3

APPROACHES AND RELATIONS WITH

OTHER SUBJECTS

Main Approaches: Past and Present

Since 1887 there have been different approaches to the study of public
administration when this subject as a separate academic discipline was
born. The traditional approaches concentrated on the formal, legal and
institutional aspects of organisations. The methods employed in the study
were mainly historical and descriptive. The major concerns of the older
literature on administration were the structure of personnel and financial
administration, the administrative machinery, bureaucracy and functions
of public administrators. The new approaches which mainly appeared after
World War II came as a reaction to the older approaches.
Historical Approach
The historical approach is essentially based on the belief that knowledge
of history is absolutely essential for an indepth study of any subject. For a
proper understanding of the subjectthe study of public administration of
the past in particular periods is necessary to link up with the present
administrative systems. For example, for proper understanding of the
backgroundand growth of administrationin India, a historical perspective
is essential. To understand the evolution of the administrative system in
India, the characteristics of British Indian Administration and also the
pre-British period have to be studied, White's two volumes, The Federalists
(1948) and The Jeffersonians (1951), are important studies of the federal
administration of the USA during the early years of the Republic.
Biographical and autobiographical studies are also closely related to the
historical approach. In Europe and America reminiscences of ex
administrators reveal many important facts of administrative processes.
Several volumes in the Rules of India series and specialised studies dealing
with tenures of particular governor-generals during the British era, are
important to the study of Indian administration of these periods.
66 Public Administration: Concepts and Theorier

Legal Approach public administration as

Exponents of this approach would like to study
structure and organisation
legal
part of law and concentrate on the formal
with power-its structure and
of public bodies. Its chief concern has becn
of offices, official duties
functions. It stresses the formal organisation administrators. Its main
limitations of power and discretionary authority of manuals of rules and
office
sources are constitutions, codes of law,
Europe, like Germany.
regulations and judicial decisions. Many countries of
Belgium and France, have particularly applied thetherelegal approach tothe
are two principal
study of public administration. In these countries Whereasconstitutional
divisions of law--constitutional and administrative.
law deals with the three main organisations of the
government, their
interrelation and the distribution of power among them, administrative
bodies.
law is mainly concerned with the structure and functions of public
departments and authorities. The legal approach is valuable for the
understanding of the legal framework within which the administrative
system has to operate, but by neglecting the informal forces operating in
the organisation (the sociological and psychological variables), it remains
to a great extent an incomplete approach to the study of public
administration.

Institutional Approach
This approach tried to establish linkages between the study of public
administration and the institutions of government. It approached the study
of administration through the study of the structure and functioning of
separate institutions and organisations of the statesuch as the executive,
the legislature, the departments, government corporations, boards and
commissions. Scholars of this school defined the task of administration as
non-political or technical which lay merely in the field of policy
implementation. They were mainly advocates of the politics-administration
dichotomy and their efforts were channelised towards discovering
'principles' of public administration. However, the majority of scholars
of this approach like LD White and Luther Gulick were
content merely
with description of institutional structures without any
building. This is essentially descriptive though attemptsattempt at theory
have been made
by some thinkers to combine normative
elements with the descriptive.
Some of these have not only described the institutions but also
ideas for reform, where necessary. The suggested
maior problems of administration are relatedtraditionalists believed that the
to the legal formal structure
of organisations and their solution can also be
found in modifying or
changing this structure.
 Approaches and Relations With Other Subjects 67

