral response
option (Cox, 1980) and facilitates researchers to create a complete list of scale descriptors (Dawes,
2008). The five-point Likert scale also demonstrates higher reliability and validity (McKelvie, 1978).
Moreover, its common usage enables comparison with other studies (Saleh & Ryan, 1991). Thus,
we adapted the operational definition from previous research to fit the context and scale required
for this study (Table 1). Based on this description, the scale used in this study was a five-point
Likert scale with the following choices:

(1) = Strongly Disagree (SD)

(2) = Disagree (D)
(3) = Neutral (N)
(4) = Agree (A)
(5) = Strongly Agree (SA)
4. Results

4.1. Descriptive statistics

In this study, the sample (Table 2) mostly comprised the following: female (75.92%), worked in
West Java (24.25%), lived in private residences (46.30%), had households with three members
(42.21%), held a bachelor’s degree (81.12%), belonged to the early working age group (35.60%),
worked at Christian private schools (87.32%), had 10–14 years of experience (21.81%), were
categorized as primary educators (36.84%), held permanent employment (61.17%), were married
(63.65%), and had monthly expenses under 5 million IDR (61.30%). Table 3 presents the descrip­
tive statistics of the variables under investigation. These variables exhibited varying means,
medians, and standard deviations.

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Table 1. Operational definition

Indicator Code Source
I get enough quality sleep every night. WEB-01 Adapted from Schat
et al. (2005); Kobau
I reach my daily nutritional intakes goal regularly. WEB-02
et al. (2010)
I DO NOT have enough materialistic compensation for my job. (R) WEB-03
I have enough time to spend with people I love. WEB-04
Running an unpleasant task frustrates me. DIS-01 Adapted from
Dalrymple et al.
Adjusting to unfavorable working conditions frustrates me. DIS-02
(2013);
Dealing with student problems frustrates me. DIS-03 Baker et al. (2019)
I am NOT frustrated by having to endure unpleasant working DIS-04
conditions. (R)
Other people’s perception of my work frustrates me. DIS-05
When I work, I always feel like I am at the end of a rope. DIS-06
I feel HAPPY after working with my students. (R) DIS-07
This job bothers me emotionally. DIS-08
I feel like I have no energy for work when I wake up in the DIS-09
morning.
I do not care what happens to my students. DIS-12
I want to remain an educator until the end of my life. PAS-01 Adapted from Chen
et al. (2020)
I did NOT enjoy my time as an educator. (R) PAS-02
Becoming an educator is my passion. PAS-03
I will continue to be an educator even under unfavorable PAS-04
conditions.
I believe that by becoming an educator, I will achieve my goals. PAS-05
I am satisfied with all my responsibilities as an educator. SAT-01 Adapted from Pepe
et al. (2017);
My co-workers are NOT very supportive of me. (R) SAT-03
Margolis et al.
My boss really cares about my needs. SAT-04 (2019)
I am happy with the teaching-learning interactions that I SAT-06
experience.

4.2. Evaluation of reflective measurement model

The reflective outer model determines each indicator’s relationship with its latent variables.
Convergent and discriminant validity testing is a measurement tool used to determine whether
a data collection method is valid.

Convergent validity testing is conducted to determine whether the research concept is appro­
priate and is met if the values obtained from different instruments used to measure the same
construct have a high correlation. When the indicator’s loading factor is lower than 0.7, Hair et al.
(2019) suggest the removal of the indicator. If removing the indicator causes a decrease in the
average variance extracted (AVE) value, then it is suggested to keep the indicators if the loading
factor of the indicator remains above 0.6. Conversely, if the indicator’s loading factor is greater
than 0.7 (Hair et al., 2017, 2019) or a minimum of 0.6 (Hair et al., 2010, 2019), and the AVE value of
each construct is greater than 0.5 (Hair et al., 2017), then the convergent validity is met (Table 4).

Discriminant validity testing is also conducted to determine whether the research concept is
appropriate. Discriminant validity can be seen from the heterotrait-monotrait ratio of correlations
(HTMT) and Fornell—Larcker values (Hair et al., 2017). When the HTMT value is smaller than 0.9,
and the Fornell—Larcker diagonal value is greater than the correlation value of each construct,
then the discriminant validity is also fulfilled (Table 5).

