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Hyperspectral imaging for underwater object detection

Article in Sensor Review · April 2021

DOI: 10.1108/SR-07-2020-0165

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 Hyperspectral imaging for
underwater object detection
Zhixin Wang
School of Information Science & Engineering and Provincial Key Laboratory of Laser Technology and Application,
Shandong University, Qingdao, China, and
Peng Xu, Bohan Liu, Yankun Cao, Zhi Liu and Zhaojun Liu
School of Information Science and Engineering, Shandong University, Qingdao, China

Abstract
Purpose – This paper aims to demonstrate the principle and practical applications of hyperspectral object detection, carry out the problem we now
face and the possible solution. Also some challenges in this field are discussed.
Design/methodology/approach – First, the paper summarized the current research status of the hyperspectral techniques. Then, the paper
demonstrated the development of underwater hyperspectral techniques from three major aspects, which are UHI preprocess, unmixing and
applications. Finally, the paper presents a conclusion of applications of hyperspectral imaging and future research directions.
Findings – Various methods and scenarios for underwater object detection with hyperspectral imaging are compared, which include preprocessing,
unmixing and classification. A summary is made to demonstrate the application scope and results of different methods, which may play an
important role in the application of underwater hyperspectral object detection in the future.
Originality/value – This paper introduced several methods of hyperspectral image process, give out the conclusion of the advantages and
disadvantages of each method, then demonstrated the challenges we face and the possible way to deal with them.
Keywords Machine intelligence, Image processing
Paper type Literature review

1. Introduction that may be used to overcome current obstacles and to

Oceanic exploration has a long history, however, due to
limitations on detection technology and the immersion depths
of underwater vehicles, little is known about the seabed area.
Data collected from the seabed may yield information on
sediments, minerals and benthic habitats and sites, which can
be used for more in-depth research in such fields as marine
geology, marine biology and marine archaeology (Van der
Meer et al., 2012; Maes and Steppe, 2019; Manfreda et al.,
2018; Werdell et al., 2018).
Over the past several decades, hyperspectral imaging
technology has become increasingly popular in such areas as
land-based mineral exploration, precision agriculture,
environmental surveys and ocean color sensing. Currently,
because of the combination of two-dimensional images and fine
spectral information, hyperspectral imaging technology is also
considered to be an effective tool that can be used in various
applications, ranging from industrial sorting to medical
imaging. Furthermore, with the development of marine
engineering technology, most marine areas, including deep-sea
zones, can be investigated from the surface and from
underwater vehicles. Hyperspectral imaging is one technique
investigate the deeper ocean.
The key to hyperspectral imaging is hyperspectral image
processing, which consists of data preprocessing, end-member
unmixing, image classification and object detection (Figure 1).
Among these steps, data preprocessing and end-member
unmixing are the basic techniques of hyperspectral processing
and involve noise interference, dimensional redundancy and
pixel mixing. Classification and object detection are more
advanced techniques that obtain input from preprocessed
images and attempt to determine the class of an image or the
position of the desired object. However, at present, only a few
studies on hyperspectral underwater target detection are
available in the literature. This paper is structured as follows:
Section 2 introduces the method and describes the importance
of hyperspectral image preprocessing. Section 3 introduces the
current underwater hyperspectral image unmixing technology.
Section 4 introduces several applications of underwater
hyperspectral and Section 5 presents the conclusions of this
study and a discussion of the results.

This work was supported by the National Key Research and Development
The current issue and full text archive of this journal is available on Emerald Program of China under Grant 2018YFC0831000.
Insight at: https://www.emerald.com/insight/0260-2288.htm Contributions: Zhixin Wang and Peng Xu contributed equally to this work
and they are the co-first authors.

