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Wellsite Geology Manual OMV
Wellsite Geology Manual OMV
For
Wellsite Geologists
Black text - OK
Compiled by
Ian Willis
September 2001
PREFACE
This document is intended for the guidance of the Wellsite Geologist. The successful conduct
will, require the application of initiative and professionalism consistent with the prevailing
conditions. The principal purpose of this document, therefore, is to provide a reasonable and
consistent approach to the conduct of field operations, not to dictate a rigid code of practice.
The Procedures are compiled to provide an overview of the responsibilities of the Wellsite
Geologist followed by chapters in which individual topics are discussed in more detail. It is hoped
that persons who have direct experience in any of these topics will assist in improving the
procedures by passing pertinent comments to the attention of the Operations Geologist.
ii
GEOLOGICAL WELLSITE PROCEDURES
Table of Contents
1 PREAMBLE....................................................................................................................1
1.1 DUTIES AND RESPONSIBILITIES OF THE WELLSITE GEOLOGIST..................................................1
1.5 CORING................................................................................................................................................................4
1.10 CONFIDENTIALITY..........................................................................................................................................6
2 REPORTING PROCEDURES........................................................................................7
2.1 INTRODUCTION................................................................................................................................................7
2.1.1 Routine Daily Reporting....................................................................................................................................7
3 SAMPLE DESCRIPTION..............................................................................................12
3.1 INTRODUCTION..............................................................................................................................................12
4 SHOW EVALUATION...................................................................................................22
4.1 INTRODUCTION:.............................................................................................................................................22
4.7 GENERALISATIONS........................................................................................................................................29
5.2 CORING..............................................................................................................................................................30
5.2.1 Items Required.................................................................................................................................................30
5.2.2 General Procedures.................................................................................................................................31
5.2.3 Core Handling..........................................................................................................................................31
5.2.4 Core cleaning, marking and cutting....................................................................................................31
5.2.5 Core Shipping...........................................................................................................................................33
5.2.6 Descriptions......................................................................................................................................................33
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5.2.7 Core Analysis...................................................................................................................................................33
6 MUDLOGGING NOTES...............................................................................................36
6.1 INTRODUCTION..............................................................................................................................................36
v
7 GEOCHEMICAL SAMPLING.......................................................................................45
7.1 INTRODUCTION..............................................................................................................................................45
8 GEOPRESSURES........................................................................................................46
8.1 ORIGIN OF ABNORMAL PRESSURES........................................................................................................46
8.1.1 Aquifer..............................................................................................................................................................46
8.1.2 Charged Shallow Sands...................................................................................................................................46
8.1.3 Tectonic Movement..........................................................................................................................................46
8.1.4 Compaction......................................................................................................................................................47
8.1.5 Diagenesis........................................................................................................................................................47
8.1.6 Thermal Expansion..........................................................................................................................................47
9 REPORTING FORMS...................................................................................................52
9.1 WELLSITE GEOLOGIST'S CHECKLIST...................................................................................................53
9.7 WIRELINE LOGGING QUALITY CONTROL (with Diary and Horner Plot)........................................63
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APPENDICES......................................................................................................................69
4 CONVENTIONAL CORING..........................................................................................73
4.1 General................................................................................................................................................................73
5.1 INTRODUCTION..............................................................................................................................................81
5.2 HISTORY............................................................................................................................................................81
vii
5.4.9 Filtrate..............................................................................................................................................................85
5.4.10 API HPHT Filtrate.......................................................................................................................................86
5.4.11 Cake Thickness............................................................................................................................................86
5.4.12 Solids Content..............................................................................................................................................86
5.4.13 Sand Content................................................................................................................................................87
5.4.14 Methylene Blue Capacity.............................................................................................................................87
5.4.15 pH.................................................................................................................................................................87
5.4.16 Alkalinity (Pm Pf Mf)..................................................................................................................................87
5.4.17 Chloride.......................................................................................................................................................87
5.4.18 Total Hardness.............................................................................................................................................88
5.4.19 Additional Testing.......................................................................................................................................88
6 ABBREVIATIONS.........................................................................................................97
viii
1 PREAMBLE
The Wellsite Geologist is responsible for ensuring that geological data is collected, evaluated and
recorded at the wellsite and reported to the Operations Geologist. These duties include
supervision of the Mud Logging and Wireline Logging contractors and necessitate close liaison
with the Wellsite Manager (Drilling Supervisor). The Wellsite Geologist’s Checklist (Section 9.1) is
to be read and checked off as appropriate before leaving the office to travel to the rig.
The Wellsite Geologist therefore has responsibilities that include those listed below.
Observing and recording all hydrocarbon shows and evaluating their significance.
Describing and recording (in the format defined in these Procedures) the lithological
assemblages encountered in the well. It is important to emphasise that the Wellsite Geologist
and not the Mudlogger has this function as his/her primary responsibility.
Witnessing and reporting wireline logging operations, ensuring adequate quality control.
Submitting geological reports (morning and afternoon) to Operations Geologist consistent with
the approved procedures.
Supervising the collection, packing and dispatch of ditch cuttings core samples and paper
data from the rig. Although the Mudlogging Company performs these tasks, close attention to
this important aspect of their work can save many hours of frustration and wasted effort later.
The Wellsite Geologist is empowered to implement the agreed formation evaluation programme,
as defined in the Drilling Programme or subsequent modifications. Any deviations from that
programme should be via a “Drilling Change Control Form Request”. Agreement to implement the
proposed variance will be given by Drilling and Exploration.
The Wellsite Manager (Drilling Supervisor) is responsible for the efficient, economic and safe
performance of the drilling operation assuring suitable hole conditions for the well evaluation. It is
important to keep the Wellsite Manager (Drilling Supervisor) informed of the expected evaluation
programme, or of any programme changes, for his planning purposes. He is to be advised
immediately of all hydrocarbon shows, increases in mud gas readings, significant changes in
shale densities or any other factor which could effect rig safety or the proposed evaluation
activities. All requests involving rig activity must be given through the Wellsite Manager (Drilling
Supervisor) and not directly to drilling contractor personnel.
It is important to maintain a regular and meaningful reporting procedure from the wellsite. Unless
otherwise advised, the following reports should be made on a routine basis.
Other reports and the distribution of data from wellsite is discussed in Section 2. Reporting
Procedures.
The format of these routine reports is described in Section 2. Reporting Procedures. Lithological
descriptions for the Daily Reports are to be concise. Descriptions within a potential reservoir
objective or pay zone, however, may be more detailed.
In order to ensure uniformity of reporting from wellsite, it is imperative that the Wellsite Geologist
co-ordinates with the Wellsite Manager (Drilling Supervisor) in all matters common to both the
Geological and Drilling reports, before transmission.
1.3.1 Introduction
The purpose of this procedural summary is to provide a methodology, which should result in a
consistent and meaningful description of cutting samples within the constraints of working at
wellsite. The preparation of cutting samples for examination is not addressed, as this subject is
well documented in other references.
2
A product, which will allow for the compilation of a Composite Well Log when combined with
wireline log data.
The Wellsite Geologist should note the lithological and hydrocarbon show descriptions for each
sample on the Cuttings Description Report.
The Cuttings Description Report should accurately reflect the sample as observed by the Wellsite
Geologist with the exception of obviously caved material. Separate notes should be made to
reflect the Wellsite Geologist's interpretation of the significance of caved material, other
contaminants and peculiarities.
In order to provide uniformity of description from well to well and to avoid ambiguities resulting
from differing styles adopted by geologists, the procedures for the description of cutting samples
(Section 3. Sample Description) should be adopted.
The Wellsite Geologist is responsible for the monitoring and reporting of all hydrocarbon shows
from wellsite. In order to fulfil this function, the Wellsite Geologist must ensure that the
Mudlogging Contractor is adequately prepared and maintains all equipment in a workable state
(Section 6. Mudlogging).
All Hydrocarbon Shows should be reported using the Show Evaluation Report, 9.6, as a guide.
The Wellsite Geologist is responsible for the direct supervision of the Mudlogging Contractor.
The duties of the Mudlogging Contractor will be defined in Drilling Programme. Section 6.
Mudlogging also contains information concerning the daily and other routine performance tests to
be conducted on the Mudlogging Unit.
Before going to wellsite it is important that the Wellsite Geologist is informed by the Operations
Geologist the type of Mudlogging Unit in use and makes all reasonable attempts to ensure that
he/she is familiar with the systems and procedures relevant, or peculiar, to that unit.
The Wellsite Geologist must also check that adequate supplies of consumables are on the drilling
unit upon his/her arrival.
1.5 CORING
The coring programme (where required), is an integral part of the Drilling Programme for each
well. The Wellsite Geologist has the responsibility to ensure that any programmed cores are cut,
3
described and transported, following the procedures detailed in Section 5. Drilling Breaks, Coring
and Sidewall Coring. Appendix 4 discusses the mechanical aspects of coring.
Should unexpected circumstances occur which result in the Wellsite Geologist recommending an
unprogrammed core, all relevant information must be transmitted to Operations Geologist with a
recommendation, for review. Agreement to core will be made following consultation with others
as may be required. Meanwhile, hole conditioning should be considered, in consultation with the
Wellsite Manager (Drilling Supervisor).
The Wellsite Geologist is responsible for ensuring that the Wireline Logging Programme, as
detailed in the Drilling Programme is completed in a competent and expeditious manner. The
following general comments are relevant and are to be followed..
It is the responsibility of the Wellsite Geologist, to ensure that wireline logs of satisfactory quality
are obtained. In order to accomplish this task, a series of quality control checks and procedures
have been developed. During the logging job, the Wireline Logging Quality Control Report, Diary
of Wireline Operations and an Extrapolated Temperature Plot (which are components of a linked
set of spreadsheets) should be duly completed:
Ensure the Logging Engineer will be ready to start logging as soon as the drill pipe is out of
the hole and the pre-logging job hazard analysis has been conducted.
Check with the Driller, Wellsite Manager (Drilling Supervisor) and Mudlogging Engineer about
the condition of the hole, especially tight spots or bridges.
Provide a copy of the front page of the " Wireline Logging Quality Control Report " form to the
Logging Engineer well in advance of the logging job. This will provide the engineer with
coordinates, elevations etc. Discuss and clarify any queries.
Provide the Logging Engineer with any requested deviation data for the well (Totco or
multishot).
Ensure that a circulated mud sample is collected and that resistivity measurements are made
by the Logging Engineer for Rm, Rmc and Rmf. All resistivity data should be double checked
for validity and all temperature data verified.
It is extremely important that a circulated mud sample be used for these measurements. Only
in unusual circumstances should a pit sample be taken. If this is the case, the source of the
sample should be annotated on the Log Header under "Remarks" as well as the appropriate
"Source of Sample" box;
If a logging pill is spotted on bottom a sample of this should be collected from the appropriate
pit and resistivity measurements made by the Logging Engineer for Rm, Rmc and Rmf. All
resistivity data should be double checked for validity and all temperature data verified. This
information should also be noted on the Log Header under “Remarks” as well as the
appropriate "Source of Sample" box.
The Remarks section of Log Header should also include the following information;
4
% Barite in mud system,
% Potassium in mud system,
Base oil density in case of SBM mud systems,
Origin of datum position (i.e. pip-tag, tide tables, etc),
Time drilling ceased,
Time circulation ceased,
Time logging tool on bottom,
Time logging completed,
Average logging speed,
Causes for any log anomalies,
All thermometer readings.
Ensure the Logging Engineer has all Header information correctly input.
Obtain a printed header sheet and proof read BEFORE final prints are made.
Ensure the Logging Engineer has instructions for the number of prints to be made.
Ensure a minimum of two thermometers are run on each tool string in every log suite where
possible, including sidewall core runs.
Testing will be conducted consistent with the provisions of a Testing Programme which is subject
to Joint Venturer and Government approval. It is unlikely that the Wellsite Geologist will be
required to supervise or attend production testing.
The Wellsite Geologist should keep the Wellsite Manager (Drilling Supervisor) informed of any
changes in bulk lithology, reservoir objectives, potential lost circulation zones, potential
overpressures and other matters which could reasonably be expected to influence the safety or
efficient operations of the well.
All depths and operations reported on the Geological Reports should be co-ordinated and agreed
with the Wellsite Manager (Drilling Supervisor).
The Wellsite Geologist is to ensure that all exploration data (reports, samples logs etc.) are
correctly labelled, packaged and despatched in a timely manner.
The timing and mode of shipment of data from the rig is included in the Drilling Programme.
When in doubt, call the Operations Geologist
It is extremely important that all data shipments from the rig be accompanied by a transmittal. A
copy of the transmittal should be sent to Operations Geologist via email or fax.
1.10 CONFIDENTIALITY
5
All geological data should be considered as confidential. Such data should be discussed only
with those persons directly involved in the use thereof (i.e. Mudloggers, Wellsite Manager (Drilling
Supervisor)). Data necessary for the safe and efficient conduct of drilling operations should be
provided to the Drilling Contractor Supervisor, the Drillers, the Mud Engineers and other relevant
personnel, in co-ordination with the Wellsite Manager (Drilling Supervisor).
Speculation upon the results of the well, and their significance, should be discouraged.
The ultimate home for most of the data compiled at the wellsite is the GEOLOG data base. As
this is an Excel based application Excel spread sheets should be used wherever possible to
facilitate the loading of the data.
A list of supplies that could be required at the wellsite are given in Section 3. Wellsite Geologist
Supplies Inventory.
The Wellsite Geologist must also ensure that the Mudlogging Contractor has sufficient
consumables for the bagging and boxing of all samples and cores.
6
2 REPORTING PROCEDURES
2.1 INTRODUCTION
Hard and fast rules on reporting are not appropriate to wellsite conditions. Consequently, the
following text should be taken as a guideline. The rapid and accurate dissemination of data from
wellsite is one of the most important tasks of the Wellsite Geologist and this function should be
treated with care and thoroughness.
Two reports on geological operations will be required from wellsite on a daily basis -
A Morning Report is to be transmitted to Operations Geologist every day before 07:30, when
a Wellsite Geologist is on location. Given that communication access is not unlimited, the
most convenient time for transmission will be determined following discussions between the
Wellsite Geologist, Drilling Supervisor and Operations geologist. This will determine the post
midnight reporting period.
The informal afternoon report will be via telephone, or a short email message, about 16:00
when a Wellsite Geologist is on location.
An example of the Word ® template used for the Morning Daily Geological Report is reproduced in
Section 9.2. Instructions on the use of the report are given below, and any clarification may be
obtained from the Operations Geologist. The Daily Report will be submitted by email.
2.2.1 Discussion
It is important to note that the effective time for the morning Daily Geological Report (DGR) is
0000 hours and will report all operations from the previous twenty four hours (i.e. 0000 - 2400).
The file name of the file is to follow the convention: well name (eg Audacious-1), DGR (with report
number), eg. georeport01, Date ( eg 28-01-98), midnight depth eg. 1505m:
“Audacious-1_georeport01_28-01-98_1505m”.
Heading Data
This information (depth, progress, operation, deviation data, mud data etc.) should be in
agreement with that reported by the Wellsite Manager (Drilling Supervisor).
The Operations Summary should be just that - brief and to the point and should be confirmed
with the Wellsite Manager (Drilling Supervisor).
The Report Date is the date of the 24 hour period.
The Report Number should be sequential by day, starting on the first full day of a Wellsite
Geologist being on the rig.
7
The midnight depth should always be confirmed with the Drilling Supervisor, and likewise
other information such as water depth, RT elevation, casing depths, and FIT/LOT data.
Mud data is obtained from the Daily Mud Report (usually via the Mudloggers) and ECD from
the mudlogging Data Engineer. In addition, the Data Engineer should provide an estimate of
the pore pressure. It is important to discuss the estimated pore pressure with the Data
Engineer on a continual basis, as the safety of the well is potentially at stake. If the Dxc plot
displays anything but a normal trend, then this should be discussed in the latter Formation
Pressure Estimate part of the DGR.
Survey data can be obtained from the MWD contractor, or from the Drilling Supervisor if MWD
is not being run.
Lithology:
The lithological descriptions for Daily Reports should be concise. Additional detail may be
appropriate where the following circumstances arise:
Hydrocarbon Shows:
Gas Data:
Background Gas
Background gas intervals should be broken up on the basis of change in trends, and like
lithological intervals, should not be broken up too finely or too coarsely. The best (only) way to
pick intervals is graphically, from the mudlog. Once again, seeing things graphically gives the
WSG a much better feel for what is happening.
To avoid confusion, trip gas, connection gas, and gas peaks should be absolute values, not
values above background gas.
Calcimetry
8
Calcimetry intervals should be broken up where there is a significant change in calcimetry, but
neither too finely nor too coarsely. There is no point in continuing calcimetry measurements
once ciral or similar CaCO3 lost circulation material has been added to the mud.
Any departure from a normally pressured regime requires explanation. This should be done in
conjunction with the mudlogging Data Engineer.
Sample Quality
Sometimes cuttings may be contaminated with cavings, cement, or mud additives, and these
should be mentioned when in significant quantities.
sample quality should be expressed as being either Unreliable, Questionable, or Good, with
explanation required for the first 2 categories.
Mudlog Equipment/Personnel
MWD
Detail the sensor measuring points in metres behind the bit, list any equipment problems or
changes, and include any pertinent remarks regarding log quality.
MWD Temperature
Safety:
2.2.2 Remarks
The remarks section is for any other pertinent information not mentioned elsewhere in the
DGR, such as formation tops, comparison with the prognosis, further discussion of the
significance of shows or any other matters of interest, and electric logging details.
All transfers of materials from the rig should be noted here, with information concerning the
mode of transport and ETA.
If any significant changes in Mud Data have occurred within that period, it should be noted in
the "Remarks" section.
The WSG should always feel free to express any concerns or voice any opinions under this
heading, as something the WSG may deem “un-newsworthy” may have later ramifications.
9
2.3.1 Abbreviations
For the sake of consistency a list of abbreviations is attached as Appendix 6. Where the
abbreviations are self explanatory they can be used in routine reports to Operations
Geologist/Perth office with the exception of “Hydrocarbon Shows”. These should always be in
longhand to avoid any misunderstanding.