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 Table 2. Demographic characteristics of respondents
Characteristic (Class) Frequency % Characteristic (Class) Frequency %
https://doi.org/10.1080/2331186X.2023.2280311

Gender Education Level

Gozal & Tukiran, Cogent Education (2023), 10: 2280311

Male 583 24.08 Trade School 46 1.90

Female 1,838 75.92 Community College 65 2.69
Work Domicile Bachelor’s Degree 1,964 81.12
Aceh 7 0.29 Master’s Degree 339 14.00
Bali 52 2.15 Doctoral Degree 7 0.29
Bangka Belitung Islands 7 0.29 Age Group
Banten 104 4.30 15–24 (Young Age) 51 2.11
Bengkulu 2 0.08 25–34 (Early Working Age) 862 35.60
Central Java 113 4.67 35–44 (Middle Age) 812 33.54
Central Kalimantan 1 0.04 45–54 (Pre-Retirement Age) 526 21.73
Central Sulawesi 11 0.45 55–64 (Retirement Age) 166 6.86
DI Yogyakarta 29 1.20 ≥65 (Post-retirement Age) 4 0.16
DKI Jakarta 249 10.29 School Type
East Java 338 13.96 Christian Private School 2,114 87.32
East Kalimantan 24 0.99 Non-Christian Private School 243 10.04
East Nusa Tenggara 26 1.07 Public School 64 2.64
Gorontalo 1 0.04 Work Experience
Jambi 36 1.49 2–4 Years 406 16.77
Lampung 26 1.07 5–6 Years 278 11.48
Maluku 21 0.87 7–9 Years 353 14.58
North Kalimantan 11 0.45 10–14 Years 528 21.81
North Maluku 16 0.66 15–19 Years 391 16.15
North Sulawesi 109 4.50 20–29 Years 313 12.93
North Sumatera 174 7.19 ≥30 Years 152 6.28

(Continued)

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 Table 2. (Continued)
Characteristic (Class) Frequency % Characteristic (Class) Frequency %
https://doi.org/10.1080/2331186X.2023.2280311

Papua 94 3.88 Educator Categories

Gozal & Tukiran, Cogent Education (2023), 10: 2280311

Riau 79 3.26 Nursery 354 14.62

Riau Islands 62 2.56 Primary 892 36.84
Southeast Sulawesi 14 0.58 Lower Secondary 407 16.81
South Kalimantan 6 0.25 Upper Secondary 403 16.65
South Sulawesi 52 2.15 Multi-Level 359 14.83
South Sumatera 18 0.74 Special Needs 6 0.25
West Java 587 24.25 Employment Status
West Kalimantan 108 4.46 Permanent 1,481 61.17
West Nusa Tenggara 5 0.21 Honorary 554 22.88
West Papua 5 0.21 Non-Permanent/Contract 49 2.03
West Sulawesi 1 0.04 Administrator 93 3.84
West Sumatera 33 1.36 Head of School 244 10.08
Household Status Marital Status
Private Residence 1,121 46.30 Single 813 33.58
Rented Residence 666 27.51 Married 1,541 63.65
Official Residence 104 4.30 Widowed 45 1.86
Shared Living 530 21.89 Divorced 22 0.91
Household Member Monthly Expense
1 Person/Living Alone 234 9.67 <5 Million IDR 1,484 61.30
2 People 318 13.13 5–10 Million IDR 801 33.09
3 People 1,022 42.21 10–15 Million IDR 94 3.88
4 People 641 26.48 >15 Million IDR 42 1.73
≥5 People 206 8.51

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Table 3. Descriptive statistics

Mean Med Min Max SD
(1) WEB 3.855 4.000 1.000 5.000 1.032
(2) DIS 2.092 2.000 1.000 5.000 1.047
(3) PAS 4.521 5.000 1.000 5.000 0.677
(4) SAT 4.119 4.000 1.000 5.000 0.865

Table 4. Results of convergent validity

Loading Factor
AVE WEB DIS PAS SAT
WEB 0.606
WEB-01 0.756
WEB-02 0.840
WEB-03 0.795
WEB-04 0.717
DIS 0.522
DIS-01 0.604
DIS-02 0.660
DIS-03 0.817
DIS-04 0.767
DIS-05 0.750
DIS-06 0.764
DIS-07 0.770
DIS-08 0.752
DIS-09 0.606
DIS-12 0.701
PAS 0.626
PAS-01 0.720
PAS-02 0.779
PAS-03 0.797
PAS-04 0.833
PAS-05 0.822
SAT 0.527
SAT-01 0.737
SAT-03 0.733
SAT-04 0.674
SAT-06 0.758

Reliability analysis is a test used to determine how consistently an instrument can measure
what is being measured (Hair et al., 2019). When the value of Cronbach’s alpha and composite
reliability is greater than 0.7 (Hair et al., 2019), then the reliability is fulfilled (Table 6).