Received 13 July 2020

Sensor Review Revised 4 October 2020
© Emerald Publishing Limited [ISSN 0260-2288] 20 January 2021
[DOI 10.1108/SR-07-2020-0165] Accepted 4 February 2021
 Underwater object detection
Zhixin Wang et al.
Figure 1 Diagram of hyperspectral image processing
2. Hyperspectral images preprocessing
The hyperspectral image preprocessing method is an
important component of hyperspectral image processing.
An effective preprocessing method can reduce the adverse
effects caused by irrelevant information and may provide a
more reliable data source for the subsequent analysis of
hyperspectral images.
2.1 Noise reduction of hyperspectral images
In an actual application scenario, due to poor heat dissipation
in the enclosed environment, noise may be present in the
captured image. As the resolution of the hyperspectral camera
is generally not high, the noise may cause the target to
be masked. Therefore, it is necessary to reduce the noise of the
hyperspectral image. We need to analyze and evaluate the
image, filter the noise and keep the image feature information
while suppressing the noise. In recent years, there have been
two commonly used noise reduction methods: spatial noise
reduction (Othman and Qian, 2006) and spectral domain noise
reduction (Hangai et al., 2009).
The spatial noise reduction method is comparable to two-
dimensional image noise reduction methods, which
primarily include such methods as the geological average
method (Curran and Dungan, 1989), the local mean
method (Gao, 1993) and the optimization method based
on Gaussian waveform extraction. The spatial noise
reduction method can only be used to reduce the noise of a
single image because the relationships among the image set
are not considered. Thus, the spatial noise reduction
method is not useful for hyperspectral images. Thus, while
using the spatial noise reduction method, we also need to
perform spectral domain noise reduction. Figure 2 shows
the images at 470.93 nm from the airborne visible infrared
imaging spectrometer (AVIRIS) data cube and the noisy
data cube, as well as their corresponding spectral derivative
images. The average noise level is not visible in the noisy
signal in Figure 2(c), but the noise is clearly manifested in
the derivative domain in Figure 2(d).
Minimal noise separation is considered to be a common method
of noise reduction in the spectral domain. Huang et al. (2015)
noted that this method can improve the signal-to-noise ratio by
reducing uncorrelated noise in hyperspectral data. The problem
Sensor Review
that transforming non-uniform noise into a Gaussian distribution
necessitated a principal component noise reduction method based
on an improved cumulative variance percentage. According to the
characteristics of high correlation between the hyperspectral spatial
domain and spectral domain data, Gao (1993) proposed a new
residual adjusted local standard deviation hyperspectral image
noise evaluation method. The basis of the abovementioned
hyperspectral noise reduction estimation method is that the
hyperspectral image and its noise are distributed independently,
and some studies have investigated the correlation between the
noise and the hyperspectral image to estimate the noise reduction
achieved with this method.
In addition to the two methods that we discussed above,
there are also some novel methods that have been proposed
recently. For example, Fekri-Ershad et al. (2018) proposed a
method for texture images, which is based on real word
spelling correction and LBP (local binary pattern). First, the
pixels most similar to noisy desired pixels in terms of
textural features are generated using LBP; next, this method
uses a two-gram algorithm to select the best of all
candidates. The results show that this approach can obtain a
high level of accuracy, a low blurring effect and a low
computation cost.
2.2 Dimension reduction of hyperspectral images
The most notable feature of hyperspectral remote sensing is
that its image data contain information from hundreds of
spectral bands. The approximate continuous characteristic
spectral lines of different ground features make the spectral
characteristics more obvious, but at the same time, the
similarity and duplication of information cause data
processing to be more difficult. High-dimensional data
processing has always been a major problem in the
application of spectral remote sensing in real scenes.
Improving point classes and detection accuracy, reducing
data volume, increasing efficiency and reducing dimensional
processing are particularly important for hyperspectral data.
There are two methods for hyperspectral data dimensionality
reduction, namely, the feature selection dimensionality
reduction method and the dimensionality reduction method
based on feature extraction.
Spectral feature selection, also known as band selection, selects
a portion of the bands from all the bands of the hyperspectral
image data whose information can represent the main features of
the original hyperspectral image to the maximum extent. Band
selection is divided into wrapper-type and filter-type selection
methods according to the different objective functions. Figure 3
shows the ground measurement of soil electrical conductivity
using regression [Figure 3(a)], instance-based [Figure 3(b)] and
regression trees [Figure 3(c)]. The average result of seven
randomly generated band sets is shown in Figure 3(d), which is
generated as a baseline of comparison with Figures 3(a)–3(c).
This result shows that the best unsupervised outcome results in a
smaller prediction error.
Wrapper-type feature selection uses classification accuracy as
an indicator to judge the quality of the selected band. Through
wrapper-type feature selection, one can obtain a better feature
subset than the filter method, but it requires considerable
calculation time. Compared with the wrapper-type band
selection, the filter type uses a different objective function and
 Underwater object detection
Zhixin Wang et al.
Figure 2 Example of noise reduction, figure from Othman and Qian (2006)
the calculation complexity is low. These objective functions are
generally based on entropy (Samadzadegan and Partovi, 2010),
graph theory (Bajcsy and Groves, 2004), separability (Su and
Du, 2006), minimum estimated abundance covariance (Wu
et al., 2012), Fisher discrimination (Chang, 2013) and other
structures. The filter band selection algorithm is relatively
simple and obtains different results for different applications in
terms of accuracy and stability. In addition, in recent years, the
band selection algorithm based on the intelligent search
strategy has received extensive attention and successively,
genetic algorithms (Jing and Ning, 2009), clone selection (De
Castro and Von Zuben, 2000) and ant colony optimization
(Gao et al., 2016) have been applied to feature selection.
Ghamisi and Benediktsson (2014) proposed a band selection
algorithm based on a genetic algorithm and particle swarm
optimization, which can automatically select effective features.
Spectral feature extraction is the mathematical transformation
of the original data to achieve a reduction in hyperspectral data
while enhancing features as much as possible. Spectral feature
extraction can be divided into two types, namely, the linear
extraction method and the nonlinear extraction method. The
currently widely used feature selection extraction method is the
principal component analysis (PCA) dimensionality reduction
method. Using this method, dimensionality reduction not only
Sensor Review
retains more information but also reduces the calculation time. In
addition, spectral feature extraction obtains some research results
in nonlinear processing. The representative algorithms of
nonlinear feature extraction based on the kernel function include
kernel linear discriminant analysis (LDA) and kernel PCA.
Padmavathi et al. (2010) proposed a method combining KPCA
and scale-invariant feature transform (SIFT), which is well-
suited for blur, illumination change and rotation of the input
image. However, the theoretical proof of the working principle of
the kernel function is inadequate and belongs to implicit
mapping. Therefore, further research is needed in the
construction of the kernel function and parameter selection. The
nonlinear feature extraction method based on manifold learning
has been a heavily researched topic in recent years. This method
embeds the points in the high-dimensional data space with a low-
dimensional manifold to achieve the purpose of reducing the data
dimension. Although this method can better reflect the nonlinear
structure of the data, it often brings a greater computational
burden.
There are also some other methods we can take advantage of
to reduce dimensionality. For instance, Ershad and Hashemi
(2011) proposed a new concept called dispelling classes
gradually, which can be used to increase the separability of
classes based on their labels. Wold (1966) proposed sparse
 Underwater object detection
Zhixin Wang et al.
Figure 3 Example of band selection of hyperspectral images, figure from Bajcsy and Groves (2004)
generalized partial least squares (PLS) selection (PLS), which
was originally developed to reduce the high-dimensional
predictor space based on the construction of latent variables as
linear combinations of original predictors.
2.3 Summary of preprocess of hyperspectral images
In this section, we presented two major aspects (Figure 4) of
hyperspectral image preprocessing. One aspect is noise reduction,
and the other is dimension reduction. In each aspect, we described
several methods that are often used in most scenarios. Subjected to
the calculation capability, it is difficult to perform a real-time in situ