The daily report descriptions of lithologies encountered will be extracted from the Cuttings
Description Report and summarised in the order given in Section 3.1 and detail as indicated
below.
3250 - 3285 metres Sandstone (100%), quartzose, silty, light olive grey, friable to
moderately hard, fine to coarse, dominantly medium, fair to good
sorting, subangular to subrounded, 20% quartz silt, trace clay
matrix, 5-10% strong silica cement, trace glauconite and mica, fair
intergranular visual porosity.
Strong Show: 50% Bright yellow spotty fluorescence; instant
streaming milky white cut; bright white residual fluorescence; thin
straw coloured residual film. No odour
Note: The percentage of the basic rock type is not written. Thus the 70-
75% quartz grains implied by the proportion of silt, mica and
glauconite is implied but not stated.
A variety of other reports will be made to Operations Geologist from wellsite on an as-needed
basis. These reports are included in the Section 9 Reporting Forms and listed in 1.2 Reporting
from the Wellsite. The naming of digital report files is to be consistent follow a convention similar
to that given below:
Well name (eg Audacious-1), Type of data eg. MSCT Descriptions Suite 1, an appropriate depth
or depth interval if applicable eg. 1505-1700m and file extension eg. .xls
10
Many of the contractors provide reports and listings of ASCII data. The naming of their reports
should follow a similar convention, for instance:
Well name (eg Audacious-1), Type of data eg GR-DLL-AS-Cal_Suite-1 LAS Data (with run
number or other descriptor if appropriate), an appropriate depth or depth interval if applicable eg.
1505-1700m and file extension eg. .las
“Audacious-1_GR-DLL-AS-Cal_Suite-1 LAS_1505-1700m.las”.
11
3 SAMPLE DESCRIPTION
3.1 INTRODUCTION
It is important to note that the following material is designed to address the description of cutting
samples and not core samples. For all sample types however, the order in which the properties
are to be described is given below.
This list contains those parameters which are considered relevant to a sample description. Not
all parameters necessarily will be utilised in a description as the rock type governs this. However,
all descriptions should be prepared by using the relevant parameters, in the order described.
The ‘Cuttings Description Report’ is the primary recording tool for sample descriptions. The
Wellsite Geologist in describing cuttings samples, will use the following aids in addition to the
routine equipment and reagents available at wellsite.
The sample descriptions will be entered into the ‘Cuttings Description Report’. The order in which
these are entered is given above.
12
3.2.1 Sample Quality
It is inevitable that cuttings samples will be contaminated to some extent by cavings. The use of
sieves can reduce this problem. Very large cuttings which are obviously caved may be removed
from samples.
Any wiper trip or round trip causes an increase in cavings when drilling is resumed and also
causes a mixing up of the cuttings present in the mud column. For this reason, all cuttings
should be circulated out of the hole prior to trips made near zones of interest.
When it is not possible to catch samples (such as in lost circulation zones, an empty bag should
be included in the sequence of samples, and clearly labelled to show the interval of missing
samples and the reason why they are missing. Such intervals should be noted on the transmittal
forms.
3.2.2.1 Siliciclastic
The Siliciclastic classification detailed below is to be used when describing siliciclastic rocks.
SILICICLASTIC CLASSIFICATION
ROCK TYPES MODIFYING CONSTITUENTS
Glauconitic
Haematitic
Sands Sandstone Arkosic (> 30% Feldspar)
Feldspathic (10-30% Feldspar)
Micaceous
Anhydritic
Pyritic
Carbonaceous
Cherty
Micaceous
Haematitic/Limonitic
Glauconitic
Claystone/ Pyritic
Clays Shale Gypsiferous
Carbonaceous
Chloritic
Quartzose (silt size grains)
Feldspathic (silt size feldspar)
Dolomitic (Dolomite Rhombs)
13
3.2.2.2 Transitional
The use of the term "grading" or “transitional” is informal. It is intended to describe the transition
between fine-grained siliciclastic and carbonate rocks, as given below, or within one rock group,
eg silty sandstone grading to sandstone.
The term Marl, a general “sack” term covering part or all of the range calcareous claystone to
argillaceous calcilutite, is not one that OMV Australia chooses to use.
3.2.2.3 Carbonates
Wentworth Scale
Grain Size Lithological Name
3.2.2.4 Evaporites
Evaporites are described according to the dominant evaporitic constituent, e.g. anhydrite,
gypsum, halite, and dolomite. Lithological terms such as ‘dolostone’ are not used.
3.2.3 Colour
Colours should be those seen on wet cuttings and should be related to the GSA Rock Colour
Chart. The rock sample and the Colour Chart need to be viewed under the same light source for
consistency. It is important however, to ensure that only a significant colour differentiation is
made in describing samples. It is common to make the colour description too elaborate and,
effectively, meaningless.
3.2.4 Hardness
14
Plastic - Pliant clays that show putty-like deformation.
Firm - Compact, breaks under slight pressure.
Moderately hard - Grains can be detached using knife.
Hard - Solidly cemented or lithified. Does not break under slight
pressure, but can be scratched with knife blade. Fractures go
between grains.
Very Hard - Cannot be scratched with a knife blade, usually siliceous.
Fractures pass through grains.
Dense - Commonly used to indicate a fine-grained, well lithified tight rock
(usually limestone) with sub-conchoidal fracture.
Brittle - Moderately hard, but breaks easily with firm pressure. Generally
applies to shale with platy fracture.
3.2.5 Fracture
Several descriptive terms are used to describe the type of fracture, commonly a result of
cleavage or bedding, seen in shale and limestone cuttings. They include:
Conchoidal Commonly seen in dense rocks such as chert, argillite and flint. The
term refers to the concave and convex surfaces developed on fractures.
The fracture of hard limestone produces somewhat less strongly
developed curved surfaces and the fracture has been called "sub-
conchoidal".
Flaky The rock fractures into small flakes or chips. Common in some
argillaceous limestones and occasionally in metamorphic rocks.
Platy Used to describe shale in which fissility is well developed. The rock
breaks in parallel sided thin plates. This is commonly caused by fracture
along bedding planes, or along cleavage directions.
Splintery Used to describe shales in which the fissility is not strongly developed,
but exists sufficiently to cause irregular surfaces and edges, like a board
broken across the grain.
Be careful that apparent fracturing is not an artefact of the sample recovery process.
3.2.6 Texture
Texture is defined by the size, shape and arrangement of the component particles of a rock and
much of the texture of a rock will have been described under the previous headings of grain size,
shape and sorting. Other textural descriptions in general usage are:
15
Surface Texture of grains Smooth: dull, nacreous, resinous, polished, and vitreous;
Rough: etched, frosted, pitted, and striated.
In addition to the rock textures given above it is also useful to note here if the claystones react
with water. The responses may be described as follows:
The grain size comparison charts are related to the Wentworth scale. The grain size properties of
a rock are defined by the range and dominant size of the constituents. Note that modifying
constituents are also listed on this table.
Wentworth Scale
Grade limits (diameters in mm) Grain Size Lithological Name
4-2 Granule
2-1 Very Coarse
1 - 1/2 Coarse
1/2 - 1/4 Medium Sandstone
1/4 - 1/8 Fine
1/8 - 1/16 Very Fine
Matrix will be described by type (silt, clay etc.) and proportion (%) of overall rock. See definitions
of cement and matrix in Section 3.2.11.
3.2.8 Rounding
Angular: Very little or no evidence or wear; edges and corners are sharp. Secondary
corners, which are the minor convexities grain profile are numerous and sharp.
Subangular: Definite signs of wear; edges and corners have been rounded off to some extent.
Secondary corners are numerous.
Subrounded: Showing considerable wear, edges and corners have been rounded off to smooth
curves. The original shape of the grain is still distinct. Secondary corners are much reduced and
rounded.
16
Rounded: No original faces, edges or corners remain; the entire surface consists of broad
curves.
It is important that the description given should be of the original detrital grain. If the grain is
affected by authigenic overgrowths, this should be noted and the concepts of angularity
abandoned.
3.2.9 Sorting
Adjective Definition
As can be seen, a sandstone consisting entirely of very fine to fine grains cannot be poorly
sorted.
3.2.10 Sphericity
Sphericity should be considered when describing grain shape. Standard charts (“comparators”)
should be available at wellsite to assist in describing these properties.
The endpoints for description are Elongate and Spherical. See Appendix Roundness and
Sphericity for the visual appearance of these endpoints.
It is important that the description given should be of the original detrital grain. If the grain is
affected by authigenic overgrowths, this should be noted and the concept of sphericity
abandoned.
3.2.11 Cement
Identified by type and effectiveness of the cement (calcite, quartz, dolomite etc.).
Well 70-100%
Moderately 30-70%
Poorly 0-30%
Cement is a chemical precipitate deposited around the grains and in the interstices of sediment
as aggregates of crystals or as growths on grains of the same composition. Matrix consists of
17
small individual grains that fill interstices between the larger grains. Cement is deposited
chemically and matrix mechanically.
The order of precipitation of cement depends on the type of solution, number of ions in solution
and the general geochemical environment. Several different cements, or generations of cement,
may occur in a given rock, separately or overgrown on or replacing one another. The most
common cementing materials are silica and calcite.
Silica cement is common in nearly all quartz sandstones. This cement generally occurs as
secondary crystal overgrowth deposits in optical continuity with detrital quartz grains. Opal,
chalcedony and chert are other forms of siliceous cement. Dolomite and calcite are deposited as
crystals in the interstices and as aggregates in the voids.
Dolomite and calcite may be indigenous to the sandstone (the sands having been a mixture of
quartz and dolomite or calcite grains) or the carbonate may have been precipitated as a coating
around the sand grains before they were lithified. Calcite in the form of clear spar may be present
as vug or other void filling in carbonate rocks. Anhydrite and gypsum cements are more
commonly associated with dolomite and silica than with calcite. Additional cementing materials,
usually of minor importance, include pyrite (generally as small crystals) siderite, haematite,
limonite, zeolites and phosphatic material.
Silt acts as a matrix, hastening cementation by filling interstices, thus decreasing the size of
interstitial spaces. Clay is a common matrix material, which may cause loss of porosity either by
compaction, or by swelling when water is introduced into the formation. Argillaceous material can
be evenly distributed in siliciclastic or carbonate rocks, or have laminated, lenticular, detrital or
nodular form.
Compaction and the presence of varying amounts of secondary quartz, secondary carbonate,
and interstitial clay are the main factors affecting pore space in siliciclastic rocks. While there is a
general reduction of porosity with depth due to secondary cementation and compaction, ranges
of porosity vary considerably due, primarily, to extreme variations in amounts of secondary
cement. For instance, coarse-grained sandstones have greater permeability than finer ones
when the same amount of cementing material is available to both. However, the same thickness
of cement will form around the grains regardless of their size, therefore the smaller interstices,
which occur in finer grained sandstones, will be cemented earliest.
Reporting
All fossils and accessories should be reported by type and relative abundance. The following
adjectives can be used but actual percentages are preferred:
Adjective Definition
Trace less than 1%
Rare 1 - 5%
Minor 5 – 10%
Common 10 - 20%
Abundant 20% or greater
If the proportion of an accessory is greater than 20%, it is regarded as a modifier (See section
3.2.2).
18
Discussion (from AAPG Sample Examination Manual)
Microfossils and some small macrofossils, or even fragments of fossils, are used for correlation
and may also be environment indicators. For aid in correlation, the Wellsite Geologist should
record their presence and relative abundance in the samples being examined. More detailed
identification will probably have to be made with the aid of the literature, and/or the advice and
assistance of a palaeontologist. Fossils may aid the sample examiner in judging what part of the
cuttings is in place and what part is caved. It would be helpful to the Wellsite Geologist to have
available one or more slides or photographs illustrating the principal microfossils which might be
expected to occur in each formation they will be logging.
Accessory constituents, although constituting only a minor percentage of the bulk of a rock, may
be significant indicators of environment of deposition, as well as clues to correlation. The most
common accessories are glauconite, pyrite, feldspar, mica, siderite, carbonised plant remains,
heavy minerals, chert, and sand-sized rock (lithic) fragments.
Visual porosity is the estimate of free pore space seen in drill cuttings under the microscope. It is
a difficult, but important, parameter to evaluate. Generally, one cannot see the pore spaces under
the binocular microscope, except in cases of very high porosity, and the observer must rely on
other features for the porosity estimate.
In general, if you can see the porosity it is very good to excellent. Unconsolidated sands are
assumed to have very good porosity. However, beware of tightly cemented sands that have been
fragmented by the bit and exhibit apparently good porosity.
If you cannot see pores, there is a high percentage of matrix, the cuttings are smooth textured
and the interval drilled relatively slowly, then the rock is likely to have poor porosity. The fair to
good grades of porosity lie between these two described cases and experience will guide the
observer. A useful technique is to describe cuttings of an offset well and to "calibrate" the
descriptions of porosity with the wireline log data, prior to arriving at wellsite.
Porosity does not systematically vary with the size of the particles making up the rock. Rocks
with a fine grain size may be more porous than those with coarse grain size since porosity is
defined as the percentage of pore space to the total volume of the rock. Factors such as sorting,
packing/compaction, cementation and other effects determines ultimate effective porosity.
Only the porosity of potential reservoir sequences should be described, as effective porosity is of
interest. The porosity of claystone is irrelevant unless fractured.
Intergranular - intercrystalline
Vuggy - cavernous
19
Fracture
Solution.
20
4 SHOW EVALUATION
4.1 INTRODUCTION:
The presence or absence of obvious shows cannot always be taken as conclusive. In many
cases, the only suggestion of the presence of hydrocarbons may be a positive cut fluorescence.
In other cases, only one or two of the other analytical methods may prove positive. Hence, when
the presence of hydrocarbons is suspected, it is very important that all aspects be considered.
For this reason a variety of detection methods have been described, together with
recommendations for the ranking of the significance of shows.
The following procedures have been directed, primarily, to the accurate description of shows in
cuttings. It is axiomatic, however, that shows in cuttings are associated with shows in the mud
systems. The levels of mud gas shows, their duration and composition, should accompany all
descriptions of hydrocarbon shows. The rating of a hydrocarbon show (Sections 4.3 and 9.6)
should attempt to reconcile the shows in the cuttings and in the mud.
Fluorescence shows generally are severely limited in oil-based and synthetic oil-based muds
(OBM and SBM). These muds mask genuine shows with background fluorescence associated
with the oil/synthetic oil portion of the mud. Care and judgement must be exercised in these
situations as the fluorescence seen is invariably from the mud or filtrate (see Appendix 5.6.2).
To assist the determination of show evaluation a form is included in Section 9.6. However, rather
than being required as a formal reporting form, it is given as a check list for the geologist to use
before advising the Operations Geologist and discuss its significance. It will also help to keep
consistency during the discussions. The shows are to be reported on the Daily Geological Report
with additional discussion in the “Comments” section if appropriate.
Mud gas shows will be recorded on the Total Gas Detector (Section 6.3) and the Gas
Chromatograph (Section 6.4).
Frequently, mud gas shows will appear slightly in advance of the cuttings with which they are
related. If the mud rheology is optimal, however, there should be little delay between these two
occurrences.
Total gas readings are a measure of the amount of hydrocarbons entrained in the mud stream in
the C1-C5 range. In common with the gas chromatograph, the upper limit of the detection system
is constrained by the fact that C6 (hexane) and higher molecular weight hydrocarbons are liquid at
surface conditions and are thus not carried in the air-stream from the gas trap to the Logging
Unit.
Total gas readings should be evaluated by the magnitude of deviations from a background value.
The background gas, however, may change with mud chemistry and such sources should be
monitored. In addition, there are several false hydrocarbon shows described in Section 6.10
about which the Wellsite Geologist should be familiar.
Rapid deviations away from background gas levels represent a show. The gas chromatograph
should be set to give good definition of the constituent hydrocarbons.
22
the mud weight has lowered and the well is being swabbed in by the drill string or
a new hydrocarbon zone has been penetrated and a review of other data sources (primarily
cuttings) should be investigated.
The gas chromatograph (Section 6.4) analyses the proportion of each of the hydrocarbon gases
(up to C5) measured by the Total Gas detector.
These ratios should be plotted by the Mud Logging Company for all intervals where gases
heavier than C3 are recorded. The results are more meaningful if C5 is present.
The numerical results of these ratios can assist in identifying the type of reservoired
hydrocarbons (Appendix 1 Interpretation of Mud Gas Ratio Data). The Mudlogging Contractor will
have the ability to compute these ratios directly from the input data. This makes life a great deal
easier, particularly if GWR and LHR can be plotted on the same track on a log scale. Their
manual will probably have a section describing more fully the significance of the ratios.
It is important that a hydrocarbon show be evaluated by reference to both the mud gas and
cuttings data. The latter is the subject of Sections 4.6 and 4.7.
Usually the two data sets are compatible and interpretation is straight forward. However, when
the data sets appear to be in conflict:
Check the mud gas detectors are working and are properly calibrated.
Check the “Cuttings Description Report” for any anomalous data, and if the data set
remains in conflict,
THINK ...is the data is telling you something?
In cases where shows are not good in cuttings (no stain, no cut and poor cut fluorescence) but a
strong mud gas show is registered, a condensate may be responsible.
23
In cases where shows in cuttings are good (good even stain, strong cut and cut fluorescence) but
no appreciable mud gas is detected, a very low GOR oil or biodegraded oil may have been
encountered.
It would be impractical to review all of the options available in this document, but a methodical
review of the data set should yield a consistent result.
Much of the following text has been abstracted from Section 6 of the AAPG Sample Examination
Manual. Minor changes have been made to make the qualitative description of shows match
those utilised elsewhere in these procedures.
The amount by which cuttings and cores will be flushed on their way to the surface is largely a
function of their permeability. In very permeable rocks only very small amounts of oil are retained
in the cuttings. Often bleeding oil and gas may be observed in cores and sometimes in drill
cuttings, from relatively tight formations.
The amount of oil staining on ditch cuttings and cores is primarily a function of the distribution of
the porosity and the oil distribution within the pores. The amount should be reported as a
proportion of the sample as minor (<10%), moderate (10 - 50%), major (50 - 90%) and saturated
(90 - 100%).