This approach considered the study of organisations, their principles,

goalsand structure as primary tothe study of administration. History and
law were the two main sources of the older studies. The exponents of
these schools gave serious attention to the problem of delegation,
coordination, span of control and bureaucratic structure. Initially writers
on public administration were most concerned with ways and methods to
improve administrative efficiency and economy. This gave rise to many
theories. Pfifner &Presthus, Waldo, Gulick &Urwick, Taylor, Fayol,
Moonev, etcwere primarily concerned with finding ways and means of
improving organisational work, methods and processes, in order to raise
their output and efficiency.
The main limitations of these approaches were a total neglect of
environmental and informal factors on administration. By neglecting other
variables like sociological and psychological forces on administrative
situations and problems, these approaches remained to a great extent
incomplete, one-sided and lacking in analytical content.
According to Dwight Waldo, 1940 was the year of divide between
old and new approaches to public administration. Some of the new trends
that came to be noticed were:
a) Arejection of politics-administration dichotomy.
b) The idea of universally valid principles of administration were found
to be largely invalid in diverse administrative environments.
c) The goals of administrative efficiency and economy were
supplemented with new goals like social and economic progress.
d) With the advent of ex-colonial states on the administrative scene
emphasis came to be laid more on the comparative and ecological
approaches tothe study of administration.
e) Efforts were being made to study the problems of administration
scientifically by adopting the latest techniques in management
methods, and other mathematical tools of analysis.
Among the older approaches the scientific management approach,
the classical approach and the human relations approach may also be
included. These three approaches have been discussed in the next chapter.
Among the current new approaches we shall include the behavioural,
systems, structural-functional and the ecological approaches to the study
of public administration.
9) Behavioural Approach
Modern behaviouralisnm which developed in the late 30s and 40s of this
century is mainly concermed with the scientific study of human behaviour
n diverse social environments. It started as a protest against traditional,
 and Theorier
Administration: Concepts
Public
68 approachesinthe social
descriptive study
normative and largelybehaviouralismas a distinctline of later
historical, administration Movement and was
SCiences. In public Relations others. Simon
1930s with the Human Simon,' and
Started in the
Chester Barnard, Herbert part of the behavioural
developed by administrative behaviour" is a invoBve the study
observed that administration should
study of public administrative situations
the in
SCiences and collective human behaviour interdisciplinaryapproach
ofindividual and administrativeproblemsan cultural anthropology.
upon
It bringsto bear sociology, socialpsychology and studies has the following
which includes approach in administrative
The behavioural with the studies
salient features: prescriptive,
literature is descriptive, rather than
1. Its an exception. more realistic
on motivation beingis paid to the individual based on
2. Increased
attention decision-making processes and the
research-concerning motivation,
nature of authority.
relationships and communication patterns
informal
3. Sress is laid on organisation.
among membersof an definition of terms and empirical study
4. Itemphasises operational
methods, such as field study, laboratory
based on rigorous
statistical methods.
experiments or use of other quantification,
not exclusively, concerned with
5. It is chiefly,thoughconstruction.
and formal theory
interdisciplinary in character, and makes considerable use of
6. It is
propositions drawn from other social sciences.
In short, the behaviouralists sought to adopt an integrated and
interdisciplinary approach, for according to them all human actions are
motivated by social, economic, political, or psychological environment
from which they come. This approach aims at substituting empirical and
realistic judgements for the purely value oriented. It also emphasises a
scientific approach to the study of administrative problems and their
solution.
The behavioural approach in public administration has given an
additional impetus to scientific research and systematic theory construction.
The scholars in the field of public administration have made "cross
structural, cross-cultural" studies of administrative behaviour. This has
helped in the development of knowledge of public administration in the
comparative context. In the field of comparative public administration
Robert Presthus and Michael Crozier have conducted empirical studies
of bureaucratic behaviour in different social and cultural perspectives. In
 Appoaches and Relations With Other Subjects 69