process; therefore, the data set was processed in the lab. This
Figure 4 Diagram of hyperspectral image preprocess method
Sensor Review
method provides us more space to choose the optimal method for
specific situations.
3. End-member unmixing of hyperspectral images
The research content of unmixing is focused on the unmixing
of hyperspectral images taken by remote sensing. At present,
underwater hyperspectral unmixing research has not been
carried out widely due to the lack of underwater detection
equipment. Therefore, based on the unmixing of remote
sensing images, this article briefly describes a future feasible
method for underwater hyperspectral image unmixing.
Spectral unmixing first requires the establishment of a
spectral mixing model. According to the spatial scale of
material mixing and physical distribution, spectral mixing can
be divided into linear mixing and nonlinear mixing modes.
Linear mixing assumes that the photons reaching the sensor
interact with only the end-member. Conversely, when the
target distribution scale is small, the photons interact with
multiple substances, resulting in nonlinear mixing.
The linear mixed model has simple modeling and clear physical
meaning. This model is a widely used mixed pixel decomposition
model and is suitable for applications on larger scales. For fine
spectral analysis or small target detection on a smaller scale, such
as when the distance from the camera is on only a meter scale, a
nonlinear hybrid model is required for unmixing.
3.1 End-member unmixing based on the linear mixing
spectral model
In the linear mixing spectral model (Yuan et al., 2018), each
pixel of the spectral image is a linear mixture of multiple
 Underwater object detection
Zhixin Wang et al.
substances at a certain ratio, and the mathematical model of
linear spectral mixing is as follows:
X
p s:t:C  0; W  0
x¼ si mi 1 h (1)
i¼1
X
p prototype analysis can solve the formula by introducing the
si ¼ 1 (2)
i¼1
0  si  1 (3)
where mi represents the ith end-member, h represents the noise
item in the image and si represents the proportion of the end-
member in the pixel. Under the conditions of equations (2) and
(3), all the pixels in the hyperspectral image are considered and
equation (1) is rewritten as:
X ¼ MS 1 H (4)
X is the L  P dimension, L is the spectral dimension that is
hyperspectral image band data, P represents the number of
end-members in the image, M is an L  k dimension end-
member matrix, S is the abundance vector of X It is a k  P
matrix and H is an L  P matrix.
Linear model unmixing mainly includes the following
methods, namely, non-negative matrix factorization (Rajabi
and Ghassemian, 2014), prototype analysis (Zhao et al., 2015)
and sparse unmixing (Arngren et al., 2011).
3.1.1 Non-negative matrix factorization
Given the observation spectrum X, the problem of solving the
end-member matrix M and the abundance matrix S is
transformed into the inverse problem of equation (1).
According to the principle of matrix decomposition, the
observed spectral matrix can be disassembled into the product
of the end-member matrix and the abundance matrix and meet
the non-negativity requirements; therefore, nonnegative matrix
factorization (NMF) is suitable for spectral unmixing.
However, as the actual number of end-members is considerably
smaller than the number of bands, there are infinitely many
solutions for non-negative matrix factorization; therefore, the
problem of non-unique solutions needs to be overcome.
The advantage of NMF is that it can handle the situation of
high-mixed pixels, but its objective function is non-convex, and
the solution is not unique, which easily produces false end
members.
3.1.2 Prototype analysis
Although NMF-based spectral unmixing can handle the
situation of high-mixed pixels to achieve a certain unmixing
effect, its non-negativity causes the method to easily fall into
local extreme solutions and it is easy to produce false end-
member matrices. The spectral unmixing method of prototype
analysis can be used to address this issue (Zhang and Li, 2016).
Given Y ¼ ðy1 ; y2 ;    ; yk Þ 2 RLK is the hyperspectral image
under k pixels and L bands, the main target is to find N
prototype samples, h ¼ ðu 1 ; u 2 ;    ; u N Þ 2 RLN , the target
function can be described as:
Sensor Review
min
jjY  hWjj2F ¼ jjY  YCWjj2F
C; W (5)
h is end-member matrix, W is abundance matrix.
When there is no pure pixel in the hyperspectral image,
relaxation factor d and the scaling parameter a:
min
jjY  YCdiag ðaÞWjj2F
C; S (6)
s:t: C  0; W  0; 1  d  ad  1 1 d
Although prototype analysis solves the non-convex problem of
NMF, how to adjust the relaxation factor remains a problem in
the presence of high-mixed pixels. However, the objective
function has convexity, which is suitable for end-member
extraction and helps to address the end-member extraction of
highly mixed pixels. Figure 5 shows an abundance result
example of prototype analysis, which demonstrates that better
results can be obtained by using prototype analysis compared to
NMF methods. As shown in Figures 5(g)–(i), the multi-end-
member unmixing method using kernel archetypal analysis
(AA) obtains a more practical decomposition result than
unmixing based on a single terminal member. The conclusion
is that the kernel AA can generate pure prototype/end members
within the class, which is more robust to noise and outliers.
3.1.3 Sparse unmixing
The goal of sparse unmixing is to estimate the abundance of the
end-members appearing in the spectral image on the basis of
the known end-member spectrum library, provided that the
mixed pixels can be expressed as a linear combination of
multiple pure-end-member spectra; therefore, selecting some
of the existing pure-end-member spectral information to
approximate the mixed-pixel spectrum will inevitably lead to
sparse abundance. The basic model of sparse unmixing is as
follows (Xiaoyan et al., 2013):
1
minw Y  hW 2F 1 l W 1;1
2 (7)
s:t: W  0
The advantage is that the end-member library is known, which
can reduce the impact of inaccurate end-member extraction on
the abundance matrix. However, as the external environment
cannot be avoided when constructing the end-member, the
end-member library has poor transportability.
3.2 End-member unmixing based on a nonlinear mixing
spectral model
Assuming that the target is nonlinearly mixed (Liu et al., 2009),
each pixel vector in the image can be described by equation (8)
(LI et al., 2011):
y ¼ f ðM; aÞ 1 n (8)
where M is the spectral vector corresponding to the p end-
members contained in the pixel, a is the abundance of each
end-member in pixel point y, n is the additional noise term and
f is the end-member matrix M and unknown nonlinear function
of abundance a.
 Underwater object detection
Zhixin Wang et al.
Figure 5 Example of the result of unmixing abundance using prototype analysis: (a–c) result of MV-NMF; (d–f) result of AA; (g-i) result of kernel AA
(p = 2)
The nonlinear spectral decomposition of hyperspectral images
usually includes two steps, namely, end-member extraction and
nonlinear spectral unmixing. First, the number of end-
members contained in the hyperspectral image is determined;
next, the spectral curve of each end-member is identified and
finally, the percentage of each end-member is determined
through different nonlinear unmixing methods. These methods
include analysis methods based on neural networks, analysis
methods based on sum functions and nonlinear analysis
methods based on manifold learning.
3.2.1 Unmixing method based on artificial neural network
Neural networks (Carpenter et al., 1999) have functions such as
self-organization, self-learning and high fault tolerance; therefore,
they have unique advantages in solving complex nonlinear
problems. Over the past decade, many neural network models
have been used for the nonlinear decomposition of mixed pixels
(Broadwater et al., 2007). Atkinson et al. (1997) used the
multilayer perceptron method to decompose AVHRR (Advanced
Very High-Resolution Radiometer) data and confirmed that the
method is better than the linear mixed pixel decomposition
method. Carpenter et al. (1991) used the neural network advanced
very high-resolution radiometer (AVHRR) model to identify the
mixed type of trees in the forest, showing that the ARTMAP
adaptive resonance theory map (ARTMAP) model is better than
the linear mixed model. Liu and Yang (2013) proposed the
adaptive resonance theory mixture MAP (ART-MMAP) model
on the basis of ARTMAP and optimized the ARTMAP model.
Sensor Review
Licciardi and Del Frate (2011) applied a multilayer perceptron
neural network to combine feature dimensionality reduction and
abundance estimation and proposed and evaluated a new method.
Liu et al. (2009) combined a self-organizing mapping neural
network with fuzzy membership to achieve the decomposition of
mixed pixels in remote sensing images.
3.2.2 Nonlinear unmixing method based on kernel function
The kernel function method is an effective nonlinear data
analysis method. The data with nonlinear relationships are
mapped to the high-dimensional feature space through
nonlinear mapping such that the data present a linear
relationship in the feature space and are then processed by the
linear method.
The following nonlinear mapping is considered (Broadwater
and Banerjee, 2009):
w : x 2 Rn ! w ðxÞ 2 CN (9)
The data are mapped from the input space R to the feature
space N, and the nonlinear relationship is converted into a
linear relationship.
Definition of kernel function: For all x, z [ X, X  Rn, if the
function k satisfies:
kðx; zÞ ¼ w ðxÞ  w ðzÞ (10)
k is the kernel function and hs²i is the inner product.
 Underwater object detection Sensor Review
Zhixin Wang et al.