The colour of the stain or bleeding oil should be reported. The colour of the stain is related to oil
gravity. Low API oil staining tends to be a dark brown, while high API oil staining tends to be
colourless.
The distribution of the stain on grains or chips should be reported as even, spotty, mottled or
streaked. Ferruginous or other mineral stain may be recognised by lack of odour, fluorescence,
or cut.
4.5.2 Odour
Odour may range from heavy (characteristic of low gravity oil) to light and penetrating
(characteristic for condensate). Some dry gases have no odour. Describe the type as oil odour
or condensate odour. Strength of odour depends on several factors, including size of sample.
Depending on strength of odour detected, report as faint, moderate, or strong. Faint odours may
be detected more easily on a freshly broken surface or after confining the sample in a bottle for
15-20 minutes.
Examination of mud, drill cuttings and cores for hydrocarbon fluorescence under ultraviolet light
often indicates oil in small amounts, or oil of light colour which might not be detected by other
means. All samples should be examined. Colours of fluorescence of crudes range from brown
through green, gold, blue, and yellow to white. In most instances, the heavier oils have darker
24
fluorescence. The intensity range is bright, moderate and weak. Distribution may be even,
spotted, or mottled, as for stain. Pinpoint fluorescence is associated with individual sand grains
and may indicate condensate or gas.
Mineral fluorescence, especially from shell fragments, may be mistaken for oil fluorescence and
is distinguished by adding a few drops of a solvent. Hydrocarbon fluorescence will appear to flow
and diffuse in the solvent as the oil dissolves, whereas mineral fluorescence will remain
undisturbed. Mineral fluorescence that may be encountered in samples includes:
Oil-stained samples which are degraded or oxidised may not fluoresce. Thus, failure to fluoresce
should not be taken as decisive evidence of lack of hydrocarbons. All samples that are
suspected of containing hydrocarbons should be treated with tri-chloro-ethelene and/or acetone.
Tri-chloro-ethelene is recommended for general use although it may become contaminated after
a long period. Acetone is a good solvent for heavy hydrocarbons but is not recommended for
routine oil detection.
To test cuttings or cores, place a few chips in a white, porcelain-evaporating dish or spot plate
and cover with reagent. The sample should be dried thoroughly at low temperature, otherwise
water within the sample may prevent penetration by the reagent, thus obstructing decisive
results. The hydrocarbon extracted by the reagent is called a "cut". It is observed under normal
light and should be described based on the shade of the colouration:, this will range from dark
brown to no visible tint. A faint "residual cut" is sometimes discernible only as an amber-coloured
ring left on the dish after complete evaporation of the reagent.
A very faint cut will leave a very faint ring and a negative cut will leave no visible colour. The
shade of the cut depends upon the gravity of the crude, the lightest crude giving the palest cuts.
Therefore, the relative darkness should not be taken as an indication of the amount of
hydrocarbon present.
The most reliable test for hydrocarbons is the cut fluorescence test. In this test the effect of the
reagent on the sample is observed under ultraviolet light, along with a sample of the pure solvent
as control. The sample should be thoroughly dried before applying the reagent. If hydrocarbons
are present, fluorescent "streamers" will be emitted from the sample and the intensity and colour
of these streamers evaluate the test. In addition, the speed of cutting gives some indication of
the permeability (see below). Some shows will not give a noticeable streaming effect but will
leave a fluorescent ring or residue in the dish after the reagent has evaporated. This is termed a
residual cut or residual ring.
It is recommended that the cut fluorescence test be made on all intervals in which there is even
the slightest suspicion of the presence of hydrocarbons. Samples that may not give a positive
cut or will not fluoresce may give positive cut fluorescence. This is commonly true of the high
25
gravity hydrocarbons that give a bright yellow cut fluorescence. Distillates show little or no
fluorescence or cut but commonly give positive cut fluorescence, although numerous extractions
may be required before it is apparent. Generally low gravity oils will not fluoresce but will cut a
very dark brown and their cut fluorescence may range from milky white to dark orange.
The colour of cut fluorescence can provide a clue to the density of the hydrocarbon:
The intensity of the cut fluorescence is related to both the proportion of hydrocarbons in the void
space and to the porosity. Thus, bright or intense cut fluorescence signifies a large proportion of
hydrocarbon. However, the affects of flushing in high permeability rocks will reduce the amount of
hydrocarbons in samples very significantly. Therefore, the lithology and permeability of the
sediments must be considered in ranking shows that are based on cut fluorescence. Common
terms used to describe intensity are;
faint, dull, and bright.
The type and speed of cut fluorescence gives some insight into permeability. Rocks with good
permeability will produce instantaneous cut fluorescence, whereas rock with close to zero
permeability require crushing to produce any cut fluorescence. Rocks with low permeability will
often have a "streaming" cut with a stream of fluorescence (dissolved hydrocarbons) flowing to
the surface of the solvent. Descriptive terms for type and speed are;
instant, fast, slow, streaming (individual “streams”) and blooming (“streams” coalesce).
The residual cut or ring should be described by its colour and intensity. Both are related to
amount of hydrocarbon and gravity in a similar way to that for cut fluorescence. Descriptive
terms are;
trace, thin ring, thick ring, thin film and thick film.
4.6.1 Wettability
Failure of samples to wet, or their tendency to float on water when immersed, is often an
indication of the presence of oil. Under the microscope, a light coloured stain that cannot be
definitely identified as an oil stain may be tested by letting one or two drops of water fall on the
surface of the stained rock fragment. In the presence of oil, the water will not soak into the
cutting or flow off its surface, but will stand on it or roll off it in spherical beads. Dry spots may
appear on the sample when the water is poured off. This, however, is not useful in powdered (air
drilled) samples which, because of particle size and surface tension effects, will not wet.
Dilute HCl may be used to detect oil shows in cuttings. This is effected by immersing a small
fragment of the rock to the tested (approximately 0.5 to 2 mm diameter) in dilute HCl. If oil is
present in the rock, surface tension will cause large bubbles to form, either from air in the pore
spaces or from CO2 generated by the reaction of the acid with carbonate cement or matrix. In the
26
case of calcareous rock, the reaction forms lasting iridescent bubbles large enough to raise the
rock fragment off the bottom of the container in which the acid is held. Sometimes this effect is
large enough to carry the fragment to the surface of the acid before the bubbles break and the
fragment sinks, only to be buoyed up again by new bubbles. The resulting bobbing effect is quite
diagnostic. The bubbles, which form on the surface of a cutting fragment of similar size (which
contains no oil), do not become large enough to float the fragment before they break away and
the fragment, therefore, remains on the bottom. In the case of oil-bearing non-calcareous
sandstone, large lasting bubbles form on the surface but may not float the fragment.
It should be pointed out that this test is very sensitive to the slightest amount of hydrocarbons,
even those found in carbonaceous shale. Therefore, it is well to discount the importance of a
positive test unless the bobbing effect is clearly evident or lasting iridescent bubbles are
observed. The test is very useful, however, as a simple and rapid preliminary check for the
presence of hydrocarbons. A positive oil-acid reaction alerts the observer to intervals worthy of
more exhaustive testing.
If the presence of oil or condensate is suspected and provided no carbonaceous or lignitic matter
is present in the rock sample, the acetone-water test may be tried. The rock is powdered and
placed in a test tube and acetone is added. After shaking it vigorously it is filtered into another
test tube and an excess of water is added. When hydrocarbons are present, they form a milky
white dispersion (as they are insoluble in water, whereas acetone and water are completely
miscible). This is a very sensitive test and a control sample is recommended whenever this test is
attempted.
Place 500 cc of fresh, unwashed cuttings in a tin or beaker, which has a capacity of 1,000 cc.
Pour in hot water with a temperature of at least 80 oC until it covers the sample to a depth of 1
cm. Observe the oil film thus formed under ultraviolet light and record the amount of oil released
using the following scale:
Strong 100%
Fair 50 - 99%
Weak 33 - 50%
Very weak 25 - 33%
Extremely weak less than 25%
4.6.5 Iridescence
Iridescence may be associated with oil of any colour or gravity, but it is more likely to be
observable and significant for the lighter, more nearly colourless oils where oil staining may be
absent. Iridescence may be observed in the wet sample tray. Iridescence without oil colouration
or staining may indicate the presence of light oil or condensate.
As iridescence will also be obtained from diesel, be sure to investigate the possibility of
contamination.
27
4.7 GENERALISATIONS
No "rules of thumb" can be used to relate the evidences of the presence of hydrocarbons to
potential production. However, some generalisations are worth noting.
1. Lack of visible stain is not conclusive proof of the absence of hydrocarbons. Gas,
distillates and high gravity oils ordinarily will have no visible stain.
3. Bona fide hydrocarbon shows will usually give a positive cut fluorescence. High gravity
hydrocarbons will often give a positive cut fluorescence and/or a residual cut, but will give
negative results with all other hydrocarbon detection methods.
4. The oil acid reaction test will give positive results when oil is present, but it is very
sensitive and may give positive results in the presence of insignificant amounts of
hydrocarbons.
28
5 DRILLING BREAKS, CORING AND SIDEWALL CORING
A significant drilling break will be considered as an increase or decrease (depending on type of bit
– see below) in penetration rate to a value of twice (or more) the previous rate, if impermeable
rock (generally shale/claystone or siltstone) lies above the break point. However, it is not
possible to lay down a precise definition of a significant drilling break before the event and the
experience of the Wellsite Geologist and the Mudlogging Engineer are of paramount importance.
When a break occurs, the Mudlogging Engineer is to be responsible for advising the Wellsite
Geologist and the Wellsite Manager (Drilling Supervisor) of the event. The driller will check for
flow. When the Wellsite Manager (Drilling Supervisor) is satisfied that no unusual or excessive
fluid entry or gain has occurred, drilling will continue. If coring is anticipated, a total of two to three
metres of the break interval will be drilled prior to the samples being circulated to the surface for
examination.
Drilling breaks into the objective section should be evaluated for hydrocarbon shows as soon as
possible, in order for a quick decision on coring to be made. The Wellsite Geologist will be
responsible for this evaluation (and the recommendation on coring).
Be aware that PDC type bits often drill better in shales and that a sandstone lithology may in fact
decrease the drilling rate. The important feature in this case is to look for other changes as well
as drilling rate eg. Torque. Close liaison with the driller is imperative and it has been found that
maintaining uniform drilling parameters (WOB, RPM and pump pressure) often allows a
lithological change to be quickly recognised by changes in drilling characteristics.
5.2 CORING
Coring will be undertaken in accordance with the Drilling Programme and Coring Criteria. Often it
is the intention to continuously core any hydrocarbon bearing, porous reservoir interval unit to
below the oil/water contact, or until reservoir quality sediments are absent.
When pulling out of the hole prior to coring, a strap-out measurement should be requested to
ensure that there is no confusion regarding the depth at which the core was taken.
The Mudlogging personnel, supervised by the Wellsite Geologist will carry out the handling,
sampling and packaging of cores.
The following items need to be ready for use prior to the core barrel reaching the surface:
1. broad felt-tip markers or paint pens (red and black) with water proof ink;
2. rags;
29
3. hammer;
4. sample bags, labelled;
5. notepad and pen;
6. measuring tape;
7. eye protection and breathing apparatus, for use if cutting the barrel and core.
When coring, the penetration rate should be recorded every 0.5 metre. Ditch cuttings samples are
to be taken at 1 metre intervals while coring is in progress to serve as an aid to correlation in the
case of partial recovery and as a standby in the case of zero recovery. Samples should also be
taken from the desander and desilter (if running). Since these cores may be cut rapidly and with
low flow rates, only the samples from the top of the core may be circulated out, as it is not
recommended to circulate bottoms up after cutting the core as this increases the chances of losing
the core.
The Wellsite Geologist is to observe the progress of the coring operation, noting any abnormalities
in rotary torque or pump pressure that may indicate potential zones of lost core. It is advisable to
plot formation dependent parameters such as ROP, pump pressure and torque against cuttings
lithology, noting that these changes may be very small. A sharp decrease in drilling rate, for
example, may indicate that jamming has taken place. If it appears that jamming of the core has
occurred, then the coring run should be aborted to avoid destroying the interval of core below the
jamming point.
Prior to commencement of coring, a Job Hazard Analysis (JHA) will organised by the Senior
Coring Engineer . Those present will include: Coring Engineer, Wellsite Manager, Toolpusher,
Driller, Drillfloor Crew, Roustabouts/Dogmen who will be assisting in moving and cutting the core,
Mudlogger and Wellsite Geologist.
The Wellsite Geologist is the supervisor in all matters related to the handling, marking and
shipment of the core. This requires that the Wellsite Geologist be present to oversee and assist
with these operations.
Ensure that the core is checked for H2S with a Drager tube as early as possible after the core arrives
at the surface.
If the core is to be cut up at the wellsite, another JHA should be held with all those to be involved
prior to the cutting and sealing operation. It may be necessary to request the assistance of a
roustabout through the Wellsite Manager to help with the core cutting.
The aluminium inner sleeve is removed from the outer core barrel one section at a time (it comes in
9m joinable lengths with internal flush connections), with a roughneck utilising a rubber pipe cleaner
to remove most of the mud from the inner barrel. Each inner barrel is then secured in a core cradle,
lowered down the V-door and laid out on the catwalk/pipedeck.
ONLY WHEN IT IS SAFE TO DO SO (ie cranes have stopped laying down coring assembly/picking
up next coring or drilling assembly on/from the catwalk/pipedeck) should cleaning, marking, cutting
30
(or running core gamma) of the core proceed. At no time should the core be worked on when
cranes are working overhead.
The inner barrels must be sufficiently cleaned so that markings do not smear. Cloth rags and water
should be used with water-based mud, and cloth rags with diluted detergent with oil-based mud,
then cleaned with cloth rags and water to prevent any detergent residue which may make marking
of barrels difficult.
Markings must be made with permanent ink/paint markers. When the lengths of inner barrel are
laid out in order, the top of the core is located and marked showing the depth at which coring
commenced. Parallel reference lines are then marked on the inner barrels in black and red
markers. These consist of parallel black and red lines and an orientation arrow (at metre intervals
on the reference lines). When facing the core (core in a vertical position) the arrowhead will point
to the bottom of the core (increasing depth) with the red line is on the right of the black line.
Core chips from barrel ends are to be taken for initial microscopic analysis and description. Retain
the core chip samples for possible future examination. Any barrels only partially full will be
adequately packed to ensure no core movement within the barrel. Seal barrels with end caps
and clips (ensure they are tightened securely) as soon as possible. If required, core gamma ray
equipment should be run.
As OMV Australia requires the inner barrel with core intact to be cut into 1 metre lengths at the
well site, the following procedures will apply. Once the top of the core has been positively
located, usually by cutting off the empty upper part of the inner barrel, saw cut locations are
marked on the barrel. Naturally, these will mostly be 1 metre apart but occasionally it is
convenient to cut slightly more or less than a metre such that subsequent cuts on an even metre.
As the cut depths are marked, each section is marked with the top and bottom depth
(horizontally) on the barrel but offset from the ends such that the depths will be clear of the
sealing caps. This is a two man job with both checking the depths are sequential. Be sure that
any pieces removed at the barrel break on the rig floor are sequentially included at the correct
depth. Whilst this is happening a third person can start putting OMV Australia, the well name,
core number and end depths (vertically) on the central part of the section - be sure this is done
consistently such that “horizontal” end depth matches the “vertical” depth nearest to it (see figure
below). Once the cut marking is complete, double check that the tally is consistent and all pieces
have been included, then count the number of sections. Each section should then be marked 1
of 32, 2 of 32 (or 1/32) etc starting from the top. Again double check that everything is
consistent. Then, and only then, can the cutting of the barrels commence.
Red line
OMV Australia
1234m
1235m
Black line
The cutting is performed by the coring company personnel using the coring company equipment.
Adequate safety precautions must be taken by all involved in cutting the core to avoid breathing the
dust from cutting and also in handling the saw and core pieces.
As the saw cuts are made, core chips should be taken from every cut for microscopic examination,
description and show analysis. The sleeve is then sealed with the airtight plastic end caps made
secure with steel clips. The end caps are then marked with their appropriate depths. The core
31
lengths can then be packed securely in core crates for dispatch from the wellsite. Time is of the
essence in sealing the cores into the sleeves as soon after cutting as possible.
Removal of the core from the inner barrel at the wellsite is not to be attempted, as the core is to
remain as undisturbed as possible to achieve the most meaningful core analysis possible.
If the core is to be choppered off the rig a hole should be pierced in the end cap if the core contains
gas as this will expand and the caps could pop off. As the hole should be in the centre or upper
side of the cap to prevent expanding gas forcing mud out, this operation should be undertaken
when the core sections are in their transport position.
The Wellsite Geologist must ensure that all core (including odd pieces) is packed and shipped
together, as missing pieces can cause delays in core analysis. This does not include core chips as
the core is often shipped off the rig prior to core chip descriptions being completed and the chips
are held as”insurance” in case anything happens to the core in transit.
A core piece reconciliation sheet (in the form of a transmittal) should then be filled in to assist the
laboratory in reconstructing the core. The transmittal should be faxed or emailed to the core
laboratory with a copy, sealed in a plastic envelope, attached to one of the core pieces in the
shipment and a copy emailed to the Operations Geologist.
5.2.6 Descriptions
All core chip descriptions should be compiled on the Core Chip Description Form (9.4)
The details of the descriptions should be sufficient to identify the nature of any reservoir
lithologies, the distribution of the lithology (i.e. a crude net::gross given the 1 metre sample
spacing), the effective visual porosity and the amount and distribution of the hydrocarbon shows.
Any information re the nature of the bedding (fine laminations or massive bedding) observed
whilst handling the core should be included.
Whilst the this section is not strictly applicable to wellsite operations, it has been included to
complete the discussion on coring.
The Core Analysis Company, upon consultation with the Petrophysicist will take plug samples in
the pre-selected sections of reservoir rock for porosity, permeability, grain density and fluid
saturation analyses. A core gamma ray log will be run on the whole core.
Other analyses, including whole core analysis and Special Core Analysis (SCAL) may be
requested as required.