India also a number of

scholars have used behavioural techniques in
research, like Pai Panandikar, Kuldeep Mathur, Ramashray Roy, Shanti
research in
Kothari, CP Bhambhri, etc. Contemporary as follows:administrative
Simon
hehaviour has been classified by Herbert
a) The study of bureaucracy (Robert Merton, Peter Blau and others
Weberian Model):
using and extending upon the
motivation and increasing job
h) Human relations pertaining to others):
satisfaction (Chris Argyris, Warren Bennis andEquilibrium Model:
Barnard-Simon
C Motivation studies using the
and,
Decision-making studies emphasising primarily cognitive processes
d) administrative behaviours
and the rational components of criticised for being of limited
The behavioural approach has been administrative phenomena. It is
analysis of all types of
utility in the social animal, though in itself
contended that the study of man as a
cannot be considered a part of the administrative sciences
praiseworthy, to the
unless the resulting knowledge behaviouralis particularly applicable
sciences, it is maintained,
'administrative man'. Moreover, the
smallsocial groups, whereas
appear tobe largely valid and applicable to
study of public administration deals with larger communities. Secondly,
the study of administrative problems and
the total exclusion of values from a
the study of public administration rather sterile and
phenomena will make
age. Human values, needless to
irelevant to the vital issues of the modern
are not directly quantifiable or observable to the degree that physical
say,
phenomena are, or can be.
behavioural approach, therefore, appears to be of limited
The
dealing with all types of administrative problems and their
relevance in human nature, motivations
solution, since the complexity and variability of
behaviour preclude the attainment of precision that is so characteristic
and normative problems and issues
of the physical sciences. Value-oriented or
organisation cannot really be explained or interpreted in terms of the
of
behavioural approach.
Systems Approach landmarks in the evolution of
One of the most significant concept for
organisationtheory is the development of general systemstraced to the
is
Organisational analysis. The origin of general systems But it was only
hinking of the biologist Von Bertalanffy, in the twenties. for abody of
War IIscholars
due to the quest of a number of post-World disciplines, that
cOncepts lending unity to studies, undertalken in various
 Concepts and Theories
70 Public Administration:
In short, general systems theory
the concept of 'system was developed. unification of science and scientific
originate in a movement aimed at the complex whole, a set of
defined as a
analysis. The term 'system'` has been this approach in organisational
to
connected things or parts. According considered asocial system to be studied
analysis, an organisation can be interrelated parts
is a collection of
in its totality. In other words, a system in an organised or planned manner
them
which receives inputs, acts upon
and thercby producescertain outputs.all types of organisations within the
place
There is a growing trend tosystems theory. A system Is seen as an
broad framework of general parts (sub-systems) who interact among
assembly of interdependentimplies that a change in one part influences
themselves. Interdependence entire system. Individuals are
viewed
ultimately affecting the
the other parts, systems.
as the basic unit of organisational sub-systems engaged in transactions
All human organisations are open society. Alsub-systems receive
within the larger social system, that is, from the larger system,
inputs in the form of human and material resourcesservices or rewards to its
while givingout outputs in the form of products,
members as well as to the larger system.
Other features of organisational sub-systems are: they are adaptive;
they affect the larger system as well as are affected by it; they are dynamic
inthe sense that they undergo continuous change as a result of interaction
with other sub-systems within the larger social system.
The chief contributor to systems analysis in organisational theory is
Herbert Simon. Simon views the organisation as a total system, a compoSite
of all the sub-systems which serve to produce the desired output. His basic
assumptiÍn is that the elements of organisational structure and function
emanate from the characteristics of human problem-solving processes and
rational choice. Therefore, the organisation is viewed as a
comprising individuals making choices and behaving on the basis system
of their
reactions to their needs and environment.
The chief value of the systems approach lies in
for the systematic search
significant interactions while evaluating policies
organisation. What systems analysts are set to achieveorisactions of any
to predict the
system's movements by interpreting the
The systems approach is particularlyrelationships between its parts.
relevant to the study of large
public organisations operating in larger social,
environnments. political and economic
CWest Churchman' draws
attention to five basic considerations in
relation the systems approach to management:
to
 Approaches and Relations With Other Subjects
71
,The total objectives of the system and the
performance. measures of system's
) The system's environment acting as a constraint.
3 The system's resources that are put to use in performance.
4. The system's components and its goals and activities.
s The management of the system (the regulating and decision-making
aspect).
The organisation has been conceived by many administrative thinkers
as asocio-technical system comprising both the social and technical
wariables. It is not merely an assembly of buildings, money, machines and
processes. The system consists in the organisation of people around various
technologies, whose motivation, behaviour and relationships determine
hoth the quality and quantity of its inputs and outputs.
As Miller and Rice puti t b e r
Anyenterprise may be seen as an open system which has characteristics
in common with a biological organism. An open system exists, and can