Kernel function matrix: For the input space vector set Figure 6 Classification results using kernel-based linear spectral
S ¼ fx1 ; x2 ;    ; xj g, the kernel function matrix K is defined as mixture analysis methods
an l  l matrix and the matrix elements are:
Kij ¼ h w ðxi Þ  w ðxj Þi ¼ kðxi ; xj Þ (11)

Any function that meets Mercer’s theorem or positive definiteness

can be used as a kernel function, such as the commonly used
Gaussian radial basis function kernel (RBF kernel):
 
kx  zk2
kðx; zÞ ¼ exp  (12)
2s 2
where s is the kernel parameter;or the Polynomial Function
Kernel:
b
kðx; zÞ ¼ ðaxT z 1 cÞ (13)

where a, b, c is the kernel parameter?

From 2007 to 2011, Broadwater et al. (2007), Broadwater
and Banerjee (2009, 2010, 2011) proposed nonlinear unmixing
algorithms based on kernel functions for intimate mixing and
designed different kernel functions to flexibly address different
degrees of nonlinearity.
In 2011, Liu and Yang (2013) used Gaussian radial basis
kernel functions to resolve spectral nonlinear mixed pixel
decomposition problems, extended the kernel of nonnegative
matrix decomposition, constructed corresponding objective
functions and derived iterative solution methods.
In 2012, Liu et al. (2011) proposed linear spectral mixing
analysis based on kernel functions, using kernel functions to
extend the traditional linear spectral unmixing algorithm to
deal with nonlinear spectral mixing, thereby proving that when
the data samples are severely mixed, nuclear linear spectral
mixing occurs. The effect of the analysis method is better than
that of linear spectrum mixed analysis. Figure 6 shows the
unmixing result based on the kernel function; clearly, using
kernels performed significantly better. Notably, RBF kernels
produced good results.
3.3 Summary of unmixing
In this section, we presented two models that are used to unmix
the pixels. The performance of each method is shown in Table 1
In comparing the above methods, we must consider that
underwater hyperspectral image capture is different from
remote sensing image capture, as the distance from the
shooting target is considerably smaller; therefore, the area
received by each pixel is considerably smaller than that of the
remote sensing image. Therefore, the nonlinear unmixing
model is more suitable for the unmixing of underwater
hyperspectral images.
4. Underwater applications of hyperspectral
images
While object detection and semantic segmentation have been
studied deeply by the computer vision and pattern recognition
community, there are still considerable challenges facing
practical applications. Traditional cameras can only sense
appearance, such as color and orientation and do not have the
ability to differentiate materials. However, hyperspectral
cameras can gather more information than traditional cameras
and provide researchers with more sources to study underwater
conditions.
To date, underwater hyperspectral images have been used in
such applications as deep-sea mineral exploration, benthos
imaging, benthic habitat mapping and underwater archaeology.
Not only can the features of underwater objects be determined,
but potential qualitative analysis of seafloor properties can also
be performed by using underwater hyperspectral imaging
(Ødegård et al., 2018; Foglini et al., 2018; Cochrane et al.,
2019). Generally, underwater hyperspectral imaging
technology provides a novel way to understand the underwater
environment with its strong classification and discrimination
ability, which is of great significance in scientific research,
environmental protection and even military fields, such as
submarine terrain modeling. In this section, we introduce some
applications.
4.1 Hyperspectral image classification
In hyperspectral images, different attributes of the object are
reflected in pixel spectral and spatial locations, shown as all
kinds of spectral and spatial characteristics (Qiu et al., 2017).
The spectral and spatial features of the data cube are analyzed
to classify the image pixels in the hyperspectral image
classification methods.
4.1.1 Feature extraction
In the hyperspectral image multidimensional data set, the pixel
vector contains discriminative features hidden in the spectral
curve for classification. There are two crucial processes,
namely, feature extraction and decision criteria. Feature
extraction is applied to spectral features, including minimum
 Underwater object detection Sensor Review
Zhixin Wang et al.