Upon completion of analyses, the Core Analysis Company will inform the Petrophysicist and
obtain permission for slabbing. Some of the core may be saved for whole core analysis; as
32
instructed by the Petrophysicist. The slabbed core will be photographed, re-packaged and
distributed as required.
5.3.1 Programme
The generalities of the percussion and/or rotary sidewall core programme, ie purpose of
sampling, interval to be covered and number of runs, will be given in the Drilling Programme.
However, it is the responsibility of the Wellsite Geologist to consider whether additional sidewall
cores are required to thoroughly evaluate the well in a cost-effective manner. If an additional
gun/run is required this should be agreed by the Operations Geologist.
Upon recording the first log in the well, a preliminary programme of sampling depths will be
provided to the Wellsite Geologist in a digital format. If rotary sidewall cores are being acquired,
the percussion sidewall cores will be mainly acquired in non-reservoir lithologies for seal and
biostratigraphic purposes.
The relative density of sidewall cores to be used for biostratigraphy, geochemistry, lithology
determination, petrology and other purposes will be resolved by Project Geologist, who will
ensure that the sidewall core programme satisfies the well objectives.
A percussion sidewall core programme will be provided to the Wellsite Geologist (in digital format)
via the Operations Geologist. The Logging Engineer will incorporate this into a shooting list
spreadsheet to determine the bullet type, charge and ring sizes. Each location is to be annotated
with any pertinent information such as the expected lithology and sonic, gamma ray and caliper
values. Actual lithology of the recovered cores should be noted in the comments section of the
shooting list and a copy obtained by the Wellsite Geologist for future reference.
When the tool is being handled on the rig-floor or cat-walk, ensure all safety precautions are
observed. Discuss this with the Logging Engineer and Wellsite Manager (Drilling Supervisor). All
arc-welding and radio transmissions from the rig should be shut-down during critical phases of
these operations. In certain circumstances the cable can act as an aerial and cause auto- firing of
the charges.
When the tool is recovered to surface, the Wellsite Geologist should assist the Logging Engineer
with retrieval of the sidewall cores. As each bullet is removed from its tether, they should be
replaced in their respective places in the gun or placed in pre-marked containers, to ensure that
cores are not misplaced in depth. Each core should be pressed from the bullet in the presence
of the Geologist and placed into bottles and appropriately labelled.
Lost or partial recoveries should be logged and agreed with the Logging Engineer as they are not
chargeable.
Sidewall cores should be described using the appropriate form (Section 9.4). Sidewall cores
acquired on subsequent runs in the hole are to be numbered sequentially from the previous run.
Abbreviations used with this form should be self explanatory.
33
5.3.4 Rotary Sidewall Core Operations
Ensure the sidewall core programme is provided to the Logging Engineer as a digital listing.
Each location should be annotated with any pertinent information upon the lithology expected
and whether it is likely to be "soft" or "hard". Also all samples to be taken in out-of-gauge hole
should be identified. The logging Engineer should drop two discs, say half way through the
program or after a critical interval has been cored, to give a correlation point for sample recovery
reference.
When the tool is recovered to surface, the Wellsite Geologist, in consultation with the Logging
Engineer, is responsible for the final assignment of core number/depth to the recovered cores.
The Wellsite Geologist is responsible also to ensure the cores are placed in their appropriately
numbered container.
Lost or partial recoveries should be logged and agreed with the Logging Engineer as they are not
chargeable.
All sidewall cores should be described using the appropriate form (Section 9.5). The cores
should not be tampered with in the process of description (ie do not take chips etc).
In order to preserve samples intact and to prevent the sample from being damaged in transit,
each sample is to be packed using aluminium foil (shiny side to core) and then wrapped in cling
wrap. The cores are then to be packed in a box and hand carried to the Operations Geologist (or
Designate) by the Wellsite Geologist.
Operators Name:
Well Name:
Suite Number:
Sample Number: An “M” precedes the rotary (mechanical or MSCT)
Sample Depth: (to be in the same format as the wireline record eg 1 decimal place)
34
6 MUDLOGGING NOTES
6.1 INTRODUCTION
The Wellsite Geologist must have a proper understanding of the data supplied by the Mudlogging
Contractor. This entails a familiarity with the equipment used and its limitations. Thus, it is
important that the Wellsite Geologist take all reasonable steps to become acquainted with the
components of the Mudlogging Unit being utilised by the contractor for each well, in advance of
arriving at wellsite. A Mudlogging Quality Control Report should be a completed on an as
required basis (at the start of a new project, when mudlogging crew members change and when
the quality of the service appears to be slipping). A pro-forma of the report is included as Section
9.8.
(a) Divide hole into convenient diameter sections (e.g. cased hole and open hole sections);
(b) Determine the annular volume of each section, using appropriate tables (the Wellsite
Manager (Drilling Supervisor) and Mud Engineer will have some);
(c) Sum section volumes to give total annular volume;
(d) Determine pump output per stroke;
(e) Divide (c) by (d) to determine lag in strokes;
(f) Divide (e) by pump strokes per minute to determine lag time in minutes, if required.
Theoretical calculations of lag time are close to true values if the hole is in gauge, but as hole
enlargement is not uncommon, carbide lags should be performed regularly by the mudloggers to
determine true lag time and also to test the efficiency of the gas detection equipment.
The procedure is to insert a fixed quantity of carbide (CaC 2) in the drill string at a connection.
When the paper container of carbide hits the bit, mud reacts with the carbide to form acetylene
gas (C2H2). This travels up the annulus and is recorded as a gas peak on the gas detection
equipment, affecting both C1 and C2 curves on the chromatograph. Each carbide check should
be recorded on the Mudlog.
Lag time is determined by subtracting the calculated down time from the total time.
Trip gas and connection gas will also be good indicators of lag time as they usually, but not
always, originate from the bottom of the hole.
Depending on ROP, carbide lag checks should be performed once per tour or every 250 m drilled
to ensure an accurate lag time is maintained.
Do not perform carbide lag checks too close to a prognosed or possible reservoir section as the
gas peak may complicate identifying carbide gas from formation / reservoir gas.
35
If oil based mud is being used a carbide lag test is ineffective. Rice or some other marker may be
used but tends to be difficult to see. Drilling parameter (ROP, torque) change together with MWD
data may be used to predict a lithological change which then can be verified by careful spot
sampling. If the spot sampling is recorded against the lag record (preferably total pump strokes)
then the lag can be verified or adjusted.
The hot wire detector has been the standard instrument used for gas detection for many years.
The principle of the instrument is a Wheatstone bridge (balancing circuit) with two platinum
filaments, one open to the atmosphere and one in contact with ditch gas which is sucked (or
blown) across it. Hydrocarbons burn on the filament, increasing the resistance of the filament
and thus producing a current which is recorded as units. The limitation of a hot wire detector is
that as the percentage of hydrocarbons increases, a point is reached where insufficient air is
present for combustion, leading to inaccurate gas readings.
A flame ionization detector (FID) system can be used instead of the hot wire detector. All
hydrocarbons are burned between ionized poles in a hydrocarbon flame. The ions formed during
burning (proportional to volume of hydrocarbons) flow to the ionizing poles, and are measured as
total hydrocarbon percentage.
The reponse of the FID is in proportion to both the quantity and carbon number of the gas. Thus,
an FID reading (in units) is only correct if the gas is all methane. A change in FID reading can be
caused by a change in concentration and/or type of gas. Evaluation with the chromatograph
should resolve which is the case.
The partition gas chromatograph is usually used in Mudlogging. A sweep gas flows continuously
through a column that is packed with inert solid (e.g. fibreglass) coated with a non-volatile organic
liquid. The heavier components of the sample tend to be absorbed into the column material and
are swept very slowly along it. The lighter components are relatively unaffected and move along
very rapidly. The transit time for each compound is fixed for a given pressure, temperature and
flow rate of the carrier gas.
The signal from the gas analyser is fed to a strip chart to produce a time vs concentration record.
The position of the peak indicates the composition of the gas, the area under the peak (for
convenience often taken as the height of the peak) equals concentration.
Hydrocarbons heavier than C5 are usually not of interest, (as pentane is a liquid below 3- oC (so
will probably condense in the suction line to the logging unit), and the total cycle would be very
long to record C5+. Thus a backflush air sample is blown through the column after a few minutes
to remove heavy gases.
Analysis for the amount of gas in the exit stream from the column may be made with a number of
instruments. A flame ionization system similar to the total gas detector is usually used.
The instrument is calibrated with two known mixtures for low and high range sensitivity.
36
6.5 DRILL RATE
Drill rate is an important diagnostic tool used to evaluate porosity, lithology changes and
geopressured formations. Several devices are used to measure drill rate, all of them measure
the relative movements of the drill string with reference to the rig floor. On rigs with motion
compensation, the sensor should be placed above the motion compensator.
The depth is not determined independently by the Mudloggers - they need the pipe tally. This
pipe tally often proves to be wrong, so, much care should be taken to ensure that depths are
correct, especially in fast drilling, in reservoir sections and whilst coring. Prior to coring, it is
advisable that the drill pipe be strapped out of the hole.
Mud returns have been lost or partially lost to the formation. The level of mud in the well bore will
drop, lowering the hydrostatic head, possible below the pore pressure - this is a dangerous
situation - the result may be a kick or at worst a blow out.
The formation fluid is entering the well bore. Mud is being displaced. The well is flowing. The
formation fluid may be water, oil or gas - this also is a dangerous situation - this is a kick or a
blowout.
Hydrogen sulphide is monitored for safety reasons. Other parameters such as continuous weight
on bit, rotary RPM, torque, pump pressure, mud weight, mud resistivity and mud temperature will
be recorded by the Mudlogging Contractor. These parameters are used to determine drilling
efficiency, bit life, "D" exponent and other drilling criteria. The Wellsite Geologist will become
familiar with the use of this data by correlation of such variables as ROP to lithology.
Cuttings samples are usually collected at the shale shaker. The Wellsite Geologist will ensure:
the sample is representative of the sample interval - place a board under the screen and
collect samples off the board, cleaning it thoroughly after each sample has been taken. Note
that samples directly off the screen represent only a few moments of drilling and are not
representative,
all drilling breaks are sampled, regardless of the prescribed sampling interval,
37
a flowline and desander/desilter sample is collected from time to time and compared with
samples from the main shakers. If significant fine material is going over the main shakers,
catch samples from the desander/desilter as well as from the shaker and have finer shaker
screens fitted if possible.
Several factors affect the size of a gas show as recorded at the surface on the Total Gas
detector. The strongest gas indication will result from:
Other factors being equal, we can minimise effect of varying drill-rate, circulation rate and/or hole
size on the Total Gas reading to produce a Normalised Total Gas value by using the following
formula:.
Where NTG = normalised total gas, TG = actual total gas, Q = flow rate, gals/min, ROP = rate of penetration, m/hr and
D = bit size, ins.
It should be emphasised that changes in drilling parameters can have major impact on the size of
a gas show. Relatively low gas readings on the mudlog alone do not necessarily imply low gas
saturation in the formation. For example, simply by decreasing the drilling-rate (eg. in controlled
drilling), with all other factors constant, we will cause a corresponding decrease in the total gas
readings that would be obtained from a homogeneous, gas-saturated reservoir.
The effect of permeability should also be considered. Frequently, high ditch-gas readings may be
obtained from tight gas-bearing section (typically with corresponding high cuttings gas readings)
while ditch gas shows from more porous and permeable gas-bearing reservoirs may be reduced
due to a higher hydrostatic overbalance pressure than needed, or flushing ahead of the bit.
Consequently, the Total Gas Curve on the Mudlog does not necessarily present a simple picture
of the occurrence of gas in the formation. A low Total Gas indication on the Mudlog does not
always imply a high water saturation in the formation. Changes in the gas curve tend to be more
important than absolute values. Only by taking into account all the interacting variables can a
property evaluation be made. The Wellsite Geologist must be aware of all relevant drilling
parameters in evaluating a show, so that no potential pay zones are overlooked, and to enable
38
him to make a sound recommendation for further evaluation if necessary (i.e. testing and/or log
evaluation). Whilst the gas values on the mudlog are those actually recorded, Mudlogging
contractor can produce a normalised plot of the various gas values and such plots should be
requested when, for instance, significantly varying ROPs are encountered on penetrating, and
within, a potential reservoir section.
The Hydrocarbon Show Evaluation Form (9.6) will assist in this evaluation.
6.10.1 Gas
Gas in the mud does not necessarily come from the formation being drilled.
Gas that arrives at the surface at the appropriate lag time after a connection. It comes from
several sources:
Formation not sealed with mud cake may bleed small quantities of gas into the hole when the
pumps are shut off and the effective circulating density is reduced.
Drilled shale and other low permeability rocks will bleed small quantities of gas into the hole when
the effective circulating density is reduced.
Swabbing action of the bit during the connection may drag gas from formations not sealed by
mud cake.
A second peak is often observed after Connection Gas. This is usually the result of the air-
bubble caused by adding a new joint of pipe. As the air-bubble travels up the annulus, it often
picks up a small amount of gas from the formation.
Has a similar origin to connection gas. The gas peak is larger than Connection Gas due to more
swabbing and the pumps being shut off for a longer time.
Gas that has come to the surface, travelled through the surface mud system, back down the hole
and up the annulus is termed recirculated gas. The gas peak will be very rounded and will occur
at one complete circulation time after a previous peak. Heavy hydrocarbons, high viscosity mud
and an inefficient degasser are usually the cause. The source of anomalous peaks on the Total
Gas Monitor corresponding to the situations described above should be clearly marked on the
Mudlog.
6.10.2 Oil
Oil in the mud, pipe dope, fluorescent mud additives and lost circulation material can make
evaluation of oil shows more difficult, but with experience these can often be distinguished quite
39
readily from formation hydrocarbons by the colours of fluorescence (see Section XX). Always
examine a sample of pipe dope at the start of each well.
When logging with synthetic oil based muds (SBM), some oil clings to the cuttings and gives a
direct fluorescence and fluorescent cut that masks true oil shows. The fluorescence of a mud
should be observed. Many of the SBMs in use today give a greenish brown to khaki direct
fluorescence that contrasts with the yellows of live oil. However, as the synthetic oil and SBM
filtrate tends to dissolve the native oil, genuine oil shows are unlikely to be seen in cuttings or
sidewall cores. They may be seen in the central part of a core disk. It should be noted that SBM
filtrate often gives a bluish-white direct and crush cut fluorescence. Therefore, extreme caution
needs to be exercised when reporting any apparent fluorescence if oil based mud is being used..
Whilst it is very rarely done these days, any addition of diesel to the mud should be noted on the
Mudlog, with the resultant diesel concentration. A full history of the mud system is essential to an
accurate assessment of source-rock geochemistry.
6.11.1.1 Cavings
Cavings may often be recognised as material identical to that already seen from much higher in
the hole. This spalling of previously penetrated rocks into the ascending mud stream is
particularly pronounced after trips of the drill stem for bit changes, drill stem tests, coring
operations or other rig activities. Spalling can also be brought about by the action of
reamers/stabilisers as drilling proceeds. It is useful to check the BHA configuration if a flood of
cavings from a recently drilled higher lithology is suspected. It is suppressed by good mud
control, but most samples will contain caved material. Soft shales, thinly bedded brittle shales,
and bentonites cave readily and may be found in samples representing depths hundred of feet
below the normal stratigraphic position of those rocks. If the borehole is washed out in sections
(previous hole problems) then the carrying capacity of the mud (ability to remove cuttings)
deteriorates as the mud flows past the washout and subsequently slows down. In this case
cuttings may circulate around in the washout and gradually rejoin the main flow to surface.
Owing to differences in the hardness of rocks, the type and condition of the bit, and the practice
of the driller, one cannot set any hard and fast rule for the size of true cuttings. Caved fragments
tend to be larger than fragments of rock from the bit and they are typically rounded by abrasion.
Freshness of appearance, sharp edges and signs of grinding by the bit may be used as criteria
for the recognition of fresh cuttings. Casing points should be carefully noted as they indicate to
the geologist examining the samples what parts of the hole were open at subsequent stages of
the drilling operations and thus were a potential source of cavings. Casing does not entirely
eliminate uphole cavings. Rarely caved material is cemented around the bottom of the casing
and can show up again in the mud stream while drilling deeper.
6.11.1.2 Recirculation
Recirculation chiefly refers to sand grains and microfossils from previously drilled rocks which re-
enter the hole with the mud stream and contaminate the rising sample. The effectiveness of the
desander/desilter system should be investigated and the Wellsite Manager (Drilling Supervisor)
informed of possible recirculation.
40
6.11.2 Other Contaminants
A large variety of substances may be introduced into the hole to combat lost circulation
difficulties. These include such obviously foreign materials as feathers, leather, hesian sacking,
or seed hulls, as well as cellophane (which might be mistaken for selenite or muscovite), perlite,
and coarse mica flakes which might erroneously be interpreted as formation cuttings. Most of
these extraneous materials will float to the top of the sample tray when is it immersed in water,
and so can be separated and discarded at once. Others may need more careful observation.
Generally, the sudden appearance of a flood of fresh-looking material, which occupies the
greater part of a sample, is enough to put the Wellsite Geologist on his guard. The use of
different size grades of CaCO3 as LCM material is common. The grains can easily be
differentiated from quartz sand by the addition of a drop of acid.
The Wellsite Geologist should keep in touch with the mud engineer and obtain samples of any
solids added to the mud.
6.11.2.2 Cement
Cement fragments in cuttings are easily mistaken for sandy, silty, or chalky carbonate. However,
most cements are of an unusual texture or colour, frequently have a glazed surface, tend to turn
yellow or brown when immersed in dilute HCl, and are usually full of fine black specks.
Phenolphthalein (a chemical indicator) is generally available at the wellsite (mudlogger or mud
engineer) and will stain the cement pink. A sample of cement used for the previous casing string
is usually available from the Wellsite Manager (Drilling Supervisor).
Oil-base and oil-emulsion muds coat the cuttings with oil, and care must be taken to distinguish
such occurrences from formation oil. They are generally recognised because they coat all
cuttings regardless of lithology, rather than being confined to one rock type. Such contamination
can sometimes be removed by washing the samples with a detergent or with dilute HCl.
Lignosulfonate muds may present problems in samples used in palynological studies.