When the value of the inner variance inflation factor is smaller than 3.0 (Hair et al., 2019), it is
concluded that there is no collinearity problem among the constructs (Table 7).

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Table 5. Results of discriminant validity

HTMT Fornell—Larcker
1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4
(1) WEB 0.778
(2) DIS 0.422 −0.361 0.722
(3) PAS 0.291 0.347 0.241 −0.310 0.791
(4) SAT 0.558 0.504 0.491 0.434 −0.423 0.394 0.726

Table 6. Results of reliability

Composite Reliability
Cronbach’s Alpha Rho_A Rho_C
(1) WEB 0.782 0.787 0.860
(2) DIS 0.897 0.907 0.915
(3) PAS 0.850 0.858 0.893
(4) SAT 0.707 0.719 0.816

Table 7. Inner variance inflation factor

Endogenous
WEB SAT
(1) WEB 1.180
(2) DIS 1.000 1.225
(3) PAS 1.221
(4) SAT
(5) PAS x WEB 1.264
(6) PAS x DIS 1.312

4.3. Evaluation of goodness-of-fit (GoF)

Model fit testing is conducted to determine how well the sample data fit the normal distribution of
the population. The evaluation of the fit of the model can be seen from the results of the univariate
normality test and the model fit test.

A univariate normality test can be conducted by looking at the value of skewness and kurtosis.
When viewed from the skewness value, which is still between −2.0 and 2.0, and the kurtosis value,
which is still between −7.0 and 7.0 (Byrne, 2010; Hair et al., 2010), it can be said that the residual
univariate regression is normally distributed (Table 8). Meanwhile, the GoF test was conducted by
looking at the standardized root mean square residual (SRMR), squared Euclidean distance (d_ULS),
the geodesic distance (d_G), and chi-square. When the SRMR value is less than 0.080 (Hu & Bentler,
1998), the model can be considered to meet the fit criteria (Table 8). By looking at the value of
d_ULS and d_G, which are greater than the significance level set in this research (Dijkstra &
Henseler, 2015), the suitability of the model can be determined. As the chi-square value has a
reasonably large nominal, it can be said that while this model is considerably complex, it meets all
indications of GoF (Table 8).

4.4. Evaluation of inner model

Inner model evaluation tests the relationship between variables (Hair et al., 2017) and can only be
conducted if all variables and indicators contained in the research are valid and reliable. Evaluation
of the structural model can be seen from the results of the direct effect significance test, indirect

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Table 8. Goodness-of-fit parameters

Normality Model Fit
Skew Kurt Saturated Estimated
1. WEB −0.774 0.011 SRMR 0.057 0.060
2. DIS 0.914 0.258 d_ULS 0.884 0.996
3. PAS −1.537 3.034 d_G 0.215 0.217
4. SAT −0.971 1.018 Chi-Square 3,115.763 3,120.710
NFI 0.862 0.862

effect significance test, effect magnitude test, predictive relevance test, and coefficient of deter­
mination test.

When the value of the t-statistic is greater than the t-table (1.645) and the p-value smaller than
0.050 (Hair et al., 2019), it can be concluded that H1a—H4a are not rejected, but H4b is rejected
(Table 9). Moreover, by looking at the effect size value, it can be concluded that H2b indicates a
significant effect; H1a, H1b, and H2a indicate a moderate effect; and H4a and H4b indicate a small
effect (Table 9).

Based on the result of the structural measurement model in Figure 2, this study can be
summarized using a multiple-step multiple mediator model approach (Hayes, 2009) with total
effects into the following two equations:

Predictive relevance testing determines the ability to predict an indicator in a reflective model (Hair
et al., 2019). If the value of Q2 ranges between 0.02 and 0.15, it can be concluded that the WEB
and SAT indicators and variables show moderate predictive relevance (Table 10). By comparing the
RMSE and MAE values of PLS-SEM in Table 10, which are all smaller than LM, it can be concluded
that the model has high predictive power (Shmueli et al., 2019).

