MARINE METEOROLOGY

SHIPBOURNE METEOROLOGICAL INSTRUMENTS

1. PRESSURE MEASURING INSTRUMENTS

Few ships still use the mercury barometer. Aneroid barometers are the common ones
found on board ships nowadays. Aneroid barometers are subject to zero shift and must
therefore be checked frequently against a standing barometer in order to ensure
continuous, accurate operation. Zero drift is not continuous, it remaining for a rather long
period before shifting to another level. Checking of aneroid barometers is done by the
Port meteorological Office (PMO), and it is recommended that checks be made at
intervals of not more than three months. A permanent record of the checks should be
attached to the instrument. The records include: the date of the check, the temperature
at the time of the check, the pressure at which the check was made.
The precision aneroid barometer is considered to be the most accurate instrument
for measuring pressure.
The barograph is a kind of aneroid barometer which gives a continuous record of
pressure on a paper chart over a period. The continuous trace so produced is known as a
BAROGRAM.
2. WIND MEASURING INSTRUMENTS
The anemometer is used for measuring wind speed and the wind vane for indication
the wind direction. On a moving ship the readings obtained will be apparent (relative) to
the ship’s head. When readings are to be transmitted to the meteorological office
readings should be averaged over a ten-minute period. Overestimation of wind speed can
be more than 10% and caution must be exercised.
Superstructure, masts and spars on the ship cause distortion in the wind flow, therefore
siting of the instrument should be well planned. It is usually sited as far forward and as
high as, possible. Wind speed measured should be corrected for effective height of the
instrument above mean sea level.
The wind vane and anemometer are usually combined in one unit.
3. TEMPERATURE MEASURING INSTUMENTS
The ordinary mercury thermometer is used for measuring air temperature.
Distant reading thermometers are fitted on certain ships. Platinum resistance
thermometer with a digital readout are also available on some ships.
4. RELATIVE HUMIDITY AND DEW POINT
The Stevenson’s screen is modified to house the Mason’s hygrometer on board ships,
under seagoing conditions. It is then called the Marine screen. The Mason’s
hygrometer contains two thermometers one has a wet bulb. Tables are available for
determining the dew point or relative humidity from the readings obtained. A more
accurate type of hygrometer used on board is the Psychrometer
5. SEA TEMPERATURE
A simple mercury thermometer can be used to obtain the temperature of sea water
collected in a bucket.
Distant reading thermometers are available on voluntary observing ships (VOS).
Engine room intake temperatures may be used if other methods are not feasible.
Some observing ships have hull-attached thermometers located forward of all discharges.
Some ships trail thermometers when moving. Recently Infra-red radiometers are used by
certain observing ships.
THE MERCURY THERMOMETER
This is an instrument for measuring temperature of air and
liquids. It consists of a glass capillary tube attached to a bulb containing mercury. The
tube is evacuated of air and sealed at the open end. When the bulb is heated the
mercury expands into the capillary tube. Expansion of the mercury in the bulb causes the
length of mercury in the column to increase in length. Cooling results in the reverse, that
is, the length decreases. The tube is graduated with two reference points, one
representing the freezing point, the other the boiling point, of water.
WMO has adopted the Celsius as its unit of measurement for temperature. The
thermometer is thus graduated in degrees Celsius and the reference point for freezing is
0 whilst that for boiling is 100. The thermometers used on board ships are usually
graduated to below 0, down to about -20, because air temperature can fall below 0C.
Mercury is used in thermometers for the following reasons:
It has a fairly low freezing point of about -39C
It has a high boiling point of about 350C
It has a large, uniform coefficient of expansion
It does not wet glass
It is easily visible.
PRECAUTIONS WHEN READING THE THERMOMETER
Weather reports require temperature readings to the nearest tenth of a degree therefore
read to this accuracy.
Stand as far as possible from the thermometer so as to minimise the effect of body heat.
Ensure that the eye is at the same level as the mercury meniscus, to avoid error of
parallax. Eye above mercury level results in too low a reading and vice versa.

THE SIMPLE ANEROID BAROMETER

Aneroid means ‘without air’.
The principle on which all aneroid barometers are based is the use of the elastic
properties of a metal to monitor changes in the atmospheric pressure and hence the
value of the pressure at a given time.
A sealed chamber of thin metal in the form of a corrugated capsule which is almost
exhausted of air is connected by a system of levers and springs to a pointer fitted over a
circular graduated scale. The sealed chamber is made of thin metal and has an elastic
effect. The small amount of air in the chamber and the incorporation of a bimetallic
linkage compensates for errors caused by changes in temperature which affect the metal
from which the instrument is made.
An increase in atmospheric pressure causers the chamber to be compressed. The inward
movement caused by the compression is transmitted mechanically to the pointer by the
lever system, which then registers the higher reading due to compression. The linkage
system ensures a magnification of the readings. The readings are in Hectopascals
graduated to the nearest hectopascal.
When atmospheric pressure decreases the chamber expands, being aided by the spring.
The reverse process registers a lower pressure reading.
The larger the chamber the more accurate will be the reading of the barometer.
 Simple Aneroid Barometer.

1 = Corrugated capsule 2 = Spring

3 = Linkage system 4 = Moving pointer

5 = Bimetallic linkage 6 = Knurled knob for

dummy needle

7 = Dummy needle

The simple aneroid barometer can also be used to monitor the change in pressure over a
period. This is done by turning the knurled knob to set the dump pointer to the present
reading. The change in pressure in any period can be obtained by comparing the position
of the set pointer with that of the moving pointer.

ERRORS OF AN ANEROID BAROMETER

Atmospheric pressure is one of the elements in a
synoptic chart. Before transmission the pressure should be corrected to a standard value.
Readings of an aneroid barometer require two main corrections.
1. INDEX ERROR
This occurs as a result of imperfection in the elasticity of the vacuum
chamber. Index error changes with time and should be obtained at frequent intervals,
at least once every three months. This is done by comparison with another aneroid
barometer, usually the precision aneroid barometer, whose index error is known. This
is done by the Port Meteorological Office.
Index error should be recorded on a special card hung near the barometer, or pasted
on it. If index error becomes too large it can be reduced or eliminated by turning an
adjustment at the back of the instrument, using a screw driver.

2. HEIGHT CORRECTION
 Correction for height above mean sea level must be made to
the readings of the aneroid barometer before transmission. Atmospheric pressure falls
at a rate of one hectopascal for every 10m increase in height and this must be
allowed for the height of the instrument above mean sea level. The correction must
always be added to the readings obtained, to get it to mean level. Atmospheric
pressure near sea level falls at the rate of one hectopascal for every 10m increase in
height.
HEIGHT CORRECTION (hPa) =HEIGHT ABOVE MEAN SEA LEVEL (in metres) divided
by 10. This is always additive for an instrument on board ship.
Sticking due to friction affects the moving pointer and the lever system, therefore
before taking a reading it is necessary to give a gentle tap on the glass to remove the
sticking and get an accurate reading.
LOCATING THE ANEROID BAROMETER ON BOARD
In order for the instrument to
function error free it is necessary to exercise caution in locating it. Positioning of the
instrument should:
-at eye level for ease of reading
-away from draughts of air
-as close to the centreline of the ship as possible, to minimise the effect of rolling in a
seaway which causes fluctuation in height of the instrument above sea level.
-away from sudden jerks or undue vibrations as this could result in a change in index
error.
-away from locations which may experience sudden or abnormal changes in
temperature.

ADVANTAGES OF THE ANEROID BAROMETER

The advantages of the aneroid
barometer include the following:
-construction of the instrument is compact and robust
-it acts in providing instant pressure reading as well as being able to be used to
determine pressure tendency.
-certain errors which exist in a mercury barometer such as capillary error, capacity
error, pumping, are non-existent.
-it is accurate.
-it is easy to transport.
-it is maintenance free.

THE PRECISION ANEROID BAROMETER

The precision aneroid barometer works on the same principle as that of any aneroid
barometer.
This instrument is considered to be the most accurate thus far for obtaining
atmospheric pressure. Atmospheric pressure is obtained to the nearest tenth of a
hectopascal as opposed to the simple aneroid barometer whose readings are to the
nearest hectopascal.
The improved accuracy in the precision aneroid barometer is obtained by
incorporating three aneroid capsules instead of one as is the case of the simple
aneroid barometer. There is also an improved magnification system and an improved
method of obtaining readings.
 By use of an external knob on the instrument to adjust the position of a micrometer
screw the observer controls the magnification and the registering of the atmospheric
pressure.
The precision aneroid barometer is supplied to observing ships, replacing the Kew
pattern barometer which used to be considered the most accurate.
TAKING READINGS FROM THE PRECISION ANEROID BAROMETER
1. Switch on the main power source.
2. Press and hold the black knob on the instrument.
3. Whilst holding onto the pressed black knob, turn the external knurled knob one
way or the other till contact between the micrometer screw and the contact arm
is made. Contact is indicated by a continuous line of light on the external display
whilst the black knob is depressed.
4. Turn the external knob till the line of light just breaks. This indicates that the
contact between the micrometer screw and the contact arm has just broken.
5. Release the pressure on the black knob and take the readings from the readout
window.
6. Insert the decimal point as appropriate.
7. Apply the corrections for index error and height above mean sea level.
8. Note that in order to prolong the life of the small battery inside the instrument a
spring-loaded switch (the black knob) is provided. This is usually in the switch off
position. Depressing it causes it to make contact between the micrometer screw
and the contact arm, thus energising the magic eye.

Note that compensation for temperature variation of the instrument is provided for by
including a small amount of air in the capsules. Instrument response to short-term
changes in atmospheric pressure such as may occur due to the motion of the ship is
taken care of by the inclusion of a pressure choke. This smoothes the variations in
pressure to a negligible amount. The instrument uses a battery housed within it.

General view of the Precision Aneroid Barometer

LINE OF LIGHT (D)

CORRECTIONS TO READINGS OBTAINED FROM THE PRECISION ANEROID BAROMETER

For synoptic purposes the readings obtained must be corrected to a standard datum. The
necessary corrections are those for HEIGHT ABOVE MEAN SEA LEVEL AND FOR INDEX ERROR.

Height corrections are obtained from tables. These corrections require the height above mean
sea level and the air temperature which is obtained from the marine screen. The inclusion of air
temperature takes into account the mean density of the air between mean sea level and the
height at which the instrument is located.

Index error is error inherent in the instrument due to imperfect elasticity of the metal chamber.
The correction is supplied by the manufacture. Despite this, it is important to check index error
frequently by comparing the on-board instrument as is the case with the ordinary, with another
barometer of known accuracy. This is obtained from the meteorological office.

Some instruments have the height correction built into them whereby the datum can be reset on
the instrument.

The difference between the precision aneroid barometer and the simple aneroid barometer lies
in the means of transmitting the changes in air pressure to a reading. The effect of atmospheric
pressure on the capsules causes the capsule contact to move away from or towards the contact
arm. If contact is broken this is indicated by the magic eye, and this is the time to take the
readings. The break between the contact arm and capsule ensures that there is no load or
pressure been exerted by the arm, and the pressure thus read is purely atmospheric. Pressure
readings from the precision aneroid barometer can range from 900 hectopascals to 1050
hectopascals.

MAINTENANCE

The only maintenance required for the precision aneroid barometer is the periodic renewal of the
small battery inside the instrument for powering the electronic circuit which operates the
cathode ray tube (magic eye).

ADVANTAGES OF THE PRECISION ANEROID BAROMETER

1. It is accurate.
2. It is compact (small) and thus easy to transport.
3. It is robust (strong) and will not damage easily.
4. Installation requires a small space.
5. It is virtually maintenance free.

THE MARINE BAROGRAPH

This is an instrument designed to give a continuous record of atmospheric

pressure. It works on the aneroid principle.

The barograph consists of a number of vacuum capsules connected to each other and the set
connected to a lever system which in turn is connected to a pen arm. A scaled chart is attached
to a drum which is rotated by a clockwork mechanism. The cylindrical drum rotates at a uniform
speed of one whole rotation per week. This rotation is facilitated by a clock mechanism which
operates for 7 1/3 days. The drum is fitted with a 7-day chart thus the chart is changed weekly.
At the same time the clock is wound.

The aneroid capsules are encased in a brass cylinder containing a fluid of silicone or oil which
acts as a damping mechanism, eliminating the response of the instrument to short term changes
in pressure as in the motion and vibration of the ship in a sea way.
UTC is indicated on the chart by vertical lines drawn at two-hour intervals. These lines are
curved, with their radius of curvature equal to the length of the pen-arm. This ensures that
changes in pressure are recorded without creating error in time.

For the purpose of future reference, a button is provided on the instrument. When this is
pressed a couple of times (usually done at sea every day at 1200UTC), the pen-arm moves up
and down slightly causing a mark (this is known as a time reference mark). A future check by
the Port Meteorological Office will identify if the drum is rotating slightly in error.

The entire barograph is provided with a hinged glass cover to protect it from gusts of wind and
from dust, and it is mounted on springs and rubber pads to reduce vibrations.

The tip of the stylus has attached to it a detachable pen to which has a drop of slow drying ink
in it to operate for a week. The ink is therefore replenished weekly by use of a dropper supplied
with the instrument.

When the vacuum capsules respond to changes in atmospheric pressure the pen arm moves
either up or down across the scaled chart attached to the drum, making a mark as the drum
rotates. The trace (chart) produced is known as a barogram.

PRECAUTIONS TO TAKE IN LOCATING THE BAROGRAPH ON BOARD

1. In a location easily accessible to the navigating officers – wheelhouse or chart-room.

2. At eye level in order to eliminate parallax
3. Located such that persons may not have accidental contact with it.
4. As close to the centre line of the ship as possible.
5. Away from direct sunlight or other sources of undue heat or cold.
6. Away from undue vibrations.

MAINTENANCE OF THE BAROGRAPH

1. Wash the pen with water or methylated spirit frequently, at least once a month.
2. Replenish ink regularly, once a week.
3. Renew chart weekly.
4. Wind the clock mechanism weekly.
5. Compare and adjust readings for index error and height above sea level error.
6. Avoid excess ink in the pen as this could cause the pen-arm to corrode and the pen to
stick to the arm.

THE COMPLETED BAROGRAM

At the back of each chart there are entries to be made. These include date, latitude and
longitude, date of comparison with other barometers etc. These should be filled up on
completion of each barogram and the charts rolled up and stored properly. They may then be
handed over to the port meteorological office of the home port.

THE HYGROMETER OR PSYCHROMETER

This is an instrument for obtaining the relative humidity, vapour pressure and dew point
temperature of air.
The type in use at sea is called variously the Mason’s hygrometer, the wet and dry bulb
hygrometer or the psychrometer. The whirling psychrometer which consists of the two
thermometers fixed in a framework which can be rotated by hand, is considered to give more
accurate readings. The screen in which the hygrometer is housed at sea is known as the Marine
Screen. This is a modification of the Stevenson’s Screen.

The hygrometer consists of two identical thermometers – the dry bulb and the wet bulb, which
are graduated in degrees celcius mounted side by side. The wet bulb has a thin, single layer of
muslin (a starch free cotton) or cambric tied around the bulb by a few strands of cotton wick.
The extra length of these strands is immersed in a bottle of distilled water. Both thermometers
are housed in the Stevenson’s Screen (the Marine Screen on board ship). This is a well-ventilated
wooden box.

PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION OF THE HYGROMETER

The muslin around the bulb of the wet bulb thermometer is always damp as a result of capillary
action as water is drawn upwards from the bottle through the immersed strands.

Evaporation of the water around the wet bulb takes place from the muslin. This requires energy
which is taken from the muslin thus resulting in cooling and a lower reading.

The rate of evaporation from the wet bulb thermometer depends on the degree of saturation of
the air (relative humidity) and the rate of flow of the air past the bulb. For optimum results an
air flow speed of 2 to 4 knots and 7 knots is good for the Mason’s Hygrometer and the whirling
psychrometer respectively.

In a dry atmosphere quick evaporation occurs from the muslin causing cooling, with the result
that the wet bulb thermometer will show a much lower reading than the dry bulb thermometer.
In a humid atmosphere the evaporation from the muslin is slow resulting in less cooling of the
wet bulb thermometer. The difference in the readings of the wet and dry bulb thermometers will
therefore be less than in the previous case. The difference in the two readings is known as the
depression of the wet bulb, and this gives an indication of the relative humidity of the air. If the
difference is great the relative humidity is lower; if it is small, then relative humidity is higher. If
the air has a relative humidity of 100% there will be no depression of the wet bulb.

OBTAINING THE RELATIVE HUMIDITY AND DEW POINT

Meteorological tables are available. These are entered with the dry bulb reading on one axis and
the depression of the wet bulb (the difference between the readings of the dry bulb and wet
bulb) on the axis. The relative humidity or dew point is taken from the main body.

Separate tables are available for the relative humidity and for the dew point.

Separate, and different, tables for the two parameters are also available when a psychrometer is
used.

On board ship two marine screens are usually mounted, one on each side of the bridge wings.
They are mounted 1.5m above deck for ease of reading. Readings should always be taken from
the screen to windward.

PRECAUTIONS WHEN USING THE HYGROMETER

1. Place the marine screen 1.5m above the deck for ease of reading by the observer.
2. Marine screen should be placed in open air away from artificial heat sources such as hot
bulkheads, heaters, blowers etc.
3. Ensure direct sunlight does not reach the thermometers. Sunlight can fall on the screen but
not on the thermometers.
4. Muslin must be clean – no dust or salt spray or any contaminant. Any material on the muslin
will make the wet bulb thermometer to record a higher reading.
5. The dry bulb should be clean and free of drops of water.
6. The muslin should be just damp. If there is too much water on it the wet bulb reading will
be too high, and vice versa if too little water is on it. Not more than necessary strands will
ensure good moist condition of the muslin.
7. The muslin and the strands tying it should be changed weekly.
8. The distilled water should be changed weekly after washing the bottle. Evaporation of water
leaves particles behind, even the distilled water that we use.
9. Whenever the bottle is washed and distilled water and muslin and strands are renewed, or
in the case where only one marine screen is carried and has to be carried to the windward
side for a reading to be taken, at least thirty minutes must elapse before taking readings.
This is to allow for sufficient evaporation to take place.
10. If wind speed is less than seven knots the reading from a marine screen will not be
accurate. If there is a whirling psychrometer on board resort to it for accurate readings.
11. Always take readings from the screen on the windward side. If only one screen is on board
then it must be moved to windward for at least 30 minutes before taking the readings.

OBSERVING THAT THE WET BULB READING IS HIGHER THAN THE DRY BULB

When this happens, the following are the likely causes:

1. No water in the bottle

2. Broken thermometers
3. Evaporation is not sufficient due to impurities on the muslin or no water on the muslin.
4. The sensitivity of the wet bulb thermometer is much higher than that of the dry bulb.

EFFECT OF SUB-ZERO TEMPERATURES ON HYGROMETER READINGS

When the dry bulb thermometer records a reading below zero degrees celcius the film of water
surrounding the wet bulb will freeze into a thin film of ice (ice frost). At this state evaporation
takes place over an ice surface and the wet bulb will still read lower than the dry bulb. If you
notice that the muslin has dried up under such a condition drop some distilled water on it and
wait for it to freeze before taking the reading.

Sometimes supercooled droplets of water may be seen on the wet bulb when the temperature of
the wet bulb is below zero. This will create a big error in the reading. In such a circumstance
touch the wet bulb with a wet object (ice crystal, a pencil). This will initiate freezing of the
supercooled water. Wait until freezing has occurred before taking the readings.

THE STEVENSON SCREEN (MARINE SCREEN ON SHIPS)

`The Marine Screen is an adaptation of the Stevenson’s Screen for use on board ships. The
screen is a box constructed of wood for housing the mason’s hygrometer. Incorporated is a
hinged door and this together with all the sides are louvred. The bottom (floor) is slotted and the
top (roof) is of double construction. Louvring of the sides and door ensures that air circulates
freely without letting in solar radiation or heat from ship’s structure. The louvres also prevent
rain and spray from entering the box. If sunlight were to fall directly on the thermometers, then
the readings would denote that of the instruments and not the air inside the box. The entire box
is painted white both inside and outside to reflect back maximum solar radiation falling on it.

THE WHIRLING PSYCHROMETER

This is a more efficient type of hygrometer which acts on the same principle as the hygrometer
described earlier. It comprises a wet and dry bulb thermometer also.

The construction comprises a light wooden frame pivoted on a revolvable handle. When it is
required to obtain readings of the thermometers the frame is held down horizontally, the
dropper supplied with the instrument is used to deposit one drop of distilled water on the muslin
to make it damp. The frame is then whirled in open air for at least two minutes before taking the
readings. Different tables are used for the Whirling psychrometer for determining the relative
humidity, dewpoint or vapour pressure.
PRECAUTIONS TO BE TAKEN IN USING THE WHIRLING PSYCHROMETER

1. Never touch the muslin with your finger as body oils could be transferred to it rendering
it water resistant.
2. Ensure that the muslin is clean of dust or other dirt deposits left from evaporation. If this
is not so the reading will be higher than it would otherwise have been as free
evaporation will not occur. Deposit only one drop of distilled water on the muslin. This
should be enough to soak the muslin. If it does not make it damp the muslin must be
contaminated and should be changed.
3. Always swing the instrument on the windward side in the open air, away from direct
sunlight.
4. Care must be taken whilst swinging the instrument to ensure it does not strike an object
which might result in breaking of the thermometers.
5. Swinging of the instrument should be for at least two minutes and the readings taken
right afterwards in the open. If you have to bring it to the chart room the readings would
have altered, therefore go along with a touch at night.

ADVANTAGES OF THE WHIRLING PSYCHROMETER

1. It is easy to read thus readings can be taken quickly.

2. It is a simple instrument
3. Readings from it are very accurate.

NOTE: The rate of evaporation depends on the speed of the air as well as temperature, so then
will the depression of the wet bulb. The greater the wind speed the greater the depression and
vice versa. Observations have shown that the maximum evaporation occurs at about seven knots
wind speed. Any increase beyond this value does not make any appreciable change in the
readings of the thermometers. A whiling speed of one rotation per second generates a wind
speed of more than seven knots past the bulb. It is thus easy to obtain a very accurate reading
of the thermometer.
 THE ATMOSPHERE

Meteorology is the science of the study of the atmosphere and its associated weather. It is one
of the earth sciences (the sciences that seek to understand our planet). Other earth sciences are
geology, oceanography and astronomy. There is some overlap and they are studied
conjunctively. The practice of meteorology involves a knowledge in other sciences such bas
physics, chemistry and biology.

Due to the insolation of the sun and the movement of the earth (rotation and revolution) the
atmosphere reacts to these factors producing a variety of weather. Weather controls our daily
activities and health e.g. how comfortable we feel. In order to enjoy outdoor activities which are
a part of modern life we need good weather. A combination of moisture, gases and heat in the
atmosphere helps to support life. A balance of the gases in the atmosphere is therefore
necessary and vital for our everyday existence on the planet.

Weather refers to the state of the atmosphere at any given time and place with respect to
temperature, humidity, precipitation, visibility, cloudiness, pressure variation, etc. When all the
statistical information on weather is aggregated (averaged) over a long period the result is
climate. Climate therefore refers to the prevalent or characteristic meteorological conditions of a
particular place or region. Weather undergoes changes constantly and can be hour by hour, day
by day etc.

The same basic elements affect weather and climate. These are:

1. Air pressure
2. Air temperature
3. Humidity of the air
4. Type and amount of cloud cover
5. Amount of precipitation
6. The velocity (speed and direction) of the wind.

The atmosphere is the envelope of gases surrounding the earth. It extends s from ground level
(the lithosphere) up to about 200km. A number of processes which vary in size, intensity and
duration occur within the atmosphere. These processes result in the weather experience on
earth, the cumulative effect of which over a long period is what is termed climate. Most of the
weather changes takes place in the lower layer of the atmosphere known as the troposphere.
Nearly all the water vapour in the atmosphere is contained in this layer.
The sun is 93 million miles from the earth and its surface temperature is 600 . C. It is the principal
source of energy for the earth. The various processes in our atmosphere of concerned are
triggered by the insolation of the sun.

The atmosphere is perceived to have distinct layers extending from ground level. These layers
are defined by variation of the air temperature with increase in height. For the standard
atmosphere under consideration the layers are as follows:

TROPOSPHERE –This layer extends from ground level to a height of about 12km. The end is
known as the TROPOPAUSE.

STRATOSPHERE –This the layer extending from the tropopause to a height of about 47km above
the earth’s surface. The end is known as the STRATOPAUSE.

MESOSPHERE –the region extending from the stratopause to a height of about 80km above the
earth’s surface. The end is known as the MESOPAUSE.

THERMOSPHERE –This extends from the mesopause upwards. This area has a negligible
quantity of gases and temperature increases with increase in height. Below the mesopause the
mixture of gases in the atmosphere is nearly constant. Height above earth’s surface refers to the
height above sea level. The heights are average values as the distances vary with location on the
earth’s surface polar areas having the least and the equator having the greatest.

Different criteria within some layers, especially the thermosphere result in other layers forming
within them.

The IONOSPHERE is a layer within the thermosphere, starting from about 60km upwards. It has
two main divisions: The KENNELLY-HEAVISDE LAYER which exists at about 90km and the
APPLETON LAYER which exist at about 240km above the earth’s surface. The gases in these
layers are ionised by solar radiation. It is here that radio wave propagation takes place.

The ionosphere is not really a layer, but rather an electrified region within the upper
atmosphere where fairly large concentrations of ions and free electrons exist. Ions are atoms
and molecules that have lost (or gained) one or more electrons. Atoms lose electrons and
become positively charged when they cannot absorb all of the energy transferred to them by a
colliding energetic particle or the sun’s energy.

The lower region of the ionosphere is usually about 60 km above the earth’s surface. From here
(60 km), the ionosphere extends upward to the top of the atmosphere. Hence, the bulk of the
ionosphere is in the thermosphere.

The ionosphere plays a major role in radio communications. The lower part (called the D region)
reflects standard AM radio waves back to earth, but at the same time it seriously weakens them
through absorption. At night, though, the D region gradually disappears and AM radio waves are
able to penetrate higher into the ionosphere (into the E and F regions

The ozonosphere has a greater concentration of ozone and is located in the stratosphere. This
layer is responsible for the air temperature in the lower stratosphere being fairly constant.

Their relative concentration in percentage by volume in dry air are as follows:

GAS SYMBOL PERCENTGE BY VOLUME

Nitrogen N2 78.09

Oxygen O2 20.95

Argon Ar 0.93

Carbon dioxide CO2 0.03

There are traces of other gases within the atmosphere such as neon, helium, krypton, hydrogen
and radon, xenon, ozone.