Foreign substances (such as pipe dope, grease, etc.) from the rig operations sometimes enter
the mud stream. Oil may be used to free stuck drill pipe and, in some cases, a tank truck
formerly used to haul fuel oil is used to haul water for rig use. In all these cases, the borehole
can become contaminated with oil that can coat the drill cuttings. When foreign oil contamination
is suspected, cuttings should be broken and their fresh surface examined. Naturally occurring oil
will tend to stain the chips throughout. Contamination will remain on or near the surface of the
chip.
41
Rust scale and shavings of metal may also contaminated the samples, but they can be readily
removed with a small magnet. They rarely present a logging problem.
If samples are not washed sufficiently, a fine dust composed of powdered rock or dried drilling
mud may cover the chips with a tightly adhering coat. In such cases, care should be taken that a
fresh surface of the rock is described. Wetting the samples will tend to remove this coating, but if
the chips are saturated with oil, the powder may still adhere to the surface even after immersion
in water, unless a wetting agent or ordinary household detergent is used. These comments are
particularly applicable to limestone and dolomite where the powdered rock film tends to be in the
form of crystals which may mask the true texture of the rock. In this case, the best procedure is
to break a few chips and obtain fresh surfaces for description.
Rock flour is a common product of drilling in moderately hard to hard sandstones with a PDC bit.
Rather than being able to bite in and shear grains off, the PDC cutters are scouring the surface to
produce a fine powder with then aggregates into amorphous lumps, often including minute
particles of other rock types out of the mud. Rock flour is generally off-white to light grey or
brownish white. If the proportion of rock flour in the sample tray shows a steady or sudden
increase to become the dominant product, this could indicate that the cutters are badly worn and
the Drilling Supervisor should be notified.
6.12.3 Powdering
Powdering is the pulverisation of the cuttings by regrinding (failure of the mud to remove the
cuttings from the bit), or by crushing between the drill pipe and wall of the borehole. It can result
in the disappearance of cuttings from some intervals, and the erroneous logging of chalky
limestone where none exists.
6.12.4 Fusing
Shales drilled by a diamond bit may be burned and fused, resulting in the formation of dark grey
or black hard fragments that resemble igneous rock.
6.12.5 Spread
Spread is the separation of large from small cuttings by relative slippage (also called elutriation or
differential settling) in the mud stream, so that the cuttings of a rock drilling up into fine chips may
overtake the cuttings of a rock drilling up into coarse chips during their journey up the borehole.
This results in the wrong sequence of rock types or very mixed samples being recovered.
42
43
7 GEOCHEMICAL SAMPLING
7.1 INTRODUCTION
Samples intended for geochemical analysis must be preserved and insulated from loss of fluids
(by dehydration or evaporation of light hydrocarbons) and bacterial degradation. In order to
ensure adequate protection from these pernicious effects, the following procedures are
recommended.
Samples, collected in accordance with the Drilling Programme, should be placed in 0.5 litre cans.
Approximately ¾ of the can should be filled with sample. An attempt should be made to maintain
the same "fill up" for all samples so that head-space gas analysis (if run) is more meaningful.
Samples which are significantly less then the required volume (say less than half full) should be
identified with an asterisk following the depth interval. The cans should then be topped up with
water and ten to fifteen drops of Zepharin Chloride (bactericide) should be added. A total air gap
of 20mm should be left in the can. The can should be sealed and stored inverted (a useful check
on the seal of the can lid).
Whenever geochemical samples are being collected, mud samples should also be collected at
100m intervals or whenever a change in mud additive is made or suspected. Mud samples
should be collected and stored in 0.5 litre tins and labelled with the lagged depth at which it was
collected (appropriately lagged). Bactericide should also be added to these samples.
Representative samples of all mud additives, pipe dope and other potential "surprises" should be
obtained and stored appropriately.
Talk to the Mud Engineer about any additions of diesel or oil to the mud system. Many mud
additives, which in themselves are not potentially problematic for geochemical analysis, are
dissolved in hydrocarbon solvents before being introduced into the mud system. It is also fairly
common for new drill pipe to be coated with tar and "washed" with chopper fuel or diesel on the
drill floor to enable the tongs to grip. All such operations should be minimised, but where
unavoidable, notes should be taken to assist interpretation of geochemical data.
Any sidewall cores which are specifically collected for geochemical analysis should be carefully
wrapped in cling film and aluminium foil. The samples should then be placed in SWC jars and
identified as geochemical samples.
Any core chips which have been allocated for geochemical analysis should be stored in a similar
manner to sidewall cores.
44
8 GEOPRESSURES
Statistically, nearly half of the land wells and one third of the world's offshore wells contain
geopressured zones. Geopressures are those pressures greater than the hydrostatic pressure of
the formation fluids. Pressures less than hydrostatic are called subnormal. If the formation fluid
is fresh water (8.33 ppg), the normal or hydrostatic gradient is 0.433 psi/ft.
The maximum pressure gradient for an abnormally pressured formation is limited by what is
called the overburden gradient. The overburden gradient is derived from the pressure exerted by
the weight of the rocks and contained fluids above the depth of interest. Formation pressures
greater than overburden pressure are uncommon.
Countless studies on the origin of abnormal pressures have been published. In basic terms,
abnormal pressures are caused by four different phenomena, as follows:
8.1.1 Aquifer
An aquifer is simply a formation containing mobile water, much like an artesian well. In abnormal
pressure theory, an aquifer is a permeable horizon that crops out at an elevation appreciably
higher than the elevation of the well. The water entering the outcrop influences the pressure
encountered in the well bore. Although the pressure is hydrostatic in nature, the illusion is given
that it is geopressured because of the increased hydrostatic head.
High pressure can occur in shallow sands if they are charged by gas from lower formations. This
condition may result from a poor surface casing cement job, casing leak or blowout in a nearby
well.
Shallow sands can also be highly pressured if sediments that have been rapidly deposited overlie
gas accumulations (often via fault communication). These occurrences are isolated but have
caused blowouts where the casing programmes have not been designed to withstand the
unexpected pressures.
The magnitude of the overpressure is a function of the present depth of burial and the degree of
uplift.
8.1.4 Compaction
45
Compaction is the most common and best-understood phenomenon causing abnormal pressure.
As long as the sedimentary process allows the water in the pore spaces to escape to the surface
with the addition of overburden, the formation pressure will remain hydrostatic. When the water
is no longer allowed to be squeezed out, the sedimentary grains cannot compact since the water
is essentially incompressible.
Support of the overburden is then transferred from the rock matrix to the fluid and geopressures
result.
It is evident that the presence and effectiveness of the "seal" is the key to abnormal pressure
from compaction. With this in mind, the existence and magnitude of pressure in a sedimentary
environment are dependent on the following, all of which impede the flow of formation water:
Presence of an impervious (low permeability) overlying formation - rock, salt, clay or shale
deposits.
Depth of burial - the deeper the depth of burial, the greater the compaction and resistance to
flow.
Age - the older the sediments, the greater the possibility that excess reservoir pressure will be
dissipated with time through micro-fissures, cracks, etc.
Faulting - regional growth faults contribute to the origin of abnormal pressures by redistributing
sediments and placing permeable zones opposite impervious zones, thus inhibiting the
establishment of hydrostatic equilibrium.
Absorption - under certain conditions, adhesion of liquid or gas molecules to the surfaces of
minerals can retard flow during the compaction of shales.
Osmosis - the spontaneous flow of water to a level with a higher salt content that is separated
from a horizon with low salt content by a semi-permeable (clay) membrane in effect can create
permeability in the clay bed.
The perfect seal rarely exists, but as long as water expulsion is retarded, especially under
conditions of rapid deposition, abnormal pressures can result.
8.1.5 Diagenesis
In sand-shale sequences, the alteration of montmorillonite to illites releases free water to the pore
spaces. If the additional water is not allowed to escape, the pore fluid will tend to accept the
overburden load. In carbonate sequences, diagenesis can create permeability barriers in the
porous formations and effect a fluid seal.
Thermal expansion of pore fluids and thermal cracking of hydrocarbons are possible origins of
abnormal pressures.
46
The basic aim of geopressure detection methods while drilling is the detection of the "transition
zone", the zone in which subsurface pressures increase from normal to abnormal.
8.2.1 Kick
Kick conditions exist when there is insufficient hydrostatic head to control pressure in permeable
formations. Although lost circulation, swabbing and failure to fill the hole on a trip can create this
condition; we are specifically interested in the situation in which the formation pressure exceeds
the hydrostatic pressure of the mud column.
Actually, taking a kick was one of the first methods used to find the initial transition zone. A
relatively low mud weight was carried until the first pressured sand was penetrated. After the kick
was controlled, the formation pressure was calculated and protective casing set.
This technique has very apparent limitations. Although it is still used inadvertently when other
indicators are masked, it is not recommended. Other techniques, although not as spectacular,
are preferred.
The presence of oil, gas or water can indicate insufficient mud weight. Indications include an
increase in gas cutting of mud, formation oil in the mud or a change in chloride concentration in
the mud filtrate, due to water entering the hole. The chloride concentration in the mud tends to
decrease with normal compaction, and increase in overpressured shale. However, salt-saturated
muds as used in offshore wells obscure this parameter. Influxes of formation water will cause the
salinity of high salt content muds to drop.
Background gas normally increases gradually in the transition zone. Connection gas, however, is
more concentrated. If the hydrostatic mud column is only slightly above the formation pressure,
the piston effect created by upward movement of the pipe while making a connection can swab
the well.
It is always good drilling practice to keep the hole full while pulling out of the hole for a trip. If the
height of the fluid in the annulus is not sufficiently maintained, the hydrostatic head could become
low enough to allow entry of formation fluids into the wellbore. The swabbing effect also
aggravates this condition. Mud must be pumped into the annulus to compensate for the removed
volume of steel. Automatic recorders or trip tanks are used to periodically check the amount of
mud pumped. If the volume of mud is appreciably less than the volume of steel removed, flow
can be induced in the well.
47
8.2.5 Change in Size and Shape of Shale Cuttings
Shale cuttings from the transition zone are generally larger (than those from the normally
pressured zone) and the edges are sharp and angular. Normally pressured shale cuttings are
small with rounded edges and are generally flat.
The size and shape of the shale cuttings depend on several variables, including: mineralogical,
chemical and physical properties of the formation:
The shale cuttings caving off the walls of the hole tend to load the hole. Unless the hydraulics of
the mud system is altered, these cuttings fall to the bottom. In some cases, the cuttings will close
around the drill collars and bit, requiring pumping out of the hole to free the drill string.
The increase in the size and amount of cuttings in the well can correspondingly increase drill
string torque.
Various studies have indicated a relationship between penetration rate and differential pressure
(bottom hole pressure difference between the mud column and formation). They show that
penetration rate decreases as the differential pressure increases and vice versa.
Under constant drilling conditions in the normally pressured section, the differential pressure
increases with depth. A one-ppg overbalance at 1500m equals approx. 265 psi: at 3000m a one
ppg overbalance equals approx. 530 psi. This causes a corresponding decrease in penetration
rate in the shales that follow a definite trend in the normal section. The ever-decreasing trend
reverses as overpressures are encountered, thus permitting detection of the transition zone.
This particular technique has been used successfully in many areas over pre-selected intervals
beginning immediately above the expected top of geopressures. Care must be taken to maintain
constant variables (rotary speed, weight on bit, mud weight, hydraulics, etc.) to prevent, masking
the indicator. Bit dulling near the end of a bit run can also mask the transition zone, so a new bit
should be run as close as possible to the top of expected geopressures.
Several authors have devised methods to measure bulk density of shale cuttings at wellsite. The
plot of shale density versus depth is similar to that derived from the density log and, as such, is
48
closely related to porosity. The general method works quite well in certain areas, but does not
apply universally. Density plots should be considered with other relevant data.
This is a measurement of the degree of diagenesis that has taken place, as montmorillonite in the
claystone changes to illite with burial. In overpressured zones this change is retarded, with
subsequent increase in the 'shale factor' which reflects the absorptive properties of the clay.
Note that measurements should be recorded regardless of lithology in the pre-Tertiary section (as
they may reflect the clay content) conventional core fragments.
Penetration rate
Percentage of shale cavings
Size of shale cavings
Torque
Connection gas
Trip gas
Shale factor
Flowline temperature
Chloride concentration
(Mud flow out - kick)
Shale density
d-exponent
Mud volume required to fill hole during trip
MWD resistivty
Fluids within the transition zone are immobile and under greater pressures and as such, can have
above-normal temperatures.
As a result, the formation gains heat that is transferred to the mud during drilling operations.
Unfortunately, this indicator has many pitfalls and should not be relied on exclusively since
flowline temperature variations are a function of:
Circulation time
Hole depth
Time elapsed since trip
Actual bottom hole temperature
Volume of mud
Water depth
Delta T (Temperature Out - Temperature In) should decrease with depth. Also ‘end to end'
temperature plots are useful.
49
8.2.12 Decrease in d-Exponent Trend
Unfortunately, it is often impractical to maintain constant drilling variables to use penetration rate
as an indication of geopressures. Jordan and Shirley introduced the d-exponent in 1966 to
consider the more significant drilling variables by "normalising" the penetration rate. Although
originally developed for the Louisiana Gulf Coast, the technique has gained popularity in other
areas.
The d-exponent is derived from the fundamental drilling equation relating penetration rate to
weight on bit, rotary speed, bit size and formation drilling ability. This will not be discussed in any
more detail in this document.
Most lost circulation is caused by natural or induced fractures opened by excessive mud
pressure. Lost circulation can be critical because if the hydrostatic pressure of the mud falls
below the formation pore pressure, then the well will either kick or an “underground blow out" will
result.
The latter situation usually occurs when the well is shut in, and flow from the high pressure zone
breaks down a lower pressure formation elsewhere in the hole. However, break down of lower
pressure formation may also occur during attempts to circulate the kick out if the technique or
mud weight used is incorrect. In either case, it will then be necessary before killing the well to
heal the lost circulation zone, which can be very difficult. It is therefore important to calculate
fracture pressures.
If the ECD nears the fracture pressure gradient, it becomes necessary to set casing to prevent
problems of lost circulation and probable kicks.
Empirical techniques for estimating fracturing pressure have been proposed by Goldsmith &
Wilson, Matthews & Kelly, Eaton and several others.
There are a variety of methods both direct and indirect that can be used to confirm formation
pressures after the well has been drilled. Some of the more common techniques are mentioned
below are: Drill Stem Tests, Wireline Log Evaluation and Formation Pressure Measurements
50
9 REPORTING FORMS
All these forms are stored under ……………………………………….. on the Perth network or
………………………………………………on the rig computer.
51
9.1 WELLSITE GEOLOGIST'S CHECKLIST
(Check
)
A. PRIOR TO LEAVING OFFICE
B. ON ARRIVAL AT RIG
C. WHILE DRILLING
Note: Wherever possible all data or image files are to be sent to town in digital form, either as an emailo
attachment or dropped into a network drive.
Mudlogging:
* Ensure correct mudlog format (for both “fax/A4” and final formats) and scales are used.
* Check and edit mudlog regularly, and always prior to sending to town.
* Up to date mudlog to be transmitted to town prior to agreed morning and afternoon times daily
(and/or whenever else required).
* Ensure appropriate samples are being collected by Mudloggers:
* Ensure samples are stored in appropriate containers.
* Mudloggers to check lag routinely.
* Gas detectors to be calibrated routinely.
* Mudlog trip & connection gases should be absolute values, not above background.
* Ensure Mudloggers communicate sufficiently and timely with drill floor, pits, wellsite manager, WSG.
MWD:
* Ensure correct log format and scales are used.
* Ensure MWD hands communicate immediately with driller, then Wellsite Manager and WSG, if drill string
vibrations become unacceptable
* Ensure MWD hands communicate sufficiently and timely with drill floor, wellsite manager, WSG.
* Logs to be transmitted to town at regular intervals (and always prior to agreed morning and
afternoon times daily) at a scales of 1:500 (& other scales as requested)
* Log digital data to be transmitted daily.
* Reasons for any missing data to be annotated on logs prior to sending.
52
* Survey data to be transmitted to town daily on directional wells, at TD on vertical wells.
Coring:
* Check that required gear is aboard (including sufficient barrels, core crates, end caps and clips).
* Catch and describe cuttings samples while coring, and include in DGR as "cuttings while coring".
* Attend JHA prior to core arriving at surface.
* Ensure core is checked for H2S with Drager tube as early as possible after core arrives at surface.
* Be present on rig floor while breaking down inner barrels, and box end pieces correctly.
* Ensure inner barrels are laid out in cradles down the V-door and onto the catwalk/pipedeck safely.
* Do not begin cleaning inner barrels on the pipe deck until safe to do so.
* Ensure inner barrels are properly cleaned so that barrel markings won't smear.
* Ensure inner barrels are measured and marked up as per coring program.
* If core is to be cut at the wellsite, organise and hold JHA with those involved prior to cutting and that
necessary permits have been obtained by Coring contractors.
* Ensure safe work practices throughout the entire core cutting routine.
* Ensure all pieces of core are put in core crates (1m pieces) or core baskets (9m lengths) and are securely
packed.
* Describe core end chips using OMV Australia format and send descriptions to Operations Geologist.
* Ensure all core, including boxes, leaves the rig together.
* Core chips to be manifested and transported to town with mudlogging samples.
* Send Operations Geologist a Core Reconciliation Report, and advise mode of transport and ETA at
destination of core.
WSG general:
* The end of hitch post-mortem is to be started on day one and added to as necessary when an
issue arises.
Do not wait till the last day. Some of your important observations will be lost.
* Constantly check for unsafe acts and situations (do STOP or similar safety observation course on
the rig).
D. WIRELINE LOGGING
General:
* While POOH for logs (earlier if timing requires), contact Operations Geologist for final briefing. Email
best.
* Prior to POOH for logs, ensure mud sample is taken just prior to stopping circulation (to be manifested
and sent to town with mudlogging samples).
* Ensure mud engineer supplies wireline logging contractor with all pertinent mud data, and with a filtrate
and filter cake sample when drilling with water-based mud.
* Attend logging JHA.