The coefficient of determination test measures the effect of the dependent variable on the
independent variable. When the R2 value is between 0.10 and 0.50, then WEB can be explained by
the study’s independent variable of 13.10%, while the SAT can be explained by the study’s
independent variable of 32.90% (Table 10). According to Ozili (2022), a model with low R2 is
generally accepted for studies in social science because human behavior cannot be accurately
predicted. R2 between 0.10 and 0.50 is still good—if some or most of the explanatory variables are
statistically significant.

Table 9. Direct effect significance test, indirect effect significance test, and effect size
Path β x s t-statistics p-value f2 Decision
H1a: WEB ➔ SAT 0.290 0.290 0.020 14.556 0.000 0.106 Not Rejected
H1b: PAS ➔ SAT 0.238 0.239 0.018 13.133 0.000 0.069 Not Rejected
H2a: DIS ➔ SAT −0.240 −0.241 0.020 11.993 0.000 0.070 Not Rejected
H2b: DIS ➔ WEB −0.361 −0.362 0.020 18.138 0.000 0.150 Not Rejected
H3: DIS ➔ WEB ➔ SAT −0.105 −0.105 0.009 11.219 0.000 - Not Rejected
H4a: PAS*WEB ➔ SAT −0.058 −0.057 0.021 2.773 0.006 0.004 Not Rejected
H4b: PAS*DIS ➔ SAT −0.000 0.000 0.023 0.017 0.986 0.000 Rejected

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Figure 2. Structural measure­

ment model.

Table 10. Predictive relevance and coefficient of determination

PLS-SEM LM
2
Q RMSE MAE RMSE MAE R2 Adjusted
R2
WEB 0.129 0.934 0.720 0.131 0.130
WEB-01 0.092 1.042 0.844 1.052 0.862
WEB-02 0.081 0.865 0.657 0.876 0.662
WEB-03 0.066 0.836 0.646 0.844 0.657
WEB-04 0.071 1.006 0.817 1.016 0.835
SAT 0.250 0.867 0.680 0.329 0.327
SAT-01 0.146 0.761 0.591 0.774 0.595
SAT-03 0.103 0.721 0.565 0.723 0.566
SAT-04 0.076 0.927 0.717 0.935 0.725
SAT-06 0.183 0.721 0.558 0.723 0.570

5. Discussion
Based on the results of the tests, this study has succeeded in answering the questions that had
been formulated, by reaching the following conclusions:

(1) WEB and PAS among Indonesian Christian educators positively influence their SAT.
(2) The presence of DIS negatively affects SAT and WEB of Indonesian Christian educators.
(3) WEB partially mediates the impact of DIS on SAT of Indonesian Christian educators’.
(4) PAS of Indonesian Christian educators negatively moderates the relationship between their
WEB and SAT, but does not moderate the relationship between their DIS and SAT.

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Our findings regarding the positive impact of WEB and PAS on SAT are particularly significant when
considering Herzberg’s two-factor theory and the job characteristics model. These theories have
long suggested that job characteristics and internal factors such as achievement and recognition
play a vital role in enhancing SAT. This study provides empirical evidence to support the impor­
tance of WEB and PAS in SAT among Indonesian Christian educators. The results of the direct
effect significance test for H1a indicate that WEB has a positive impact on SAT, consistent with
previous studies (Adeka & Mede, 2022; Dreer, 2021; Yee et al., 2022). Similarly, as can be seen from
the results of H1b, PAS also positively influences SAT, in line with the research of Carbonneau et al.
(2008), Spehar et al. (2016), and Pathak and Srivastava (2020). Additionally, the holistic framework,
which is based on the PERMA model and other relevant frameworks, validates the findings
regarding the importance of WEB. These factors appear to be positively correlated with WEB,
indirectly contributing to higher levels of SAT. Tailored WEB initiatives could be particularly useful
for minority educators, who may face unique challenges such as discrimination or lack of repre­
sentation. Moreover, professional development should include culturally sensitive techniques that
can help foster PAS among these educators. In a multicultural school environment, it is essential
to approach the enhancement of WEB with cultural sensitivity, taking into account the diverse
backgrounds of the staff. Schools could provide various coping mechanisms and stress manage­
ment techniques that align with the cultural norms and expectations of their staff.