Note: dry air is any air which is not fully saturated. When air is fully saturated is termed wet air
or saturated air.

A COMPOSITION OF THE ATMOSPHERE

1 Primary gases
Air is a mechanical mixture of gases, not a chemical compound. Dry air, by volume, is more than
99 per cent composed of nitrogen and oxygen (Table 2.1). Rocket observations show that these
gases are mixed in remarkably constant proportions up to about 100 km altitude. Yet, despite
their predominance, these gases are of little climatic importance.

Below is a more detailed composition of the atmosphere:

Average composition of the dry atmosphere below 25 km.

Volume Molecula
Component Symbol % r
(dry air) weight

Nitrogen N2 78.08 28.02

Oxygen O2 20.95 32.00
Argon Ar 0.93 39.88
Carbon CO2 0.037 44.00
dioxide
Neon Ne 0.0018 20.18
Helium He 0.0005 4.00
Ozone O3 0.00006 48.00
Hydrogen H 0.00005 2.02
Krypton Kr 0.0011

Xenon Xe 0.00009

Methane CH4 0.00017

Other chemical compounds exist in the troposphere chief amongst which is water vapour. The
amount of water vapour varies in space and in time. It is greater in the lower parts of the
troposphere and decreases in quantity with increasing height.

Other particles which may be present may be due to particles from outer space or from the
earth, and compounds formed from reaction amongst the various constituents in the
troposphere. These can result in various effects such as acid rain, colourful sunsets and sunrises.

Change of temperature with increase in height in the various layers is shown below:

Earth’s surface to tropopause – decreased temperature with increase in height.

Within the Stratosphere – increased temperature with increase in height.

Within the Mesosphere – decreased temperature with increase in height.

Above mesopause and upwards – increase in temperature with increase in height.

The temperature in the stratosphere is fairly constant at the lower level and the increase in
temperature with increased height is thus small at the middle level upwards.

VARIATION OF AIR TEMPERATURE WITH HEIGHT FOR THE STANDARD ATMOSPHERE

120

70
Layers of the atmosphere as
110
related to the average profile
THERMOSPHERE of air temperature above the
100
earth’s surface. The heavy
0.001 mb 60 line illustrates how the
90 average temperature varies
Mesopause in each layer.
80 0.01 mb 50

70 MESOSPHERE
Altitude (km)
Altitude (mi)
0.1 mb 40
60

50 Stratopause 1 mb 30

40

STRATOSPHERE 10 mb 20
30
Ozone
maximum
20
100 mb
Local influences can sometimes cause air temperature increase with increase in height instead of
a decrease, or for it to remain constant with increase in height.

Where the temperature increases with height instead of an expected decrease with height it is
known as a TEMPERATURE INVERSION. Where temperature remains constant it is known as an
ISOTHERMAL layer. These two conditions are temporary and will subsequently return to normal.

If inversion starts from the ground it is termed a GROUND LEVEL INVERSION; if t starts
anywhere above ground level it is termed UPPER LEVE INVERSION.

The change in temperature with increase in height is known as TEPMPERATURE LAPSE RATE.
Environmental lapse rate (ELR) is referred to when a particular air mass is under consideration.
It depends on may factors but usually it lies between the Dry Adiabatic lapse rate (DALR) and
the Saturated Adiabatic lapse rate. ELR varies with altitude.

When the air temperature decreases with increasing height ELR is positive whilst if temperature
increases with increasing height ELR is negative.

ELR is established by recording upper air temperatures at 000 and 1200 UTC by selected stations
distributed round the world by means of radiosondes and transmitted to the surface. The data
transmitted include pressure, temperature and humidity.

ADIABATIC LAPSE RATE

Adiabatic change in temperature occurs when a parcel of air experiences a change in

temperature resulting from a change in volume (increase or decrease) without any heat
exchange from the surroundings. Air is rarer (less quantity) as height increases, thus if a parcel
of air rises its volume will increase to occupy the vacant space. The air thus expands and cooling
occurs though no heat exchange has taken place between it and the surroundings. This effect is
termed adiabatic.

DRY ADIABATIC LAPSE RATE (DALR)

When dry air (air which is not fully saturated) is forced to rise observations shows that it
decreases its temperature by one degree celcius for every 100m rise. If the same air is forced to
descend its temperature will increase at the same rate. This rate is known as the Dry Adiabatic
Lapse Rate (DALR).

SATUTRATED ADIABATIC LAPSE RATE (SALR)

If wet air (saturated air) is forced to rise it will also cool as height is gained (its temperature will
lower). An average rate of 0.5 degrees celcius for every kilometre rise has been observed. This
means that the SALR is 0.5.C/km. We notice that SALR is less than DALR. This is because as
saturated air cools its ability to hold water vapour decreases and the excess moisture in the
water vapour condenses into water droplets. The condensation process releases heat energy
which warms the parcel of air causing the temperature of the rising saturated air to fall. SALR
varies with the latitude. It is low near the equator and high at the poles. It also depends on the
latent heat of the condensing water vapour.

THE TROPOSPHERE

This is the most important among the layers of the atmosphere as it is here
that nearly all of the weather changes take place. Under normal circumstances temperature
decreases with increase in height within the troposphere. This change within the troposphere is
known as the Environmental Lapse Rate (ELR)as it relates to air (environmental) temperature.
For the standard atmosphere the air temperature on the surface of the earth is considered to be
15 degrees celcius, and under this condition the ELR in the troposphere is 6.5 . Ckm-1.

The tropopause which is the end of the troposphere, is not continuous. There is a gap
around 40 degrees of latitude and you may consider two tropopauses here: - the polar
tropopause and the tropical tropopause.
It is not also uniform in height, varying as: the latitude, the season of the year, the
temperature prevailing on the day and the time of the day.
SIGNIFICANCE OF THE TROPOPAUSE HEIGHT:
Tropopause height usually marks:
 The maximum height of cloud
 The presence of jetstreams
 The presence of clear air turbulence
 The maximum wind speed.

SUMMARY

The atmosphere is a mixture of gases with constant proportions up to 80 km or more. The

exceptions are ozone, which is concentrated in the lower stratosphere, and water vapour in
the lower troposphere. The principal greenhouse gas is water vapour. Carbon dioxide,
methane and other trace gases have increased since the Industrial Revolution, especially in
the twentieth century due to the combustion of fossil fuels, industrial processes and other
anthropogenic effects, but larger natural fluctuations occurred during the geologic past.
Reactive gases include nitrogen and sulphur and chlorine species. These play important
roles in acid precipitation and ozone destruction. Acid precipitation (by wet or dry
deposition) results from the reaction of cloud droplets with emissions of SO 2 and NOx. There
are large geographical variations in acid deposition. The processes leading to destruction of
stratospheric ozone are complex, but the roles of nitrogen oxides and chlorine radicals are
 very important in causing polar ozone holes. Aerosols in the atmosphere originate from
natural and anthropogenic sources and they play an important but complex role in climate.
Air is highly compressible, so that half of its mass occurs in the lowest 5 km, and
pressure decreases logarithmically with height from an average sea-level value of 1013 mb.
The vertical structure of the atmosphere comprises three relatively warm layers – the lower
troposphere, the stratopause and the upper thermosphere – separated by a cold layer
above the tropopause (in the lower stratosphere), and the mesopause. The temperature
profile is determined by atmospheric absorption of solar radiation, and the decrease of
density with height.

Stratospheric ozone absorbs significant amounts of both incoming ultraviolet radiation, harmful to life,
and outgoing terrestrial long-wave re-radiation, so that its overall thermal role is a complex one. Its net
effect on earth surface temperatures depends on the elevation at which the absorption occurs, being to
some extent a trade-off between short- and long-wave absorption in that:

1 An increase of ozone above about 30 km absorbs relatively more incoming short-wave radiation,
causing a net decrease of surface temperatures.
2 An increase of ozone below about 25 km absorbs relatively more outgoing long-wave radiation,
causing a net increase of surface temperatures.

Long-wave radiation is not merely terrestrial in the narrow sense. The atmosphere radiates to space,
and clouds are particularly effective since they act as black bodies.

ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE

Pressure is defined as the force per unit area. Units: kilogram force per metre squared (kgfm -2)
= Newton per metre squared (Nm-2) or tonnes per metre squared (tm-2) for larger values.

The SI unit of pressure is the hectopascal (hPa). Formally it was the millibar (mb). One millibar
= one hectopascal.

Atmospheric pressure is the force exerted by a column of air on a unit area of the earth’s
surface. The formula for this is P = ρgh where ρ =mean density of the air in the column in
kilograms per metre cube, g = acceleration due to gravity in metres per second squared and h =
height of air column in metres. P = the atmospheric pressure whose units are in hectopascals
(hPa). The unit used to be the millibar which has been replaced by the hectopascal. 1mb = 100
newtons per metre squared which = 100-kilogram metre per second which = 1 hPa.

Atmospheric pressure acts in all directions. At sea level atmospheric pressure varies between 940
hPa to 1050 hPa.

A line joining places having the same pressure value is known as an ISOBAR.

At any height above the earth’s surface the atmospheric pressure will be less than at the surface
of the earth. This is due to two reasons: - the smaller value of the height of the column of air
and the smaller value of the mean density. Unlike temperature atmospheric pressure always
decreases with increase in height above sea level. At lower levels, up to 5km, the pressure lapse
rate is about 115 hectopascals for every kilometre increase in height. The figure is higher for
higher levels. Pressure variation attains two highs in a day of 24hrs. The maximums occur
around 1000 and 2200LMT and two lows around 0400 and 1600LMT. These variations are called
semi-diurnal variations of pressure. Air movements can result in an accumulation of air at a
particular area thus increasing the pressure. Such an area of accumulating air is known as an
area of convergence. Conversely air can be removed from a column resulting in a decrease in
pressure. Such an area is termed and area of divergence.

The difference between the maximum and minimum values of these pressure variations is
known as the semi-diurnal range of atmospheric pressure.

DENSITY AND PRESSURE VARIATION IN THE ATMOSPHERE

Gases are compressible and expandable. 75% of the total mass of gases in the atmosphere lies
within the troposphere. This means that the higher you ascend the lesser the concentration of
gas, therefore the density decreases with increase in height.

At the surface of the earth (mean sea level, MSL) the standard atmospheric pressure is
1013.2hPa. This figure reduces with increasing height above MSL.

DIAGRAM
 0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000
Pressure (hPa)

VARIATION OF DENSITY AND PRESSURE FOR THE STANDARD ATMOSPHERE

PRESSURE TENDENCY (BAROMETRIC TENDENCY)

Atmospheric pressure may undergo change within a period. This change is termed BAROMETRIC
TENDENCY or PRESSURE TENDENCY. For synoptic purposes the interval allowed is the 3 hours
preceding the time of observation. Barometric tendency is expressed in hectopascals to the
nearest tenth of a hectopascal.

The characteristics of barometric tendency are expressed in three modes: - RISING FALLING or
STEADY. When pressure tendency values are plotted on a synoptic chart lines joining places
having the same tendency are drawn. These are known as Isallobars. The value of an isallobar is
expressed to the nearest tenth of a hectopascal. The interval between isallobars is constant and
this value can be positive or negative. An isallobaric chart indicates places where pressure
changes have occurred and this may be used in forecasting weather.
 TEMPERATURE

Temperature is the measure of the average kinetic energy of the atoms or molecules of a
substance; it therefore is the degree, or the intensity of heat (the hotness or coldness) of an
object or substance. Modern unit of measurement of temperature is the degree celcius ( .C)

Air temperature can be monitored at various heights above the surface of the earth.

Surface temperature is temperature measured at the surface, the recommended height for
instruments for surface temperature measurement on land being 1.25m. The land surface has
different materials covering it at different places; e.g. grass or turf, soil of different kinds,
concrete. The temperature is affected by the type of covering.

At sea, sea surface temperature is monitored by voluntary observing ships or Data Buoys.
Horizontal movement of air masses associated with pressure systems also affect the
temperature.

Weather forecasting is dependent mainly on pressure and temperature. Temperature measuring

instruments depend on the expansion properties of liquids or metals. The standard instrument
for measuring air temperature is the dry bulb thermometer, which is a mercury filled
thermometer. Graduations are usually in degrees Celsius. It is usually housed in a Stevenson
Screen which is an enclosure that ensures free flow of air past the thermometer and at the same
time eliminating the effects of both solar and terrestrial radiation. An adaptation of the
Stevenson Screen for marine use is known as the Mason’s hygrometer, which is constructed of
wood with louvred sides, one of which has a hinged door. The floor is slotted and the top has
double layers with the inner one having ventilation holes. The whole structure is painted white
inside and outside. Two are mounted on the bridge wings and readings should be taken from the
one on the windward side. Thermometer should always be placed out of the direct rays of the
sun and away from heat sources, local draughts and warm air currents.

NB: Ground temperature is taken at shore stations only with the thermometer placed
horizontally, 50mm above the ground.

SEA TEMPERATURE: The more common method of taking sea temperature is to fetch the sea
water with a specially constructed canvas bucket or rubber reinforced by canvas bucket, and
inserting the thermometer into the water then observing the reading. Alternately a specially
constructed bucket made of canvas or rubber reinforced by canvas has the thermometer
attached to it and guarded against breakage is trailed in the sea, which can be brought aboard
and the temperature read. In both cases the bucket should be well clear of all discharges.

In merchant ships the engine room intake temperature is taken. This is however liable to
inaccuracies due to the depth of the intake below the surface and heating of the water as it
enters the engine room.

Voluntary observing ships now have distant reading thermometers. These consist of electrical
resistant units placed inside the hull of the ship about one metre below the waterline where the
hull temperature is accepted as similar to the sea temperature. The sensing unit is linked up to
the bridge digital readout. Though this method eliminates the errors in the previous methods it is
assumed that the draught is constant. Variation in draught ban result in erroneous readouts.

Insolation and Radiation

Insolation is defined as the incoming solar radiation that reaches the earth or atmosphere.
Insolation is probably the biggest factor when considering the temperature forecast.
Stations at low latitudes (closer to the equator) receive more heat during the day than
stations at high latitudes (closer to the poles). Expect more daytime heating in the summer
months than in the winter months, since during the summer months the sun's rays are
more direct and reach the earth for a longer period of time (see Figure 4-1). Normally,
there is a net gain of heat during the day and a net loss at night. Consequently,’ the
maximum temperature is usually reached during the day, and the minimum at night.

A few important facts and principles:

 All objects with a temperature above absolute zero
emit radiation.
*The higher an object’s temperature, the greater the
amount of radiation emitted per unit surface area and
the shorter the wavelength of maximum emission.
_* The earth absorbs solar radiation only during the
daylight hours; however, it emits infrared radiation
continuously, both during the day and at night.
_ The earth’s surface behaves as a blackbody, making it
a much better absorber and emitter of radiation than
the atmosphere.
_ Water vapour and carbon dioxide are important atmospheric
greenhouse gases that selectively absorb and
emit infrared radiation, thereby keeping the earth’s
average surface temperature warmer than it otherwise
would be.
_ Cloudy, calm nights are often warmer than clear,
calm nights because clouds strongly absorb and emit
infrared radiation.
_ It is not the greenhouse effect itself that is of concern,
but the enhancement of it due to increasing levels of
greenhouse gases.
 Sun Insulation Latent heat

Condensation

Direct Heat Insulation

Wind
Wind Radiation
Evaporation
Land heated

The effect of the sun’s heat on the ocean (evaporation) and land (radiation)

. The Sun and Temperatures

Effects of Cloud Cover on Insolation

Cloud cover affects how much insolation reaches the earth’s surface. Temperature forecasts
must be made only after the amount of cloudiness is determined. Clouds reduce the amount of
short-wave radiation reaching the surface of the earth and thus reduces the amount of
terrestrial radiation reflected back into the atmosphere causing daytime temperature readings to
be relatively lower than normally expected. Cloud cover at night will prevent the escape of
terrestrial radiation into space and cause the retransmission of long wave radiation from the
cloud bases back towards the surface, much like a greenhouse. This causes the night time
temperatures to be relatively higher. The stability of the lapse rate has a marked effect on
insolation and terrestrial radiation. With a stable lapse rate, there is less vertical extent to beat;
therefore, surface hearing takes place more rapidly. The opposite is true with an unstable lapse
rate. An inversion results in less cooling, since the surface temperature is lower than that of the
inversion layer; that is, at some point the energy radiated by the surface is balanced by that
radiated by the inversion layer.

Effect of Snow Cover on Insolation

As incoming solar radiation reaches the earth's surface, much of it is absorbed and reradiated.
This causes air near the earth’s surface to warm. If snow is present on the ground, some of the
sun’s energy melts the snow, but a lot of radiation is reflected away by the snow as shortwave
radiation that doesn’t heat the air (see Figure 4-2). The combination of these two factors
means that there is less energy available to heat the earth’s surface. The temperatures will rise
more slowly than they would if there was no snow on the ground.
 . Insolation and Snow Cover

SOMEBASIC DEFINITIONS

Isotherm- A line joining places having the same (equal) temperature.

SPECIFIC HEAT OF A SUBSTANCE- The number of joules required to raise the temperature of
one kilogram of the substance by one degree celcius.

DEWPOINT TEMPERATURE- The temperature to which the air has to be cooled for the water
vapour in it to condense into water droplets. It is also known as the saturation temperature and
depends on the absolute humidity of the air.

HUMIDITY –The condition of the atmosphere with reference to its water vapour content.

ABSOLUTE HUMIDITY- The actual weight of water vapour in a parcel of air at a particular
temperature, and is expressed in grams per cubic metre. The greater the air temperature the
greater the amount of water vapour it can absorb before getting saturated.

RELATIVE HUMIDITY- The ratio between the amount of water vapour in the air parcel compared
to the actual amount it can hold at the particular temperature, expressed as a percentage.

Relative humidity may also be defined as the ratio of the pressure of water vapour present in the
atmosphere to the saturation vapour pressure at the same temperature, expressed as a
percentage.

DIURNAL VARIATION AND DIURNAL RANGE OF EARTH AND SEA SURFACE ATMOSPHERIC
TEMPERATURE:

In the 24-hour period of the day the atmosphere experience increases in insolation followed by a
decrease. The diurnal cycle of temperature of the earth’s surface and the air above it thus
undergoes gains and losses in energy throughout the 24 hours. Diurnal range of air temperature
(the difference between the maximum and minimum values for the day) over land is very large –
can be as much as 20.C- as compared to that of the sea which is less than 1 .C. Observations
have shown that atmospheric temperature reaches its maximum at about 1400 LMT and attains
its minimum about half an hour after sunrise. The occurrence happens once a day hence it is
termed Diurnal variation of atmospheric temperature.

Diurnal range of air temperature over land is larger than that over the sea surface. Several
reasons are attributed to this.

1. Specific heat capacity –The land is solid and has a low specific heat. It therefore cools
and heats quickly. The sea is liquid (water) and has a higher specific heat (pure water
value is 4.18Jg-1k-1. The sea thus heats and cools much slowly.
2. The depth to which solar radiation penetrates (Transparency to solar radiation). Solar
radiation can only penetrate a few millimetres of soil, the depth of penetration depending
on the grain of the soil. Longer wave lengths go deeper than shorter ones. Depending on
the amount of solid material present in sea water short waves can penetrate quite
deeply. With pure water penetration can be as much as 100m before they are absorbed.
Whilst the longer wavelengths are absorbed by the upper layers. The absorption at sea is
by a large mass of water compared to the smaller mass of land, results is less increase in
the sea temperature.
3. Evaporation. Evaporation occurs both on land and at sea whenever solar radiation is
received and absorbed. A larger amount of energy is required by the sea than by the land
for this process. A small amount of solar energy is thus left for heating a large mass of
water whilst there is negligible evaporation on land.
4. Turbulence. The sea is generally turbulent. This results in the distribution of energy to
greater depths, contributing to a smaller diurnal range of sea surface temperature
compared with the land.
5. Specific heat capacity –The land is solid and has a low specific heat. It therefore cools
and heats quickly. The sea is liquid (water) and has a higher specific heat (pure water
value is 4.18Jg-1k-1. The sea thus heats and cools much slowly.
6. The depth to which solar radiation penetrates (Transparency to solar radiation). Solar
radiation can only penetrate a few millimetres of soil, the depth of penetration depending
on the grain of the soil. Longer wave lengths go deeper than shorter ones. Depending on
the amount of solid material present in sea water short waves can penetrate quite
deeply. With pure water penetration can be as much as 100m before they are absorbed.
Whilst the longer wavelengths are absorbed by the upper layers. The absorption at sea is
by a large mass of water compared to the smaller mass of land, results is less increase in
the sea temperature.

Note that in mid-latitudes and high latitudes the diurnal range is greater in summer due to
longer hours of daylight. Clear skies over 24 hours results in a greater range than overcast
conditions and, advection currents of air, depending on the type of airmass also alter the
diurnal range.

LAPSE RATE:

Lapse rate is the rate of change of temperature with height. An average value is 0.7C/100m.

Within the troposphere the air temperature usually decreases with increasing height at an
average rate of 6.5C/km which approximates to 7C/km. This is known as the environmental
lapse rate E.L.R.) for the standard atmosphere. E.L.R. varies both in time and space.
Atmospheric activities within the troposphere sometimes results in the air temperature remaining
constant through a limited depth when it is termed Isothermal. Air temperature may also
increase with increase in height instead of the usual decrease in temperature with increasing
height. This condition is termed a temperature inversion or an inversion for short. The inversion
can be Ground Level if the trend begins at the surface, or Upper Level if the trend begins at a
level above the surface. When temperature increases with height the E.L.R is negative.

E.L.R. is established by taking records of temperatures at 000 and 1200 UTC from stations
distributed worldwide, using radiosondes (a package of instruments attached to a balloon and
floated at a height). The radiosonde transmits information on pressure, temperature and
humidity.

ADIABATIC TEMPERATURE CHANGE: The volume of a parcel of air will increase if it rises to a
region of lower pressure and thus its temperature will fall (Gas Laws) and vice versa. The
change in temperature is solely due to expansion as no heat has been allowed into the parcel.
Such a temperature is termed Adiabatic Temperature change.

DRY ADIABATIC LAPSE RATE (D.A.L.R.): NB: Dry air is any air which is not saturated. When dry
air is forced to rise it is noted that it decreases its temperature by 1C/100m. If forced to fall it
increases its temperature at similar rate. This is known as the Dry Adiabatic Lapse Rate
(D.A.L.R.).

SATURATED ADIABATIC LAPSE RATE (S.A.L.R.): This is the fall or rise in temperature when
saturated air is forced to rise or fall. S.A.L.R/ is a variable quantity, depending on the latent heat
of condensation of the water vapour in the air parcel. It is low at the equator and high at the
poles, and also increases with height.

The environmental lapse rate is usually between the D.A.L.R. AND S.A.L.R.

S.A.L.R. is less than D.A.L.R. because when saturated air is rising and cooling its capacity to hold
water decreases and the excess water condenses into water vapour. This conversion releases
latent heat which warms up the parcel of air. This results in a reduced change in temperature as
the saturated air rises.

STABILITY OF THE ATMOSPHERE: The various processes in the atmosphere results in one of the
following at various times: Stable atmosphere, Unstable atmosphere, Neutral atmosphere or
Conditional stability.

STABLE AIR: If air which has been forced to rise or fall tends to return to its original level it is
said to be stable. For this to occur E.L.R. has to be less than S.A.L.R.
SOME DEFINITIONS:

Isotherm- A line joining places having the same (equal) temperature.

SPECIFIC HEAT OF A SUBSTANCE- The number of joules required to raise the temperature of
one kilogram of the substance by one degree celcius.

DEWPOINT TEMPERATURE- The temperature to which the air has to be cooled for the water
vapour in it to condense into water droplets. It is also known as the saturation temperature and
depends on the absolute humidity of the air.

HUMIDITY –The condition of the atmosphere with reference to its water vapour content.

ABSOLUTE HUMIDITY- The actual weight of water vapour in a parcel of air at a particular
temperature, and is expressed in grams per cubic metre. The greater the air temperature the
greater the amount of water vapour it can absorb before getting saturated.

RELATIVE HUMIDITY- The ratio between the amount of water vapour in the air parcel
compared to the actual amount it can hold at the particular temperature, expressed as a
percentage.

Relative humidity may also be defined as the ratio of the pressure of water vapour present in
the atmosphere to the saturation vapour pressure at the same temperature, expressed as a
percentage.

Measurement of relative humidity

Knowledge of relative humidity is important to the ocean navigator in forecasting the
presence of tropical lows and cyclones at one end of the temperature scale and the
possibility of imminent fog at the other end.
It can be done the easy way with a hygrometer; consisting of the wet and dry
thermometer. The sling psychrometer is more convenient, especially on a vessel at sea.
This consists of two identical thermometers mounted together on a board. Beneath one
of them is a small water container from which leads a wick that wraps around the bowl
of that thermometer to keep it wrapped in a ‘wet coat’. The rate of evaporation in the
atmosphere is reduced, as the air becomes moister.
When liquid is evaporated it draws energy – in the form of heat – from its immediate
surroundings. Spill a little methylated spirit on the back of your hand and feel the
immediate cooling effect as it evaporates. Or try evaporated liquid ammonia inside a
closed system and the effect is so good that you have just invented the refrigerator.
In the wet and dry thermometer, a wet wick is wrapped around the bowl of one of the
thermometers. Depending on the relative humidity, the water in this wick will evaporate
slowly or rapidly and its cooling effect on the thermometer bowl will be in direct relation
to that rate of evaporation.