* Ensure logging engineer has a copy of the final detailed logging program, and fully understands
OMV's requirements
* Ensure that, where appropriate, hole is logged while running in the hole in the event that up-logs cannot
be obtained.
* Repeat sections will generally be logged over 70m unless advised otherwise.
53
* Ensure there is acceptable agreement between main logs and repeat sections.
* All data sent to town must be on depth, unless directed otherwise.
* Digital data and faxed prints should be transmitted to town urgently after the data has been acquired, but
without impinging on wellsite operations (unless directed to).
* Faxed logs should be at 1:500 scale unless directed otherwise.
* Ensure log headers are carefully checked for accuracy (especially final coords, depths).
* Transmit logging reports (pressure/sample, SWC desc. etc) ASAP after each run, but only when
finalised.
*(In most cases) Wellsite Manager to sign-off wireline invoice; WSG to countersign to confirm that services
written have been performed.
Sidewall Cores:
* Depth correlation to be performed at regular intervals when shooting interval of sufficient length to
warrant it.
* After shooting, WSG to ensure correct transfer of shot bullets from guns to SWC cases on
catwalk.
* Ensure SWC jars are labelled correctly.
* Transmit SWC descriptions and SWC Shooting Checklist to town ASAP.
* Ensure SWC’s are wrapped in aluminium foil and then clear wrap (so that they don't move around
in jars).
* Rotary SWC’s described keeping core intact (whole core under scope, natural fluorescence only - no
cut) .
VSP
* Raw stack, TWT table and observers log should be sent to the office when available.
Conclusion
* Wireline QC, diary, Horner Plot, MDT tables, SWC descriptions and shooting list log should be sent
to the office when available.
* Complete well post-mortem and send to Operations Geologist with Checklist sheet completed.
* Check mudloggers' sample manifest.
* Check that manifested samples are properly packed for transportation (especially hydrocarbon fluid
samples).
* Ensure all samples/logs/core to leave the rig are manifested, with copies sent to Operations
Geologist, shore logistics base, and a copy to the wellsite file.
* Ensure any confidential data is either locked in Geologists' filing cabinet, or sent back to town. If rig is
going to another operator next well, send all confidential data to town.
* Ensure all required reports have been transmitted to town. Litholog, core and logging reports
should be copied to floppy and hand-carried to town as a contingency.
* Hand-carry SWCs.
54
9.2 DAILY GEOLOGICAL REPORT
CONFIDENTIAL
Date: Rig:
Report Number: Bit Diameter: “
Report Period: 00:00 to 24:00 hrs Last Casing: m MDRT
Spud Date: FIT:
Days From Spud: Mud Weight: SG
Depth @ 2400 Hrs: m MDRT ECD: SG
m TVDRT Mud Type:
Lag Depth: m MDRT Mud Chlorides: mg/l
Last Depth: m MDRT Est. Pore SG
Pressure:
Progress: m DXC:
Water Depth: m Last Survey: m MDRT
RT: m Deviation:
OPERATIONS SUMMARY
24 HOUR SUMMARY:
NEXT 24 HOURS:
GEOLOGICAL SUMMARY
LITHOLOGY
INTERVAL:
ROP (Range):
Av. ROP:
HYDROCARBON FLUORESCENCE
GAS SUMMARY
55
CALCIMETRY
SAMPLE QUALITY:
MWD:
WIRELINE:
MUD DATA
DATE MUD MUD TYPE MW pH KCl Cl Barite Rm Rmf Rmc
CHECK (SG) (%) (mg/l) (%) (C) (C) (C)
FORMATION TOPS
REMARKS
WELLSITE GEOLOGISTS
56
9.3 CORE CHIP DESCRIPTION FORM
57
Mud Type : Start Depth :
Mud Weight : End Depth :
ROP Min : Metres Cut :
ROP Max : Recovery Length :
ROP Average : Formation :
Geologist(s)
Comments :
Core Chip Lithology / Show Descriptions
Chip Depth
# (m)
58
9.4 PERCUSSION SIDEWALL CORE DESCRIPTION
59
9.5 ROTARY SIDEWALL CORE DESCRIPTION
Comments :
60
9.6 HYDROCARBON SHOW EVALUATION FORM
This report is given as a “check-list” to assist the Wellsite Geologist in recording all pertinent
details of hydrocarbon shows, when they occur. The form provides a reference document to aid
consistency in reporting shows but is not necessarily required as a formal report.
During Show
After Show
61
9.7 WIRELINE LOGGING QUALITY CONTROL (with Diary and Horner Plot)
62
9.8 MUDLOGGING QUALITY CONTROL CHECK LIST
MUDLOGGING UNIT
Services Carried Out: (Underline for each type performed this period)
Service company Mudlogging Unit Chief checks all items applicable to the operation, and discusses any
items checked "no" with the Wellsite Geologist. Mark "not applicable" (N/A) if necessary.
1. Is it reliable?
2. Does the gas warning alarm work at the required reading?
3. Were filaments changed immediately on drift occurrence?
4. Are ample spare filaments available?
5. Were carbide returns of sufficient magnitude for determining hole condition?
6. Has the sample flow rate been regular?
7. Have regular calibrations been made?
8. Have the H2S detectors and alarms been operating?
9. Have regular calibrations of the H2S detectors been made?
CHROMATOGRAPH ANALYSIS
63
MUD TRAP AND LINES
27. Is the recorder reliable when compared with drilling contractor's Geolograph and pipe tallies?
28. If the recording is motion compensated, is the system working satisfactorily?
29. Has the recorder been operating continuously during drilling?
30. If the answer to the above is "no", were repairs affected immediately so as to minimise loss of data?
SAMPLE CATCHING
31. Is the chart range on the Mudlog suitable for the rate of penetration?
32. Are samples being caught by your crew at the intervals specified in the Drilling Programme?
33. During fast drilling were samples caught at intervals specified by the Wellsite Geologist?
34. Have carbide lag checks been made at regular intervals?
35. Are samples being correctly lagged with reference to pump stroke data and the regular carbide or other
check?
36. Have cuttings gas measurements been made at the intervals specified in the Mudlog Programme.
37. When a significant show has been detected by the unit, have samples been examined for fluorescence
and cut before and after washing?
38. Have the samples been caught, dried and packaged to the satisfaction of the Wellsite Geologist and in
compliance with the Drilling Programme?
39. Have the ditch samples been caught from a special sample box or sampling system?
40. Have the ditch samples been caught off the shaker screen?
41. Has the desander output been regularly checked, particularly when there have been poor sample
returns from the shaker screen.
SAMPLE DESCRIPTIONS
42. Have the lithological descriptions entered on the Mudlog been described by the Mudlogging Engineer?
43. Have the lithological percentages on the Mudlog been agreeable to both the Mudlogging Engineer and
Wellsite Geologist?
44. Is the microscope and ultraviolet light operating reliably?
45. Are adequate spare parts available for the microscopes and ultraviolet light(s)?
MUDLOGGING REPORTS
46. Have Mudlogging reports been prepared as required, with all relevant data listed and been delivered to
the Wellsite Geologist at the appointed time?
47. Have the Afternoon Reports been prepared as required?
64
MUDLOG
48. Does all pertinent data required by The Operator including mud data, lithology and drilling data appear
the Mudlog?
49. As time permits, has the Mudlog been kept up to date so that the Wellsite Geologist can easily appraise
the status of the well?
50. Has the Wellsite Geologist been supplied, on request, with copies of the Mudlog before 0600 hours each
day in time for transmission to Perth, if such means are available?
MUD DATA
51. Have mud properties been obtained from the Mud Engineer once every twelve hour tour in accordance
with the Drilling Programme?
SHOW EVALUATION
52. Was a show evaluation sheet prepared after each significant show was encountered?
53. During the evaluation of any drilling break, was the Wellsite Geologist supplied with all necessary
information to reach a conclusion with a minimum of lost rig time?
GENERAL
54. Is there on hand in the unit copies of the Drilling Programme and the Contract between your company
and The Operator so that technical and contractual obligations are clearly understood?
55. Have shale density measurements been made at the intervals specified by the Drilling Programme?
56. Has the shale density column been calibrated this week?
57. Have calcimetry measurements been made at intervals specified by the Drilling Programme?
58. Has the calcimeter been calibrated every second day?
59. Have the following drilling parameters been continuously monitored in the Mudlogging Unit, for input to
the data unit? If the answer is "no" indicate how long in hours, and if possible briefly describe the cause
and corrective action?
Rate of penetration
Depth
Torque
Hook load
Rotary speed
Mud weight (in)
Mud weight (out)
Mud temperature (in)
Mud temperature (out)
Mud flow (volume)
Pit level (in all pits)
Pump pressure
Pump strokes
Time
Other (specify)
60. Has the weight on bit been continuously computed by the mudlogging unit instruments from monitored
data?
65
OPERATIONAL EFFICIENCY CHECK - ITEMS
Remarks:
Wellsite Geologist:
66
DATA UNIT
The following to be completed by the Data Unit Chief, and any items checked "no" discussed with the
Wellsite Geologist and the Wellsite Manager (Drilling Supervisor), and suitable remarks attached at the end
of the questionnaire.
PRESSURE LOG
78 Does all pertinent data required by The Operator appear on each Pressure Log sheet?
79 Has the log been kept up to date so the Wellsite Geologist and Wellsite Manager (Drilling Supervisor)
can immediately appraise the status of the well?
80 Has the Wellsite Geologist/Wellsite Manager (Drilling Supervisor) been supplied, on request with the
Pressure Log sheets before 0700 hours each day for transmission to the office, if such means are
available?
81 Has the Wellsite Geologist/Wellsite Manager (Drilling Supervisor) been supplied with copies of the
Pressure Log as requested?
REMARKS
Wellsite Geologist:
67
APPENDICES
68
1 Interpretation of Mud Gas Ratio Data
The following is a brief summary of interpretations attached to the values obtained from the
various calculations. The mudlogging Contractors usually have a manual which describes these
ratios in more detail.
69
2 Roundness and Sphericity, Percentage Estimation
70
3 Wellsite Geologist Supplies Inventory
Note: the ability to re-supply and other factors necessarily dictate the level of supplies held
at wellsite. This list is solely a guide.
1. Drilling Programme
2. Well Proposal
3. Wellsite Manual
4. Notebook Computer
5. Printer and Paper
6. Box of disks
7. Reporting form templates on disc
8. Microscope plus: spare bulb, light source, spare eye pieces, eye cups
9. Offset well data - Litholog, Mudlog 1:500, Composite Log 1:1000
10. Rock Colour Chart
11. Grain size comparator
12. 1 x 600mm steel rule
13. 1 x 300mm plastic rule
14. Propelling pencil, plus 0.5mm leads
15. 1 x set square
16. 1 x OLFA cutter and blades
17. Clipboard
18. Assorted Post-it Note pads
19. 1 x box 32mm Foldback clips
20. 1 x box HP pencils
21. 1 x pencil sharpener
22. 1 x stapler plus staples
23. 1 x box Artline 200 pens
24. 2 x black Artline 70 pens
25. 1 x red Artline 70 pens
26. 1 x Artline 100 Red
27. 1 x Artline 100 Black
28. 1 x roll 50mm tape
29. 1 x two hole punch
30. 5 x large bulldog clips
31. 1 x scissors
32. 2 x rolls of Magic Tape
33. 1 x roll masking tape
34. 1 x roll brown packing tape
35. 1 x Glue Stick
36. 2 x Highlighter pens
37. 1 x box paper clips
38. 3 x Erasers
39. 2 x liquid paper
40. Elastic bands
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4 Conventional Coring
4.1 General
Conventional cores are (in the main) intact specimens of formation, and are therefore very
important in that they can supply direct measurements of rock and fluid properties, compared to
cuttings (usually too small to take meaningful direct measurements) and wireline logging data
(where measurements are dependent on assumptions that are often difficult to determine
accurately).
Coring is therefore an invaluable tool for geologists, petrophysicists, reservoir engineers, and
drilling engineers, and can provide information on some or all of the following: reservoir properties
(lithology, porosity, permeability, fluid saturation), depositional environment, diagenesis, reservoir
geometry, and rock properties. One of the main reasons for cutting conventional core is to
provide a calibration for wireline logs, so as to improve porosity, permeability, net-to-gross, and
hydrocarbon saturation estimates.
Conventional core results should lead to a better understanding of both geological and
engineering issues that may ultimately lead to producing hydrocarbons at a lower unit cost.
The WSG should become familiar with all aspects of coring, including the different types of
equipment used and the principles involved. By having an appreciation of this, the WSG may be
able to better help in finding the best method to core certain formations, which may ultimately
lead to better core recovery and to cutting core more efficiently (and cheaply).
Early inner barrels were made of steel, and the recovered core was removed from the barrels on
the rig floor and possibly sealed with wax (seal peel) before boxing and transporting to the core
laboratory. These days most coring is performed using either fibreglass or aluminium inner
barrels, which significantly improve core quality and recovery as these inner barrels offer less
resistance to core entry, reducing core jamming and loss. Other advantages are that the
fibreglass and aluminium inner barrels become the packaging system for the core from the time it
is cut until it reaches the core analysis laboratory; soft/friable/broken/fractured core is kept intact;
72
and it is safer to lay out than to slip a 9 m core from a steel inner barrel. The inner barrels and
contained core can be cut into 1m lengths at the wellsite using a saw and sealed with plastic
caps, or alternatively sent to the lab in their original 9m lengths which has advantages in that the
core is handled less and doesn’t need to be pieced together at the lab to the extent that 1m
pieces do. The less a core is handled prior to analysis, the better chance it will have of being in
good condition and the better the chance of not having pieces misplaced or turned upside down,
so in theory the more meaningful the core analysis.
Aluminium barrels can be used in wells that are too hot for the use of fibreglass barrels, and have
the added advantage of being fluted on the inside, which allows for the escape of pressure/gases
from the core barrel as it is pulled to the surface.
The upper shoe is a sub, and is available in different lengths to compensate for different lower
shoes. This maintains the constant length of the catcher assembly. The lower shoe houses the
catcher and provides the entry point for core into the inner barrel.
The core catcher types that are typically used with the lower shoe are the spring catcher and the
slip catcher, with the spring catcher most commonly used. It is a one piece catcher separate from
but located inside the pilot shoe. It is shaped like a short cylinder split along its length. The pilot
shoe is tapered internally with the narrow end at the bottom of the shoe. The catcher is activated
by pulling the core barrel off the bottom of the hole. Tungsten carbide grit on the inside of the
catcher grips the core. This forces the catcher downward in relation to the pilot shoe. The split in
the catcher allows it to contract circumferentially as the taper in the pilot shoe narrows. The
greater the pull on the catcher, the tighter it will hold the core. This allows the spring catcher to
break very hard consolidated cores off the bottom of the hole.
The slip catcher operates on the same principle as the spring catcher. The difference between the
two is that the slip catcher is composed of 5 grit-coated slips which are integral to the pilot shoe.
When the core barrel is pulled upward, the grit on the slips grips the core. This forces the slips
downward in relation to the pilot shoe. When the core barrel is pulled upward, the grit on the slips
grips the core, forcing the slips downward in relation to the pilot shoe. The internal taper of the
pilot shoe forces the slips inward to hold the core more tightly. The slip type catcher sometimes
incorporates the scribe knives for oriented coring (see section 6.3.7). In hard fractured formations
the slip catcher may assist in reducing core jamming.
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CORE CATCHERS
Type Recommended Usage
Split Ring, Spring Consolidated formations
Collet Where formation characteristics are unknown
Slip Consolidated formations, normally run with flapper catcher or
with orientation knives
Dog or Flapper Consolidated, fractured, and unconsolidated formations
where geology is unknown
Basket Unconsolidated formations, normally run with another core
catcher type
Full Closure Friable to unconsolidated formations to provide positive full
closure
4.2.6 Stabilisers
The purpose of stabilisers is to centralise the core barrel in the well bore. Effective stabilisation:
* minimises disturbance to the core as it enters the inner barrel, improving core recovery
* increases ROP
* minimises core bit wear
* prolongs core barrel life
* assists in keeping hole angle
* assists in providing an in-gauge hole
Stabilisers are typically about 1m long and are usually 1/32 inch below the nominal hole size.
There is normally one more stabiliser than outer barrel sections. So a 90 feet core barrel has 3
outer barrel sections and 4 stabilisers.
74
4.3.1 General
Special coring systems have evolved to fill specific coring needs. Pressure retained and sponge
core barrels arose from a need for better oil saturation estimates. The rubber-sleeve and full-
closure coring systems were developed specifically to improve the quality of cores cut from
unconsolidated formations. The other systems listed have equally unique capabilities making
them all very useful to the engineers and geologists employing them.
Pressure retained core barrels are available in two sizes: 6” and 8” O.D. that cut cores 2.50” and
3.75” O.D. respectively. The 6” O.D. barrel cuts up to 20ft of 2.5” diameter core while holding a
maximum of 10,000 psi pressure. The 8” O.D. barrel cuts 3m of 3.75” diameter core while
retaining a maximum of 5,000 psi internal pressure. The maximum recommended operating
temperature is 180F.
Pressure core barrels are sophisticated tools requiring an onsite facility to service the barrel and
handle the pressurised cores.
A sponge coring system has the advantage of being less expensive to operate than a pressure
coring system while providing an opportunity to improve the accuracy of the core based oil
saturation data. The sponge is stable to a temperature of 350 F. The sponge coring system is
limited to cutting a maximum of 9m of 3.5” diameter core per trip.
There is only one size of rubber-sleeve core barrel which cuts 6m of 3” diameter core per trip.
The rubber sleeve itself is limited to temperatures no higher than 200F. The tool is not
recommended for use in holes with more than 45 of inclination. And, coring must be stopped
approximately every two feet to allow the tool to be reset which might lead to core jamming in
fractured formations. The system works best from fixed drilling platforms, yet it can be operated
from floating rigs if rig movement is minimal.
Wireline retrievable coring tools are usually smaller and lighter than conventional coring systems
which is an asset when they must be transported to remote locations or by helicopter.
Unfortunately, the core diameters are limited to a maximum of 2.75” since the entire inner core
barrel assembly must pass through the drill string. Also care must be taken to prevent swabbing
oil or gas into the wellbore as the inner barrel is recovered.