Table 1 Summary of unmixing method

Model Method
Linear NMF (Rajabi and Ghassemian, 2014)
Prototype analysis (Zhao et al., 2015)
Sparse unmixing (Arngren et al., 2011)
Nonlinear ANN (Palsson et al., 2018)
Broadwater and Banerjee (2009)
Strong points
It can handle the situation of high-mixed
pixels
The objective function has convexity, which
helps to deal with end-member extraction
of highly mixed pixels
End-member library is known, that can
reduce the impact of inaccurate end-
member extraction on abundance matrix
It does not need to assume the data
distribution in advance, and can learn the
discontinuous and nonlinear category
distribution pattern
It is able to obtain high-precision nonlinear
decomposition in the original space
Weak points
Objective function is non-convex, and the
solution is not unique
Hard to adjust the relaxation factor
The end-member library has poor
transportability due to the external
environment cannot be avoided
Network topology and parameters are
difficult to determine
The selection of kernel functions and
parameters is mostly based on experience,
and the calculation of kernel functions is
relatively complicated

distance (Licciardi and Del Frate, 2011; Broadwater and Figure 7 SAM classification result of wreck transects
Banerjee, 2011), spectral angle mapper (SAM) and spectral
wave features (Liu et al., 2011). Considering the difference
method of class-based feature extraction and classification
efficiency, classification accuracy can be used to import
decision criteria.
4.1.1.1 Spectral angle mapper. Based on the limited category-
based reference vectors, the spectral angle between unlabeled
samples and reference samples of different categories is
calculated. The following formula is used to obtain the
minimum value to classify unlabeled samples into related
categories:

hx; ri
u ¼ cos1 (14)
jxj  jrj expands the difference of between-class means and narrows the
within-class scatter value. The optimization process of v is as
where x is the unlabeled target vector and r is the reference follows:
vector.  T 
When the samples that are used for classification can be   v Sb v
v  ¼ arg max b ðv Þ ¼ arg max T (16)
linearly separated, the traditional SAM method works well. Liu v v v Sv v
et al. (2011) proposed a kernel-based SAM method to achieve
nonlinear separability. Both x and r values are mapped into a P
K
where Sb ¼ 1n nk ð m k  m Þð m k  m ÞT is the between-class
higher-dimensional space F, while x ! w ðxÞ; r ! w ðr Þ; k¼1
w P
K P
R ! F , equation (14) becomes: variance, Sv ¼ 1n  m k Þðxi  m k ÞT is the within-
i2Ik nk ðxi
k¼1
h w ðxÞ; w ðr Þi class variance, and m k and Ik are the sample mean and class
u ¼ cos1 (15)
j w ðxÞj  j w ðr Þj index value, respectively.
Features can be extracted by LDA from vectors. When LDA
Figure 7 is a SAM classification result. As shown in the figure, is used on the image data, the image should first be converted
misclassification can be found in all instances. The two bottles into a unidirectional vector. This conversion may cause some
were successfully classified, and the wood classification failed problems, such as a large dimension of the scatter matrix, a high
with a very modest correct classification. calculation cost and a small sample size. Xu and Zhang (2010)
4.1.1.2 Linear discriminant analysis. LDA is a widely used proposed image-based LDA (IBLDA), which is one of the
method in feature extraction (Weinberger et al., 2010; Gu and typical methods that can be used to extract features effectively
Feng, 2013; Bao et al., 2013). In supervised classification, given and directly from the image.
a set with n labeled samplesfAi ; Bi ; yi gni¼1 , yi are class labels. Compared with the original method, IBLDA defines a
The standard LDA classifier defines Y = v T x to map the complex matrix C = A 1 iB to describe samples, and the