1
As a consequence, this thermometer will record a lower temperature than the ‘dry’ bulb
alongside it.
If relative humidity reaches 100% evaporation will cease, the water in the wick has long
since adjusted to air temperature and both instruments will read the same.
So, by comparison between the reading of the two bulbs (and the help of Figure below,
reproduced below) you get the relative humidity.
Example: Dry bulb reading (air temp.) : 29°
Wet bulb reading :
22°
Difference (depression of wet bulb) : 7°

Relative humidity (from table below): 52%

2
Dry
Bulb DEPRESSION OF WET BULB (°C)
° 0. 0. 0. 0. 1. 1. 1. 1. 1. 2. 2. 3. 3. 4. 4. 5. 5. 6. 6. 7. 7. 8. 8. 9.
C 2° 4° 6° 8° 0° 2° 4° 6° 8° 0° 5° 0° 5° 0° 5° 0° 5° 0° 5° 0° 5° 0° 5° 0°
4 99 97 96 95 94 92 91 90 89 88 85 82 79 76 73 71 68 66 63 61 58 56 53 51
0 99 97 96 95 94 92 91 90 89 87 84 82 79 76 73 70 68 65 63 60 58 55 53 50
3 99 97 96 95 94 92 91 90 89 87 84 81 78 75 73 70 67 65 62 59 57 54 52 50
9 99 97 96 95 93 92 91 90 88 87 84 81 78 75 72 69 67 64 61 59 56 54 51 49
3 99 97 96 95 93 92 91 90 88 87 84 81 78 75 72 69 66 63 61 58 55 53 50 48
8
99 97 96 95 93 92 91 89 88 87 83 80 77 74 71 68 65 63 60 57 55 52 49 47
3
99 97 96 95 93 92 91 89 88 86 83 80 77 74 71 68 65 62 59 56 54 51 49 46
7
99 97 96 94 93 91 90 89 87 86 83 80 76 73 70 67 64 61 58 56 53 50 48 45
3
6 99 97 96 94 93 91 90 89 87 86 83 79 76 73 70 67 64 61 58 55 52 49 47 44
3 99 97 96 94 93 91 90 88 87 86 82 79 75 72 69 66 63 60 57 54 51 48 46 43
5 98 97 95 94 93 91 90 88 87 85 82 78 75 72 68 65 62 59 56 53 50 47 44 42
3
4
3
3
3
2
3
1
3
0
2 98 97 95 94 92 91 89 88 86 85 81 78 74 71 68 65 61 58 55 52 49 46 43 40
9 98 97 95 94 92 91 89 88 86 85 81 77 74 70 67 64 60 57 54 51 48 45 42 39
2 98 97 95 94 92 90 89 87 86 84 81 77 73 70 66 63 60 56 53 50 47 44 41 38
8 98 97 95 93 92 90 89 87 86 84 80 76 73 69 66 62 59 55 52 49 46 42 39 36
2 98 97 95 93 92 90 88 87 85 84 80 76 72 68 65 61 58 54 51 47 44 41 38 35
7
98 97 95 93 91 90 88 86 85 83 79 75 71 68 64 60 57 53 50 46 43 39 36 33
2
98 96 95 93 91 90 88 86 84 83 79 75 71 67 63 59 56 52 48 45 41 38 35 31
6
98 96 95 93 91 89 88 86 84 82 78 74 70 66 62 58 54 51 47 43 40 36 33 29
2
5 98 96 94 93 91 89 87 85 84 82 78 73 69 65 61 57 53 49 45 42 38 34 31 27
2 98 96 94 92 91 89 87 85 83 81 77 73 68 64 60 56 52 48 44 40 36 33 29 25
4
2
3
2
2
2
1
2
0

3
1 98 96 94 92 90 88 86 85 83 81 76 72 67 63 59 55 50 46 42 38 34 31 27 23
9 98 96 94 92 90 88 86 84 82 80 76 71 66 62 58 53 49 45 41 36 32 28 25 21
1 98 96 94 92 90 88 86 84 82 80 75 70 65 61 56 52 47 43 39 34 30 26 22 18
8 98 96 94 91 89 87 85 83 81 79 74 69 64 60 55 50 46 41 37 32 28 24 20 16
1 98 96 93 91 89 87 85 83 81 78 73 68 63 58 53 49 44 39 35 30 26 21 17 13
7
98 95 93 91 89 86 84 82 80 78 72 67 62 57 52 47 42 37 32 28 23 18 14 10
1
98 95 93 91 88 86 84 81 79 77 71 66 61 55 50 45 40 35 30 25 20 16 11
6
98 95 93 90 88 86 83 81 78 76 70 65 59 54 48 43 38 32 27 22 17 12 6
1
97 96 92 90 87 85 83 80 78 75 69 63 58 52 46 41 35 30 25 19 14 8
5
97 95 92 90 87 84 82 79 77 74 68 62 56 50 44 38 33 27 22 16 11 9 3
1
4
4
5
1
3
1
2
1
1
1
0

Table for finding the relative humidity (%). (For use with Thermometer Screen)

Explanation: Enter the dry bulb temp of 29° on the left-hand column.

Enter the wet bulb depression of 7°

across the top of the table.

4
 The point where the two intersect
in the body of the table gives the relative humidity = 52°.

. A Hygrometer (wet and dry bulb thermometer)

DIURNAL VARIATION AND DIURNAL RANGE OF EARTH AND SEA SURFACE
ATMOSPHERIC TEMPERATURE:
In the 24-hour period of the day the day the atmosphere experience increases in insolation
followed by a decrease. The diurnal cycle of temperature of the earth’s surface and the air
above it thus undergoes gains and losses in energy throughout the 24 hours. Diurnal range of
air temperature (the difference between the maximum and minimum values for the day) over
land is very large – can be as much as 20 .C- as compared to that of the sea which is less than
1.C. Observations have shown that atmospheric temperature reaches its maximum at about
1400 LMT and attains its minimum about half an hour after sunrise. The occurrence happens
once a day hence it is termed Diurnal variation of atmospheric temperature.

LAPSE RATE: (Temperature)

Temperature Lapse Rate is the rate of change of temperature with height. An average value is
0.7C/100m.

Within the troposphere the air temperature usually decreases with increasing height at an
average rate of 6.5C/km which approximates to 7C/km. This is known as the environmental
lapse rate E.L.R.) for the standard atmosphere. E.L.R. varies both in time and space.
Atmospheric activities within the troposphere sometimes results in the air temperature
remaining constant through a limited depth when it is termed Isothermal. Air temperature may
also increase with increase in height instead of the usual decrease in temperature with
increasing height. This condition is termed a temperature inversion or an inversion for short.
The inversion can be Ground Level if the trend begins at the surface, or Upper Level if the
trend begins at a level above the surface. When temperature increases with height the E.L.R is
negative.

E.L.R. is established by taking records of temperatures at 000 and 1200 UTC from stations
distributed worldwide, using radiosondes (a package of instruments attached to a balloon and
floated at a height). The radiosonde transmits information on pressure, temperature and
humidity.

ADIABATIC TEMPERATURE CHANGE: The volume of a parcel of air will increase if it rises to a
region of lower pressure and thus its temperature will fall (Gas Laws) and vice versa. The
change in temperature is solely due to expansion as no heat has been allowed into the parcel.
Such a temperature is termed Adiabatic Temperature change.

5
DRY ADIABATIC LAPSE RATE (D.A.L.R.): NB: Dry air is any air which is not saturated. When
dry air is forced to rise it is noted that it decreases its temperature by 1C/100m. If forced to fall
it increases its temperature at similar rate. This is known as the Dry Adiabatic Lapse Rate
(D.A.L.R.).

SATURATED ADIABATIC LAPSE RATE (S.A.L.R.): This is the fall or rise in temperature when
saturated air is forced to rise or fall. S.A.L.R/ is a variable quantity, depending on the latent
heat of condensation of the water vapour in the air parcel. It is low at the equator and high at
the poles, and also increases with height.

The environmental lapse rate is usually between the D.A.L.R. AND S.A.L.R.

S.A.L.R. is less than D.A.L.R. because when saturated air is rising and cooling its capacity to
hold water decreases and the excess water condenses into water vapour. This conversion
releases latent heat which warms up the parcel of air. This results in a reduced change in
temperature as the saturated air rises.

STABILITY OF THE ATMOSPHERE: The various processes in the atmosphere results in one of
the following at various times: Stable atmosphere, Unstable atmosphere, Neutral atmosphere
or Conditional stability.

STABLE AIR: If air which has been forced to rise or fall tends to return to its original level it is
said to be stable. For this to occur E.L.R. has to be less than S.A.L.R.

6
 TEMPERATURE (°C)
(1)
Absolutely stable

KEY
E - SURROUNDING ATMOSPHERE
D-UNSATURATED PARCEL
S- SATURATED PARCEL
Atmospheric stability.

UNSTABLE AIR: If air which has been forced to rise or fall continues its movement away from
its initial point the air is said to be unstable. This condition occurs when E.L.R. is greater than
D.A.L.R.

Condensation of water vapour.

7
 TEMPERATURE (oc)

(2) Absolutely unstable

NEUTRAL AIR: When E.L.R. is the same as D.A.L.R. for dry air, or the S.A.L.R. for saturated
air the atmosphere is said to be neutral. The air which is forced to rise will neither tend to
return to its initial position nor continue its upwards or downwards movement.

CONDITIONAL INSTABILITY: This is a situation where stable conditions occur for dry air and
unstable conditions exist for saturated air. This means that the environmental curve lies
between the D.A.L.R. and the S.A.L.R.

8
 DES
TEMPERATURE (°C)
(3) Conditionally
unstable

SOLAR AND TERRESTRIAL RADIATION:

The heat received from the sun is known as INSOLATION.

SOLAR RADIATION:

Insolation is the major source of energy driving the circulation of the atmosphere. Radiant
energy is emitted by the sun in the form of electromagnetic (e.m.) waves. Radiant waves are
short wave radiation in the wavelength range of 0.2 to 0.4 micrometer, which means that it
spans the Ultra violet, Visible and Infra-red bands of the spectrum. The radiant energy passes
through space without any appreciable heating. This is solar radiation. NB: THE SUN HAS A
SURFACE TEMPERATURE OF 6000C.

TERRESTRIAL RADIATION: When radiant energy from the sun hits the earth’s surface, part
of it is absorbed by the surface. Most of the heat energy is however re-radiated by the earth in
long wave form, in the infra-red part of the spectrum (4 to 100 micrometers, maximum
emission is at 10 micrometers). In cloudless nights most of the earth’s radiation will go to outer
space. With cloudy nights the clouds act as a shield, reflecting the energy back to earth. The
lower layers of the air tend to be heated by the earth’s radiation. The atmosphere also radiates
the energy in the same form and wavelength as the earth’s surface. The combined result of the
surface radiation and radiation from the atmosphere is termed TERRESTRIAL radiation. NB: the
earth’s surface average temperature is 15C.

FACTORS AFFECTING THE AMOUNT OF SOLAR RADIATION RECEIVED AT THE EARTH’S

SURFACE.

Five main factors affect the amount of solar radiation received by the earth.

1. The output energy of the sun. This varies depending on the amount of ultra-violet
radiation received, which increase when there is a sunspot maximum.

9
2. The transparency of the atmosphere. Clear skies result in increased radiation. Clouded
skies or dust laden atmosphere reduces the amount of radiation received.
3. The distance of the earth from the sun. Due to the ellipticity of the earth it gets closer
to the sun at certain times (perihelion) and farthest at certain times (aphelion) as it
revolves round the sun. At perihelion more energy is incident than at aphelion-a
difference of as much as 7%. When the earth is at its mean distance from the sun the
amount of solar radiation incident at right angles on the outskirts of the atmosphere is
known as the Solar Constant which has a value of 1.396 kilowatts per metre squared.
4. The altitude of the sun. This depends on latitude, time of the day and the season.
Increased altitude means increased amount of solar energy incident upon unit area.
5. The number of hours of daylight. The longer the day the longer the duration for solar
energy to be incident and hence the greater is effect on the earth’s surface.

CLOUDS
A cloud is an aggregate (a collection) of water droplets or ice crystals or a combination
of the two, suspended in the atmosphere above the earth’s surface. Cloud is one of the
visual elements of weather. Cooling of air in the atmosphere to below its dew point
temperature causes the vapour in it to condense into water droplets. This results in the
formation of either fog or cloud. The mode of formation determines whether it is fog or
cloud. Stability of the atmosphere plays an important role in the formation and
development of clouds. Since atmospheric stability controls the method of ascent of air

10
 it by inference controls the characteristics of the cloud type. Generally, when cooling
takes place at the surface due to conductive processes fog is formed. When the
cooling is adiabatic and above the surface cloud is formed. For condensation to occur
there is the need for condensation nuclei (minute particles) in the atmosphere. These
nuclei could be dust particles, industrial smoke, volcanic ash and salt particles
suspended due to sea spray. Millions of such particles are in the atmosphere and aids in
the condensation process.
Cooling of the air could be due to contact with a cold surface, ascent of the air cooling
adiabatically or contact between air masses with different temperatures. Air can be
forced to rise due to turbulence, orographic lifting (high ground), convectional
processes, at a front (cold or warm or occluded).

Cloud Formation Ingredients

Three ingredients are required before clouds can form: condensation nuclei, moisture, and a
cooling process.

Condensation Nuclei
Although the atmosphere is chiefly composed of gases and water vapor, the atmosphere also
contains significant quantities of particles called condensation nuclei. Condensation nuclei are
suspended particles of sea salt, dust, organic matter and smoke. The presence of
condensation nuclei is necessary before condensation will occur.

Moisture
Obviously, moisture is needed or clouds would not form regardless of how much condensation
nuclei is present or how much cooling was applied to the atmosphere. Moisture is supplied to
the atmosphere by the process of evaporation. The moisture is then spread horizontally and
vertically around the globe by wind currents.

Cooling Process
Finally, cloud formation requires a cooling process. The three cooling processes are radiational
cooling, convective cooling, and mechanical cooling.
Radiational Cooling
The earth heats and cools faster than the surrounding air. At night the earth releases heat
acquired during the day via long-wave radiation, thereby cooling rapidly. This long wave
radiation does not heat the air, like short wave radiation from incoming solar rays during the
day, and the air is cooled by contact with the cooler surface. This contact cooling lowers the
temperature of the air near the surface causing a surface inversion to form. If the
temperature of the air is cooled to its dew point, fog and/or stratus may form.
Convective Cooling
The lifting of air through the atmosphere because of surface heating is called convection. If a
parcel of air is heated, it rises (the warm air is less dense than the relatively cooler air
surrounding the parcel). As the parcel rises, it expands (due to decreased pressure) and cools
until the temperature and dew point are the same (the saturation point). This point is the
beginning of condensation. Convection ceases at the point that the parcel stops rising.
Cumuliform clouds are formed in this way as depicted in figure below Cloud bases are at the

11
altitude of saturation (the CCL), and tops are at the point where the temperature of the
surrounding air is the same as, or greater than, the temperature of the parcel of air. The
stability of the lifted air determines the type of clouds formed. Generally, convective clouds
are formed when unstable air is lifted, and stratiform clouds are formed when stable air is
lifted. The cloud types change when their environment changes. For example, cumulonimbus
clouds frequently change to stratocumulus before dissipating. Stratus clouds may change to
cumulus clouds in the afternoon, as surface heating induces instability.

Convective Cooling
Mechanical Cooling
Mechanical cooling (lifting) can be broken into two separate types, orographic and frontal.
Both of these processes are considered mechanical means of cooling resulting in cloud
formation.

• Orographic - As moist air is lifted over higher terrain (hills or mountains) it begins to
cool and condense into clouds. The cloud type depends on the lapse rate (the rate of
decrease in temperature with increase in height) of the air. If a weak lapse rate exists,
then stratiform type cloudiness will form. If the lapse rate is steep then cumuliform
type clouds will form. Orographically-induced clouds show little movement, and usually
dissipate on the lee side of their source regions as depicted in Figure 2-2.

12
 Orographic Lift

• Frontal - At a frontal surface, warmer less dense air is forced up the surface of a colder air
mass as depicted in Figure 2-3. This lifting produces the same effect as orographically
lifted air. If the airmass is shallow, the air may not be lifted high enough for it to reach its
saturation point. This is often why little to no cloudiness is associated with arctic fronts.
The type of cloud formation depends on the lapse rate. If the frontal slope is steep,
cumuliform clouds will develop. If the slope is gradual, the clouds will usually be
stratiform.

Frontal Lift

QUESTIONS

1. What are the three ingredients required for cloud formation?

13
2. What are two factors that determine the rate of dissipation of clouds formed by radiational
cooling?

3. Typically, cloud bases and tops formed by convective cooling can be found at what
altitudes?

4. Describe the effect a shallow frontal slope has on cloud formation.

Clouds can form at any level right up to the tropopause thus they are grouped (classed)
according to the height of their bases above the surface (sea level). Clouds are mainly
of four main types depending on their appearance. The height classifications are: High,
Medium and Low. The forms are: Cirriform (Cirrified), Stratiform (stratified) and
cumuliform (cumulified). Each cloud name is given an abbreviation which consists of
two letters, the first letter being a capital letter and the second a lower-case letter.
Cirriform clouds are threadlike or hair-like; Stratiform clouds are flattened or layered
and cumuliform clouds are heaped and rounded.

The various condensation levels of clouds

Three levels are identified as shown below:

Convective Condensation Level (CCL) - The CCL is the height at which a parcel of
air, when heated sufficiently from below rises and becomes saturated. It often
corresponds well to the height of cumulus cloud bases formed due to surface heating
(convectively).
Lifted Condensation Level (LCL) - The LCL is the height at which a parcel of moist
air becomes saturated when "lifted" dry adiabatically. The lifting is brought about by
air being forced up (lifted over) fronts and orographic (hilly and mountainous) surfaces.
This level can be used as an estimate of cloud bases caused by mechanical lifting.
Mixing Condensation Level (MCL) - The MCL is the lowest height at which
saturation may occur if the near surface layer is or will be mixed completely by wind
action. Clouds formed in mixing layers are stratocumulus. Mixing layers, when
approaching saturation, progress from clear skies to thin broken to overcast layers to
dense overcast layers.

14
 There is an international agreement classifying ten generic clouds which are of interest
to the mariner as shown below.
HEIGHT OF BASE IN KILOMETRES
Tropics Mid-latitudes High latitudes
CLOUD BASE Cirrus Ci >6 >5 >3
Cirrostratus Cs
Cirrocumulus Cc
MEDIUM Altostratus As 2 to 7.5 2 to 7 2 to 4
Altocumulus Ac
LOW Stratus St <2 <2 <2
Stratocumulus Sc
Nimbostratus Ns
Cumulus Cu
Cumulonimbus Cb

DESCRIPTION OF THE VARIOUS CLOUDS

CIRRUS (Ci):

Takes a stratus layer at very high altitude (up to 10 km). The moisture condenses and
freezes to ice crystals and high-speed upper air winds blow it into long streamers (or
mares’ tails) called cirrus.

Cirrus cloud
These streamers can be:
(1) The outriders of an intense low- pressure system with its associated cold front,
which is possibly 20 to 30 hours away from you, depending on the speed of
advance of the system.

(2) The first signs of the approach of a warm front. Warm fronts are not a common
occurrence in Australia and are more often experienced in high latitudes.

(3) In the tropics they can be associated with a Tropical Cyclone.

(4) Produced by high-level jet stream winds.

Ci is High cloud. Detached in the form of white delicate filaments with a silvery shine
and feathery look. Cirrus may be in patches or narrow bands. Being so high cirrus

15
 always has a background of blue sky. When the night is very dark you can identify cirrus
from its dimming effects on the star. It is composed entirely of ice crystals.
The following forecast can be made of cirrus cloud:

Followed by a steadily falling barometer, increase in wind, sea waves and ocean swell,
and cloud changes as described further on, it probably means the arrival of a cold front in
20 to 30hours time. The lateral direction of the streamers will give an indication of the
centre of the disturbance.

CIRROSTRATUS (Cs):

At a slightly lower altitude than the cirrocumulus, stratus cloud will still freeze to ice
crystals and, if the upper air is fairly still, will form into cirrostratus.
Cs is a high cloud. Comprises of a thin whitish veil of fibrous appearance, and is
transparent. It may also be of a smooth appearance, totally or partly covering the sky
and generally producing a halo effect. The outline of the sun or moon in a cirrostratus
cloud is usually sufficient enough for an altitude observation with the sextant.
The following forecast can be made of cirrostratus cloud:
As with the other two high clouds, this cloud is usually associated with the approach of
a cold front.

CIRROCUMULUS (Cc):
Subject cirrus formations to the cumulus treatment (that is, upward air movement) and
you get cirrocumulus.

These are a mixture of cirrus and cumulus, which give the mackerel sky. Still comprised
of ice crystals.
Cu is a High cloud. Usually thin, a white patch sheet or layer but without shading. It is
composed of very small elements in the form of flakes, grain or ripples or cauliflower
which may be merged or separate and which are more or less regularly arranged-thus it
is sometimes called the Mackerel cloud. Cc is composed mostly of ice crystals and is
associated with fair weather except when it lowers and thickens whence it is a sign of a
storm to follow.
The following forecast can be made of cirrocumulus cloud:

These clouds are probably associated with the approach of a cold front (which has caused
the upward air movement necessary to a cumulo formation).
An old seaman’s rhyme used to run:
‘When you see a Mackerel sky –
Four days wet or four days dry’.
The weather change, if it occurs at all, is probably 20 to 30 hours away.

16
 ALTOSTRATUS (As):
As has a combination of ice crystals and water droplets formed around upper air nuclei
such as dust or salt.
Medium cloud. Thin, greyish or bluish, striated or fibrous and of uniform appearance.
Totally or partly covering the sky with parts thin enough to reveal the sun albeit vaguely
(not enough for an altitude by the sextant). Does not produce a halo phenomenon.
When Altostratus thickens and lowers or when there are low, ragged rain clouds below,
continuous rain or snow is to be expected shortly -within a few hours.
The following forecast can be made of altostratus cloud:
With a cold front in the offing (some 6–12 hours away) there will possibly be some
thunder at this stage, with a chance of rain. The barometer will continue to fall. The
onset of strong wind is imminent.
ALTOCUMULUS (Ac):
If you introduce upward air turbulence to altostratus clouds you will get: Altocumulus.

This is much the same cloud as its stratus brother(altostratus), and with much the same
weather outlook. The sun can give a coloured corona effect in shining through these
clouds, which often look like a ploughed field.
Medium cloud. White or grey or a combination of both. Patch, layer or sheet form with
dark shadows in between. Generally, has rounded masses or rolls with flattened bases,
which are sometimes partly fibrous and diffused and which may merge or not (aligned as
one or in two directions). Thickness and colour vary throughout the cloud from dazzling
white to dark grey. If Ac thickens and lowers thundery weather is and showers are a
result which is not prolonged.

The following forecast can be made of altocumulus cloud:

As for altostratus. With a falling barometer heralding the approach of a cold front
these clouds can mean strong winds imminent. They can also take on a turreted
appearance (castellanus) at times, which could signify thunderstorms soon.

STRATUS (St):
Is usually found under raining clouds, on mountain slopes and is fog if the horizontal
visibility within the mass is less than 1000 metres.
Low cloud. Generally, grey even layered cloud with a feathery base. It has a dry look
and does not generally produce precipitation but light mist may sometimes descend
from stratus cloud. It resembles fog though it is high above sea level. When the sun is
visible through the cloud its outline is clearly discernible. Strong winds tend to break
stratus cloud into shreds called fractostratus.
The following forecast can be made of stratus cloud:
Drizzle – light to moderate winds.
STRATOCUMULUS (Sc): Low cloud. Grey or whitish or a combination of the two.
Patch, sheet or layer and almost always has a dark spot. Composed of rounded masses
or rolls which are non-fibrous in nature and which may merge or not merge. The
patches usually align themselves in a regular manner in one or two directions forming
an overcast sky rather like stratus. The difference however is that you can notice a

17
 wavy or linear appearance in stratocumulus. Sc clouds are usually followed by clear
skies at night.
Sc is formed by subsiding or sinking air or by rising air being forced to spread-out
underneath a temperature inversion. As they form generally in conditions associated
with high pressure, they are not normally associated with strong winds.
The following forecast can be made of stratocumulus cloud:
Light to moderate, possibly fresh winds. Drizzle is possible.
NIMBOSTRATUS (Ns):

Formed by the thickening and lowering of altostratus, it is the classic rain cloud.

Low cloud. Rain bearing thus ‘Nimbus’. Grey cloud of even layer, often dark. Has a
uniform appearance with no light-coloured patches and usually looking threatening and
wet. The appearance of nimbostratus is rendered diffuse by continuous precipitation (rain
or snow) falling through it and which in most cases reaches the ground. Ns is thick
enough throughout to blot out the sun completely, thus weakening daylight. Ns is usually
formed by a lowering and thickening of Altostratus cloud. Precipitation in Ns cloud is
usually steady or intermittent but never showery.

The following forecast can be made of nimbostratus cloud:

With a low-pressure system – wind now reaching maximum speed. Heavy rain expected.
Low cloud called “scud” may be observed underneath the main cloud base.

CUMULONIMBUS (Cb):

When warm moist air is lifted into a very unstable lower atmosphere a violent up-draught
can produce a towering cumulus type of cloud which may reach up as high as 10 to 18km
from a low base around 2–3km.
As it reaches the cold upper air it spreads out into a mushroom shape or ‘anvil head’. This
may blow down-wind in the upper air streams, its direction indicating where the strongest
winds and weather will eventuate. This type of cloud is known as cumulonimbus (Cb).
This is another rain cloud. It has a considerable vertical development formed in unstable
conditions can have a base as low as 500m and a vertical extension of up to 1.3km
which means its top can be amongst high clouds. It is generally a grey, heavy,
threatening cloud frequently accompanied by thunder, and is thus called a thunder
cloud. The whole cloud looks like a mountain or huge towers. Part of its upper portion
is usually smooth, fibrous or striated, and nearly flattened and often spreads out in the
form of an anvil or a vast plume. This anvil part is a cirrus cloud.

The following forecast can be made of cumulonimbus cloud:

Very strong gusty and erratic winds, heavy rain showers, thunder, lightning and hail and
possibly tornadoes over the land and waterspouts over the sea. The period of wind and
rain associated with a particular thunderstorm will normally be quite short.
These clouds can also form on the leading edge of a cold front.

18
 CUMULUS (Cu):

Convection – that upward movement of air caused by the sun’s heating effect on the
earth’s surface will, when atmospheric conditions are generally stable, result in small thick
white clouds with well-defined bases. These ‘cotton wool’ or cauliflower type clouds are
the familiar fair weather cumulus.
While they remain small, they are indeed fair weather clouds.
With an increase in upward air movement, coupled with instability and turbulence caused
by incoming fronts or surface turbulence, cumulus clouds can build up into vast rising
mounds presaging rain showers.
Cu is a Low cloud. Detached. Brilliant white. Thick with flat bases and rounded tops like
cauliflower. Dark spots are often seen in cumulus, but the outline in each cumulus cloud is
usually sharp. Cumulus develops vertically, forming the rounded mounds or domes in its
development yet maintaining horizontal base. Cumulus clouds are often observed as
patches with ragged edges with little vertical extent when they are termed fair weather
cumulus. Precipitation is not frequent in Cu but if it occurs it is light. Cumulus clouds can
form under various conditions such as: at a mountain range; at a cold front; when cold air
flows over a warm surface; when there is considerable heating of the ground.

The following forecast can be made of cumulus cloud:

Small, scattered cumulus – fine weather. Large, increasing cumulus mounds – rain
showers with the possibility of developing thunderstorms. Can also be situated on the
leading edge of a cold front.