This allows formation dip, strike, directional permeability, principle stress, and fracture alignment
to be determined. A better understanding of the shape and properties of the reservoir structure is
obtained.
Oriented cores are used to orient fractures, stress fields, and permeability trends. Exploration,
production, and drilling operations use the information to explore for fractured reservoirs, design
waterfloods, and plan horizontal wells.
76
Oriented cores are typically cut using a conventional core barrel fitted with a special scribe shoe,
and a device for recording the orientation of the primary scribe knife relative to magnetic north.
Laboratory methods used to orient cores are correlation with borehole imaging logs, and the
paleomagnetic method.
The hardness (compressive strength), abrasivity, and variability of the rocks to be cored will have
the greatest influence on cutter selection. Guidelines suggest using smaller more impact resistant
cutters as the formations get harder.
Low-invasion face discharge core bits designed for unconsolidated to medium strength
formations can be used in harder or more abrasive rocks, but bit life may be drastically reduced.
Natural diamond core bits are used where the formation is too hard (high compressive strength)
and/or abrasive for other type cutting elements. Natural stones can be set in a tungsten carbide
matrix as individual stones in a set pattern or as dispersed fine mesh grit as in impregnated type
bits. Impregnated natural diamond bits are for ultra-hard applications.
The information presented here is meant to provide an overview of what types of coring bits are
available. Specific details on coring bits and recommendations for particular applications should
be obtained from coring contractors.
77
Medium to hard rock Sandstone, TSD or surface set natural diamonds
with abrasive layers Limestone, Shale
Soft to medium strength Sandstone, Chalk, PDC cutters, low fluid invasion
rock Shale design
Soft rocks, no sticky Salt, Anhydrite, Shale PDC or roller cone cutters
layers
Soft, sticky rock Gumbo Clay PDC cutters, face discharge
These cutters are suitable for formations generally considered too hard and/or abrasive for PDC
cutters. They are not recommended for soft formations.
PDC bits are used to efficiently core formations ranging from very soft to medium hard. The bits
are designed to cut by shearing resulting in a rapid rate of penetration. Due to the geometry of
the PDC cutter, they are not well suited to impact damage, and therefore are not recommended
for very hard, highly fractured, or cherty formations.
Throat discharge core bits are designed to divert some of the fluid that would normally pass
through the throat of the bit to the face of the bit. This cleans the face of the bit and reduces the
scouring of the core as it enters the core barrel. Face discharge bits are recommended for use in
soft and friable formations.
The low-Invasion profile coring bits are designed to maximise penetration rate, and minimise
drilling mud filtrate invasion into the core. The design incorporates face discharge ports, a
reduced number of cutters, and a diminished clearance between the inner core barrel and the bit
face. Use of the low-invasion profile core bits is recommended for soft to medium strength
78
formations. Harder formations would slow the rate of penetration and possibly damage the
cutters.
79
5 DRILLING FLUID ENGINEERING
5.1 INTRODUCTION
Drilling fluids have been used since the earliest days of drilling. Initial fluids were crude, often
consisting of little more than clay, and Barite for density control.
Over the years systems progressed in complexity and cost, as more and more drilling demands
were made on the systems. Wells were targeted to greater and greater depths, requiring more
advanced drilling fluid control.
Horizontal and extended reach wells have added further complexity. In conjunction with the
ongoing search for a “perfect” non-damaging system has been the impact of present
environmental considerations.
Environmental considerations now heavily affect the building and maintenance of drilling fluids,
occasionally to the detriment of the system’s performance.
Selection and maintenance of a modern drilling mud is a trade off of competing requirements and
objectives. Today there is still no single, “perfect” mud. The modern wellsite and exploration
geologists, must be able to communicate their requirements to operational drilling personnel while
understanding the consequences of their requirements from both a cost and operational
perspective.
5.2 HISTORY
Despite the huge database of drilled wells using the same mud, related mistakes are being made
today as before and many misconceptions still abound.
Early record keeping had been particularly bad, with a host of end of well reports not recording
the drilling fluid system utilised, let alone any of the properties experienced or the chemicals
used.
Many older systems have been superseded or radically altered in nature. This has led to a loss
of understanding of their original application and hence the subsequent interpretation of the data
generated. Many younger drilling and geological personnel are unaware of the earlier system
types and the implications of the properties they experienced when researching modern wells.
Confusion between trade named systems and actual chemical types compound the problem.
Drilling fluid types have evolved and changed radically over the years. Advances in clay
chemistry have led to a better understanding of the mechanics of clay hydration. Down hole
logging improvements now provide a better picture of formation effects and have therefore been
a valuable source of feedback, resulting in further changes.
Advances in polymer chemistry have created a totally new breed of drilling fluids that are
enabling extremely low solids systems to be run with a fraction of the well bore damage that was
being experienced with older systems.
Oligomers, Glycerol and full Cationic based drilling muds are being tested and are carving out
niche markets as their inhibition, lubricity and environmental improvements make their use cost
effective or environmentally mandatory.
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Chrome Lignite / Lignosulphonate (Spersene/XP-20) systems are only being used in areas where
high temperatures preclude the use of polymer systems and oil muds are not cost effective. Gyp
and Lime muds are usually avoided as the high levels of solids the systems carry reduce
penetration rates, increase pump and equipment wear and can cause considerable formation
damage. The KCL/PHPA system has effectively replaced the standard Gel/Polymer mud for
drilling low weight stable formations as it is cleaner, faster drilling and less damaging to potential
production zones.
A listing of the generally recognised standard systems and their advantages and disadvantages
is included in the Drilling Fluid Systems section.
1. To remove the cuttings from the holes and carry them to surface.
2. To cool and lubricate the bit and drill string.
3. To coat the well bore with a low permeability filter cake.
4. To control subsurface pressures.
5. To hold cuttings and weight material in suspension when circulation is interrupted.
6. To release sand and cuttings at the surface.
7. To help support the drill string and casing.
8. To reduce any adverse effects upon the formation adjacent to the wellbore.
9. To transmit hydraulic horsepower to the bit.
10. To control corrosion.
The job of the Drilling Fluid Engineer is to manipulate parameters to achieve as many of the
above results as possible, simultaneously. All drilling fluids are a compromise between conflicting
requirements. It is essential to understand that changing one property may have repercussions
on other parameters.
Changes experienced while drilling, such as differing formations, rig constraints, cost
considerations and the availability of treating chemicals are only a few of the impacts on the final
composition of the fluid. During the programming process, and continuously while drilling, the
above objectives should be re-evaluated as their priority may change.
At times, geological preferences may be compromised to ensure a wellbore is not lost when
drilling difficulties are encountered. At other times drilling optimisation is sacrificed to enable
improvements in the quality of geological data collected.
To achieve the listed objectives, either in total or in part, the drilling fluid is tested and
continuously modified by dilution and chemical addition. Geological changes down hole require
versatility in blending.
To achieve the optimum performance from any drilling fluid system it must be constantly modified
and rebuilt. The testing of drilling fluids is extremely varied and it is becoming increasingly
complex. The objective is, however, always the same: To monitor the system to provide the
optimum drilling environment with the maximum formation protection.
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This monitoring of the mud is done on an almost continuous basis, principally by the operation of
chemical testing. Tests and testing procedures vary enormously depending upon the specific
requirements at the time and the type of drilling fluid in use.
A drilling fluid engineer will use the range of tests on which to base a recommended treatment.
He will develop a “feel” for the chemical interactions that are taking place and react accordingly.
Prior to discussing the range of systems in use today, and some of the systems no longer in use,
it is useful to cover the basic drilling fluid properties.
A wide battery of tests is available to the engineer. Testing can take considerable time and
results are of varying importance. The introduction of new chemicals or the running of new
systems naturally requires additional testing. As it is not possible to effectively report on all the
tests available in this context, it is beneficial to cover the standard tests that are carried out on the
bulk of water-based systems.
It is recommended that the Wellsite Geologist becomes familiar with the Daily Mud Engineering
Report and maintains a close liaison with the Drilling Fluid Engineer.
The Drilling Fluid Engineer is often aware of changes to the mud that are being driven by
formation chemistry that the Wellsite Geologist may not see. The dispersing nature of some
formations often will not be seen by the Wellsite Geologist in their samples, as the material may
have dispersed into the drilling fluid.
The principal testing on most water-based muds and reported in the Daily Mud Engineering
Report consists of the following:
5.4.1 Sample
The drilling fluid is generally sampled from either the “active” mud pit (the pit on line) or the
Flowline. The report form will indicate from where the sample was collected. A pit sample should
reflect what is going down the hole, after chemical treatment and solids removal. It should be
accurate to the well program in terms of its chemistry. Flow Line samples are extremely useful to
compare with the Pit sample. This comparison will indicate the effects down-hole exposure is
having upon the mud. Discuss the variance with the mud engineer to extract formation chemistry
information. The rate of mud disintegration and the chemical changes being experienced can
indicate the type and nature of formation being drilled.
Noting the time the sample was collected will enable the engineer to compare the rate of
chemical change from the time the samples were taken. Ideally a full test should be taken on a
Pit Sample and a further test taken at the Flow Line once a full circulation has completed. Note
the Circulation Times from the form and the actual test times to determine where the sample was
at the time of testing.
Monitoring Flowline temperature ensures additives are not expected to perform outside their
normal operating range. Do not always believe the quoted effective bottom hole temperature
limits of many products. Chemicals will generally degrade rapidly as temperatures increase to
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their published maximums. Many, including some of the exotic polymers, will catastrophically fail
prior to temperatures reaching their operating limits. Others will produce unacceptable effects,
including the generation of CO2. These can confuse the Wellsite Geologist if he is unaware of
the limitations of the system. The bulk of drilling fluid additives are effective up to 120°C, with
very few capable of withstanding drilling conditions at 150°C. Discussions with the mud engineer
on the temperature regime of his chemicals will help identify formation versus additives induced
changes.
5.4.4 Depth
The depth at which the sample is collected and tested is recorded. The Wellsite Geologist should
compare formation tops and geological changes with changes that may have been registered in
the fluid chemistry at the same depths. Alert the drilling fluid engineer to anticipated changes in
formation and he will be able to confirm changes also seen in the fluid.
5.4.5 Weight
The density reading in conjunction with hole condition is a valuable tool for estimating the down-
hole pressure regime. A density increase will generally improve hole cleaning and may result in
Wellsite Geologist seeing a change in the ratio of sand/clay cuttings returning to surface or in the
blend of formation returning. These changes may not be directly related to formation changes
but are associated with the changed hole-cleaning environment. Under-balanced drilling will
often result in cavings entering the wellbore from further up the hole further confusing sample
interpretation.
The Marsh Funnel was the first, and is still the simplest, of mud testing tools. The measurement
will enable the mud engineer or derrickman to get a quick understanding of changes in overall
system viscosity. The Marsh Funnel Viscosity will not tell from what source the viscosity changes
are occurring. PHPA and high polymer muds typically run much higher viscosity than traditional
systems. Funnel viscosities of 40 to 55 sec/qt are regarded as normal. Water has a viscosity of
32 sec/qt.
Plastic Viscosity and Yield Point are measured to determine the flow properties of the fluid at
known shear rates. The determination of Plastic Viscosity and Yield Point are derived from the
Bingham Model and indicate the nature of the viscosity in the fluid. Low end Shear Rates are
now also routinely tested and included on the drilling fluid form to evaluate the performance of
drilling fluids in extended reach and horizontal wells. At its simplest Plastic Viscosity is a
measurement of the solids content of the drilling fluid and the Yield Point is a measurement of the
electrochemical charging of the mud. Drilling fluids that have high concentrations of solids will
have high PV’s and modern polymer specific muds, which have viscosity generated from
polymers instead of clays, have low PV’s and high YP’s. The ratio of the two is important and
should be taken into account when evaluating hole cleaning and particle suspension.
The trend is to run the Yield Point much higher today than in previous times. Horizontal and
extended drilling have demonstrated that very high low end rheologies are necessary to clean
these wells and prevent the buildup of cuttings in the hole.
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5.4.8 Gel Strengths
The Gel Strength is essentially a measurement of the thrixothropic nature of the mud, ie how
quickly the fluid will produce gels and thicken once circulation is broken and to what extend this
will continue. Readings are taken from the Fann Rheometer at 10 second and 10 minute
durations and the degrees of deflection recorded. Ideally a fluid that produces a very quick
gelling action is sought to stop cuttings settling in the hole once circulation is stopped. A high gel
will produce a fluid that becomes too thick while out of the hole for extended periods, normally
while logging or tripping. 10 second gel values of between 5 and 15 are acceptable, while 10
minute gels as high as 40 will be obtained and are not a cause for concern. A mud with a
medium to low 10 sec gel, and a low 10 min gel, is described as having flat gels, while high 10
minute gels indicate the mud continues to thicken and is said to be progressive in nature.
5.4.9 Filtrate
Of special significance to the Wellsite Geologist is the rate at which drilling fluid is lost to the
formation. The API fluid loss testing procedure is conducted to ascertain the nature and type of
filter cake build up and the rate of filtrate loss across a membrane.
It is essential to obtain a satisfactory fluid loss value and the deposition of a thin, impermeable
filter cake across the wellbore.
Two types of filtration are present; dynamic filtration which occurs when the mud is circulating and
static filtration when the fluid is at rest.
Dynamic filtration testing is usually conducted in town to test the nature of the losses while
circulating. These are generally significantly higher than static test results. To control the amount
of filtrate lost to a formation, dynamic filtration must be controlled and to prevent disposition of
thick filter cakes, static filtration must be controlled.
Loss of fluid (usually water and soluble chemicals) from the mud into the formation only occurs
when the permeability is such that it will allow the passage of fluid between the pore openings. If
the openings are large enough, the first effect is a mud spurt that enters these openings at the
face of the well bore. Then, as additional fluid is lost, a build up of the mud solids (wall cake) is
formed on the wall face.
There are a number of problems that can arise in drilling and completion operations due to muds
with faulty filtration characteristics. These include:
1. Formation evaluation problems from excessive filtrate invasion and thick filter cakes.
2. Excessive formation damage from mud filtrate.
When large volumes of filtrate enter a formation, the formation fluids may be flushed from the
zone around the wellbore to the extent that logging tools give erroneous results. Formation test
tools may also recover only filtrate, making it difficult to determine the true fluid content of a
formation. If there are clays in a formation, water filtrate may cause the clay particles to swell or
disperse and thereby reduce the formation permeability.
Time - Filtrate volume increases in direct proportion to the square root of time.
Pressure - If the filtration medium were constant, the amount of filtration would vary as the
square root of pressure. In the case of mud filter cake, this does not hold true
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because the cake is subject to compressibility and continued deposition of material
into the cake causes changes in porosity and permeability.
Cake Permeability on Fluid Loss is primarily influenced by temperature and the state of
deflocculation of the system. It has been recognised that there is a correlation between high
pressure-high temperature filtration properties and wellbore problems. Problems of primary
concern are production zone damage (attributed to water blocking and the effect of mud filtration
on shale or clay within the producing zone).
Water loss should not be considered as an absolute value, but as a guide or criterion to the
filtration properties of the mud in the hole. Because of the many variables influencing the
filtration properties of drilling mud in a well, it is most difficult to accurately predict fluid loss to the
formation from the simple API filtration test.
As the hole is drilled deeper, it is necessary to adjust the fluid loss of the mud to assist in
penetrating the new formations encountered. Consequently, it is not uncommon to drill a surface
hole with a mud having a fluid loss of 20 cc. Values in the order of 4 to 8 are usually
programmed for final hole intervals.
The API HPHT test is designed to reflect the actual drilling conditions that are being encountered
down-hole. A testing regime of 300°F and a pressure differential of 500 psi is the standard set-
up; however, the test is often varied to reflect the particular well being drilled. Target HPHT
losses of 20 to 25 cc’s are generally achieved.
The cake thickness is measured in 32 nd‘s of an inch and will provide valuable information to the
mud engineer on the nature of the filter cake. Investigation of the cake will enable the engineer
to test the strength of the cake in its condition. Correct filter cake makeup is essential in the
avoidance of differential sticking.
Solids are reported as a percentage of the total drilling fluid and can be calculated by either a
mass balance or the result tested with a Solids Retort Test Kit. A known volume of mud has the
water driven from it and this is then distilled. The results of the retort are included into a solids
analysis calculation and the resulting solids fraction further broken down into high and low gravity
solids by calculation. The volume of salt is included in the calculation. The use of high volume
linear motion shakers, centrifuges and low weight drilling fluids, have resulted in muds being run
(where geologically possible) with the solids content typically in the 4% to 6% range.
Sand will have an abrasive effect upon drilling steels and results in excessive pump damage.
Values in the order of 0.25% are generally considered to be maxima. This value will be exceeded
occasionally at the time of pay zone drilling or during intervals of rapid drilling in sandy
formations.
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5.4.14 Methylene Blue Capacity
The testing of the Methylene Blue Content will enable the mud engineer to determine the Cation
Exchange Capacity of the mud and hence the clay content. Clays have a detrimental effect upon
most drilling fluids and often effect rheology directly. The dispersion into the drilling fluid of the
clays is lost sample to Wellsite Geologist. This formation is lost in the fluid phase of the drilling
fluid and is eventually dumped in the dilution volume. Changes (particularly increases) in this
value should be noted to ensure that the Wellsite Geologist is aware of its volume. CEC values of
20 to 25 are considered to be maxima in low solids drilling fluid systems.
5.4.15 pH
A battery of alkalinity testing is performed. Many chemicals operate within narrow pH bands and
many are destroyed outside these fine ranges. The pH will affect performance and stability of
many chemicals. Modern drilling fluids are generally run with low pH values by traditional
standards. PHPA (Partially Hydrolysed Polyacrylamide), a powerful and common shale
encapsulator, is extremely sensitive to increases in pH above 9.5 and a value of 10.0 will totally
destroy the polymer. A low pH will lead to increases in steel corrosion. The Wellsite Geologist
should be aware that corrosion additives may be added to the fluid that may be seen in their
samples or will appear in subsequent laboratory testing. All corrosion additives (and other
occasional additives) do not always appear on the drilling fluid report form.