unlabeled spectrum x to another space. The mapped samples original matrix C can be converted into a complex vector Z with
can be linearly separated by the projection matrix v . LDA Z = CX.
 Underwater object detection
Zhixin Wang et al.
The difference between-class mean values is expanded by the
optimization process of IBLDA, while within-class scatter
values are reduced, as shown in equation (17):
 T  accuracy of rare categories. Axelsson et al. (2013) proposed a
  X Gb X
X  ¼ arg max b ðX Þ ¼ arg max (17)
X X X T Gv X
L 
P H   accurately and quickly.
where Gb ¼ L1 Cl  C Cl  C is the between-class
l¼1
P
L P  H
r j
scatter matrix, Gv ¼ rL
1
j¼1 Cl  Cl Clj  Cl
l¼1
within-class scatter matrix, C is the mean of all training
samples, C l denotes the mean of all the training samples of the
lth category and Clj denotes the jth training pattern of the lth
class.
The X that maximizes the objective function should be the
eigenvector corresponding to the largest eigenvalue. We choose
[X1, X2, . . ., Xt] as the initial value.
4.1.1.3 Principal component analysis and matrix-based princi-
pal component analysis. As an effective statistical method for
reducing dimensions, orthogonal transformation is used by
PCA using orthogonal transformation to map the original
vector to the new orthogonal vector space (Plaza et al., 2009).
The image should be converted into vectors before we use PCA
to extract the feature from vectors, which is similar to LDA. In
this case, Yang et al. (2004) proposed two-dimensional PCA
(2DPCA), which is a simple image projection technology.
Traditional 2DPCA is described as follows:
Given a training set X = [A1, A2,. . ., An], image A can be
mapped into an m-dimensional vector Y by using an n-
dimensional X. The discrimination index of X can be measured
by the total divergence of the projected feature vector. As a
result, the trace of the covariance matrix can obtain the
discrimination index of X, as shown below:
h i
T
fðX Þ ¼ tr ðSX Þ ¼ X T E ðA  EAÞ ð A  EAÞ X (18)
We can change equation (18) into:
fðX Þ ¼ X T GX
T P  T
where G ¼ E ðA  EAÞ ðA  EAÞ ¼ 1n ni¼1 Ai  A ðAi 
AÞ is the image covariance matrix and A is the average image of
all training samples.
When you need several projection features, you also need a
corresponding number of projection vectors [X1, X2, . . ., Xt],
and the optimization process is as follows:
½X1 ; X2 ; . . . ; Xt ¼ argmaxJ ðxÞ
Xi  Xj ¼ 0; i 6¼ j; i; j ¼ 1; . . . ; t
The best projection vector is the orthogonal eigenvector of G
corresponding to the first d largest eigenvalues.
In addition, there are also many ways to obtain better
accuracy by taking advantage of feature extraction. The
method proposed by Wang et al. (2011) studies the
characteristics of spectral derivatives that can capture
significant changes in a particular category of spectrum.
Sensor Review
Kasapoglu and Ersoy (2007) proposed a method using
boundary vector detection in which more attention is given to
the effective division of the feature space to obtain a higher
method in which explosive substances were used in
hyperspectral images. These types of classification methods are
based on the hyperspectral image function and can be classified
4.1.2 Classifier models based on spectral features
is the An increasing number of classifier models have been
successfully used in hyperspectral image classification, such as
statistical Gaussian (Yao et al., 2010) and Bayesian models
(Mohamed and Farag, 2005), neural network models (Hou,
2011), support vector machines (Melgani and Bruzzone, 2004)
(SVM), kernel-based methods and random forests (Ham et al.,
2005). The operation of random forest is to build a large
number of decision trees during training and then output the
class output mode of a single tree. All these models have
addressed the classification procedure from different angles
and have good performance.
4.1.2.1 Gaussian process for classification. (Yao et al., 2010),
discussed the Gaussian process method. Given that different
categories of variables interact independently, the traditional
Gaussian process can be extended to infinite dimensions by this
theory. Therefore, an assumption can be made that any finite
subset of samples follows a Gaussian distribution.
Given a set D = {xi, yi}, i = 1,2,. . ., n, where yi is the label.