1. What is the main characteristic of a cloud with “cumulus” or “cumulo” in its name?

2. What does “stratus” infer in a cloud description?

3. What weather outlook would you forecast from the following clouds?
(i) Strongly defined “cirrus” clouds. You are at latitude 33 deg. south and the
clouds are in long lines from the south west with their blown ends in the north
east.
(ii) Well defined cirrus emanating from a definite direction and observed from a
vessel in the Gulf of Carpentaria during the month of February.

(iii) At latitude 40 deg. south, massive cumulonimbus is:

(a) To the west of your position
(b) To the east of your position
(iv) In the Tasman Sea with a mass of nimbostratus to the west of you.

(v) Small puffy cumulus cloud over the coast at around noon.

4. List the 10 basic cloud types, their international abbreviation and their corresponding
precipitation type if any.

19
 5. What problems could a cumulonimbus cloud pose to the mariner?

6. Describe the typical cloud sequence associated with the passage of a cold-front in the
middle to high latitudes.

7. Drizzle is associated with two types of cloud:

(a) Stratus and nimbostratus
(b) Stratocumulus and stratus
(c) Cumulonimbus and stratocumulus
(d) Altostratus and nimbostratus

8. The following are classed as high-level clouds:

(a) Cirrus, cirrostratus, cirrocumulus
(b) Stratus, stratocumulus, cumulonimbus
(c) Altostratus, altocumulus, nimbostratus
(d) Cumulus, nimbostratus, altocumulus

9. Cloud may form when:

(a) Air dew point equals relative humidity
(b) Relative humidity overtakes the dew point
(c) Relative humidity falls below the dew point
(d) Air reaches its dew point temperature

FOG

Condensation of water droplets on particles suspended in the atmosphere produces mist or fog.
The difference between mist and fog is the intensity of the droplets.

Fog is a condition where visibility is reduced to less than one kilometre by water droplets
suspended in the atmosphere. Mist can occur when the relative humidity is as low as 80% but
fog generally occurs when relative humidity is 90% or more. Generally, the radii of fog particles
are between 1 and 10 microns. Fog forms due to several reasons. The commonest types are:
Radiation fog, Advection (Sea) fog, Sea smoke and Frontal fog. Another type of fog is
orographic fog.

RADIATION FOG: This is a land-based fog thus it is sometimes called land fog. It occurs when
the ground loses heat by radiation and cools at night. The radiative cooling of the land causes
the air in contact with it to cool. When it has been cooled to below its dew point temperature
fog forms. Turbulence cause the cooled air below to mix with air above causing low level
ground fog. With increasing breeze, the fog can be lifted to up to 150m above ground surface.

Radiation fog forms on land due to the large diurnal range of air temperature. Conversely the
diurnal range of the air temperature over the sea and the sea temperature is low and radiation
fog does not form at sea.

Radiation fog may drift into estuaries, lakes, harbours and coastal areas, due to a light offshore
wind, causing reduced visibility, and being a nuisance to ships at anchor. Radiation fog is

20
common during the winter and autumn months when the cooling period is long. Radiation fog
reaches its maximum half an hour after sunrise as it is this time that the air temperature is at
its minimum. It will generally dissipate after the sun has shone for a few hours or when there is
a substantial increase in wind speed.

Conditions favourable for formation of radiation fog are: Clear skies (this permits quicker
radiation and faster cooling of the earth’s surface), light breeze, i.e. low wind speeds, high
relative humidity, and a relatively long period for the cooling to occur.

ADVECTION FOG: When advection fog forms at sea it is termed sea fog.

Advection fog on land forms when very mild moist air blows horizontally over a cold land
surface.

Advection fog at sea (sea fog) forms when a mass of warm air with high relative humidity
blows horizontally over a relatively cooler sea surface whose temperature is below the dew
point temperature of the air blowing over it. There is cooling by conduction, aided by
turbulence and when the air has been cooled to below its dew point temperature fog forms as
water vapour condenses into water droplets. This kind of fog persists under varying wind
conditions and the maximum height to which it can form is dictated by the degree of turbulence
and the temperature gradient between the air and surface. The basic requirements for sea fog
to form include favourable wind, air and sea temperatures. Sea fog will occur where there are
cold currents. Where the temperature gradient is steep advection fog can occur even in gale
force winds. In general terms fog is likely to occur if Tropical Maritime Air crosses seven sea
isotherms from the source.

Sea fog is common in the following areas during the summer: In most northern latitudes, The
Grand Banks of Newfoundland the British Isles, West coast of South Africa, West coast of South
America, Japan and North Pacific.

On the Grand Banks of Newfoundland warm moist Westerlies blow over the warm Gulf stream,
picking up moisture as they traverse, and thence over the cold Labrador current which causes
cooling and the formation of fog.

Off the East coast of Japan again moist Westerlies blow over the warm Kuro-shoo current,
picking up moisture and then going over the cold Oya-shio which cools the air and causes fog
to form.

Advection fog occurs off the South coast of the United Kingdom in winter when south west
winds blow up from low latitudes, basically the Azores. Off the same area sea fog occurs in
spring and early summer when the sea temperature here is at its lowest and warm south
westerlies winds blow from the Azores.

Sea fog also occur in low latitudes during the summer in these cold current areas: The
California, Canary, Peru and Benguela.

21
PREDICTING FOG AT SEA: It is prudent to make observations in order to predict the onset of
sea fog if navigating in a fog prone area. To predict the possible time that fog may occur
regular of the sea surface temperature and the dew point temperature of the air are made.
These are then plotted on the same graph against Local Mean Time. By extending the two lines
the point of intersection gives the estimated time of the probable occurrence of fog.

Cast your mind back to the causes of sea fog – warm, moist air being cooled as it flows
over a colder sea.
If regular readings of sea temperature showed that the sea was becoming progressively
colder you have the first ingredient for the formation of fog.
If, at the same time the dew point – the condensation temperature of the air – was
rising, you have a situation where sea temperature and dew point will coincide.

If sea temperature falls below dewpoint, fog is a certainty

0
10 C Sea Temperature
Time of
Dew point
probable
fog (2215)
0
5C

1900 1930 2000 2030 2100 2130 2200 2230

Convergence of sea temperature and dew point

In Figure, sea temperature is plotted at regular distance intervals (every 5 miles with
the ship steaming at 10 knots i.e. at half hourly interval).
At these same intervals the dew point is plotted from the wet and dry thermometer
and dew point table.
By projecting the graph forward it can be seen that, if current trends continue, fog will
almost certainly occur at about 2215.
It is worth remembering that there will be no visible warning of the onset of fog at night
– you may well be approaching a fog bank hiding the lights of another vessel and you
may be totally unaware of its presence.

SEA MOKE (evaporation or mixing, fog): This type of fog is variously called Arctic sea smoke,
Frost smoke, Steam fog. It occurs at sea when the sea is warm compared with the air flowing
over it. The temperature difference between the air and the sea surface is usually of the order
of 10 degrees, but given favourable conditions it can occur at a lower temperature difference.
The wind speed associated with the formation of sea smoke can vary from very low to gale
force. High wind speeds are more favourable when the temperature difference is low as
continuous supply of cold air to the layer immediately above the sea surface. When very cold,
dry air blows over a relatively warm sea surface water vapour evaporating from the warm
surface is rapidly cooled and condensed into water droplets. Initially the warm sea surface

22
warms the bottom layer of the cold air which picks up water vapour and then rises and mixes
with the colder air above and gets cooled. As the warmed, rising air mixes with the colder air
above supersaturation occurs and the mixture appears like streaks of smoke rising vertically
from the sea surface hence the name Sea smoke. Unstable atmospheric conditions occur at the
lower layer of the troposphere.

Sea smoke is common in winter. Typical areas of occurrence include: - The Baltic sea which is
surrounded by colder land mass; East coast of N. America where the continent is colder than
the sea in winter; The northern parts of the Asian continent; The Gulf of Mexico; Hong Kong.
Sea smoke can cause icing on parts of the vessel which are below zero degrees celcius and can
sometimes bring down wireless cables.

FRONTAL FOG: This is sometimes called Mixing fog. It forms at the boundary layer of two
completely different air masses; this could be a cold current of air meeting a warm one, a warm
current of air meeting a cold one or an occlusion. If a cold air current meets a warm current the
warm air is cooled at the boundary layer. When the air is cooled to beyond its dew point
temperature fog will form. In high latitudes fog formation is common at a warm front or an
occlusion. Where a front is stationary the frontal fog is persistent.

PRECAUTIONS WHEN ENCOUNTERING A FOG BANK: Rule 19 of the regulations for preventing
collisions at sea should be complied with. In addition, the following should be observed:

Action to take when entering fog

1. Establish the ship’s position before the visibility closes down. You may not get
another fix for a long time.
2. Revert to hand steering.
3. Call the master
4. Note and plot on your chart the position, course and estimated speed of any
other vessels in sight.
5. Commence sounding your fog horn or siren and listen to those of other vessels.
6. Station lookouts. There should be one man as far forward as possible and another
placed as high as possible. A lookout aloft can often see OVER the fog and is
better placed to hear sound signals from down-wind. Fog often has the effect of
forcing sound upwards from a vessel down-wind of you.
7. In a small vessel, make sure you have your radar reflector hoisted in the rigging.
8. Switch on radar and echo sounder. A fishing vessel fitted with sonar may find this
of value.
9. Inform the Engine room and get engines on stand-by.
10. REDUCE SPEED. (Proceed at a safe speed) A good rule of thumb is that your
speed should be such that you can stop the ship in half the visibility range. In a
larger vessel have the engine room telegraphs on ‘stand by’.
11. Switch on navigation lights.
12. If in the vicinity of land, have an anchor cleared away ready to let go.

23
 13. Maintain silence throughout the vessel to assist lookouts to hear sound signals of
other vessels in the vicinity.
14. Work on the play-safe principle in your navigation and keep the ship on a safe
course until visibility improves. Remember that, at your reduced speed set and
drift will have a much more significant effect on the course you make good.

Generally speaking, it is not good seamanship to attempt to enter a port or a

dangerous channel in very restricted visibility. Provided you don’t do it in a busy
fairway, it is often far better to anchor than to blunder about in dangerous waters
without a precise knowledge of your position. In such a case you would, of course,
give your fog-anchoring signal – the rapid ringing of the ship’s bell at intervals of not
more than a minute.

Fog Dissipation
Fog may dissipate due to increased solar radiation. (Insolation) In more commonly used terms,
fog “burns off” after sunrise due to daytime heating. Other ways that the fog may dissipate
due to heating are:

• Advection over a warmer surface.

• Adiabatic warming by subsidence (i.e., downslope).
• Turbulent mixing of the fog layer with adjacent warmer air aloft (due to higher wind
speed associated with low temperature gradient). In this condition, the effective
cooling of the air by the surface is less, and is spread over a greater height, producing
low stratus cloud.
Fog may also dissipate if the moisture is removed (i.e. the air becomes drier). The air may
become drier due to:

• Turbulent transfer of moisture upward.

• Turbulent mixing of the fog layer with adjacent drier air.
• Condensing out water vapor as rain, dew, or frost.

Forecasting Radiation Fog

Radiation fog is the most common you should encounter. Here are a few conditions needed:

• Clear to partly cloudy skies at night. The less clouds, the better chance of fog
• Moist ground
• Light, but not calm winds (if the winds are calm, expect only surface dew to form)
• Suppressed daytime heating (cloudy)
• A late afternoon dew point depression of 20° F (12° C) or less

24
 • In addition to the above conditions, the following can greatly aid fog formation:
• A cooling rain during the day
• The longer the night time the better

Forecasting Advection Fog

Here are a few tips that should be helpful if you think advection fog may affect your location:

• Moist air with higher dew points moving with light to moderate velocities over an
underlying surface that becomes progressively colder downwind. This condition will
produce fog over land or water areas.
• Maximum frequency of fog formation is seen with light winds (2-8 knots)
• Under light wind conditions, fog is relatively shallow and stable. With a surface
inversion and lesser speeds results in a shallower layer
• Winds in excess of 9-10 knots normally cause turbulent mixing, resulting in stratus.
• Cloudy days (keep the high temperature down) and clearing nights (allow maximum
radiational cooling).

25
 VISIBILITY

Visibility defines how transparent the atmosphere is in relation to human vision.

Horizontal visibility is therefore the greatest distance at which an object with specified
characteristics can be seen and identified by the unaided eye in daylight. To assess
visibility, it is necessary to view the 360 degrees of the horizon and record the shortest
distance observed.

At night visibility is assessed by assuming that the illumination of the object is raised
to normal daylight level. Land stations are able to provide a more accurate estimation
of visibility ranges as they use objects of known distances in daytime, and visibility
metres at night.

VISIBILITY BY DAY:

This is the greatest distance at which a black object of suitable

dimensions can be seen and recognized against the horizon sky. To meet WMO
standards the object should subtend an angle of at least 0.5 degrees horizontally and
vertically, but the horizontal angle should not exceed 5 degrees.

VISIBILITY BY NIGHT:

Meteorological visibility by night is the greatest distance at

which a black object of suitable dimensions can be seen and recognized, if the general
illumination was raised to the normal daylight level.

Objects which aid visibility assessment by night include the silhouettes of hills or
mountains against the sky, and unfocussed lights of known distances and whose
intensity is moderate.

ESTIMATING VISIBILITY AT SEA:

It is difficult to do a good estimate of the

visibility in the open seas as there are no known objects of known distances to use.
The following are some of the methods adopted: If the ship is a large and thus long
one then objects on the ship may be used to estimate visibility as their distances can
be ascertained. Errors can arise due to the effect of the ship’s motion on the air
(smoke from ship and spray caused by the motion of the ship). Also, in open seas the
radar ranges of other ships may be used for assessing visibility. In the absence of
other ships, the horizon should be observed all round at different levels and the
shortest range should then be recorded.

When near the coast the appearance of the land will serve as a guide to estimating
the visibility. Fixes will enable the distance from the land to be known.

26
CAUSES OF ATMOSPHERIC OBSCURITY:

Amongst the various causes of atmospheric obscurity are the following:

 Fog
 Mist
 Haze
 Clouds
 Precipitation
 Sea spray due to wind action
 Smoke (forest or industrial)
 Sand
 Dust
 Suspended salts in the atmosphere.

27
 WIND

Wind is the horizontal movement of air across the earth’s surface from an area of high pressure
to an area of low pressure. There are two characteristics which are most important to the
observer. These are: the direction from which it is bowing and the speed, the combined effect
of which is its velocity, a vector quantity. Wind direction is related to True North (reckoned
from North-000. (T) or 360. (T)-in a clockwise direction). Coded meteorological reports on wind
are given to the nearest 10 degrees. A wind blowing from the North will be recorded as 000 . (T)
and from east as 090. (T). When calm conditions or no wind exists, it is recorded as 00. The
units of wind speed are in metres per second or in knots (Nautical miles per hour).

If the earth did not rotate and if there were no friction on the earth’s surface air flow would
occur directly from an area of high pressure to one of low pressure. However, both these
factors exist. The force generated by the rotation of the earth known as coriolis or geostrophic
force, together with pressure gradient force and friction control the flow of wind.

Friction acts only within a few kilometers of the earth’s atmosphere and tends to slow the
movement of air, hence reducing the effect of the coriolis force. Since the gradient force is not
affected by wind speed it maintains its value when frictional effects set in, thus becoming
dominant over the coriolis force and causes the wind to flow at an angle across the isobars
towards the area of low pressure.

The roughness of the surface determines the angle at which the air flows across the isobars
and also its speed. With smooth surface an angle of 10 to 20 degrees is common, whilst with
rough surfaces the angle can increase to as much as 45 degrees with speed reduction by as
much as 50%.

It is not easy to obtain accurate readings of wind velocity as the wind is rarely steady in
direction and speed for a prolonged period. For observational purposes an average over a 10-
minute period is assessed and used. At any location variations in wind velocity occur
throughout the 24-hour period giving rise to various conditions.

Forces That Affect Winds

There are four basic forces that affect the directional movement of air: pressure
gradient force (PGF), Coriolis force, centrifugal/centripetal force, and frictional force.
These forces, working together, affect the direction air moves.

Pressure Gradient Force

The variation of heating (and consequently the variations of pressure) from one locality
to another is the initial factor that produces movement of air or wind. The most direct
path from high to low pressure is the path along which the pressure is changing most
rapidly. The rate of change is called the pressure gradient. PGF is the force that moves
air from an area of high pressure to an area of low pressure as depicted in Figure 1-1.
The velocity of the wind depends upon the pressure gradient. If the gradient is strong
(weak), the wind speed is high (low).

28
 Pressure Gradient Force

Coriolis Force
The Coriolis force is the “apparent” force that makes any mass, moving free of the
Earth’s surface, appear to be deflected from its intended path. The Coriolis force
deflects winds to the right in the Northern Hemisphere and to the left in the Southern
Hemisphere, due to the earth’s rotation. Coriolis only affect winds direction and has no
effect on wind speed. The strength of the Coriolis effect varies with latitude.

• At the equator the effect is zero.

• Maximum bending occurs at the poles.

. Coriolis Force

Centrifugal and Centripetal Forces

Centrifugal force throws an air parcel outward from the centre of rotation (Figure 1-3). Its
strength is directionally proportional to the speed and radius of rotation. Centripetal force,
equal in magnitude and opposite in direction to the centrifugal force, attempts to keep the air
parcel moving around a curved path (such as around curved height contours on a constant-
pressure surface).

29
 Centrifugal and Centripetal Force

Frictional Force
An increase in friction causes a decrease in wind speed and subsequently a reduction in the
Coriolis force (Figure 1-4). Consequently, the weaker Coriolis force no longer balances the
PGF, and the wind blows across the isobars toward lower pressure. It may cause the wind to
blow up to 50° across isobars over rugged terrain and 10° across isobars over water. The
effect of frictional force reaches to about 1,500 feet above ground level (AGL) over smooth
terrain and as much as 6,000 feet AGL over mountainous terrain.

Frictional Force

1. The effect of Coriolis is greatest at the __________ (poles / equator).

2. With an increase in friction, the wind velocity __________ (increases / decreases).

Geostrophic Versus Gradient Winds

One of the things you need to understand is the differences between geostrophic and gradient
winds, although they are often used interchangeably. Keep in mind that the biggest difference
between the two is that the geostrophic wind is a theoretical, whereas the gradient wind is an
actual, frictionless, wind.

30
Geostrophic Wind

When the flow is purely geostrophic, it is assumed that there is no friction, the isobars are
straight and evenly spaced, and the wind speed is constant. In the real atmosphere, isobars
are rarely straight or evenly spaced, and the wind normally changes speed as it flows along.
So, the geostrophic wind is usually only an approximation of the “real” wind. However, the
approximation is generally close enough to help more clearly understand the behaviour of the
winds aloft.

Gradient Wind

Gradient winds are slightly more complex than geostrophic winds because they include the
action of centripetal force (Figure 1-3). Centripetal force is always directed toward the centre
of rotation. Figure 1-5 shows the forces that produce gradient winds around high- and low-
pressure centres.

Gradient Wind (925 mb)

Around a low, the gradient wind consists of the pressure gradient force (PGF) and centripetal
force (CE) acting toward the centre of rotation, while Coriolis force (CF) acts away from the
centre of the low. In a high-pressure centre, the Coriolis and centripetal forces are directed
toward the centre of the high, while the pressure gradient force is directed outward. This wind
results from a balance between the pressure gradient force and the sum of the Coriolis and
centripetal forces. It blows parallel to curved isobar. In the middle latitudes and tropics, this
wind is a better approximation of the actual wind speed than the geostrophic wind speed.

• Typically, the gradient level wind is around 2,500 to 3,000 feet AGL.
• 925 mb is the level chart most used to estimate the gradient level except in
mountainous or high terrain.

31
SOME WIND RELATED TERMS

A GUST is an increase in wind speed over the mean value.

A LULL is a decrease in wind speed below the mean value.

A SQUALL is a prolonged gust with a duration of more than one minute and an increase in
speed of at least 16 knots, or 3 steps on the Beaufort Scale, its speed being force 6 or greater.

VEERING is a change of wind direction in a clockwise direction from which the wind is blowing.
A change in wind direction from North to North-East for example is a veering wind.

BACKING is a change in wind direction in an anticlockwise (counterclockwise) direction from

which the wind is blowing. A change in wind direction from East to North-east for example is a
backing wind.

Atmospheric pressure is what influences wind direction. Atmospheric pressure is however

dynamic and may change frequently so will wind velocity. Any value for these elements when
stated remains valid only for that particular time.

In order to identify the relation between pressure distribution and wind direction Buys Ballot
formulated a law.

BUYS BALLOT’S LAW: If an observer has his back to the wind then the area of low pressure
will be to his left in the northern hemisphere and to his right in the southern hemisphere. Note
that the law holds good for winds aloft. Near the surface Friction and Topography distort wind
flow. The arc of location is 90 to 135 degrees on the respective side. Note that the law
holds good for winds aloft. Near the surface Friction and Topography distort wind flow.
e.g. wind is NE in N. hemisphere. This means it is blowing from N.E. towards S.E.
Observer back to wind in this case means he is facing S.E. Since deflection is to the left
in the N.H., we subtract 90° from 225° and this = 135°. Since the arc is between 90
and 135°, we are left with 45° to complete the arc. We then add 45° to 135°, and this
= 180°. Therefore, the low pressure lies between 135° and 180°, i.e. S.E. to S

Buy Ballot’s law works where the effect of Coriolis force is appreciable. Near the equator the
law should not be applied because Coriolis force is negligible and therefore the winds blow
directly across the isobars from area of high pressure to area of low pressure.

In the vicinity of land wind may be deflected by the land and Buy Ballot’s law will not be
applicable in this case

Wind speed is dependent on the isobars which are lines drawn joining places having the same
pressure at the same time. For standardization isobars are drawn at 4mb intervals.

32
Pressure denoted by an isobar should therefore be divisible by 4. When the isobar lines are too
wide apart intermediate isobars at 2mb intervals may be inserted. This will aid interpolation.
Note that one millibar equals one hectopascal.

Isobars of different values cannot meet or cross for the simple reason that a particular place
cannot have different values of atmospheric pressure at the same time.

PRESSURE GRADIENT refers to the fall in pressure with distance, as shown on a weather
(synoptic) map. If the distance between consecutive isobars is small the pressure gradient will
be large and strong winds will be expected to blow. The converse is true. If the distance apart
of the isobars is large then the pressure gradient will be small and winds of lower speed will be
expected.

For a given pressure gradient stronger winds are expected kin lower latitudes than in higher
latitudes as the Coriolis force is small in lower latitudes.

PREDICTING WIND DIRECTION

On the earth’s surface wind always tends to blow from an

area of hig6h pressure to an area of low pressure as a result of the pressure gradient. The flow
is however deflected by the Coriolis force, also known as the geostrophic force. This force is
generated by the rotation of the earth on its axis. It is minimum at the equator and increase as
latitude increase till at the poles where it is maximum.

Coriolis force always acts at right angles to the direction in which the wind is blowing. The
winds are deflected to the right in the northern hemisphere and to the left in the southern
hemisphere. The wind observed experienced by an observer in any location is the resultant of
the gradient fore and the Coriolis force. The combine effect causes the wind to blow spirally
inwards towards a low pressure centre (anticlockwise in the northern hemisphere and clockwise
in the southern hemisphere), and spirally outwards from the centre of a high pressure
(Clockwise in the northern hemisphere and anticlockwise in the southern hemisphere).

The important properties of the Coriolis effect are:

• It deflects wind: to the left – Southern Hemisphere; to the right – Northern
Hemisphere.
• It is a maximum at the respective poles and decreases to zero at the equator. This
means that it is latitude dependent.

• It increases with an increase of wind speed and vice versa

33
DIAGRAM

The angle that the wind makes with the isobars is known as the angle of indraft (indraught).
This angle depends on three things: The gradient force, the latitude and friction.

GRADIENT FORCE depends on the pressure gradient. The greater the pressure gradient the
greater the gradient force and vice versa.

LATITUDE alters the value of the Coriolis force. The greater the latitude the greater the
Coriolis force.

FRICTION affects the wind more on land than at sea. The land surface is very uneven
compared with the sea surface. Great variations occur on land. At sea frictional effect is
much less and fairly even. In prediction wind direction therefore a rough rule of thumb is to
allow 10 t0 15 degrees over the sea and 30 degrees over land. Experience is important in
allowing these figures. In very strong winds such as in a tropical revolving storm or a severe
depression the rule of thumb will not apply. In such conditions a force known as
CYCLOSTROPHIC force comes into play. This force acts where the isobars are curved as in a
low or high. It acts outwards from the centre of high or low.

Diagram

The value of the cyclostrophic force is directly proportional to the gradient wind speed. The
direction of the gradient wind flow for the different hemispheres is as depicted below.

Pressure system N. hemisphere S. hemisphere

LOW Anticlockwise Clockwise

HIGH Clockwise Anticlockwise

Generally, air movement across the earth’s surface is affected by friction and does not
achieve the theoretical speed directly related to the horizontal pressure gradient. The effect
of this frictional influence is that Coriolis force and cyclostrophic force have smaller values

34
with the effect that neither geostrophic nor gradient winds exist. Pressure gradient force is
therefore the dominant element. The net effect therefore is a cross-isobaric component of
the surface air flow (wind) from high to low pressure. This results in surface wind having an
angle of indraught of 10 to 15 degrees over the sea. Effect of friction on land results in
varying larger values than those at sea- up to 30 degrees.

LAND OBSERVATION OF WIND

On land the standard height used for observing wind is

10m above the surface. The instruments used are the WIND VANE for the direction of the
wind and the ANEMOMETER for the speed of the wind. It is usual to combined the two
instruments as one unit mounted at the most convenient position on board the ship usually
the mast, where there is free air flow.

The operation of the wind vane is dependent on the pressure of the wind acting on a
vertical plate connected to a bar which is free to rotate horizontally and freely about its
centre. The rotation causes the flat plate to align with the direction of the wind. Opposite to
the flat plate at the other end of the bar is an arrow (pointer) which indicates the direction
from which the wind is blowing. The position of the pointer is registered either digitally or by
a dial. On some models this direction can be recorded continuously on a chart located
remote from the mounting.

The anemometer consists of 3 cups in the shapes each in the form of a hemisphere and
each having beaded edges which are held vertically on horizontal bars of equal length. They
are fixed 120 degrees apart from a central pivot. The shape of the cups ensures that a
turbulent-free flow of air attains. When the pressure acting on the concave inside of the cup
is greater than that on the convex side the cups rotate, triggering an electrical generator
which produces a current, the value of which relates to the speed of rotation of the cups
and hence the wind speed.