Alkalinity testing is conducted on the drilling fluid in addition to straight pH testing. While the
drilling fluid may have sufficient alkalinity the hydroxyl blend may not be in acceptable ratios.
Interpretation of results will alert the Mud Engineer to potential carbonate and bicarbonate
contamination. Contamination can be the result of drilling soft cement, incorrect chemical
additions or formation contamination. The Pf/Mf ratio should be closely monitored. As carbonate
contamination is experienced the Mf value will increase, possibly up to 5 times the Pf in extreme
cases. Alkalinity results should be evaluated in conjunction with the 10 minute gel, which will also
indicate progressive gels in carbonate/bicarbonate environments.
5.4.17 Chloride
The chloride test is very significant in areas where salt can contaminate the drilling fluid. The salt
may come from make up water, salt stringers or from salt water flows. Many drilling fluids being
built in Australia use sea water in their make up. KCl is added in 90% of the wells drilled in the
country to control swelling shales with its additional chloride burden. Sea water muds will
typically run with chloride levels of 25k to 30k. Additions of KCl are gradually being reduced to
ensure that the drilling fluid conforms to environmental needs. Chloride is an extremely
aggressive ion and while the bulk of chemical additives now in use are salt tolerant, almost all will
suffer a loss of performance to one degree or another as the chloride concentration increases.
Water containing large amounts of dissolved calcium and magnesium salts is referred to as hard
water. Many wells are drilled with hard water that is often pre-treated by the engineer before
using. Drilling clays have low yields when mixed in hard waters. The harder the water the more
bentonite that is required to make a satisfactory mud. Calcium can be picked up when drilling
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cement or sections of limey shale. Drilling anhydrite will also result in eventual contamination of
the drilling fluid system. Many chemical additives are hardness sensitive. PHPA muds are
destroyed in the presence of calcium and calcium levels should never exceed 2000 ppm.
Extensive calcium contamination will result in abnormally high water loss and high gels.
Drilling Fluid Report Forms will contain a large range of further test results and analyses
depending upon the type of system being run. Look for the additions and, as the engineer who
has generated the report is on the rig, discuss with him the direct implication chemical changes to
the system will have on cuttings samples.
Drilling Fluid additives come in a huge variety and cover a vast range of chemical types. It is not
possible to effectively cover the full range of materials in this context.
“World Oil” publish an annual drilling fluid guide. This is essential for Wellsite Geologist, who will
come across many unknown products during their careers and it is highly recommended that
copies be kept in all oil company libraries. The use of back copies is a major help when
researching old wells that contain additives with only their trade names listed.
Instead of detailing a large range of individual products it will be of greater use to briefly cover the
types of materials and their general applications. Individual chemical information should be
sought from the “World Oil Guide” with questions addressed to the relevant drilling fluid
company when possible.
Many types of materials are available to control fluid loss in water-based muds. Their application
will vary according to the type of mud being used and the chemical environment of the mud. The
most common fluid loss control agents are the clays.
5.5.1.1 Clays
The primary fluid loss control agent for most water-based muds are the clay solids present in the
system. The starting point for good filtration control is a fluid having the correct particle size
distribution of solids. This would be interpreted as a mud having a wide range of particle size, a
large percentage of these particles being one micron or less.
In effect, this particle size distribution produces a filter cake having both low porosity and low
permeability. To achieve this, an attempt is made to obtain a maximum density filter cake. This
simply means a gradation of particle sizes such that each successively smaller particle size plugs
openings existing between the larger size particles.
Commercial clays not only develop viscosity but also have the ability to lower fluid loss. Bentonite
is particularly suited for the purpose. The ability of bentonite to reduce filtration can be attributed
to: (1) particle size, (2) the flat plate-like shape of the particles, and (3) the capacity to hydrate
and compress under pressure. Other factors being equal, the finer the particle size, the lower the
fluid loss. Bentonite has a larger percentage of fine particles than any other clay.
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A deficiency of good bentonite solids in the mud causes increased fluid loss, particularly at
increased temperature and pressure.
5.5.1.2 Starch
If the mineral colloids are not enough to lower the fluid loss, organic colloids such as starch may
be used. In some muds, the addition of starch not only lowers fluid loss, but stabilises the mud
as well. The majority of starch used in the oil industry is made from corn. The starch grains are
separated from the corn and specially processed so that they will rapidly and efficiently swell and
gelatinise to furnish maximum reduction in fluid loss. This should occur regardless of pH, hot or
cold water. Such starches are known as pregelatinised starches. The outside amylopectin shell
is ruptured with heat, liberating the amylose inside which absorbs water and swells to form
sponge-like bags. The loss of free water from the system aids in the reduction of the fluid loss.
The sponge-like bags will fit into the tiny openings left in the filter cake and lower the fluid loss by
a plugging action. At 250F, polysaccharides are temperature stable. However, when the
temperature is raised to 275F, the chemical will decompose rapidly.
Starches are effective as a drilling fluid stabiliser when evaporate or hydratable shale sections
are penetrated and for stabilisation, filtration and rheological control of high electrolyte content
workover fluids.
5.5.2 Polymers
With the advances in drilling fluid technology, the usage of water soluble polymers has developed
several mud systems that have reduced fluid losses. There are several type polymers that are
capable of reducing fluid loss characteristics of a mud system. The type polymers are classified
by their action within a mud system. This classification is based upon the polymer’s performance
by either adsorption onto the solids or by viscosifying the fluid phase. The most common fluid
loss polymers viscosify the fluid phase to reduce fluid loss in a given mud system. These
polymers are normally anionic and are less sensitive to their environment. They will develop
viscosity in the presence of hardness and salt. However, high concentrations may reduce their
effectiveness. Extreme care should be taken when adding a polymer, due to the possible
interactions of several chemicals present in a mud system. In field operations, thorough pilot
testing is essential before additions are made to the active system.
CMC is an organic colloid used for filtration control. The structure of CMC is that of a long chain
molecule that can be polymerised into different lengths or grades. The material is commonly
made in three grades, each varying in viscosity, suspension, and fluid loss reduction qualities.
The three grades are commonly called high viscosity CMC, medium or regular viscosity CMC, and
low viscosity CMC. They will also vary in their purity.
Four theories have been advanced to explain the reduction of fluid loss by CMC.
CMC is an effective fluid loss additive in most water-based muds, working particularly well in the
calcium treated systems. It will also stabilise calcium and sodium systems. CMC is not subject to
bacterial degradation and performs well in all alkaline pH ranges. CMC becomes less effective
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as a water loss control agent as salt concentrations exceed 50,000 ppm. CMC is subject to
complete degradation when temperatures exceed 250F.
The choice of CMC to use depends upon what properties are desired. When suspending
properties as well as low filtration rates are desired, the choice will generally be either high or
medium viscosity CMC. When less viscosity and a decrease in fluid loss is desired, the low
viscosity CMC is adequate.
Polypac is an organic fluid loss agent designed particularly for application in muds containing
high salt concentration for low solids drilling fluids. The material is a polyanionic long chain
polymer of high molecular weight. Pac will give both viscosity and fluid loss control in either fresh
or salt water.
The use of chemical thinners is not generally required in modern muds. High rates of polymer
additions are required to maintain viscosity in the low solids environments and thinning is
infrequently required. Environmental restrictions on the use of Chrome (an essential ingredient in
most thinners) has also resulted in a general loss of effectiveness and hence a reduction in their
use. The change in basic drilling fluid philosophy from one of causing the solids to disperse into
the mud, and hence keeping viscosity down, to one of encapsulating solids and preventing their
hydration is the single biggest factor in the demise of the thinners/dispersants use.
Improved dispersion generally results in decreased filtration and higher solids. This is a result of
an homogeneous distribution of the various particle size solids present in the fluid. Some
dispersants are better than others, however, when used in sufficient quantities most are effective.
Lignite and Lignosulphonate (Tannathin, XP-20, and Spersene) all have exceptional ability to
lower fluid loss.
The proper use of these materials greatly extends the ability to control the drilling fluid at elevated
temperatures and pressures far beyond that which can be obtained with starch or CMC. The
materials are not easily affected by bacterial degradation and can be used effectively in high salt
or calcium concentrations. It is significant that these chemicals will reduce both the API fluid loss
and the HTHP fluid loss as well. At temperatures above 315F increased amounts of XP-20
should be used and decreased amounts of Lignosulphonate used. The modified lignite is
extremely temperature stable above 450F. Therefore, with increased temperatures, lignite
should be utilised to provide proper fluid loss control in dispersed systems.
5.5.2.4 Viscosifiers
Bentonite, Gel or Sodium Montmorillonite have traditionally been the viscosifying base for almost
all drilling fluid systems. Bentonite is still the most widely used viscosifier and has particular
application in top hole drilling. The material will provide exceptional fluid loss control and
provides a base on which many polymers act. Bentonite will provide Yield Point which is
essential to hole cleaning and will not suffer the temperature thinning effects that are the trade
mark of many polymer systems.
Biopolymer and PHPA polmyers now also dominate the viscosfying functions of drilling fluids.
Biopolymers find application in almost all drilling environments and are untroubled by the bulk of
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drilling contaminants. This branch of chemicals is of increasing importance as more is
understood about the hydraulics of cleaning horizontal and extended reach wells.
The shear thinning nature of the group enables low solid fluids to be built and maintained at a
cheap cost. The systems are relatively stable chemically. The ability of these materials to revert,
and their biodegradability, allow for cleaner fluids to be built that clean up at the well’s completion
without major stimulation.
Systems that for many years performed extremely well have recently become “extinct” with the
advances being made in Polymer Chemistry. Systems that were once thought to be highly
effective have been superseded as more sophisticated testing has revealed either shortcomings
in their performance or that their effects on the formation are unacceptable. An example of this is
the demise of the CL/CLS (Chrome Lignite/Chrome Lignosulphonate) System.
Early drilling fluids were only concerned with the drilling aspects of wildcatting. Mud Systems
were designed to get cuttings from the hole and to control subsurface pressures only. The
understanding that a mud with density control which balanced formation pressures would reduce
hole problems, resulted in further formulation changes. Speciality completion fluids were
formulated as production EOR methods were refined.
Solids levels in the fluid were of little concern and many systems including the Gyp and CL/CLS
systems actually required high solids levels to be effective.
Emphasis over the years has therefore changed from a mud that will “get you to TD”, to a fluid
that will provide maximum formation protection, return the maximum amount of geological
information, provide the fastest possible drilling environment and remain cost effective.
Many differing systems have evolved as these goals change from operator to operator, and from
well to well to best suit the conditions.
In general, basic description categories are recognised, although almost all have numerous
subsets.
Drilling fluids have generally been divided into water-based and oil-based systems. A new breed
of synthetic systems is now being pushed to market. These “new” muds will continue to infiltrate
the drilling world as costs decrease and as environmental pressures make their upfront cost less
important or regulation makes their use mandatory.
Water-based muds are described by their major constituents. Names vary occasionally for the
same system, depending on the emphasis required at the time of drilling. Systems are often
converted from one type to another adding to the definition confusion.
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Water-based names will ideally contain any major salt additions and the principal polymer used in
its construction. Examples include KCL/Polyacrylamide, Seawater/Drispac.
Names will also often include a trade name if it is well recognised (or the mud company has done
a good marketing job) eg Freshwater Polysal or Spersene/XP-20.
Oil-based systems commenced in the Gulf of Mexico with the addition of diesel to the drilling fluid
to aid lubricity. Increases in the concentration were seen to aid in the inhibition of shale swelling.
The development of the Invert Oil Emulsion was the next logical development. Variations in the
oil/water ratio have been made over the years as emulsifying technology improved and the cost
of oil escalated. Simply put, the more water in the emulsion the less oil and hence the lower cost.
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A range of new drilling fluid systems (most proprietary) is finding a way to market as
environmental pressures continue. The search continues for a fluid that will replace oil-based
drilling muds at a reasonable cost. Different companies have had different approaches to the
problem and a wide range of “exotic” materials have been tested, or are being tested. These
include peanut oil and palm oil. Adverse effects on blowout preventer rubbers can occur and oil
fluorescence can be masked. It is up to the wellsite geologist to ensure he is aware of the
properties and individual characteristics of the base fluid that is being run.
This is a low toxicity, synthetic-based emulsion system that offers inhibition, wellbore stability,
lubricity, and temperature stability that previously could only be achieved with toxic oil-based mud
systems.
Novadril is formulated with a base carrier; a synthetic oligomer that is not produced directly or
indirectly from crude oil.
The system is formulated as an invert emulsion in which the synthetic oligomer based fluid forms
the continuous phase. A brine solution serves as the dispersed phase. As with an oil based
system, oil/water ratios can range from 90/10 to 60/40. Oligomers can be contrasted to mineral
oils which are manufactured from crude by a refining process. These mineral oils comprise a
broad range of hydrocarbons of varying toxicities, including some aromatics.
This makes the system non-toxic and it will not upset wellsite hydrocarbon searching. Physical
properties vary from oil-based systems principally by the higher viscosities that are experienced
in the oligomers. Other beneficial properties of the replacements are the high flash point and low
pour values that the systems exhibit. High flash point provides a safer environment as there are
not volatile components which could ignite and the low pour point enables the system to be run in
the coldest of environments. All oil-based alternatives are expensive.
5.7.3 Envirotherm
This is a mud system designed for high temperature drilling that is chrome-free and acceptable
for drilling in environmentally sensitive areas. Envirotherm is temperature stable in excess of
400F (240C). Envirotherm utilises two products; a proprietary chrome-free lignosulphonate and
a water-soluable, polymeric resin as the primary temperature stabilisers.
The Cationic system is a newly developed water-based mud system, utilising exotic cationic
polymers to provide exceptional shale stabilisation. It is designed for drilling water-sensitive shale
formations containing highly reactive clay minerals.
Cationic polymers tend to be adsorbed more strongly than anionic polymers by attaching to clay
surfaces dominated with negative charges. This strong adsorption can be utilised for better
encapsulation and swelling suppression, hence superior shale inhibition. Drilling fluids containing
properly selected cationic polymers have been proven to be more inhibitive than conventional
water-based muds.
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Previous utilisation of cationic polymers to formulate practical drilling fluids was unsuccessful due
to their high toxicity and strong interaction with other mud additives. The toxicity made former
cationic polymers envrionmentally unacceptable; while the interaction made them less effective
as severe flocculation and precipitation often occurs with bentonite, drill solids, anionic polymers,
and weight materials.
By applying advanced cationic polymer chemistry, the cationic system prevents the undesired
interactions. Cationic polymers with low toxicity are carefully selected to provide shale inhibition
without sacrificing environmental accountability.
Because of its highly inhibitive nature, the cationic system can be considered as an alternative to
oil-based muds. The low toxicity nature of the cationic system makes it desirable for drilling
operations in offshore and other environmentally sensitive areas.
Many shale-related drilling problems can be attributed to hydration (water adsorption) of clay
minerals, which changes the physical strength of shales, leading to disintegration of cuttings,
swelling, and sloughing into the wellbore. To stabilise a shale formation, and to prevent shale
cuttings from dispersing, hydration of clay minerals must be reduced during drilling.
The most troublesome swelling clays are smectite, illite, and mixed-layer clays. They are
commonly referred to as 2:1 layer clays. Each layer is composed of AO-O-OH (octahedral) sheet
sandwiched between two Si-O (tetrahedral) sheets. Due to ion substitution in the octahedral
and/octahedral sheets, an overall charge is generated on the surfaces of each layer. The
negative charges are balanced and the layers weakly held together by interlayer cations. During
hydration, water molecules can be attracted to interlayer cations as well as to clay layers by
hydrogen bonding.
The type of interlay cation is important in determining the amount of water that can be attracted;
for example, sodium attracts more water molecules than calcium or potassium.
Two mechanisms are often cited to account for the hydration of clay minerals; they are surface
(crystalline) hydration and osmotic (intercrystalline) hydration.
During surface hydration, one to two layers of water molecules can be adsorbed by both
interlayer cations and clay surfaces. The distance between clay layers increases as the interlayer
cations move away from the clay surfaces. As a result, volume of the clay may double upon
surface hydration.
Certain types of clays such as smectite with sodium or lithium as the interlay cation, can absorb
water molecules continuously through the development of diffused double layers. This
phenomenon is similar to osmosis, which is the transfer of water through a semi-permeable
membrane. It is often called osmotic hydration. Volume increase associated with osmotic
hydration is usually several times greater than that due to surface hydration.
A shale tends to undergo surface hydration immediately upon contact with water and may
continue to absorb water osmitically, depending on the type of clay minerals, exchangeable
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cations, and its water content. Absorption of cationic polymers on clay surfaces can reduce
surface and osmotic hydration.
5.7.6 Inhibition
To maintain shale stability, it is necessary to prevent clays from hydrating and swelling. The
stabilising effects of the cationic systems are primarily derived from two cationic polymers, which
provide polymer encapsulation and swelling suppression, respectively.
Since over 90% of the clay surface is negatively charged, sites for cationic (+) polymer
attachment are readily available. This is in sharp contrast to the attachment of anionic polymers
which occurs at the positively-charges edges. Thus, cationic polymers can provide more effective
shale inhibition than anionic polymers.
The higher molecular weight cationic polymer is the primary encapsulating agent for the cationic
system. Its large molecular size allows it to be attached to the exterior surfaces of clay particles
through ionic bonding. A protective layer of polymer is formed to prevent cuttings from
dispersing. A secondary encapsulating agent enhances shale stability by attaching to shale
particles through hydrogen bonding.
The inhibition provided by MCAT-A is of a different nature. Because of its small molecular size, it
can penetrate the clay layers and adsorb on the interior surfaces. The adsorbtion of MCAT-A
results in a complete displacement of interlayer cations, consequently retarding surface hydration
and impeding osmotic swelling of the clays. The absorption of MCAT-A is rapid and more
effective than the common cation exchange reaction.
Cuttings to surface have the appearance of oil-based cuttings due to the very low swelling
tendencies of the system. This improvement in inhibition enables the Wellsite Geologist to see
considerably more sample than was previously possibly.
Continuing advances in polymer chemistry and the reduced use of hydrocarbon-based products
will lead to steady improvements in the quality of returns coming across the shakers.
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6 Abbreviations
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