Predicting the label of the new test set based on category x by
 
calculating the output probability p (y jD, x ) is the goal. It is
assumed that the probability is only related to the value
function f:
pðyi jfi Þ ¼ Uðyi fi Þ (21)
where U is Gaussian cumulative distribution function (CDF).
Thus:
ðz
1 x2
UðzÞ ¼ pffiffiffiffiffiffiffi e 2 dx (22)
1 2p
(19) The maximum likelihood classifier (Charalambous and
Logothetis, 2000) is one application of the Gaussian process.
Assuming that N spectral vectors satisfy the assumption of
following a multidimensional Gaussian distribution, the equation
is as follows:
N2 1 1 R1
pðxjv i Þ ¼ ð2p Þ Ri e2ðxmi Þ
T
i ðxmi Þ (23)
2
where mi is the average value of category i and Ri is the
covariance matrix. The class probability of unlabeled samples is
(20)
estimated and classified according to the Bayesian formula.
4.1.2.2 Neural network classifier. Hou (2011) set up a neural
network that has many functional nodes. The structure of the
neural network is shown in Figure 8.
The nodes weigh the input samples X = {x1, x2, . . ., xn} with
a set of W = {w1, w2, . . ., wn}. The input of the neural network
structure satisfies the dot product hX, Wi. By adding a bias u ,
we placed the result into an excitation function f as follows, and
then we obtain the output:
 Underwater object detection
Zhixin Wang et al.
Figure 8 Diagram of neural network model
y ¼ f ðy  Þ ¼ f ðW T X  u Þ (24)
where f can be step or sigmoid function.
The difficulty of hyperspectral image classification is often
increased by a problem in which different spectra are classified
into the same category. This problem can be solved by a neural
network, and classification accuracy can be increased by using
it. With the developments in neural networks in recent years,
we are able to choose different neural network models for
different applications, such as back propagation networks
(Jiang et al., 2010), the Hopfield algorithm and its modified
version (Zhou et al., 2011). An improved method proposed by
Yang et al. (2017), focuses on optimizing the weight structure
of the RBF by using the Bayesian method.
4.1.2.3 Vector machine models. The SVM method has
outstanding hyperspectral image classification capabilities and has
been studied in many papers (Gu and Feng, 2013; Bazi and
Melgani, 2006; Ding and Chen, 2009). SVM combines structural
risk minimization, optimization theory and kernel function and in
spirit, it is a linear classifier. Linear separable cases and linear
inseparable cases are two major aspects that SVM includes. The
situation of linear separability is shown in Figure 9.
Given a training set D = {xi, yijxi [<d}, yi is a class label. SVM
is used to find a hyperplane that satisfies not only margin
Figure 9 Linearly separable situation of SVM (Gu and Feng, 2013)
Sensor Review
maximization but also error minimization. In d-dimensional
space, equation (25) describes the optimal hyperplane:
g ðxÞ ¼ v T x 1 b (25)
where v is the weighted coefficient of yi v Txi 1 b  1  0,
i = 1,2, . . ., n v Txi 1 b  1 = 0 is called the support vector.
Binary classification was the purpose that SVM was designed
for, but SVM is now widely used in multiclass classification
problems. Generally, multiclass classification is an addition of
several methods, including one-to-one (OAA), one-to-one
(OAO) and tree branching strategies based on OAA or OAO.
4.1.3 Classification combining spatial and spectral fields
Compared to normal Red-Green-Blue (RGB) images, spatial
and spectral neighborhood information given by hyperspectral
images has strong dependence, which has already been found
to be beneficial to classification. Considering the complexity of
high resolution, classification accuracy could be apparently
improved by combining the spatial information and the
algorithm. In recent years, more attention has been given to
hyperspectral image classification, and many effective
compound algorithms have been proposed.
4.1.3.1 Image context analysis. In hyperspectral images,
pixels are usually relative to their adjacent neighbors. Objects in
the same class may present obvious spatial continuity when the
spatial resolution is sufficient. Based on this notion, Kettig and
Landgrebe (1976) proposed a target extraction method. The
method is separated into two steps. First, the classifier converts
the image pixels into uniform regions with related spectral
characteristics. Next, the method classifies the regions
according to the maximum likelihood criterion.
4.1.3.2 Mathematical morphology method. Mathematical
morphology (MM) has been proven to be efficient in
hyperspectral image classification. In the study of Fauvel et al.
(2012), MM was used to analyze the spatial characteristics of
pixels. Morphological operators usually consist of corrosion,
dilation, opening and closing. The spatial features can be
extracted from the image through the morphological operator.
Therefore, a classifier built based on MM is possible.
4.1.3.3 Texture analysis and markov random field methods.
Different objects can be analyzed and distinguished by image
texture information. In hyperspectral images, texture describes
the change in grayscale in a particular domain. In recent years,
measurement methods based on statistical analysis attributes
have been created, such as the gray level cooccurrence matrix
(Yu, 2010). Some analytical models, such as the Markov
random field model, were developed and considered to be the
transformation domain.
4.1.4 Example of hyperspectral classification: underwater pipeline
inspection
A potential application of hyperspectral images was proposed
by Johnsen et al. (2016) to perform marine pipeline inspection.
The underwater pseudocolor map and the classification result
are shown in Figure 10. Red, green, blue and black in
the underwater hyperspectral image represent the sand,
concrete pipeline and brown algae dominated by kelp and the
sea star, respectively. Compared to normal RGB images,
hyperspectral images can offer more specific information.
 Underwater object detection
Zhixin Wang et al.
Figure 10 (A) Pseudocolor map of pipeline environments, (B) unsupervised classification result of (A)
4.2 Underwater biological object detection
Hyperspectral image analysis applied to underwater sampling
has been used to research marine life (Table 2). In some
studies, the pigment composition and absorption
characteristics show relations to the reflection spectra.
Therefore, to verify whether hyperspectral imaging can be used
as a marine species identification and classification tool based
on spectral characteristics, pigments were extracted from four
species of benthic animals (spoonworm (Bonellia viridis),
sponges (Isodictya palmata), Hymedesmia paupertas and
Hymedesima sp.) and analyzed by liquid chromatography,
liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry and nuclear
magnetic resonance. The results show a negative correlation
between the absorption spectrum and hyperspectral reflection.
Therefore, a spectral database can be established based on a
specific optical fingerprint for the automatic detection and
classification of pigment organisms in the ocean.
The spectral characteristics of different types of coral algae
were analyzed by Mogstad and Johnsen (2017) using a similar
method (Figure 11), and he identified coral algae pigments,
such as R-phycoerythrin and chlorophyll, by
spectrophotometry, high-performance liquid chromatography
and hyperspectral imaging techniques. The results show that
due to the similarity of the reflection spectra, it is difficult to
distinguish among different types of coral algae. However, coral
algae can still be distinguished as a whole from other objects by
supervised classification in shallow water investigations.
Some research progress and efforts have also been made in
health monitoring and ecological assessment using
hyperspectral images. Letnes et al. (2019) exposed a cold-water
coral sample to a solution of the toxic compound 2-
methylnaphthalene at concentrations of 0 mg L1 to 3.5 mg
Table 2 Instances of underwater hyperspectral imaging usage in organic object detection
Content Platform
The species-specific hyperspectral reflection
signatures of marine organisms by pigment extraction
Situ observation of deep-sea megafauna by
underwater hyperspectral imaging as a taxonomic
tool ROV
Cold-water habitat mapping in Mediterranean Sea
based on spectral libraries of several objects ROV
Sensor Review
L1 and later machine learning was used to correlate health
conditions with hyperspectral reflection. The results show that