SEA OBSERVATION

Sea observation of wind parameters is much more difficult for a ship

in motion than land observation. Even when stopped at sea swell waves, precipitation and
near coastal effects can distort the true value of wind observation.

In the early 19th century Admiral Beaufort (then commander Beaufort) introduced the
BEAUFORT SCALE which is a scale numbered from 0 to 12. Each number is known as a
Beaufort force number and each of them corresponds to a range of wind speeds. The World
Meteorological Organization (WMO) subsequently adopted the scale and internationally
standardized the scales’ probable wind speeds and these have been in use since.

The Beaufort wind force, hence the wind speed is judged by the appearance of the sea only
in open deep water where the wind has a long fetch. The sea criteria are the wind waves
generated over a reasonable period and having adequate fetch.

35
FACTORS AFFECTING THE ESTMATION OF WIND SPEED USING BEAUFORT CRITERIA

Besides the wind other factors affect the appearance of the sea and these must be taken
into account when recording readings. They include: Tides. Currents, Depth of water,
Precipitation, Swell.

Tides opposing the wind will cause a looping or heaping of the wave resulting in
overestimation. When tide is with the wind direction the opposite effect occurs. This similar
with current.

The deeper the water the less chance of turbulence which would result in overestimation,
and vice versa.

Heavy precipitation tends to flatten the sea leading to underestimation.

Swell from a distant location can arrive at allocation either opposing or going with the wind
resulting in overestimation or underestimation respectively. Swell wave can come from any
direction and may be at an angle to the wind generated wave. More than one swell wave is
possible also.

Conditions at sea may sometimes render it impossible to estimate the wind speed using
Beaufort criteria. When such a situation arises, use is made of the wind vane and
anemometer readings, smoke from the funnel od a hoisted flag to obtain the apparent
(relative) direction and speed of the wind. Since the ship’s direction and speed are known a
vector triangle is drawn to scale, using the two parameters. Closing the diagram, the third
side gives the velocity of the true wind which is logged.

The vessel’s course reversed gives wind due to ship (vessel’s wind). The speed of the ship is
the speed of wind due to ship.

THE WIND VECTOR DIAGRAM

Fig. 7.2 True wind vector triangle.

36
POINTS TO NOTE:

1. If there is no apparent wind the ship’s course reversed gives the true wind direction
and ship’s speed equals true wind speed. Example: Relative wind = 00; ship’s course
= 270 (T), speed 12 kts. The true wind direction = 270-180 = 090 T). True wind
speed = 12 kts.
2. If the relative wind is from the direction (bearing) that the ship is steering, then the
true wind direction = the ship’s course. True wind sped = the difference between the
ship’s speed and the speed of the relative wind.
Example: Ships course =090 (T) at speed10 kts. Relative wind direction = 090 (T) at
20 kts. Then true wind direction =090 (T) and true wind speed = 20-10 which is 10
kts.

Due to the superstructure on the ship it is not easy to locate the anemometer and wind
vane conveniently to get optimum readings. In accuracies may occur on some bearings
and this should be borne in mind. The standard height of the equipment of 10m above
deck may also not be achievable.

Over a particular area when the wind consistently blows more often from one direction
than from any other direction it is termed a PREVAILING WIND. Example are the
Westerlies of middle latitudes.

Take note of the following scenarios: If your ship is steering North (000T), at 25 knots,
then:

a) If the weather is calm, there will be no true wind yet you will feel a wind. This will be
the apparent wind and it will blow from north at 25 knots. It is the ship’s movement that
causes this apparent wind.

b) If the true wind is observed to be coming from north at 10 knots, then, the apparent
wind you would observe would be north at 35 knots (25 + 10).

c) If the true wind was from south at 10 knots then, the apparent wind would be 15
knots (25-10).

d) If the true wind was north at 25 knots, the apparent wind would be zero (25-25) and
you cannot feel any wind round the ship.

e) If the true wind were coming from south at 30 knots then, the apparent wind would
be 5 knots (30-25)

f) In the wind vector diagram, the true wind direction is always on the same side as, and
further from the bow than, the apparent wind.

g) The true wind speed is greater than that of the apparent wind whenever the apparent
wind direction is aft of the beam.

e) The true wind speed is less than that of the apparent wind whenever the apparent
wind is forward of the beam.

Over a particular area when the wind consistently blows more often from one direction
than from any other direction it is termed a PREVAILING WIND. Example are the
Westerlies of middle latitudes.

37
 PRECIPITATION

Precipitation is defined as the deposit on the earth’s surface of water in liquid form or in
solid state or in a combination of the two (i.e. the water must be falling towards the ground
and not suspended). Precipitation is one of the three sides of the hydrological cycle. The
other two are:

Evaporation- the transformation of water into water vapour

Condensation- the transformation of water vapour into water.

We can see from the above that condensation is the opposite of evaporation.

Condensation occurs if the air is cooled below its dew point. This can result under the
following conditions:

+ Contact with cold surface of land or sea.

+ Adiabatic cooling of rising air.

Radiation of heat into space from the upper layers or air.

The principal forms of precipitation are:

DRIZZLE: this is water droplets whose diameters are between 200µm and 500µm. From
stratus and stratocumulus clouds.

RAIN: this depicts water droplets whose diameters exceed 500µm. From Nimbostratus,
Altostratus, Altocumulus, cumulus and cumulonimbus clouds.

SNOW OR SNOWFLAKES: these are small ice crystals or aggregates of ice crystals. They are
of various shapes and sizes. From clouds as for rain.

HAIL: hail comprises balls of ice with varying sizes. They are usually globular.

Hailstone varies in size ranging from 5mm to 50mm and above. From cumulonimbus clouds.

SLEET: this is a mixture of rain and snow. Sleet is a winter phenomenon and occurs when
there is an upper freezing layer overlying a sub-freezing near ground. The upper freezing
layer comprises melting ice which is in a location warmer than the one below. As this
melting ice descends it encounters the colder surface below, freezes and reaches ground
with size equal to that of the raindrop from which it formed.

38
There cannot be precipitation without cloud, that is, precipitation is associated with cloud.

In certain latitudes rain or drizzle may freeze on coming into contact with the surface of the
earth or an object on earth where it is termed freezing rain or freezing drizzle as the case
may be. When such ice is encountered on roads it is termed Black Ice or Glazed Frost. At
sea deposition of ice on ship’s structure is termed icing or ice accretion. The white deposits
of ice on the superstructure are termed RIME.

DEW is the condensation of water vapour into water droplets, deposited on exposed
surfaces on or near the ground.

HOARFROST is ice crystals deposited on exposed surfaces on or near the ground when the
ground temperature is much lower than the freezing point of the air. In the formation of
hoarfrost, the water vapour directly turns into ice without becoming water (sublimation).

VIRGA OR FALLSTREAKS: this is precipitation leaving the cloud but which does not reach the
earth’s surface. When this type of precipitation is from water droplets it is called virga but
when it is from ice crystals the sublimation of the crystals which does not reach ground is
called fallstreaks.

DEVELOPMENT OF PRECIPITATION

As stated, earlier precipitation emanates from

cloud. A cloud has water droplets whose diameters are of the order of 20µm. From
observations it has been noticed that the buildup in size of these droplets is not due to
condensation within the cloud. A process known as COALESCENCE in a warm cloud and
SUPERCOOLING in cold clouds.

Coalescence occurs in a cloud which is composed entirely of water droplets, and whose
temperature is greater than 0.C. The process of coalescence involves the collision and
merging together of droplets within the cloud.

The size of a cloud droplet depends on the size of the condensation nuclei on which it is
formed. Within the cloud there are varying sizes of these nuclei and thus varying sizes of
droplets. A large droplet falling through the cloud definitely has a higher speed than a
smaller one. It is therefore possible for the faster moving droplet to collide with the slower,
smaller, droplet lying in its path. When this happens the two join together (merge) and the
process is known as coalescence.

Merging results in an increase in size of the droplet and hence an increase in its momentum.
Further collision and coalescence take place as the droplet descends. When the droplet
grows to such a size that its speed of descent exceeds the upward movement (updraught)
of the air the droplet leaves the cloud and falls to ground. Depending on the relative
humidity of the air through which the droplet passes it may undergo evaporation and reduce
in size before reaching the ground.

The type of cloud in which coalescence occurs determines the type of precipitation that will
ensue. Stratus produces drizzle. Cumuliform clouds and nimbostratus produce rain. Hail is
associated with cumulonimbus cloud.

39
Substantial rain falls from cumulus and cumulonimbus clouds due to the fact that there is a
high concentration of water droplets within these clouds and the frequency of collision is
increased due to small droplets being lifted by updraught.

Development of precipitation in a cold cloud (temperature below 0 . Celcius) is different from

what has been described above. The process here involves supercooled water droplets. In a
cold cloud the temperature is less than zero degrees celcius throughout, or in part of, the
cloud. The water droplets contained therein are therefore supercooled. Freezing nuclei in
the cloud enable ice crystals to be formed from the supercooled droplets. These nuclei
which are hexagonal in shape are introduced to the cloud mostly from the earth’s surface.
Each nucleus has its own threshold temperature below which supercooled water droplets
will freeze on coming into contact with it. As temperature decreases different types of
freezing nuclei become active. When the temperature falls to 22 .C and below the cloud is
composed entirely of ice crystals. This is indicated in the cirrus cloud.

With respect to a plane water surface the air surrounding the newly formed ice crystal is
saturated whilst it is supersaturated with respect to plane ice surface. A process of
sublimation of the water vapour takes place directly onto the ice crystal which the increases
in size. When sublimation occurs, the surrounding air becomes unsaturated with respect to a
plane water surface and the supercooled water droplets present decrease in size due to
evaporation.

As the process is repeated the crystal continuous to grow in size. Fragmentation of the
crystals may take place due to air currents within the cloud. Each fragmented crystal then
forms a new nucleus thus increasing the number of crystals within the cloud.

Coalescence may occur within the crystals, particularly between 0 .C and -5.C resulting in
large snowflakes. As the snowflakes increase in size, they may become of such a size that
their speed of descent is higher than the updraught of the air currents within the cloud. The
flakes will then leave the cloud base and fall to ground. Snow occurs when the surface air
temperature is less than zero degrees celcius. Between zero degrees celcius and three
degrees celcius the snowflakes melt. At the lower part of the cloud the temperature is
greater than 0.C. An ice crystal which descends to the cloud base therefore melts into a
water droplet which then grows in size through collision and merging and reaches the
earth’s surface as rain. When the melted snow falls together with the rain drops to the
surface the combined phenomenon is known as SLEET. These processes can occur in warm
cumulus, cumulonimbus and nimbostratus clouds.

SOME TERMINOLOGIES PERTAINING TO PRECIPITATION

SHOWERS = Precipitation of short duration with rapid fluctuation of intensity. Can be rain,
snow, hail, or sleet. From convective clouds.

INTERMITTENT PRECIPITATION: Where there are breaks in precipitation within the past
hour. From Stratiform clouds.

CONTINUOUS PRECIPITATION: When precipitation has lasted for at least an hour without a
break. From Stratiform clouds.

Precipitation from whatever source may be described as SLIGHT, MODERATE OR HEAVY

depending on the number of millimetres reaching the earth’s surface during one hour.

HEAT TRANSFER PROCESSES

40
INSOLATION is the name given to all forms of energy received by the earth from the sun by
the process of radiation. These energies include light, heat, ultra-violet rays, infra-red rays
and so on.

Insolation energy comes in the form of very short wavelength which has the property of
passing through a transparent medium without heating it. Insolation therefore passes
through the earth’s atmosphere without any appreciable heating.

On striking the earth’s surface most of the insolation is directly reflected off back into space
and only a small amount gets absorbed. The energy absorbed by the earth is re-radiated by
it. This re-radiation is termed TERRESTRIAL RADIATION which is in a much longer
wavelength than that of insolation. The long wave radiation cannot easily penetrate the
atmosphere thus the atmosphere gets heated. The long wave radiation cannot penetrate
clouds like the radiation from insolation. Clouds reflect long wave back towards the earth.
Because of above explanation cloudy nights are warmer than clear nights.

Heat transfer from one place to another occurs in three main ways initiated by insolation.

RADIATION

This is the transfer of heat from one place to another through a medium
without the need of an intervening medium. Heat from the sun reaches the earth’s surface
by the process of radiation.

CONDUCTION:

By this process heat is transferred from particle to particle by contact. As

the earth warms up during the day the air immediately in contact with it is heated and this
further heats the surrounding air. At night the reverse effect, cooling, occurs. Conduction is
the first process that ensues when solar radiation hits the earth’s surface.

CONVECTION:

This is heat transfer by molecular movement. As air heats up it becomes

lighter (less dense) and hence rises up to mix with the air above. The rising air is replaced
by cooler if within the surroundings and the process repeats itself.

TURBULENCE:

This can be considered as an aiding process to convection. Due to the fact

that the earth’s surface is rugged (not even) convective flow of air gets interrupted by the
rough surface and tends to be deflected mostly upwards. The rising air is replaced by air
within the surroundings. Turbulence aids in the uplift of air to various heights. Turbulence is
sometimes known as Forced Convection.

THE VERTICAL WIND CIRCULATION

Surface wind flow is associated with vertical circulation of air.

41
Consider the diagram above. Initially you have two columns of air AB and CD having
the same cross-sectional area and height. Initially let both be at the same
temperature. In the real world, temperature is different in different places at
different times. In these conditions the pressure at A will equal that at C and
pressure at B equals that at D.
Naturally insolation of the sun varies with locations. If insolation acts as the trigger
factor and causes column AB to be heated the air will expand to a point say E. There
is an increase in the air column from AB to AE. The pressure at A is still the same as
no new air has been added to the column. The pressure at B however will be higher
when compared to that at D at this time. In order to equalize the system air flows
from B to D. As the air flows from B. to D pressure at A will drop and that at C will
rise. The pressure gradient set up between C and A causes air to move from C to A.
There is convergence at A which is at low pressure, and a divergence at C which is at
a high pressure. In the upper portion of the columns there is divergence at B which
is at a high pressure relative to D, and a convergence at D which is at low pressure
relative to B. In summary, outflowing air from C is replaced by air from above whilst
the inflowing air at A escapes to upper level and maintains the vertical circulation.
The flow from upper level is known as the Upper air circulation whilst that at the
surface is known as Surface circulation. The rate of flow of air from C to A depends
on the pressure gradient.
It is evident that for a surface low to persist there must be compensation from aloft.
Surface convergence is thus maintained if there is equal divergence aloft.
Friction can cause either convergence or divergence depending on the source of flow
to another region.
Land has more friction than sea, thus if air flows from the relatively smooth sea to
land the increased friction causes its speed to drop, resulting in a pile up of air
upstream. This generates converging winds on the land and consequent ascending
air due to the pile up. The result is cloudy skies over humid coastal areas.
The converse is true, that is, when air moves from the land to the ocean divergence
and subsidence with increasing wind speed occur as the sea is relatively smoother
than the land.
Note that wind does not blow straight from high pressure are to low pressure area as
the movement is affected by the rotation of the earth. The coriolis force generated
due to the rotation of the earth causes a deflection. Air can only flow directly from
low pressure to low

42
 pressure if the low- and high-pressure areas are small and their centres are close to
each other or if you are at, or close to, the equator.

GEOSTROPHIC FORCE AND GEOSTROPHIC WIND

Geostrophic wind is an idealized model that only approximates the actual movement of wind
aloft. Under natural conditions the air flow in the atmosphere is hardly purely geostrophic.
However, the geostrophic model offers a useful information about the actual wind aloft. By
measuring the orientation and spacing of the isobars (the pressure field) aloft it is possible
to determine both the direction and speed of the wind.

We know that wind does not always flow directly from an area of high pressure to an area
of low pressure, it being deflected by a force generated by the rotation of the earth. This
force is known as the Geostrophic or Coriolis force. The deflection is to the right in the N.
hemisphere and to the left in the S. hemisphere. The geostrophic force for any wind velocity
is zero at the equator and maximum at the poles. For a particular latitude the geostrophic
force increases with increased wind velocity. Geostrophic force always acts at 90 degrees
from the direction in which the wind is blowing. Pressure gradient force is the force that sets
a parcel of air to flow from high towards low. The movement of the parcel is then affected
by the geostrophic force causing the movement to follow a curved part. Where the isobars
run parallel and in straight lines there comes a time that the geostrophic force balances the
pressure gradient force and acts directly opposite it. The parcel then moves parallel to the
straight isobars. At the point that the geostrophic force is exactly equal in strength to the
pressure gradient force and is acting directly opposite to it the situation is described as a
Geostrophic Balance. The wind blowing parallel to the isobars is called the Geostrophic
wind.

The geostrophic wind speed can be calculated from formula if the pressure gradient is
known.

Vg =P/2ρω sinϴ. Vg = Geostrophic wind speed; P = pressure gradient; ρ = density of the

air; ωsinϴ = the rate of turntable rotation of the earth in latitude ϴ.

Practically facsimile charts transmitted by meteorological stations include geostrophic wind

scales specifically related to the projection and scale of each chart. This gives a scale
distance for the isobar spacing, showing wind speeds for the different pressure gradients.

To use the scale: 1) take a pair of dividers and measure the perpendicular distance between
isobars spaced at 4mb intervals enclosing the position. 2)Without changing the opening of
the dividers go to the geostrophic wind scale and place one leg on the vertical axis at the
latitude of the location. 3. Position the other leg horizontally to the right of the vertical and
note the point it settles. 4) Follow the curve down to the horizontal line and read off the
geostrophic wind speed, interpolating where necessary.

Note that geostrophic wind occurs at a height of 600m or more above the surface. To obtain
surface wind speed for the sea, multiply the geostrophic wind speed by 2/3.

43
Local Winds
In the atmospheric circulation system, small-scale wind systems occur with the general
circulation pattern. They are a result of the Earth’s rough surface and temperature
differences between land and water. These small-scale circulations are frequently called
local winds and have names that link them to the place where they occur.
The absence of a strong pressure gradient is typically necessary for the development of
most of these often thermally-induced winds. Besides the pressure gradient, surface
temperatures determine whether the temperature gradient is sufficient to induce such
circulations as the land/sea breeze, or in the mountain or valley breezes case, whether the
insolation or radiation is sufficient to develop the breeze. With forced circulations like the
fall (glacier) and foehn (chinook) winds, the proper orientation and spacing of the isobars
(which is a direct result of pressure gradient) is necessary to develop the winds.

PERIODIC/LOCAL WINDS CAUSED BY DIFFERENTIAL HEATING OF LAND AND SEA

Due to large differences in the diurnal ranges of atmospheric temperature over land and
over the sea the mariner is often confronted with certain wind conditions in coastal water,
resulting from the heating and cooling of the sea and adjacent land. Where there are large
bodies of water inland such winds can also form; e.g. the Great lakes in Canada.

SEA BREEZE: This occurs by day. During the day the temperature over land increases more
rapidly than that of the sea surface with result that the air temperature over land is higher
than that over the sea. Convection occurs and moves the air vertically creating a pressure
gradient between the sea and land. The isobars assume a parallel posture with the coast.
Since the distance between the centres of high and low pressure is small and the pressure
gradient is adequately high the wind blows directly from the high pressure over the sea to
the low pressure over the land without any deflection. This constitutes sea breeze. Sea
breeze can be felt some distance offshore-up to 20 nautical miles or more. At a height of
about one kilometre above the sea surface an offshore wind blows. Sea breeze sets in at
about 1000 local men time, reaching its maximum at about 1400 LMT and dying down at
sunset.

Sea breeze affects coastal areas and portions inland in that the cool air from the sea breeze
lowers temperatures. The relative humidity at the coast is increased. The condition therefore
offsets the usual diurnal variation of relative humidity. The onshore leading edge of the sea
breeze oftentimes has convective clouds (cumulus), which can result in precipitation,
especially in the tropics. Sea breeze reaches a maximum of force 3 in mid-latitudes and
force 5 in low latitudes.

44
LAND BREEZE: This occurs by night. Just as the land heats up rapidly compared to the sea
in the day time so does it cool comparably rapidly at night. With clear skies the radiative
cooling of the land is maximum though the sea temperature cools slowly. The air in contact
with the cold land surface is cooled whilst that over the sea remains fairly constant. The
isobars run nearly parallel to the coast and the wind blows directly across from high to low
without deflection as the distance between the centres of high and low is small. This is land
breeze. Land breeze sets in a couple of hours after sunset and persists until about half an
hour after sunrise. Sea breezes are usually stronger than land breezes. Ideal conditions for
strong sea and land breezes include: High, dry, rocky coast or desert coast with no trees nor
swamps; weak prevailing wind and a partly covered sky. The small temperature differential
between the land and sea at night coupled with the topography of the land influence the
speed of the land breeze which is usually smaller than that of sea breeze.

KATABATIC AND ANABATIC WINDS

These winds are opposite, and are akin to sea and land breezes. Katabatic winds blow
downhill at night whilst anabatic wins blow uphill in the daytime.

KATABATIC WINDS: Katabatic is Greek for downslope. Katabatic winds therefore blow
downslope, and occur at night when there are clear skies, a general slack pressure gradient
and a relatively rapid cooling of the land. They affect conditions off mountainous coastal

45
areas. Typical areas where there occur include the Norwegian Fjords, Greenland and
Antarctica.

Consider a location X on a sloping ground. Rapid radiative cooling of the land at X makes
the air at X denser than air at the same level but a distant away horizontally, say Y. This
forces the air at X to descend down the slope and forms what is known as Katabatic wind.
On reaching the bottom of the slope the air moves out to sea. Though adiabatic warming
occurs as the air descends the slope the warming is counteracted by conduction over the
cold surface. When the slope is ice- or snow-covered little conduction occurs and the
katabatic wind speed is increased, sometimes to gale force and this can be a menace to
small craft and ships at anchor. Katabatic winds do not depend on isobars but gravitational
flow thus their onset is virtually unpredictable. Common areas where katabatic winds occur
include the Adriatic Sea, Greenland and the Norwegian Fjords.

ANABATIC WINDS: These develop during the day and are of no importance to the mariner.
With clear skies during the day a point on a slope say P is heated and it absorbs heat and
experiences a rise in temperature. The air immediately in contact with it is heated and its
temperature becomes higher than air at the same level a distance away, say Q. Cold air at Q
subsides and the warm air at P ascends the slope. This is anabatic wind. The rising air
undergoes expansion and therefore cooling, but as it is in constant contact with the warm
surface heating is ensure and the rise continues. Anabatic wind reaches its maximum
around mid-noon (1400 LMT). Areas affected by anabatic winds include: The Alps.

Katabatic winds are of less intensity than anabatic winds.

THE SOUTH WEST WINDS OF WEST AFRICA: - A semi-permanent low pressure system is
located in the south, middle part of Africa. During the northern summer this low shifts north
of the equator and sets up a pressure gradient itself and the high over the south Atlantic.
The S.E. trades are then deflected towards the low above the equator and they arrive as
South westerlies winds and are given the misnomer ‘monsoons’ though their intensity is
nothing like the monsoons of India.

46
 WEATHER OBSERVATIONS AND FORECASTING

Weather observations are either by instruments or by visual observations. Some

observations made by instruments include temperature, pressure, wind speed and direction,
precipitation, humidity, dew point. Observations requiring visual techniques include cloud,
fog, mist, haze. A continuous record of weather elements both ashore and at sea is
beneficial for the meteorologist and mariner. Voluntary observing ships transmit weather
information to land stations who use them to produce a weather map (synoptic chart),
which gives an up-to-date representation of the weather over a large area. A study of these
and other charts enables the meteorologist or the mariner to make a reasonable weather
forecast for the following 12 hours or beyond. Prolonged records of the weather elements
enable a climatic chart to be produced for a particular region. Climatic charts are valuable
when it is not possible to obtain weather conditions at any time. The charts can be used as
average conditions for planning activities such as towing, offshore drilling etc. The weather
accumulated over a period can also be used for research purposes. They may also be used
in a later date as evidence of what may have caused a particular incidence at that time.
They can also be used for scientific purposes including the monitoring of the climate and
study of ecosystems worldwide.

WEATHER FORECAST is the scientific estimate of the weather at some future time,
expressed in terms of the most important weather variables. These variables include
temperature, pressure, humidity, wind speed and direction, cloudiness and precipitation.

The weather forecast gives a statement of the anticipated meteorological conditions for a
particular area or route for a specified period. Modifications are made as more data are
received.

Weather observations can be land based, single station observer or facsimile transmission.
On board ships the following elements are usually recorded: Air temperature, Atmospheric
pressure, humidity, wind speed and direction, Cloud, past and present weather, visibility,
precipitation, sea temperature, wave height, ice conditions.

By making careful evaluation and application of forecast data in the pre-planning of the
passage and on passage, the seafarer can influence the circumstances arising. As a single
observer, he can directly monitor his environment to any degree. This will depend on the
facilities and the time available to him.

Issued meteorological data are available both at sea and in port. Radio weather services
are available on a worldwide basis to the mariner. Details can be found in the Admiralty list
of radio signals volume 3. Volume 3a gives a series of charts for the area and these are
identified either by name, letters or figures. The operating frequencies are also given here.
Appendix 2 gives the areas of responsibility of each country for weather and sea bulletins.

TYPICAL RULES THAT WILL INFORM THE SINGLE STATION OBSERVER.

-For fair weather to continue any of the following will be an indicator, depending on
location: Heavy dew at night; Cloud bases increasing in height; cloud number diminishing;

47
Observed temperature is normal for the time of the year; Barometer stays steady or rises
slowly;

-For weather to clear the following will be noticed: Cloud bases will increase in height; cloud
numbers will reduce; barometer will rise rapidly; in temperate latitudes a passage of a cold
front has occurred during the past 3 to 6 hours.

-The following will indicate a deterioration of the weather: A cloud change from high cirrus
descending to cirrostratus, thickening the cloud base; cloud movement is in different
direction and speed at different heights; clouds lower base heights and thicken with their
numbers increasing; the temperature is far below the normal for the time of the year;
temperature rises abnormally; the barometer falls steadily; in temperate climates, there is
an approaching warm, cold or occluded front.

-Rain will be experienced soon when the following are noted: On observing a dark,
threatening sky (Cb cloud); on the approach of a front-cold, warm or occluded; when high
cloud Ci descends and thickens as it lowers, transforming through Cs to As; when the
morning temperature is unusually high; barometer falls steadily.

NB: Cloud movement at any level is in the same direction and speed as the wind.

MEANINGS OF SOME TERMS USED IN WEATHER FORECASTING

During the day, the weather may be described as follows:

Bright-there is a good amount of cloud but also a considerable amount of diffused

sunshine.

Bright intervals or periods -Cloud amount is variable, with sufficient thickening and a
mixture of diffused sunshine and clear sunshine.