As can be seen from the results for H2a and H2b, DIS negatively affects both WEB and SAT, as
supported by Allahyari et al. (2018), Anastasiou and Papakonstantinou (2014), Bonsaksen et al.
(2021), Chan et al. (2021), Friganović et al. (2019), Tran et al. (2022), Viertiö et al. (2021), Xie et al.
(2021), and Zhang et al. (2021). In the broader context, the TTSC serves as a guiding lens to better
understand the impact of DIS on SAT and WEB. This framework suggests that individual strategies
for assessing and coping with stress directly contribute to the level of DIS experienced. Our study
reveals that the path coefficient for DIS ranks as the second strongest, following WEB and
preceding PAS, emphasizing its potent influence on SAT, as can be seen by comparing the results
for H1a, H1b, and H2a. In essence, effective stress management interventions, particularly custo­
mized ones that address the unique stressors faced by minority educators, are crucial for improv­
ing SAT and WEB. These interventions can not only alleviate DIS but also substantially improve
both WEB and SAT. Therefore, addressing these unique stressors is a crucial aspect of any inter­
vention aimed at improving SAT and WEB among minority educators. In other words, implement­
ing supportive measures, such as providing resources for stress management and coping
strategies, can be beneficial for Indonesian Christian educators. By identifying the negative effect
of DIS on WEB and SAT, this study highlights the importance of considering DIS as a crucial factor
in the literature on SAT.

The study highlights the positive impact of WEB on SAT among Indonesian Christian educators.
Looking back at the path coefficient value, WEB is considered the strongest determinant of SAT in
this research. Educational institutions should prioritize the WEB of educators, as it has been shown
to influence their SAT significantly. Strategies and interventions promoting WEB can increase SAT
among Indonesian Christian educators. In a multicultural school environment, it is important to
approach the enhancement of WEB with cultural sensitivity, taking into account students’ diverse
backgrounds. Additionally, schools should provide a range of stress-reduction strategies and
coping mechanisms that considers the various cultural expectations of staff members. These
strategies benefit educators and contribute to creating a welcoming school climate. The findings
reinforce the theoretical understanding of the significance of WEB in the context of SAT.

In addition, the analysis revealed that WEB partially mediates the relationship between DIS and SAT, as
can be seen from the results for H3. Educational institutions should consider promoting WEB to mitigate
the adverse effects of DIS on SAT. By addressing the underlying causes of DIS and promoting WEB, it is
possible to mitigate its detrimental effects on SAT. In multicultural environments, analyzing current HR
policies to ensure inclusivity and implementing specialized professional development programs that
effectively manage classroom diversity will enhance educators’ WEB and SAT. Moreover, fostering

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community-building activities among educators in diverse settings can greatly improve SAT and lower
DIS. Programs and initiatives focusing on enhancing WEB can help buffer the impact of DIS and
contribute to greater SAT among Indonesian Christian educators. However, focusing on addressing DIS
is still more crucial than enhancing WEB. The study provides empirical evidence supporting WEB as one of
the critical determinants of SAT. It also establishes WEB’s mediating role, enhancing our understanding
of the mechanisms through which DIS impacts SAT.