hyperspectral imaging has the potential for marine life health
monitoring and environmental degradation assessment.
4.3 Seafloor properties detection
With the development of society, minerals on land are gradually
consumed. Due to the increasing demand for mineral
resources, there is currently a need to locate new deposits.
There are additional mineral resources in the oceans for
humans to exploit, not limited to manganese nodules, cobalt-
rich crusts and polymetallic sulfides.
Manganese nodules consist of iron oxides and manganese
oxides, which are often exposed or half-buried on the seafloor
4,000 m–6,000 m (Margolis and Burns, 1976) below the
surface. Cobalt-rich crusts contain abundant strategic cobalt,
which is found 800 m–2,500 m (Hein et al., 2000) beneath the
surface. Polymetallic sulfide contains cuprum, lead, aurum,
argentum and other metallic resources. This mineral is
primarily detected on the mid-ocean ridges, rift valley and
hydrothermal vents with a depth of approximately 1,500 m–
3,700 m (Herzig and Hannington, 1995) beneath the surface.
However, exploration for minerals in the ocean is highly difficult
due to mining costs and the deep-sea environment. Such
methods as in situ sampling, transient electromagnetics, seismic,
underwater photography sonar surveying and spectroscopy are
the most commonly used mineral exploration methods
(Malehmir and Bellefleur, 2009; Gehrmann et al., 2019; Wong
et al., 2020; Schoening et al., 2017; White et al., 2006).
In recent years, several research studies conducted at sea
have explored the distribution of seafloor deposits through
underwater hyperspectral imaging (Table 3).
Areas Objects Method Reference
/ / Spoonworms, sponge Lab Pettersen et al. (2014)
Deep sea Deep sea megafauna Field Dumke et al. (2018a, 2018b)
Deep sea Cold-water coral habitat Field Foglini et al. (2019)
 Underwater object detection
Zhixin Wang et al.
Figure 11 (a) Unclassified transect with training sites (32 pixels within
each circle). (b) Classification results of spectral angle mapper (SAM), (c)
classification results of minimum distance, (d) classification results of
binary encoding, (e) classification results of spectral information
divergence (SID), (f) classification results of parallelepiped
Hyperspectral images are used by Johnsen et al. (2013) to
obtain optical fingerprints of manganese nodules, corals and
other samples, leading to the finding that manganese nodules
can be identified by their reflectance spectrum features.
According to different classification methods, various objects of
financial interest (such as multicomponent substrates
manganese nodules and rusted pieces of iron) could be
identified by underwater hyperspectral images.
The first hyperspectral imaging survey of deep-sea
manganese nodules was conducted by Dumke et al. (2018a,
2018b). The hyperspectral data were obtained by hyperspectral
imaging through remotely operated vehicle (ROV) deployed in
the manganese nodule mining area of the Peru Basin in the
Southeast Pacific. Underwater hyperspectral images are
influenced by ROV movements, the accuracy of underwater
Table 3 Recent applications of underwater hyperspectral mineral exploration
Content Platform
The first a full-size hyperspectral imager was installed on
the AUV for mass sulfide deposit mapping AUV
The first time underwater hyperspectral situ detection of
manganese nodules at Peru Basin 4,195 m beneath surface ROV
Sensor Review
positioning and ROV attitude transformations. However, by
using the median spectrum method and fine geographic
reference to create the reference spectrum, the negative effects
can be effectively eliminated. Due to the lack of changes in
actual lighting conditions and inherent optical properties
(IOPs) of seawater close to the seafloor, the actual result is
pseudoreflectance data. Two supervised classification methods
are used; as a result, the SVM exhibits better performance than
the SAM method in detecting manganese nodules. Figure 12
shows the color image, the corrected pseudocolor image and
the classification results. Based on the classification results, the
coverage of manganese nodules in the survey area was
calculated. As part of the sediment was buried with many
manganese nodules, the coverage rate was estimated to be
between 1% and 9%.
To date, few reports on the use of hyperspectral images for
deep sea mineral exploration have been presented at
conferences and in journals. The research is still in the
exploratory stage, and more in-depth studies are needed.
Considering the advances that we have already made, this
technology should receive more attention. For actual deep-sea
mining, cost is a very important factor; therefore, the quality
and approximate reserves of the deposit must be found.
However, there are still some challenges to be solved in
hyperspectral imaging for mineral exploration. For example,
the ultraviolet and infrared bands are almost unavailable due to
the IOPs of seawater, but many minerals lack visible and
qualitative features in the visible band. More sensitive sensor
spectrum analysis methods (such as spectrum decomposition)
might represent a means of solving these problems.
Furthermore, different types and contents of optical fingerprint
databases of deposits should be established for accurate
detection and identification.
4.4 Summary of applications
In this section, we present three potential applications of
underwater hyperspectral imaging (Figure 13). Through the
study of classification, object detection and other methods, we
found that it is still difficult to detect large areas of underwater
targets only by hyperspectral analysis.
Although there are some applications for underwater
hyperspectral imaging, its use is still relatively scarce. This
imaging is rarely performed because while valuable objects, such
as minerals, are located in the deep sea, detection and mining
costs are high. However, it is conceivable that with the gradual
development of hyperspectral image processing technology and
its further integration with other technologies, such as acoustic
technology, hyperspectral images will gradually become a
powerful tool for human understanding of the underwater world.
Mineral type Methods Reference
Sulfide deposits Field Sture et al. (2017)
Manganese nodules Field Dumke et al. (2018a, 2018b)
 Underwater object detection
Zhixin Wang et al.
Figure 12 (a) Underwater hyperspectral imaging radiance data in RGB (R: 645 nm, G: 571 nm, B: 473 nm), (b) adjusted pseudoreflectance data in
pseudocolor map, (c) SVM classification result of (b)
Figure 13 Potential applications of underwater hyperspectral imaging
5. Conclusion
Compared with traditional images, hyperspectral images can
provide optical images obtained in hundreds of bands. This
article introduces the use of hyperspectral in the underwater
environment from the three aspects of preprocessing
hyperspectral images, spectral unmixing and object detection
and subsequently compares various existing methods. With
hundreds of spectral images available in different bands,
spectral and spatial details are contained in the hyperspectral
image cubes, which provide researchers with a better
understanding of image information. New methods have been
developed that include not only classification but also object
detection to provide a more specific interpretation of image
information, and most of them have shown good performance.
However, the following challenges still exist.
In actual underwater applications, due to the complexity of
the underwater environment and the stability of the
underwater vehicle, the acquisition of underwater
Sensor Review
hyperspectral images is limited, resulting in some differences
in the application of hyperspectral imaging technology
underwater and in the air. In addition, due to the military and
economic strategic value of underwater hyperspectral
imaging technology, the sharing of technology in this field has
been greatly restricted.
Underwater hyperspectral imaging may provide a useful
method for observing and understanding the underwater
world. Although there are few reports on underwater
hyperspectral imaging technology, there are a number of
systems using this technology that are already in commercial
use. In the foreseeable future, underwater hyperspectral
imaging may gradually become a more mature method for
observing the underwater world.
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Corresponding author
Zhi Liu and Zhaojun Liu can be contacted at: liuzhi@sdu.
edu.cn; zhaojunliu@sdu.edu.cn