Fine- no precipitation or significant fog. Usually some sunshine. Sunny completely blue sky
or nearly completely blue sky.

Sunny intervals or periods -Variable condition of the sky with a considerable amount of blue
sky and sunshine.

Cloudy-the sky is completely or almost completely covered with cloud thus obscuring the
sun and reducing the amount of daylight.

Dull- sky completely covered with cloud and very dense all over. Clear-Little cloud and no
fog.

WEATHER SERVICES FOR SHIPPING

The World Meteorological Organization (WMO)

This is a technical agency of the United

Nations established in 1951 and based in Geneva. Worldwide meteorological operations are
under the guidance of the WMO. Under the recommendations of the WMO contracting

48
governments to SOLAS 1974 are mandated to recruit merchant ships known as Voluntary
Observing Fleet (VOF) which make weather observations at fixed times UTC, known as
Synoptic Hours, and transmit to the any designated National Coast Radio Stations listed in
the Admiralty List of Radio Signals Vol. 3. The coast radio station then forwards the data to
the Regional Meteorological Data Collection Centre on a priority basis. Transmissions by
these ships is free. Payment of charges is done by the respective national weather authority,
who also provide for all necessary equipment, publications and stationery used by the VOF.

The aims of the WMO are to:

1. Assist in the establishment of networks of meteorological observing stations by

encouraging worldwide participation.
2. Assist in the development of centres to provide meteorological observations.
3. Ensure the rapid exchange of data.
4. Further the application of meteorology to human activities such as shipping.
5. Encourage research and training in meteorology.

To achieve these aims a number of commissions has been established by WMO. Each
concerned with a specific field.

All the reports of a particular area are collated by the Regional Meteorological Centre which
then makes weather forecasts which are transmitted to shipping in the area as weather
bulletins.

SOURCES OF WEATHER INFORMATION SENT TO THE NATIONAL METEOROLOGICAL

CENTRE (NMC).

1. Land observing stations

2. Sea observing networks
3. Data collection platforms
4. Satellite transmission

Amongst the sea observing networks are the following:

1. Mobile units
2. Fixed units.

Under fixed units we have a fixed weather ship in the North Atlantic which transmits
weather information to Bracknell, the U.K. national meteorological centre.

Mobile units are basically the voluntary observing ships which are classified into three
categories:

SELECTED SHIPS – These are supplied with sufficient equipment to enable them transmit
the required weather observations in full code.

SUPPLEMENTARY SHIPS –These are supplied with a limited number of certified

meteorological instruments for making observations and transmitting them in the
abbreviated met. Code.

AUXILIARY SHIPS – These are not normally supplied with certified meteorological
instruments. They transmit weather reports in disturbed weather, or upon special request, in
the reduced form of the code.

49
Ships which are not recruited by the NMC are also required to transmit weather reports in
disturbed weather.

Each ship in the VOF is given a meteorological (weather) log book in which all weather
observations must be recorded at each synoptic hour, whether they are transmitted or not.

On completion each log book is returned to the regional met. Office which then compares
the log entries with the transmission previously receive, and any errors in transmission
corrected. The data can then be used for future reference.

MAIN ITEMS SUPPLIED TO VOF DEPENDING ON CATEGORY

1. Barometer
2. Whirling psychrometer
3. Barograph
4. Sea thermometer
5. Marine bucket
6. Weather log book

The above are all found aboard a selected ship. A reduce quantity is supplied to a
supplementary ship.

Various met. Publications are also sullied.

WHY THE NEED FOR WEATHER OBSERVATIONS?

1. Synoptic charts prepared by the NMC and transmitted to shipping advices about the
weather conditions at various locations
2. Observations can be used for research
3. People are able to plan their outdoor activities adequately
4. Observations may be required at a latter date as evidence to an occurrence or
incident
5. Over a long period, data can be used in creating or updating climatic charts.

PRINCIPAL ISOBARIC SYSTEMS

The seven isobaric patterns which can be identified on a weather chart are: Low or Cyclone,
High or Anticyclone, Secondary low or Secondary cyclone, Col or saddle, Trough, Ridge or
Wedge and straight isobars.

1. CYCLONE OR LOW

This is an area of relatively low pressure with closed isobars surrounded

by areas of relatively high pressure. The isobars form a closed system with the lowest
pressure inside the isobar with the smallest value of pressure. Wind circulation is spirally
inwards, anticlockwise in the N. hemispheres and clockwise in the S. hemisphere. The
pressure gradient within a low is usually high, resulting in strong winds. Air flows in towards

50
the centre of the low, thus it is an area of convergence of air at sea level. When the air
reaches the centre, it moves upwards as a strong current. The upward ascent results in the
formation of cumulus or cumulonimbus clouds, depending on the strength of the updraught.
Heavy precipitation ensues. In the actual centre of the low a patch of blue sky may be seen
as there is a thin, downward stream of air.

A cyclone of middle and high latitudes is called a DEPRESSION.

Depending on the strength of the wind a cyclone is given different names viz:

Low or Cyclone- wind speed is 33kts or less.

Cyclonic storm- wind speed is from 34kts to 47kts.

Severe cyclonic storm- wind speed is 48kts and above.

SUMMARY: Low is a sign of bad weather with strong winds, heavy cloud cover, heavy
precipitation and so on.

DIAGRAM

2. ANTICYCLONE OR HIGH

This is an area of relatively high pressure with closed isobars,

surrounded by areas of relatively low pressure. The isobars form a closed system with the

51
highest pressure inside the isobar with the highest value of pressure. Wind circulation is
spirally outwards, clockwise in the N. hemisphere and anticlockwise in the S. hemisphere.
The pressure gradient within a high is usually low resulting in light winds. Air flows away
from the centre of a high, thus it is an area of divergence of air at sea level. The outflow of
air from the centre of a high is replaced by a downward current of air. The descending
column of air warms adiabatically, becoming drier and drier as it descends. The net result is
that there are no clouds and thus no precipitation in an anticyclone (high) with blue skies as
an emblem.

In summary anticyclone is a sign of good weather with light winds, no cloud Blue skies), no
precipitation and good visibility.

When the subsiding air reaches sea level it tends to blow spirally outwards picking moisture
through evaporation quickly. If sea temperature is quite low this can result in the formation
of fog or mist at the outer fringes of the anticyclone, tough the central area remains good.

Generally, on the earth’s surface anticyclone are larger than cyclones and therefore have
weaker horizontal pressure gradient hence weaker winds.

DIAGRAM

3. SECONDARY CYLONE OR SECONDARY LOW

This is a depression of smaller size within the area

covered by a larger depression known as the primary depression. In the movement of a
depression another low may closely follow the first one and within it. The first one is the one
called the Primary low and the second one the secondary low- so named because it formed
later and not that it is inferior to the first. The secondary low possesses all the

52
characteristics of the primary. It may fill (die out) and disappear or it may intensify and
swallow up the primary.

DIAGRAM

4. TROUGH OF LOW PRESSURE

A trough is an area of relatively low pressure jutting into

an area of high pressure. The isobars in a trough are curved but do not form closed loops as
in a cyclone or anticyclone. Pressure gradient within a trough is fairly high resulting in strong
winds and bad weather- cloudiness, precipitation reduced visibility. The axis of a trough is
called the trough line. The isobars extend outwards along the trough line from the centre of
the low pressure. The winds are deflected to the right in the N. hemisphere and to the left
in the S. hemisphere by the action of coriolis force. The wind blows from the enclosing high
pressure towards the low pressure area of the trough.

Before the trough pressure falls and the weather deteriorates. After the passage of the
trough the pressure rises and the weather improves.

When the maximum curvature of the trough along the axis (trough line) is large the trough
is said to be DEEP. If this angle is small, it is said to be SHALLOW.

Note that in a large-scale trough may have one or more lows in it and an upper air trough
may have a lower level low/. A low may also have one or more troughs jutting out from it.

There two types of troughs- FRONTAL and NON-FRONTAL.

53
In a non-frontal trough, the isobars curve gradually (gently) and when such a trough passes
over an observer the wind veers gradually in the N. hemisphere and backs gradually in the
S. hemisphere. Non-frontal trough has a ‘U’ shape, the ‘U’ pointing always, towards the
equator.

Where two airmasses meet a frontal trough is formed at the boundary. The isobars
emanating at the axis are ‘V’ shape with the ‘V’ always pointing towards the equator. On
crossing a frontal trough at the axis, the isobars change direction suddenly to 90 . Veering in
the N. hemisphere and backing in the S. hemisphere. At a frontal trough heavy weather of
line squalls and heavy precipitation may be experienced. A sudden change in temperature,
depending on the type of airmasses that meet, on the passage of a frontal trough. Because
of the ‘V’ shape of the isobars this type of front is sometimes called a ‘V’-shaped depression.

Note that a trough is opposite to a ridge.

5. RIDGE OR WEDGE
This is an area of high pressure jutting out into areas of low
pressure. Pressure in a ridge is higher on the inside than on the outside. The isobars
are curved and widely spaced. They do not necessarily form closed loops. The point
of maximum curvature of the isobars of the ridge denotes its axis. Where the
maximum curvature along the axis of a ridge is small the ridge is said to be flat and
tends to be faster moving.
A ridge may be a direct extension of a distant anticyclone in which case it produces
typical anticyclonic weather conditions as long as it persists or it may form between
two frontal depressions. In the latter case the ridge will move very fast through over
an area influencing the weather of the depression. The break in bad weather due to
the interference of the ridge with the depression will be short lived due to the speed
at which the ridge moves.

54
 Weather associated with a ridge: - Clear skies (no clouds), no precipitation, light
winds.

Ridge is opposite to Trough.

6. COL
This is also called a SADDLE. A col is a point of relatively low pressure situated
between two highs and two lows alternately arranged. A line drawn joining the two
anticyclones of highs and another joining the two lows cross at the central point of
the col. Within the col the pressure gradient is slack and the winds are light and
variable, but this does not last for long.
No definite pattern is associated with a col. The weather conditions associated with
the col will depend upon the effect of the underlying surface on the air mass above.
If unstable conditions exist (high relative humidity), thunderstorms and lighting will
be experienced. With stable conditions radiation fog may form on land or advection
fog at sea where warm air mass passes over a colder surface. During the winter
months cols are short lived because the depressions which surround them move
rapidly. A col may also be situated between a primary low and a secondary low.
DIAGRAM

55
7. STRAIGHT ISOBARS
When the distance between the centres of high pressure and the
low pressure is large (hundreds of miles apart) the isobars may run straight or nearly
straight and parallel or nearly parallel lines. Such a situation is termed STRAIGHT
ISOBARS.
The weather associated with straight isobars is of the changeable type and cannot
be defined. It depends on the properties of the air mass in which the isobars exist.
The pressure gradient is usually low, with light winds (low wind speed) and fine
weather. In certain cases, as in the warm sector of a depression strong, gale force
winds can be observed.
As long as the isobars remain straight or nearly so, i.e. the isobars do not change,
the wind direction and speed will remain constant.

56
 MET 2

SEASONAL WINDS AND MONSOONS

In certain ocean areas, there is a regular cycle of winds which results from seasonal changes in
pressure over adjoining land masses due to the heating and cooling that occur round the day.

The most notable of these are the monsoons of North Indian ocean, the Bay of Bengal, China seas
and the Eastern Archipelago.

During the northern winter, there is an intense anticyclone over the Asian continent. From about
October to March a persistent North-east monsoon wind blows over the North Indian ocean and the
South China sea. In the pacific at this time, the wind is north-northeast. The wind force is generally
moderate to fresh, but occasionally can reach gale force when a surge of cold air moves south. This
is particularly notable in the Strait of Taiwan. The weather is generally fair and cool, with well broken
cloud cover. However, around the coasts of South China and Vietnam, low clouds frequently form,
resulting in drizzle.

The N.E. monsoon may extend across the equator. When this happens a change of direction to
north, becoming the north monsoon of East Africa, or N.W to become the N.W monsoon of North
Australia.

In the northern summer pressure over the Asian continent falls. The lowest pressure occurs near the
Western Himalayas. An anticlockwise circulation of wind occurs, resulting in a persistent S.W.
monsoon wind off North Indian ocean and South China sea, from May to September or October.

In the West Pacific southerly to south-south-westerly winds blow. In all the above cases, the winds
are generally fresh to strong, raising considerable seas. Warm humid air gives rise to much cloud and
rain on the windward sides of the land and on islands.

In other parts of the world, similar regular and persistent winds blow and are also called monsoons
though their strength and intensity are nowhere near those of the Indian ocean and South China sea.
A typical example is the S.W. winds off the Gulf of Guinea, which blows from June to September.

LINE SQUALL

In a well-developed mid-latitude frontal depression, the cold front is usually well marked,
that is, there is a large temperature difference between the warm and cold air. A relatively
narrow band of thunderstorm forms in the warm sector. This is known as a line squall. It
usually develops 100 t0 300 kilometres ahead of the cold front. An average line squall can
last 10 hours or more.

It is not all line squalls that form due to uplifting at a cold front. Most line squalls
occur from a combination of warm, moist, air near the surface and an active
Jetstream aloft. When the divergence from the Jetstream aligns with a strong
persistent low-level flow of warm humid air from the south a line squall forms. It can
also form along a boundary where there is an abrupt change in moisture as for
example, where continental tropical air is pulled into the warm sector of a mid-
latitude depression.
WEATHER CHANGES EXPECTED AT THE PASSAGE OF A LINE SQUALL

57
 A sudden drop in air temperature
 A sudden rise in atmospheric pressure
 A heavy black cloud which appears to roll along just above the surface
 Change in the direction of the wind and an increase in wind speed
 Heavy rain
 Thunder and lighting.

Line squalls are common in the following places:

 Off the east coast of South America where it is known as PAMPERO.

 Off South-eastern Australia where it is known as the SOUTHERLY BUSTER.

TORNADOES

These are mostly North-American phenomena which form on a cold

front where there is strong convergence, but also occur in England. Tornadoes of
West Africa are different from those of North America and England in that they are
violent storms without cyclonic circulation, blowing outward from an approaching
thunderstorm. This happens mainly during the rainy season. They are violent
windstorms that take the form of a rotating column of air known as a vortex which
extends downwards from a cumulonimbus cloud. The pressure in the centre of the
vortex is much lower compared to the outside of it. This results in air near ground
being drawn from all directions towards the centre. As the air is drawn in it is
spiralled cyclonically, upwards around the core till it meets and merges with the air
flow of the parent thunderstorm in the cumulonimbus cloud. The core (centre) is of
a small diameter- a couple of a hundred meters-and path of travel seldom exceeds
20 miles.

Tornadoes are so powerful that everything in their path will suffer severe damage.

58
 AIR MASSES

An air mass is an immense (a large) body of air, usually 1600 kilometres or more in width,
which is characterised by homogeneous physical properties in a horizontal plane, at any
given altitude. The main physical characteristics that that pertain to an air mass are
temperature and humidity (moisture content).

When this air moves from its origin (known as its source region), it carries along with it
these characteristics, affecting the areas that it traverses. It may take several days for the

air mass to traverse an area resulting in the area experiencing generally constant weather
conditions commensurate with the air mass. This condition is termed an air mass weather.

The most suitable conditions for an air mass to develop are a combination of two main
factors: 1) There must be a uniform area of the earth’s surface (such as the oceans) and 2)
There must be the presence of a large anticyclone lasting at least three days (such as the
Azores). The pressure gradient in an anticyclone is slack, with consequent low wind speed.
An area having a highly irregular topography or one comprising of both water and land is
not suitable for an air mass source. This allows for the air mass to acquire its characteristics.
On the earth’s surface the source regions of air masses are generally found in the
subtropical, temperate and polar zones, where uniform surfaces and anticyclonic conditions
exist simultaneously.

The atmosphere is heated mainly from below and obtains its water vapour through
evaporation from the earth’s surface. The airmass in contact with the surface thus acquires
its properties based on the nature of the surface with which it is in contact.

FACTORS WHICH AFFECT THE PROPERTIES OF AIR MASSES

1. Source Region: Air masses from polar regions are colder than those of tropical
regions.
2. Track over the earth’s surface: If the air mass; passes over water it will absorb
moisture and be moist, while if it passes over land, it will be dry.
3. The extent of convergence and divergence: Under cyclonic conditions there is
convergence, whilst divergence occurs under anti-cyclonic conditions. Both these
conditions will modify the air mass in terms of humidity and temperature. Regions
under the influence of cyclones are unlikely to produce air masses as such areas are
characterised by converging surface winds which are constantly bringing in air of
different temperature and humidity properties. The time interval is not long enough
for the mixing to result in a uniform system. Steep temperature gradients result and
air mass cannot therefore form
4. The age of the airmass: If an air mass stays at a region for a longer period the more
it is influenced by the climate of the area.
5. The rate of travel of the air mass: A quick moving air mass over an area cannot be
significantly influenced by the climate of that region and thus it retains most of its
original characteristics. A slow-moving air mass over an area may be significantly
influenced by the climate of that area, thus altering the original characteristics of the
air mass.

59
CLASSIFICATION OF AIR MASSES

Classification of air masses depends on the latitude of

the source region and the nature of the source region (ocean or continent). The latitude
of the source region gives an indication of the temperature of the air mass and the
nature indicates the moisture content of the air to be expected, thus air masses.

Air masses may be warm or cold depending on whether the source is tropical or polar.

With reference to latitude, air masses are placed into three main categories: Polar (P),
Arctic (A) and Tropical (T). With reference to nature of region second letter is given. C is
for continental and m for maritime. Based on the above the following are the air masses
with their abbreviations:

Air mass & abbreviation Source Temperature Relative

humidity

Tropical maritime (Tm) Sub-tropical ocean areas High Very high

Tropical continental (Tc) Sub-tropical deserts Very high Very low

Polar continental (Pc) Temperate continental areas Varies with season Low

Polar maritime (Pm) Ocean areas in latitudes > 50 . Low High

Arctic (A) Artic ice cap Very Low Low

Note that in some authorities these letters may be swopped, e.g. mT = maritime
tropical, instead of Tm =tropical maritime).

Further note that we do not have Maritime arctic (Ma)in the classifications above. This is
because the arctic is almost entirely covered with ice and any air mass there would
behave like a continental type.

AIR MASS MODIFICATION

After an air mass forms, it migrates from its source region (the
region where it acquired its characteristics) to another region with different properties.

Once the airmass leaves its source region it is no more in equilibrium with the underlying
terrain it traverses. This terrain may be warmer or colder than the air mass. Warming or
cooling may therefore occur, thus changing its environmental lapse rate. If it is warmed
by the underlying surface as it travels the air mass will become unstable as the ELR will
increase. The reverse is true. If the air mass is cooled by the underlying surface the ELR
will decrease and stable conditions will incur. As heating occurs the relative humidity will
decrease; it will increase as cooling occurs. Evaporation from the surface offsets the
effect of heating and the resultant decrease in the relative humidity RH), hence the final
RH should be ascertained taking into account the effect of evaporation.

In summary, as the air mass travels along a surface it modifies the weather of the
surface and at the same time the surface also modifies the air mass properties. The
modification could be too small for any changes to be noticed or it could be drastic
enough to completely alter the original characteristics of the air mass.

60
 MID-LATITUDES DEPRESSIONS

Mid-latitude depressions are the name given to frontal depressions that occur in these
regions. A Frontal depression is a low pressure area formed at the boundary between two
air masses of different characteristics. The pressure at the centre of the depression usually
varies from 950 hPa to 1020 hPa. When the central pressure falls below 950 hPa the
depression is termed a Deep Depression. Frontal depressions form in mid-latitudes or high
latitudes. They generally have diameters in excess of 1000km, and move from west towards
east in mid-latitudes in both hemispheres. They can last for a few days to more than a
week.

In the N. hemisphere, the circulation within a mid-latitude cyclone is counter-clockwise with

air flowing spirally towards the inside (centre). Circulation is clockwise in the southern
hemisphere in a similar way.

Most mid-latitude depressions have a cold front and a warm front, extending from the
central low pressure area. Surface convergence and rising air initiate cloud development,
frequently resulting in precipitation.

FRONT: This is the boundary between two air masses at the surface (boundary surface that
separates two air masses at the surface) of the earth. The air masses are usually of different
densities with one being warmer and containing more moisture than the other. Fronts can
however form between any two contrasting air masses. Aloft such a boundary is known as a
Frontal surface or a Frontal zone. The frontal zone is inclined at an angle to the surface,
with the warm air tending to override the cold air. It is along the fronts that mid-latitude
depressions occur, with their heavy precipitation and severe weather, within the westerlies
belt. It does not matter which is the advancing front; the warm front always overrides the
cold front, and the is little mixing at the frontal surface. Whether warm or cold, fronts can
degenerate into an occluded front or become stationary. There are five main types of fronts:
Warm, cold, stationary, occluded and drylines.

Diagram

61
A front is either warm or cold.

When the invading (incoming) air the front is warmer than it was before, and therefore
warmer than the air already at the location the front is termed a Warm Front. On a weather
map this is depicted by a red line with red semi-circles protruding towards the cold air. In
short, a warm front occurs when warm air replaces cold air. The warm air ascends the
wedge of the cold air, cooling adiabatically and producing clouds and possible precipitation.

The first sign of an approaching warm front is cirrus clouds, which can be noticed when the
front is 1000km away. Cirrus descends gradually into cirrostratus, then altostratus and
nimbostratus or stratus as the distance closes in. Around about 300km when nimbostratus
or stratus occurs precipitation commences.

Warm fronts have relatively gentle slopes, thus the clouds that form cover a large area and
produces light to moderate precipitation for extended periods.

When cold air advances into a region of cold air the front formed between the two is known
as a cold front. The previous air must have travelled across a cold surface and on
encountering the warm air, remains warmer. On a weather map the cold front is depicted
with a blue line with blue triangles protruding into the area of the warm air.

When facsimile transmission is to be done the symbols for fronts are inserted on that side of
the line towards which the front is moving. For example, whether cold or warm front, the
symbol is inserted towards the East for an East moving depression.

Air near the surface in a cold front moves more slowly than the air aloft, because of friction.
The result is that the cold front develops a steep slope as it travels along. Cold fronts are
about twice as steep as warm fronts, usually having a slope of 1:100. They are also about
50% faster than warm fronts. These two factors account for the violent weather
experienced in a cold front as compared to weather in a warm front.

As the cold front approaches (usually from the west or north-west), towering clouds can be
seen at a distance. A dark band of clouds is seen close by.

Lifting of warm air along a cold front is usually rapid, releasing a lot of latent heat which
enhances the air ‘s buoyancy, producing unstable weather conditions (heavy cumulonimbus
clouds with associated heavy downpour and gusty winds).

A cold front produces the same amount of lifting as a warm front but over a shorter
distance. Precipitation at a cold front is therefore more intense and of a shorter duration. On
the passage of the cold front a marked temperature drop with wind veering from south-west
to west is observed. Behind the cold front the weather is dominated by subsiding air, thus
clearing of the sky ensues.

FRONTOGENESIS: This is the beginning formation of a frontal depression.

62
A wave usually appears at a front. If the air is unstable at a front a wave continues to
develop with the centre of low pressure at the apex of the wave. At this time the surface air
circulation develops a typical anticlockwise and inward movement in the N hemisphere and
counter-clockwise in the S. hemisphere. At this point the original front now shows distinct
sections of either a warm or a cold front, with an intervening warm sector. This
development is what is known as Frontogenesis.

FRONTOLYSIS: This is the decay (weakening) and final dissipation of a depression. It

usually starts with an occlusion.

A cold front advances much faster than a warm front. Consequently, the warm sector
diminishes in size and gets lifted off the surface from the centre of the depression,
outwards. Thus, an occluded front develops and the depression begins to fill. At this time
the central pressure of the depression begins to increase, with simultaneous decrease in
wind speed due to the weak pressure gradient. The speed of advance of the depression
decreases, and it may become stationary with the occluded front pivoting around its centre.
Subsequently, the low pressure area and the occluded front fade away. This whole process
from the initial occlusion to the final fading away of the front is what is termed
FRONTOLYSIS.

STATIONARY FRONT

The air flow on both sides of a front may occasionally be neither towards
the warm air mass nor towards the cold air mass, but rather parallel to the line of the front.
At this point the surface position of the front does not move, or may move sluggishly. The
condition is then referred to as a STATIONARY FRONT.

On a weather chart a stationary front is indicated by blue triangles pointing towards the
warm air and red semi-circles pointing into the cold air.

There is some overrunning in a stationary front resulting in gentle to moderate precipitation.

Stationary fronts can remain at a location for several days. When this happens, flooding is
likely. When a stationary front begins to move it becomes either a warm front or a cold front
depending on which air mass is the advancing.

OCCLUDED FRONT (OCCLUSION)

When a depression is fully developed the air behind the

cold front moves faster than the air in the warm sector, causing the warm sector to be
undercut and lifted off the ground. The intervening warm sector and the passage of time
changes the characteristics of the air ahead of and behind the occlusion (these were initially
at the same temperature). The cold air wedges the warm front upwards, forming a new
front between the advancing cold air and the air over which the warm front is gliding. This
process is known as OCCLUSION.

63
The weather of an occlusion is very variable but most of the precipitation is associated with
the warm air which is forced aloft. With favourable conditions however, the newly formed is
capable of producing precipitation on its own.

There are two types of occlusions, the cold type occluded front and the warm type occluded
front.

If the air behind an occluded front is colder than the air in front of it the occlusion is said to
be a cold occlusion. Conversely if the air behind the occlusion is warmer than the one in
front of it the occlusion is said to be a warm one.

DRYLINES

A dryline is a spring and summer phenomenon, common in the south-western

plains of the United States. The dryline phenomenon does not depend solely upon
temperature differences of the different air masses, but on the humidity also. Humid air is
generally lighter (less dense) than dry air. With dryline the temperature difference between
the two air masses may not be anything appreciable. The lighter, humid air is lifted by the
drier, denser air, just like in a cold front. The boundary between the humid air and dry air is
known as a DRYLINE which is marked by a sharp drop in humidity without an appreciable
drop in temperature. Dryline will occur if dry continental air meets a moist tropical maritime
air.

Thus, a dryline is identified by comparing the dewpoint temperatures of tropical continental

air west of the boundary with tropical maritime air east of the boundary.

LIFE CYCLE OF A MID-LATITUDE DEPRESSION

When two air masses of different densities

(temperatures) move roughly parallel to a front, and in opposite directions, a cyclone is
born. A wave is set up which can be several hundred kilometres long. An example is polar
continental air with easterly flow on the north side of the front and tropical maritime air with
westerly flow on the south side. The warm tropical air moves faster than the cold polar air,
and frequently forces its way into the cold air forming a bulge in the polar front. This is the
beginning of a frontal depression (frontogenesis). The interaction causes a lowering of
pressure. As the wave evolves the warm air pushes poleward, forming a warm front, whilst
the cold air moves towards the equator forming a cold front. The change in the direction of
the surface flow causes a readjustment in the pressure pattern, resulting in near-circular
isobars with the lowest pressure in the crest of the wave. Once the cyclone is formed a
general convergence results in a forceful lifting of the colder air.