Furthermore, the study examined the positive impact of PAS on SAT. Educational institutions should
foster an environment that nurtures and supports Indonesian Christian educators’ PAS. Recognizing and
aligning job responsibilities with their PAS can enhance the overall SAT. While PAS was found to have a
direct positive effect on SAT, as seen from the results for H1b, it did not significantly moderate the
relationship between DIS and SAT, as suggested by the results for H4b. This is not in line with Benitez et al.
(2023), who conducted their research on front-line workers from service organizations in southern Spain.
Furthermore, they used the variable harmonious passion instead of PAS, which resulted in a substantial
difference—while harmonious passion is driven by internalized desire, PAS is driven by a motivation to
make a meaningful contribution in a specific field. In a multicultural school environment, considering PAS
can be crucial. However, it is essential to remember that it may not serve as a buffer for the adverse
effects of DIS on SAT. The essence of a multicultural setting requires recognizing that PAS can have
different interpretations and impacts based on cultural norms. Therefore, relying solely on PAS to
mitigate the effects of DIS may not be sufficient. Efforts should be directed toward addressing DIS rather
than relying solely on PAS to mitigate its impact. One interesting finding is that PAS does moderate the
relationship between WEB and SAT, but it does so negatively, as the results for H4a indicate. This is in line
with Neubert and Halbesleben (2015), who suggested it is possible that what would usually be described
as a positive factor, such as PAS, could have a negative impact in certain circumstances. This may be
attributed to religious values and norms, where Indonesian Christian educators perceive their work as a
spiritual calling. While PAS can be a powerful source of motivation, the high expectations and moral
responsibilities attached to their role can also lead to pressure and stress. Social expectations from the
environment may also contribute to the negative moderation effect of PAS on the relationship between
WEB and SAT. Indonesian Christian educators are expected to exemplify moral integrity and dedication in
their educational tasks, which can create pressure and affect their perceptions and experiences of work,
despite their high PAS. In addition, other factors such as high workload, low-income level, or lack of
resources could also possibly undermine the positive moderation effect of PAS between WEB and SAT.
This highlights the importance of further exploration of alternative moderators and additional factors
that could impact the relationship between DIS and SAT among Indonesian Christian educators, such as
educator’s workload, income level, availability of material and financial resources, institutional support,
professional development opportunities.

Another exciting finding could be found in the descriptive results of the DIS variable. Most of the
respondents disagreed with any DIS indication. This is not in line with previous studies that were
conducted in Indonesia, where Indra et al. (2021) and Fauzan et al. (2022) used the more popular
sample. Therefore, these findings highlight the significance of understanding unpopular samples to
fill the literature gap on the relevant model.

Despite the findings, this research also has certain limitations. The research framework can still be
developed using other variables. Adding more variables can make the research results more useful and
representative of the actual situation. The method used in this study is cross-sectional; to avoid common
method bias and strengthen the causal relationships among the variables, future research can use the
longitudinal method. Social determinants can also be used as variables that moderate the relationship of
exogenous variables to the SAT. Future researchers are also encouraged to use other sampling techni­
ques to avoid limited generalizability, potential bias, and subjectivity in respondent selection. Further, due
to time constraints in implementing a larger research design, the respondents’ workplace background is
overwhelmingly similar, with 87.32% placed in Christian private schools. Future research could consider a
larger and more diverse sample to introduce greater variation into the study.

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6. Conclusion
In conclusion, this study investigated the factors influencing the SAT of Indonesian Christian
educators, who belong to a minority group in a predominantly Muslim country. The research
findings have significant implications for educational policies, institutional support systems, and
the broader theoretical landscape. These findings support and expand upon established theories
like Herzberg’s two-factor theory, the job characteristics model, the PERMA framework, and the
TTSC. Additionally, they offer novel insights into the application of these theories to Indonesian
Christian educators in multicultural and diverse environments.

The study confirmed several significant relationships between the variables: WEB and PAS
positively affect SAT, while DIS has a detrimental impact on both WEB and SAT. Additionally,
WEB partially mediates the relationship between DIS and SAT, emphasizing the importance of
reducing DIS to improve SAT. Educational institutions can manage DIS among Indonesian Christian
educators by evaluating and modifying expectations, workload, and ensuring a work-life balance.

Notably, the path coefficient for DIS ranked as the second strongest, following WEB and
preceding PAS, highlighting the critical need for effective stress management strategies in educa­
tional institutions. These findings contribute to the literature by emphasizing the critical role of DIS
in SAT. They also highlight the positive impact of WEB on SAT and its mediatory role between DIS
and SAT. Therefore, while enhancing educators’ WEB is a top priority, it is worth noting that
managing DIS also plays a significant role in improving SAT.

Finally, although PAS had a positive influence on SAT, it did not significantly moderate the relation­
ship between DIS and SAT. This suggests that interventions should prioritize addressing DIS rather
than solely relying on PAS. Interestingly, PAS negatively moderated the relationship between WEB
and SAT, which may be due to the unique religious values, norms, and social expectations imposed on
Indonesian Christian educators. Considering these nuances, this study highlights the importance of
adopting a multidimensional approach to enhance SAT among this particular demographic.

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