THE MATURED STAGE OF THE CYCLONE

During the matured stage of the mid-latitude

depression the pressure continues to drop (deepen), resulting in strong winds and typical
frontal weather. The weather is quite variable depending on one’s location and the season.

The depression moves generally in a north-easterly direction in the N. hemisphere and a

south-easterly direction in the S. hemisphere.

OCCLUSION

64
 Usually the cold front travels faster than the warm front, subsequently
overtaking it (lifting it off the surface). This process forms an occluded front which grows in
length as the warm sector is displaced aloft. At the beginning of occlusion, the wind force
intensifies, and as more of the warm sector is displaced aloft the pressure gradient
weakens, and the storm itself weakens. In a matter of one to two days the entire warm
sector is displaced aloft and is replaced by cold air at the surface. The horizontal
temperature (density) difference that originally existed between the two air masses is
largely eliminated and the cyclone is exhausted of its source of energy. Friction further slows
down the air flow, and the once highly inward-directed flow is eliminated.

OCEAN CURRENTS

The general movement of a body of sea water on a permanent, semi-permanent or

seasonal basis is known as an ocean current. Ocean current is not the same as a tidal
flow. Tides are formed due to the gravitational effects of the sun, moon and planets.
Tides undergo hourly changes both in height and direction.

The coriolis effect deflects the current as it flows. Surface deflection is about 45 degrees.
The amount of deflection increases with the depth of water, the net effect being a
deflection of 90 degrees for the total mass of water in which the current develops.

The actual depth of water affected by the coriolis force depends on the strength of the
wind, and the latitude of occurrence of the current. The deflection is to the right in the
northern hemisphere and to the left in the southern hemisphere.

As an example, a northerly in the Northern Hemisphere wind will cause a surface current
blowing south-west. The total deflection for the whole mass of water affected will
however be to the west.

Near coastal areas the coastal current interact with the tidal flow at the particular place.
The resultant flow is termed a tidal stream, which changes hourly. Hourly tidal stream
flows are described in tidal stream atlases.

The direction of an ocean current is different at different depths. The mariner is

interested in that part of the current that affects his ship. He is therefore interested in
the surface movement of water down to about half his vessel’s draft, thus surface
currents.

65
The causes of ocean currents can be divided into three main causes viz: Gradient,
Upwelling and Drift.

GRADIENT CURRENT
Gradient current is caused by differences in level, resulting from either difference in
natural slope or by build-up by winds, or by differences in density, resulting from
differences in salinity or temperature. The greater the salinity the greater the density
and vice versa. The lower the temperature the greater the density and vice versa.

When different water masses having different salinity and different temperature are
adjacent to each other a gradient current is set up.

Examples of gradient currents:

1. The surface current flowing from the Atlantic into the Mediterranean Sea. This flow is
due to differences in levels. The Mediterranean Sea is land-locked and thus experiences
severe evaporation, and since the input from rivers and rain is small, its level falls. The
result is a flow from the Atlantic through the Strait of Gibraltar to fill up the vacuum.

2. The current that flows north along the coast of East Africa into the Arabian Sea.

3.The current that flows north along the eastern coast of India in the Bay of Bengal.

Both 2 and 3 occur during the latter part of the N.E monsoons when the flow is against
the N.E. winds. This flow is due to a thermal gradient formed by the cooling of the
waters at the head of the Arabian Sea and the Bay of Bengal by the cold N.E. monsoons
during December and January.

UPWELLING
When a wind blows away from a long coast for a considerable length of time, the
outflow of water is replaced by an upward movement of water. This is termed
UPWELLING. Upwelling occurs down to a depth of 150 metres or more. The upward
flowing water is colder than the surface water since it is coming from a depth below.

Upwelling brings up nutrients from beneath, basically plankton, which is required by

fishes and other marine life.

Along the eastern shores of oceans in low latitudes, the trade winds blow offshore thus
creating upwelling currents. Upwelling currents occur off the coast of the following
places: Peru, California, Chile, North-west Africa, South-west Africa.

Examples of upwelling currents are: The Canary current in the East Atlantic, the
Benguela current of the East Atlantic, the Peru or Humboldt current of the East Pacific,
the Californian current of the East Pacific.

Off the west coast of Australia there is no upwelling current as the coastline is not long
enough.

DRIFT CURRENT
This is caused by the direct effect of the wind blowing over long distances of the ocean
over a long period. Under this condition the frictional effect of the wind on the sea
surface causes the sea surface to move. However, the rotation of the earth creates a

66
coriolis force (geostrophic force) which deflects the drift current to the right in the
northern hemisphere, and to the left in the southern hemisphere by as much as 30 to 45
degrees.

The maximum strength of drift current is about two knots. If, however other
strengthening factors such as the gradient of the sea bed, the shape of the coast, any
other factor, superimposes on the drift current, its strength can increase two or three-
fold. When this happens, it is called a stream.

Examples of drift currents are:

The North Equatorial current and South Equatorial current which are caused by the trade
winds, the North Atlantic current, the North pacific current and Southern Ocean current,
also known as the west wind drift, which are caused by the westerlies.

WARM AND COLD CURRENTS

When a current is warmer than the sea through which it flows, it is termed a warm
current. A current from equatorial regions passing through higher latitude will be a warm
current. Examples of warm currents are: The North Atlantic Drift, The Gulf Stream, the
Brazilian current, The Norwegian current, the Alaskan current, the Kuro Shio current, the
Mozambique current, the Agulhas current.

Warm currents are generally experienced along the western shores of large oceans.

When a current is colder than the sea though which it flows, it is termed a cold current.

A current flowing from high latitudes through to low latitudes will be a cold current. If
the flow is from the polar regions the current will be very cold.

Examples of cold currents are: the Oya Shio current, the Labrador current, the Benguela
current, the Portuguese current, the Canary current, the Californian current, the
Humboldt current, the West Australian current.

Examples of very cold currents are: the Baffin Land current, also known as the Davis
current, the East Greenland current, the Kamchatka current.

Cold currents are generally experienced along the eastern shores of large oceans.

In general, warm currents originate in the tropics, whilst cold currents originate in the
frigid zones.

STRENGTH OF CURRENTS

The maximum strength of currents experienced in the open oceans varies from place to
place.

Where currents are variable, the maximum rate will be about one knot. Where the
current is consistent, maximum rates of 2 to 3 knots may be attained. Some currents
whose maximum rate exceeds these values are the Gulf Stream, the Agulhas, the Kuro
Shio. Here, maximum rates of up to 5 knots may be reached.

Off Socotra in the NW Indian ocean, maximum rates of 6 to 7 knots are not uncommon
in August and September.

67
The rates of the currents usually lie between 2% and 4% of the wind strength. This rate
depends largely on the duration the wind has been blowing.

HOW OCEAN CURRENTS AFFECT THE CLIMATE OF THE AREAS THEY TRAVERSE

The area traversed by a current can be rendered either warm or cold, depending on the
type of current.

Some typical affected areas area as below:

In ports off eastern Canada the effect of the Labrador current gives rise to ice in winter.
This contrasts with the effect of the Norwegian current effect on the Norwegian coast
which does not produce icy conditions. Comparing the coasts of UK and Northern Europe
with that of Newfoundland, it is observed that the westerlies blowing over the former
traverse over the North Atlantic current, carrying with it the relatively warm oceanic
influence. This makes the UK and North European coast warmer than the coast off
Newfoundland which is influenced by westerlies blowing from a cold hinterland.

Comparting Salvador in Brazil with Callao in Peru which are in similar latitudes, it is
noticed than Salvador. This is due to the influence of the Humboldt current off the coast
of Peru and the Brazilian current off the coast of Brazil.

The extension of the warm Gulf stream is the North Atlantic Drift which brings relatively
warm waters to the coast of Britain, and also render northern Norway ice free.

The Labrador current is a cold current which extends down the east coast of the USA
down to Delaware and joining the Gulf Stream. Temperatures are lowered in this region.

GENERAL CURRENT CIRCULATIONS OF THE OCEANS

THE NORTH ATLANTIC

On the east flank of the mid-ocean anticyclone, cool, south-going currents merge with a
wide band of west-bound current on the equatorial side, most of which turns northwards
on reaching the Caribbean to form the warm Gulfstream. A small portion of this however
turns east to help form the Caribbean counter current.

The Gulfstream fans out on the northern flank of the anticyclone into the North Atlantic
Drift current. Part of the Atlantic Drift Current turns south-east to complete the
circulation, with the remainder turning north-east, flowing as far as the north coast of
Norway.

THE NORTH PACIFIC

The flow of current in the North Pacific is similar to that in the North Atlantic.

Here, there is a cool, south-going current on the on the east side of the anticyclone, and
a wide equatorial current flowing west, south of the anticyclone.

Similar to the Gulf stream of the North Atlantic is the warm north-going Kuro Shio
current in the west, whilst an east-going current flows in the west.

At the extreme west of the Pacific Ocean is the China sea. Here the current flow is
affected by the monsoons. The flow is NE or SW depending on the type of monsoons.

68
Note that in Arctic regions of both the North Atlantic and North Pacific, the current flow
is complicated, with diverse patterns.

THE NORTH INDIAN OCEAN

Currents here are affected by the seasonal monsoons. In the open ocean, the flow is
eastward in the summer SW monsoons and westward during the winter NE monsoons.

On the southern part of the Indian Ocean close to the equator is the east-going
Equatorial counter current which flows eastward throughout the year.

Near the coast of East Africa there is a north-going current in the summer which turns
south-going in the winter. This is the East African coast current which is also known as
the Somali current. This current can attain a rate as high as 7 knots in the summer.

THE SOUTHERN HEMISPHERE

The flow of current of all three oceans mentioned above follow in general, an anti-
clockwise circulation round the periphery of the permanent anticyclone in each ocean.

On the eastern side of each of the three oceans, a relatively cold, north-going current
flows, whilst on the western side a relatively warm, south-going current flows.

In each of the southern oceans there is a fairly steady west-going equatorial current and
counter current. In the southern part, the currents combine into a wide band flowing
westward permanently around the globe. It is only in the South Indian Ocean that the
Equatorial Counter Current is found south of the Equator.

GENERAL CURRENT CIRCULATION IN THE MEDITERRANEAN SEA

The general surface circulation of current in the Mediterranean is counter-clockwise.

It enters the Mediterranean from the Atlantic through the Strait of Gibraltar and thence,
flows along the North African coast. Due to the high rate of evaporation on the surface
in the Mediterranean, the salinity increases gradually and it becomes denser and the
water sinks. An outflow of this denser water through the Strait of Gibraltar takes place
beneath the surface inflow, into the Atlantic.

The level of the Mediterranean Sea is lower than that of the Atlantic for two main
reasons viz:

 The input of water from rain and rivers is very small.

 The Mediterranean is land-locked, resulting in a very high rate of evaporation

The two combined factors create a gradient current, which flows eastward along the
surface through the Strait of Gibraltar. On entering the Mediterranean, the coriolis effect
deflects the flow to the right whence it then flows along the north coast of Africa. This
current hangs along the coast, describing a complete anti-clockwise loop. This current is
generally weak, but rates of 2 to 3 knots can be attained on the SW part of the sea.

69
Because of the high rate of evaporation in the Mediterranean, it is more saline and thus
denser, than the Atlantic. The easterly flow inward from the Atlantic is countered by a
westerly flow as a sub-surface gradient current, through the Strait of Gibraltar.

The Black sea is less dense than the Mediterranean. Water from the Mediterranean
therefore flows through the Dardanelles and the Bosporus, as a sub-surface gradient
current; at the same time, a surface current flows continuously from the Black sea into
the Mediterranean Sea.

CURRENTS IN THE VARIOUS OCEANS

A) ATLANTIC OCEAN

S/N NAME OF CURRENT AVERAGE DRFT REMARKS

IN MILES PER 24 HOURS

1. Norwegian weak warm

2 Imminger 9 on average neutral temperature

3. The Gulf Stream 10 to 70 warm at the northern limit

4. East Greenland 06 to 12 neutral temp; source of N. Atlantic

ice bergs

5. West Greenland 06 to 12 as above

6. Labrador 05-20 cold; source of fog and iceberg

at

The Grand Banks.

7. North Atlantic Drift 10-25 warm; considerable modifying

70
 Effect on climate of W Europe

UK.

8. Canary 10-35 cold; associated with upwelling.

9. Azores 11 (average) neutral

10. Portuguese 10 (average) cold to neutral

11. N. Equatorial 10-20 neutral temperature

12. Equatorial Counter 10-30 neutral temperature

13. Guinea 10-60 neutral temperature

14. S. Equatorial 10-45 neutral temperature

15. Brazil 10-35 warm

16. Bahama 10-50 neutral temperature

17. Caribbean Counter 10 (average) neutral temperature

18. Falkland 10-40 cold.

19. Brazil Inshore Counter 15 (average) cold; extension of the

Falkland current. May reach

as far north as Rio de Janeiro

in May to June.

20. Benguela 10-50 cold; associated with upwelling.

21. Southern Ocean 0-30 neutral; common to S. Atlantic, S.

Pacific, South Indian oceans. Carries S.

Atlantic icebergs.

B. PACIFIC

22. N. Pacific Drift 10-20 warm

23. Aleutian 03-07 neutral temperature

24. Alaskan 6 (average) neutral temperature

25. Californian 10-30 upwelling occurs off the coast of

California. Davidson current sets

Northward close inshore from November

to December.

71
26. Kuro Shio 10-50 warm. It is known as the Gulf Stream of the

Pacific.

26. Oya Shio 15-30 cold.

27. Tsushima no info warm.

28. Liman no info cold.

29. Kamchatka 05-10 cold.

30. N. Equatorial 10-40 neutral.

31. Equatorial Counter 10-40 neutral

32. S. Equatorial 24 (average) no info.

33. Peru 0-30 cold; upwelling along the coast.

34. El Nino (Holy Child) variable rather irregular; flows from Jan. to March.

35. East Australian 0-25 warm.

C. INDIAN OCEAN
36. East African Coast variable Average daily drift: Nov.-Jan =16; Feb = March

48; May- Sept. = 48; From July to September

The daily drift may reach 170M to the south of

Socotra

37. Mozambique 0-30 neutral temperature

38. Equatorial 24 (average) Does not change direction with change in

Monsoons

39. Equatorial Counter 24(average) As above.

40. Agulhas 10-40 warm. A counter current is found close inshore.

41. West Australian 14(average) An inshore current sets south from March to

August.

42. Southern Ocean neutral; common to S. Atlantic, S. Pacific.

72
 ICE

Formation of sea ice is a partly meteorological and partly oceanographic phenomenon.

The kind of ice encountered at sea can be divided into two main types: sea ice, formed
from the cooling of the sea water and icebergs, which break off from the seaward end of
glaciers and ice shelves.

Sea surface temperature varies from around 32°C in the equatorial regions to about -
2°C at the edge of the polar ice. In open ocean with a salinity of 35ppm, freezing begins
at a temperature of -2°C. If the sea water temperature is maintained at -2°C for a
considerable depth, ice will begin to form on the surface.

If a vessel is not specifically strengthened to navigate in ice, you should never attempt
to force it through thick ice. Where a vessel not so strengthened has to pass through
thick ice, an icebreaker service should be employed.

The freezing of fresh water and salt water does not occur in the same manner. This is
because salt water contains dissolved particles. Salinity lowers the freezing point of
water (the higher the salinity, the lower the freezing point). Salinity also has an effect of
the density of the water. As evaporation takes place on the surface of the water into the
atmosphere, the surface water becomes cooler and denser and sinks towards the
bottom. This is replaced by warmer water from beneath, in a convective cycle.

Fresh water has its maximum density at 4°C. When cooled to this temperature
throughout its depth, convection ceases, since further cooling results in a slight decrease
in density. Once this stable condition is reached, further cooling results in a rapid cooling
of the surface water. When the temperature falls to 0°C, ice begins to form.

With salt water, there is a delay in the cooling process due to convection, and the
lowering of the temperature to its freezing point is delayed.

If at any place there is an abundant supply of relatively warm water at depth, convection
may stop the formation of ice throughout the whole winter. Such an example can be
found in Spitsbergen. The delay is due mainly to the fact that the density of salt water
continues to increase with cooling, until it freezes, and partly due to the great depth of
water found in the oceans. The greatest delay in freezing occurs where there is initially
an almost uniform density of the sea water throughout its depth. In some areas,
discontinuities occur and a layer of lower salinity overlies a layer of higher salinity.

FORMATION OF ICE

As surface water cools, its density increases and it sinks and is replaced by warmer, less
dense water from beneath. The process continues until the whole column of water
attains the maximum density when all convective action ceases. From this stage, further
cooling to 0°C results in the formation of ice.

Ice forms more readily at sea where the column of water is stratified, that is, layered,
with different densities. When this occurs then convectional sinking is confined to the

73
top layer. Sea ice first forms in shallow waters where the delay due to convectional
sinking is least.

The first appearance of ice is ice spicules (or plates) with maximum diameter of up to
2.5cm. This appears on the surface of the water, down to a few centimetres. At this
stage, the ice is known as frazil ice, which form in large quantities. This gives the sea
surface an oily appearance. As cooling continues the frazil ice coalesce into grease ice,
which has a matt appearance. In snowy areas, snow at near freezing temperature,
falling on the sea surface will form slush. This may induce the sea surface to form ice.
The slush may be broken up by the action of wind and waves to form what is known as
shuga. All the above are generally termed ‘new ice’. Further cooling results in new
build-up. These are called either rind or nilas, depending on the rate of cooling and the
salinity of the water.

Ice rind is formed when water of low salinity freezes slowly, resulting in a thin layer of
ice, almost free of salt. However, when water of high salinity freezes, especially rapidly,
pockets of salt water are trapped, giving it an elastic look. This is called nilas. According
to age, nilas is subdivided into dark and light.

With further cooling sheets of ice form known as pancake ice. Pancake ice consists of
flat pieces, roughly circular in shape, often with a rim near the edge. The rim is formed
due to rubbing between adjacent pieces. The pancake gradually joins to become a more
or less continuous ice sheets, called ‘Young Ice’. Young ice eventually thickens to
become pack ice or field ice.

The ice continues to build up with cooling. This initial ice is known as First Year ice,
which is sub-divided into thick and medium and thin. Medium first year ice has a
thickness from 70cm to 120cm. Thick first year ice may attain a thickness of up to 2m at
the end of the winter.

Ice which survives the summer melting season is designated Second Year ice at the
onset of the next winter. This can be found in the Arctic. If the ice persistently survives
the summer melt through the years, it is designated Multi-year ice. After several years of
survival, multi-year ice attains maximum thickness of up to 3.5m. Maximum thickness is
attained when the accretion of ice in winter balances the melting in summer.

Thickness of ice increases from bottom upwards. The rate of increase depends on the
severity of the frost and the duration of the ice formation. Ice is buoyant. As much as
1/7th of its total thickness appears above the surface of the water.

ARCTIC AND ANTARCTIC ICE

Two other factors which contribute to the formation of sea ice are incumbent in the
Arctic and the Antarctic. These are due to climatic and oceanographic conditions of the
particular area.

Field ice or pack ice is a generic term referring to ice floating in the ocean and not
attached to the shore. It varies in thickness from a few centimetres to several metres.

74
Pack ice more than 20m across are termed ‘Floes’. Depending on their closeness (the
distance between them), floes are either open, very open, close or very close. With very
close floes, little or no water is visible.

Arctic and Antarctic ice can grow to several metres thick. They are very irregular in
shape due to the piling up by waves, a process known as hummocking.

The Arctic is a basin of ice whose thickness is about 4m, with a depth extent of down to
300m. The Antarctic is a continent covered with an ice cap up to 300m. You will notice
that the ice coverage is the same depth, but one is in water and the other is on land.
The annual mean temperature in the south pole is therefore lower than that of the north
pole, being -49°C and -20°C respectively.

The Antarctic ice cap accounts for 90% of the total earth’s permanent ice. It is
constantly mowing outwards, calving thousands of icebergs each year. As a result of this
there is a wide belt of icebergs surrounding the Southern Ocean round the globe. This
drift ice melts each summer.

In contrast to the Antarctic, Arctic ice is limited to the regions around the east and west
coast of Greenland and off the east coast of Canada. Unlike the Antarctic, the Arctic drift
ice remains afloat throughout the year.

FORMS OF ICE

Several forms of ice may be encountered at sea, but the most common one is sea ice,
which results in the cooling of the sea surface. The next common ones are icebergs and
river ice. River ice is encountered I harbours and around estuaries during the break-up
of ice in spring. By this time the ice is soft and would not cause damage to ships as it is
in a state of decay.

ICEBERGS

Icebergs are derived generally from the Antarctic and Arctic. Arctic bergs are derived
from the seaward edge of the glaciers which extend outward to the sea. The extension
is affected by the forces of buoyancy which breaks off pieces from the iceberg. The
iceberg is then said to be calving. Calved bergs are generally irregular in shape and may
contain rock or soli debris.

Majority of Antarctic bergs break away from the enormous ice shelf which fringes the
Antarctic continent. They are sometimes calved from glaciers. Antarctic bergs are flat
topped with steep sides; thus, they are labelled as Tabular bergs, due to their shape.
They trap air, and this gives them a lustrous white colour. They extend for several miles.

Icebergs are a menace to shipping as only about 1/8 th of their volume shows above
water. This may give false confidence to the mariner.

DISTRIBUTION OF SEA ICE

Major areas affected by sea ice are listed below:

 The grand banks of Newfoundland

75
 Gulf of St Lawrence river and the river itself.
 Hudson Bay
 Eastern sea bed of North America
 Denmark strait
 White sea
 Baltic sea
 Black sea
 Southern Ocean.

THE GRAND BANKS OF NEWFOUNDLAND

Here, pack ice is encountered anytime between and May and icebergs between April and
August. The ice bergs are calved from the glaciers on the coast of Greenland during the
previous summer. Icebergs from the East coast of Greenland are taken by the East
Greenland Current down the coast, round to Cape Farewell, and up the west coast by
the West Greenland Current, where they spend the winter trapped in pack ice. In the
following spring, these icebergs are swept, together with bergs calved from the West
Greenland glaciers by the Baffin Land Current and the Labrador current to the Great
Banks.

Bergs in this region are particularly menacing to shipping in view of the fact that fog is
prevalent in spring and summer.

When the bergs get south of the Grand Banks they meet with warmer water and melt
rapidly.

HUDSON BAY

This area is usually open to shipping, with ice breaker assistance, from mid-June to mid-
October. At the beginning and end of the season of the season, there may be a lot of ice
to deal with.

GULF OF ST. LAWRENCE AND RIVER

This area is navigable from the end of April to the end of November, sometimes with ice
breaker assistance. At the beginning, the only entrance is through Cabot strait. Around
mid-June the Belle Isle Strait is also open.

EASTERN SEABOARD OF NORTH AMERICA

Here, ice may be present in the harbours as far up as Chesapeake Bay, in winter.

DENMARK STRAIT

Pack ice may sometimes extend from Greenland to the coast of Iceland in winter and
early spring.

WHITE SEA

This area is usually navigable from July to September. The north coast of Norway is
usually ice-free. This is due to the effect of the relatively warm North Atlantic Current.

BALTIC SEA

76
There is normally in the northern and eastern portion from November to May.
Elsewhere, only the coast itself and the port therein are affected in mid-winter and early
spring.

BLACK SEA

Here, some field ice is likely in mid-winter. In most of the years only the northern coasts
are affected.

NORTH PACIFIC OCEAN

In areas of shipping lanes, only waters of Japan sea and northern part of the Yellow sea
are affected, and only by field ice in winter.

SOUTHERN OCEAN

The coast of Antarctica is generally surrounded by pack ice and icebergs all year round.
The mixture is impenetrable in winter, and is only navigable in mid-summer only by
specially strengthened vessels.

The probable mean limit of pack ice extends to around 55°S in some places in mid-
winter. In mid-summer, it recedes well south of 65°S in many places except off
Grahamland in the Weddell sea.

The extreme limit extends north of 50°S, but never reaches the Cape of Good Hope or
Cape Horn.

The extreme limit of Antarctic icebergs reaches 35°S between longitudes 30 and 40
degrees west.

At all seasons bergs have been sighted between Cape horn and Bahia Blanca in
Argentina.

In the South Pacific bergs can be sighted in about 50S between longitudes 120 and 180
degrees west.

In the western Indian Ocean, the mean limit of bergs in February and March is about
43°S.

INDICATIONS OF ICE

The following are among factors that would indicate the proximity of ice:

 If the ship is not within a specific cold current, sea surface temperature may indicate
the proximity of pack ice. There would be a rapid fall in the surface temperature to
below freezing.
 A sea temperature of 1°C might warn of an ice edge within 150NM. -0.5°C would
signify the edge to be within 50NM.

77
 Ice blink by day and night. Ice blink is caused by reflection from the ice giving a
glare in the sky near the horizon. It is mainly white if the sky is cloudy and yellow if
it is blue. When you notice white patches in fog, ice is within a short range.
 There is often a wall of thick fog at the ice edge.
 A noticeable reduction in sea and swell or the absence of these in a fresh breeze is
an indication of ice to windward.
 Small, isolated chunks of floating ice may indicate the presence of field ice.
 Herds of seals or flocks of birds far away from land may indicate the proximity of
bergs.
 Noise of the ice cracking or falling into the sea may be heard.
 On calm days echoes can be heard from high ice if the ship’s whistle is sounded.
 Radar may indicate ice. However, it should be noted that radar is not infallible. The
echoes will depend on the configuration of the ice. In the case of an iceberg the
echo will depend on the amount of glacial material known as moraine in the iceberg.
 Bergs show up bright white on a dark, clear night, but there is always a risk of
growlers or bergy bits which may not be noticed until too close.

NAVIGATING IN ICE

The golden rule is to keep proper lookout at all times. Vessels navigation in areas where
icebergs may be encountered should proceed at a safe speed while keeping a good
lookout especially when fog also exists.

If navigating in pack ice the lanes and leads must be followed. Leads show up as dark
lines or patches on the ice blink.

If collision with an iceberg is inevitable, do so head-on

Extra caution should be exercised while navigating in ice to ensure that the vessel is not
nipped in the ice or beset by it.

In thick fog it is advisable to stop the vessel till the fog clears.

ICE ACCRETION

The formation of ice on a vessel’s superstructure causes a number of problems which

include the following:

 Reduction in freeboard, with increased likelihood of capsizing

 Antennae and lifesaving appliances are affected by the deposition of ice on them.
 Reduction in metacentric height can result in an unstable ship.

WEATHERING OF ICEBERGS

This is a process where the iceberg is in an advance stage of disintegration. The length
of time of an iceberg depends amongst other things, on the time spent in the ice before
breaking free into the open sea. In the open sea, its survival depends on how long it

78
takes for it to be transported to lower latitudes where the water is warmer. A stranded
iceberg can survive for up to 3 years.

ICE TERMINOLOGIES USED IN BROADCAST MESSAGES

SLUSH OR SLUDE- the initial stages in the freezing of sea water. The consistency is
gluey or soapy

BRASH- small fragment s and rounded nodules. They can also be the wreckage of other
forms of ice.

PANCAKE ICE- small pieces of new ice, approximately circular and with raised rims.

YOUNG ICE- newly formed ice.

BAY ICE- young ice which first forms on the sea in autumn and is of sufficient thickness
to impede or prevent navigation.

PACK ICE- a term used widely to include any area of sea ice other than fast ice, no
matter what form it takes or however it is disposed

FLOE- an area of ice other fast ice, whose limits are within sight.

FIELD ICE- area of pack ice whose extent is such that its limits cannot be seen from the
masthead.

LEVEL ICE- an unhummocked ice, no matter its age or thickness.

HUMMOCK- a ridge or an elevation on a floe, due to pressure.

PRESSURE RIDGE- hummocked ice where floes have been pressed together and broken
against each other.

BERGY BITS- medium sized pieces of glacial ice, or of hummocky pack, washed clear of
snow.

GROWLERS= small pieces of ice which are smaller than bergy bits, appearing greenish in
colour because they barely show above water.

ROTTEN ICE- floes which has become honeycombed in the process of melting.

FAST ICE- sea ice which remains fast in the position it formed, throughout the winter.

LAND ICE- ice attached to the shore without any channel within it.

THE INTERNATIONAL ICE PATROL

This is a patrol team financed by countries whose shipping use the North Atlantic sea
routes, and operated by the US coast guard.

The object of this patrol is to locate by air, sea scouting and radio broadcast from all
sources, the icebergs and field ice nearest to and menacing the North Atlantic ice lane
routes. The southerly limit of the ice is determined. Continuous contact is then

79
maintained by surface patrol and broadcast made to shipping. The patrol continuous
throughout the ice season, from 1st March or earlier to 1st July or later.

There are seven tracks, depending on the time of the year, each having east-bound and
west bound lanes for vessels to follow during the ice seasons, and these must be
followed.

REPORTING OF ICE

Ships sighting ice must by the SOLAS convention make a report to the nearest coast
station and other ships. Within the North Atlantic the report should also be made to the
headquarters of the international ice patrol in Argentia, Newfoundland.

OIL SPILL AND WEATHERING

Natural occurrences, and human activities in the production and use of petroleum
hydrocarbons, can result in these products polluting the marine environment. The
products enter the marine environment by a number of different means.

Oil spill in the sea undergoes dramatic changes due to both physical and chemical
effects. The spilled oil forms a thin lens on the surface of the water. The appearance of
the lens a thinner edge and a thicker inner portion. The more viscous oil is, the less
tendency for it to spread. Examples include some crude oil and fuel oil.

Physical effects incumbent in the oil itself include the viscosity and surface tension.

Physical parameters that contribute to the movement of an oil spill include tidal streams,
currents, wind and gravity. The importance of each of these parameters on an oil spill
will depend on the location of the spill.

At the onset of an oil spill the tendency is for it to spread horizontally, being influence by
the combined effect of the forces due to surface tension, viscosity and gravity. At the
very beginning, gravity dominates; however, the effect of gravity on the oil is controlled
by its viscosity. After a few hours, gravity would have pulled some of the oil down into a
depth, and the surface thickness would reduce. At this time of equilibrium in the
gravitational pull, it is the surface tension which dominates the movement. Wind
predominates in the external physical factors.

Within 12 hours of a spill, and influence only by gravity and viscosity, a spreading crude
oil the attains a thickness of 0.3mm. If no other factor besides the above prevails, the
the spreading continues till the oil forms a mono-molecular layer of thickness 0.5µm. At
this stage, the oil appears as a faint silvery sheen which enhances the natural dissipation
of the oil by the process of weathering.

WEATHERING

This is a natural process that causes physical and chemical changes in an oil spill as the
spill spreads and moves over the sea surface. The processes include: Emulsification,
Dissolution, Evaporation, Oxidation, Biodegradation and Sedimentation.

We will now consider each physical cause and process, and each chemical process
separately.

80
TIDAL STREAMS

These are diurnal in nature. It is therefore probable for an oil slick to return to the same
location over a 24- hour period after it has moved away. Their effect is therefore most
important when planning to combat a spill near the coast or when forecasting its
movement at night.

SURFACE CURRENTS

Surface current carries the oil slick along as it flows. The daily drift depends on the
strength of the current. The direction of drift in this case is controlled by the direction of
the current.

SURFACE WIND

This impacts greatly on the movement of an oil slick in addition to any drift movement.
The oil is lighter than water and therefore floats on it with an immersion of two to three
centimetres beneath the surface. The slick is therefore more easily moved by the wind.
The horizontal movement is affected by the coriolis force in as much the same way as it
affects wind.

THE VARIUOS WEATHERING PROCESSES

EMULSIFICATION

When oil mixes with water it is termed an emulsion. Dispersal of oil slicks alters the
natural state of the oil. Under moderate sea conditions, the emulsion is broken into thin
oil sheens which quickly disperses into microscopic droplets. The other weathering
processes may then take charge. With thicker emulsions movement is slow.

DISSOLUTION

Most hydrocarbons have low solubility in water. Any soluble component of the oil is also
volatile and will therefore evaporate instead of dissolving.

EVAPORATION

Amongst all the weathering processes this is the most important. During the first few
hours of spillage, the most volatile fractions of the oil evaporate into the atmosphere.
The rate of evaporation is dependent on The Type of Oil, Temperature and Wind Speed.

High wind speed raises high or rough seas which encourage evaporation of oil from the
crests of waves in the form of aerosols and sprays.

The higher the temperature, the higher the rate of evaporation.

Oils have varying viscosities. Viscosity influences the effect of temperature, and wind,
and therefore the rate of evaporation of the oil.

Most crude oils lose their volume by up to 40% within 24 hours due to evaporation.
Heavy oils contain few volatile components, and shows little evaporation over several
days.

81
Light, reined, products such as kerosene, diesel and gasoline, evaporate almost
completely within a matter of hours. This creates a hazardous situation in confined areas
such as harbours, and due diligence should be observed as explosions and fire are a
possibility.

OXIDATION

Oxidation involves the chemical combination of oxygen and the hydrocarbon. It is a

surface phenomenon and is therefore accelerated by the ultra-violet radiation from the
sun. It is more rapid when the oil sheen is spread into a thin film. Changes due to
oxidation can be as much as 1% of the spilled oil per day.

BIODEGRADATION

This is the breakdown of oil by marine bacteria, fungi and yeast. The oil is transformed
into oxidised products. The rate of biodegradation depends on the Type of oil,
Temperature, Nutrients available in the sea water and Oxygen.

At the oil/water interface can be found bacteria which attack the oil. Thin sheets or
dispersed oil droplets are ideal for bacteria attack. Lighter components are degraded
faster than higher molecular components. Higher temperature also increases molecular
activity as well as biological activity.

SEDIMENTATION

By this process, oil sinks towards the bottom of the sea. Most of this will sink to mid-
waters but there are instances where the sinkage has deposited oil on the sea bed. One
such situation is the spill from the Amoco Cadiz. Along coastlines where upwelling is
predominant sinkage can be substantial.

SEA WAVES AND SWELL

Almost all waves in the sea are caused by wind. There are however waves caused by
other forces of nature. Examples are: volcanic eruption, earthquake, calving icebergs.
When the wind blows over the surface of the water there is friction created between it
and the sea water, a kind of tractive force. This creates the waves. The stronger the
wind, the higher the wave. This holds good only up to some limit.

In the open sea, the size of the wave also depends on other factors. These include:

 The depth of water

 The length of time the wind has been blowing
 The fetch. This is the distance to windward of the observer over which the wind has
blown.
 The current flowing over the area.

82
The generating area is the area where the waves are formed by the wind. These waves
are referred to as seas. We can therefore define sea waves as the wave caused directly
by the wind blowing at the time of observation.

Knowledge of the conditions of sea waves, swells and current are helpful for the mariner
to make a prudent passage plan for optimum gain.

The Beaufort wind scale gives a guide to probable wave height in the open sea when the
wind has been blowing for some time.

SWELL WAVE

This is wave motion caused by some meteorological disturbance, which persists after
the disturbance has died down or moved away. Wind blowing some considerable
distance away from the observer could generate waves which even though the wind has
died down at the area of origin, the wave travels to the location of the observer. In the
vicinity of the observer the wind and sea surface may be calm, yet there may be
experienced distinct wave motion, often with a long wave length in comparison to its
height. These are the swell waves which are usually called ‘swell’ in short. They often
have an oily appearance, and may have travelled from thousands of miles to your
location.

Swell often travels for considerable distances away from its generating area, maintaining
a constant direction, as long as it is in deep water. As the swell travels away from its
generation area, its height decreases, but the speed and length remain constant. This
gives rise to a long, low, regular undulating waveform, a typical characteristic of swell
wave.

Several swell waves can arrive from different generating areas and different directions.
The seas generated by wind action locally may superimpose on the swell wave. It then
renders the observation of swell difficult. A confused swell is the report given in such
circumstance.

CHARACTRERISTICS OF WAVES

The observation of the characteristics of waves is complex. Following however are

terminologies for the simple wave.

LENGTH OF WAVE- this the horizontal distance between two successive crests or toughs.

PERIODOF WAVE- the time in seconds between two successive crests of troughs past a
fixed point.

SPEED OF WAVE- the speed in knots, or metres per second, at which the crest of a wave
travels.

HEIGHT OF WAVE- the vertical distance in metres between a crest and trough.

83
For any given wave, it is shown that the length L in metres = 1.56 X T 2 where T is the
period of the wave; and the speed in knots = 3.1X T.

For example: Wave period = 10s. height of wave = 1.56 X 10 2 = 156m

The speed = 3.1 X 10 =31 knots.

The ratio of the height of the wave to the length of the wave is termed its steepness.
When the steepness exceeds 1 in 13, the wave will break.

WAVE TROCHOIDS

Besides the fact that each wave has a forward movement, each particle of water at the
surface of the wave moves in a circular orbit. The diameter of this orbit is equal to a
height. The net effect is that the motion of each particle at a crest is forward whilst that
of a trough is backwards, relative to the forward motion of the wave. Below the surface,
the motion of the water particles describes similar orbits which diminish in size with
increase in depth. This continues until at a depth equal to the wave length where the
motion of the wave practically ceases.

The shape of the wave at this time is described as a trochoid.

WAVE MOTION

Although the motion of waves is always to leeward, the waves in any particular system
are almost never uniform in their characteristics in the open sea, except in the case of a
directional swell with no wind. When a wind starts to blow, train of waves are created
and move to leeward. However, due to wind turbulence and other factors, each wave in
the train has different wavelength, height and period. This creates an irregular mixture
of wave form, in which a few well-formed waves stand out.

In cases where sea waves and swell waves are present together, it is difficult to
differentiate between the two. The two forms could be in the same direction or opposing
each other, or even at an angle to each other. Superimposition can sometimes result in
synchronism, producing very large waves.

A SIMPLE WAVE FORM

Direction of travel

84
 Length
Crest
Back
Face
Height
Trough

2 Characteristics of a simple wave

WAVE GROUPS

Wind generated waves travel in groups, with the larger waves continually overtaking the
smaller waves. Wave characteristics are important in ship handling in heavy weather, as
the behaviour of a ship at this time depends to a great extent on her period of roll.

When the period of roll of the ship is less than that of the wave, the ship tends to align
her decks with the slope of the waves. Violent rolling can occur at this time but less
water will be shipped on deck.

If the period of roll of the ship is larger than that of the wave, the ship tends to dip her
deck edge into the waves. She will be shipping water but rolling is easy.

A dangerous situation arises when the waves are abeam and the periods od roll of the
ship and wave are the same. Synchronisation occurs, and there is the possibility of the
ship rolling over. Due diligence should be exercised at this instant.

Smaller craft are prone to synchronisation more than large merchant ships. The small
craft have short rolling periods compared to the large vessels, whose period of roll is
much longer than that of the wave.

It is unlikely for a series of individual waves to have the same period because waves
travel in groups.

WAVE DIMENSIONS

The size of a wave depends on the duration that the wind has been blowing, amongst
other factors as stated earlier. Initially the waves are short and steep. As the wind
continues to blow they increase in length and height. A typically example is the Roaring
Forties.

85
DESCRIPTION OF SWELL WAVES

Swell waves are described by their length and by their height. Below are the various
descriptions:

LENGTH LENGHT IN METRTES

Short 0 - 100

Average 100 -200

Long over 200

HEIGHT HEIGHT IN METRES

Low 0–2

Moderate 2-4

Heavy over 4

OCEAN CURRENTS

The general movement of a body of sea water on a permanent, semi-permanent or

seasonal basis is known as an ocean current. Ocean current is not the same as a tidal
flow. Tides are formed due to the gravitational effects of the sun, moon and planets.
Tides undergo hourly changes both in height and direction.

The coriolis effect deflects the current as it flows. Surface deflection is about 45 degrees.
The amount of deflection increases with the depth of water, the net effect being a
deflection of 90 degrees for the total mass of water in which the current develops.

The actual depth of water affected by the coriolis force depends on the strength of the
wind, and the latitude of occurrence of the current. The deflection is to the right in the
northern hemisphere and to the left in the southern hemisphere.

86
As an example, a northerly in the Northern Hemisphere wind will cause a surface current
blowing south-west. The total deflection for the whole mass of water affected will
however be to the west.

Near coastal areas the coastal current interact with the tidal flow at the particular place.
The resultant flow is termed a tidal stream, which changes hourly. Hourly tidal stream
flows are described in tidal stream atlases.

The direction of an ocean current is different at different depths. The mariner is

interested in that part of the current that affects his ship. He is therefore interested in
the surface movement of water down to about half his vessel’s draft, thus surface
currents.

The causes of ocean currents can be divided into three main causes viz: Gradient,
Upwelling and Drift.

GRADIENT CURRENT
Gradient current is caused by differences in level, resulting from either difference in
natural slope or by build-up by winds, or by differences in density, resulting from
differences in salinity or temperature. The greater the salinity the greater the density
and vice versa. The lower the temperature the greater the density and vice versa.

When different water masses having different salinity and different temperature are
adjacent to each other a gradient current is set up.

Examples of gradient currents:

1. The surface current flowing from the Atlantic into the Mediterranean Sea. This flow is
due to differences in levels. The Mediterranean Sea is land-locked and thus experiences
severe evaporation, and since the input from rivers and rain is small, its level falls. The
result is a flow from the Atlantic through the Strait of Gibraltar to fill up the vacuum.

2. The current that flows north along the coast of East Africa into the Arabian Sea.

3.The current that flows north along the eastern coast of India in the Bay of Bengal.

Both 2 and 3 occur during the latter part of the N.E monsoons when the flow is against
the N.E. winds. This flow is due to a thermal gradient formed by the cooling of the
waters at the head of the Arabian Sea and the Bay of Bengal by the cold N.E. monsoons
during December and January.

UPWELLING
When a wind blows away from a long coast for a considerable length of time, the
outflow of water is replaced by an upward movement of water. This is termed
UPWELLING. Upwelling occurs down to a depth of 150 metres or more. The upward
flowing water is colder than the surface water since it is coming from a depth below.

Upwelling brings up nutrients from beneath, basically plankton, which is required by

fishes and other marine life.

Along the eastern shores of oceans in low latitudes, the trade winds blow offshore thus
creating upwelling currents. Upwelling currents occur off the coast of the following
places: Peru, California, Chile, North-west Africa, South-west Africa.

87
Examples of upwelling currents are: The Canary current in the East Atlantic, the
Benguela current of the East Atlantic, the Peru or Humboldt current of the East Pacific,
the Californian current of the East Pacific.

Off the west coast of Australia there is no upwelling current as the coastline is not long
enough.

DRIFT CURRENT
This is caused by the direct effect of the wind blowing over long distances of the ocean
over a long period. Under this condition the frictional effect of the wind on the sea
surface causes the sea surface to move. However, the rotation of the earth creates a
coriolis force (geostrophic force) which deflects the drift current to the right in the
northern hemisphere, and to the left in the southern hemisphere by as much as 30 to 45
degrees.

The maximum strength of drift current is about two knots. If, however other
strengthening factors such as the gradient of the sea bed, the shape of the coast, any
other factor, superimposes on the drift current, its strength can increase two or three-
fold. When this happens, it is called a stream.

Examples of drift currents are:

The North Equatorial current and South Equatorial current which are caused by the trade
winds, the North Atlantic current, the North pacific current and Southern Ocean current,
also known as the west wind drift, which are caused by the westerlies.

WARM AND COLD CURRENTS

When a current is warmer than the sea through which it flows, it is termed a warm
current. A current from equatorial regions passing through higher latitude will be a warm
current. Examples of warm currents are: The North Atlantic Drift, The Gulf Stream, the
Brazilian current, The Norwegian current, the Alaskan current, the Kuro Shio current, the
Mozambique current, the Agulhas current.

Warm currents are generally experienced along the western shores of large oceans.

When a current is colder than the sea though which it flows, it is termed a cold current.

A current flowing from high latitudes through to low latitudes will be a cold current. If
the flow is from the polar regions the current will be very cold.

Examples of cold currents are: the Oya Shio current, the Labrador current, the Benguela
current, the Portuguese current, the Canary current, the Californian current, the
Humboldt current, the West Australian current.

Examples of very cold currents are: the Baffin Land current, also known as the Davis
current, the East Greenland current, the Kamchatka current.

Cold currents are generally experienced along the eastern shores of large oceans.

In general, warm currents originate in the tropics, whilst cold currents originate in the
frigid zones.

STRENGTH OF CURRENTS

88
The maximum strength of currents experienced in the open oceans varies from place to
place.

Where currents are variable, the maximum rate will be about one knot. Where the
current is consistent, maximum rates of 2 to 3 knots may be attained. Some currents
whose maximum rate exceeds these values are the Gulf Stream, the Agulhas, the Kuro
Shio. Here, maximum rates of up to 5 knots may be reached.

Off Socotra in the NW Indian ocean, maximum rates of 6 to 7 knots are not uncommon
in August and September.

The rates of the currents usually lie between 2% and 4% of the wind strength. This rate
depends largely on the duration the wind has been blowing.

HOW OCEAN CURRENTS AFFECT THE CLIMATE OF THE AREAS THEY TRAVERSE

The area traversed by a current can be rendered either warm or cold, depending on the
type of current.

Some typical affected areas area as below:

In ports off eastern Canada the effect of the Labrador current gives rise to ice in winter.
This contrasts with the effect of the Norwegian current effect on the Norwegian coast
which does not produce icy conditions. Comparing the coasts of UK and Northern Europe
with that of Newfoundland, it is observed that the westerlies blowing over the former
traverse over the North Atlantic current, carrying with it the relatively warm oceanic
influence. This makes the UK and North European coast warmer than the coast off
Newfoundland which is influenced by westerlies blowing from a cold hinterland.

Comparting Salvador in Brazil with Callao in Peru which are in similar latitudes, it is
noticed than Salvador. This is due to the influence of the Humboldt current off the coast
of Peru and the Brazilian current off the coast of Brazil.

The extension of the warm Gulf stream is the North Atlantic Drift which brings relatively
warm waters to the coast of Britain, and also render northern Norway ice free.

The Labrador current is a cold current which extends down the east coast of the USA
down to Delaware and joining the Gulf Stream. Temperatures are lowered in this region.

GENERAL CURRENT CIRCULATIONS OF THE OCEANS

THE NORTH ATLANTIC

On the east flank of the mid-ocean anticyclone, cool, south-going currents merge with a
wide band of west-bound current on the equatorial side, most of which turns northwards
on reaching the Caribbean to form the warm Gulfstream. A small portion of this however
turns east to help form the Caribbean counter current.

The Gulfstream fans out on the northern flank of the anticyclone into the North Atlantic
Drift current. Part of the Atlantic Drift Current turns south-east to complete the
circulation, with the remainder turning north-east, flowing as far as the north coast of
Norway.

89
THE NORTH PACIFIC
The flow of current in the North Pacific is similar to that in the North Atlantic.

Here, there is a cool, south-going current on the on the east side of the anticyclone, and
a wide equatorial current flowing west, south of the anticyclone.

Similar to the Gulf stream of the North Atlantic is the warm north-going Kuro Shio
current in the west, whilst an east-going current flows in the west.

At the extreme west of the Pacific Ocean is the China sea. Here the current flow is
affected by the monsoons. The flow is NE or SW depending on the type of monsoons.

Note that in Arctic regions of both the North Atlantic and North Pacific, the current flow
is complicated, with diverse patterns.

THE NORTH INDIAN OCEAN

Currents here are affected by the seasonal monsoons. In the open ocean, the flow is
eastward in the summer SW monsoons and westward during the winter NE monsoons.

On the southern part of the Indian Ocean close to the equator is the east-going
Equatorial counter current which flows eastward throughout the year.

Near the coast of East Africa there is a north-going current in the summer which turns
south-going in the winter. This is the East African coast current which is also known as
the Somali current. This current can attain a rate as high as 7 knots in the summer.

THE SOUTHERN HEMISPHERE

The flow of current of all three oceans mentioned above follow in general, an anti-
clockwise circulation round the periphery of the permanent anticyclone in each ocean.

On the eastern side of each of the three oceans, a relatively cold, north-going current
flows, whilst on the western side a relatively warm, south-going current flows.

In each of the southern oceans there is a fairly steady west-going equatorial current and
counter current. In the southern part, the currents combine into a wide band flowing
westward permanently around the globe. It is only in the South Indian Ocean that the
Equatorial Counter Current is found south of the Equator.

GENERAL CURRENT CIRCULATION IN THE MEDITERRANEAN SEA

The general surface circulation of current in the Mediterranean is counter-clockwise.

It enters the Mediterranean from the Atlantic through the Strait of Gibraltar and thence,
flows along the North African coast. Due to the high rate of evaporation on the surface
in the Mediterranean, the salinity increases gradually and it becomes denser and the
water sinks. An outflow of this denser water through the Strait of Gibraltar takes place
beneath the surface inflow, into the Atlantic.

The level of the Mediterranean Sea is lower than that of the Atlantic for two main
reasons viz:

90
 The input of water from rain and rivers is very small.
 The Mediterranean is land-locked, resulting in a very high rate of evaporation

The two combined factors create a gradient current, which flows eastward along the
surface through the Strait of Gibraltar. On entering the Mediterranean, the coriolis effect
deflects the flow to the right whence it then flows along the north coast of Africa. This
current hangs along the coast, describing a complete anti-clockwise loop. This current is
generally weak, but rates of 2 to 3 knots can be attained on the SW part of the sea.

Because of the high rate of evaporation in the Mediterranean, it is more saline and thus
denser, than the Atlantic. The easterly flow inward from the Atlantic is countered by a
westerly flow as a sub-surface gradient current, through the Strait of Gibraltar.

The Black sea is less dense than the Mediterranean. Water from the Mediterranean
therefore flows through the Dardanelles and the Bosporus, as a sub-surface gradient
current; at the same time, a surface current flows continuously from the Black sea into
the Mediterranean Sea.

CURRENTS IN THE VARIOUS OCEANS

A) ATLANTIC OCEAN

S/N NAME OF CURRENT AVERAGE DRFT REMARKS

IN MILES PER 24 HOURS

1. Norwegian weak warm

2 Imminger 9 on average neutral temperature

3. The Gulf Stream 10 to 70 warm at the northern limit

4. East Greenland 06 to 12 neutral temp; source of N. Atlantic

ice bergs

91
5. West Greenland 06 to 12 as above

6. Labrador 05-20 cold; source of fog and iceberg

at

The Grand Banks.

7. North Atlantic Drift 10-25 warm; considerable modifying

Effect on climate of W Europe

UK.

8. Canary 10-35 cold; associated with upwelling.

9. Azores 11 (average) neutral

10. Portuguese 10 (average) cold to neutral

11. N. Equatorial 10-20 neutral temperature

12. Equatorial Counter 10-30 neutral temperature

13. Guinea 10-60 neutral temperature

14. S. Equatorial 10-45 neutral temperature

15. Brazil 10-35 warm

16. Bahama 10-50 neutral temperature

17. Caribbean Counter 10 (average) neutral temperature

18. Falkland 10-40 cold.

19. Brazil Inshore Counter 15 (average) cold; extension of the

Falkland current. May reach

as far north as Rio de Janeiro

in May to June.

20. Benguela 10-50 cold; associated with upwelling.

21. Southern Ocean 0-30 neutral; common to S. Atlantic, S.

Pacific, South Indian oceans. Carries S.

Atlantic icebergs.

B. PACIFIC

22. N. Pacific Drift 10-20 warm

23. Aleutian 03-07 neutral temperature

92
24. Alaskan 6 (average) neutral temperature

25. Californian 10-30 upwelling occurs off the coast of

California. Davidson current sets

Northward close inshore from November

to December.

26. Kuro Shio 10-50 warm. It is known as the Gulf Stream of the

Pacific.

26. Oya Shio 15-30 cold.

27. Tsushima no info warm.

28. Liman no info cold.

29. Kamchatka 05-10 cold.

30. N. Equatorial 10-40 neutral.

31. Equatorial Counter 10-40 neutral

32. S. Equatorial 24 (average) no info.

33. Peru 0-30 cold; upwelling along the coast.

34. El Nino (Holy Child) variable rather irregular; flows from Jan. to March.

35. East Australian 0-25 warm.

C. INDIAN OCEAN
36. East African Coast variable Average daily drift: Nov.-Jan =16; Feb = March

48; May- Sept. = 48; From July to September

The daily drift may reach 170M to the south of

Socotra

37. Mozambique 0-30 neutral temperature

38. Equatorial 24 (average) Does not change direction with change in

Monsoons

39. Equatorial Counter 24(average) As above.

40. Agulhas 10-40 warm. A counter current is found close inshore.

41. West Australian 14(average) An inshore current sets south from March to

August.

42. Southern Ocean neutral; common to S. Atlantic, S. Pacific.

93
94