exist, only by exchanging materials with its environment. It imports
materials, transforms them by means of conversion processes, consumes
the products of conversion for internal maintenance, and exports the rest.
Directly or indirectly, it exchanges its outputs for further intake, including
more resources to maintain itself. These import-conversion-export
processes are the work the enterprise has todo if it is to live,8
The systems approach to organisational analysis is now widely used.
This approach can take into account more variables and interrelationships
while looking at an organisational problem in the framework of a larger
system. Another important dimension is the interaction between a system
and its environment. The underlying assumption of the systems approach
is that there is a continuous mutual interaction between the system and its
environment. This conceptualisation was to eventually become the
precursor of the 'ecological' approach to organisational study.
GThe Closed and Open Models
are often referred to
Inorganisation thought the closed and open models
therefore to compare the
2s contrasting paradigms. It wouldbe pertinent of man in an
LWo models along the following parameters: (a) view organisational
Organisation,(b) socialrole of orgánisations, (c) concept of
perceptions of the
suucture, (d) concept of organisational order (e)
environment. closed model views man as
Onthe frst issue of concept of man, the
Work shirking andlacking in initiative who needs to be manipulated,
Supervised and monitored strictly inorder to achieve organisational goals.
 and Theories
Administration:Concepts
Public
72
as an autonomous selt-actualising
model views man Restrictions on his
By contrast, the
open andcreativity.
actualisationin work.
for self control
being who has the potentialinitiative Ipotentialforself theclosed model
his and organisation,
freedom mayhamper social role of organisation. Civil servants
Secondly, regardingtothe manipulated by hallmark of their
opines that society has be nationalityis the the
perform in office where class apart from citizens and
have a duty to model
be vjewedas a maintained. The opencannot
behaviour. They should shouldbestrictly purposes
SoCiety/organisationdivide society and its
organisation as anessential
part of
and objectives.Rationality
Views goals
from societal Organisations beingembedded
very different
therefore be organisationsalone. same.
prerogative of are one and the
IS not the bureaucrat and the
citizen favours a formal
Insociety, the
closedmodel
of structure,the withina rigid
Thirdly,on the conceptordered communicationsystem structure
hierarchicalstructureand an model favoursa more participative
The open organisation both
chain ofcommand.communication at all levels of the
with a free flow of maximum flexibility in inter-level
allows
horizontal and vertical - which
relationships. maintenance of order and discipline within the
On the fourth issue of favours policing, supervision and
organisation, the closed model organisational
from above. The open model view is that the
monitoring
from above, if the organisational
discipline cannot be artificially imposed order and discipline will
environment allows spontaneity and flexibility,
flow from self-control.
model in
Fifthly,on the issue of environmental perception, the closedto hold an
its search for order, stability and status quo maintenance tends
insular view of organisation which refuses to look at the interaction of the
organisation with the environment. Its model of organisation is premised
on environmentalstability and has no provision for organisational change
inresponse tochanges in its environment. The open model calls upon the
organisation to learn to adjust structurally and functionally, adapt and
integrate itself with the change in its environment.
In conclusion it may be said that both are ideal typical stereotypes and
organisational reality often falls somewhere in between. What is needed
is afusion of both views in which the organisation retains some of the
features of both models, making an attempt to adopt the best features of
both. Organisations need freedom and flexibility to survive in a healthy
interaction with its environment but in order to achieve its goals it needs
routinisation and rationalisation of its structure and its activities in order
to minimise uncertainty in its publicdealings.
 APr
Structural-Functional Approach
The structural-functional approach as an analytical tool in the social
seiences developed from the work of the anthropologist Malinowskiand
RadCliffe Brown in the early years of the present century. The important
followers of this approach are Gabriel Almond, David Apter, Talcott
Parsons, Robert Merton and Fred Riggs. The two concepts basic to the
approach are structure and function. All social structures exist to perform
certain functions. While functions concern the consequences of patterns
of action, structures refer to the patterns of actions and the resultant
institutions of the systems themselves.
The structural-functional framework provides an important mechanism
for the analysis of different social processes. In structural functionalism,
social structure is viewed as 'any pattern of behaviour which has become
astandard feature of a social system'. There may be 'concrete' structures
(eg. government departmentsand bureaus) or 'analytic' (eg, structure of
authority or power). All social structures perform some 'functions'.In
structural-functional terms, a 'function' involves 'a pattern of
interdependence' between two or more structures, a relationship between
variables. I refers to "any consequences of a structure in so far as they
affect other structures or the total system of which they are a part."
The structural-functional categories presuppose a systems framework.
The experts can locate the structures they want to analyse and their
functions; eg to analyse the working of bureaucracy in any society it is
first defined and identified in structural-functional terms.
Structurally
bureaucracy is viewed as an administrative system possessing features
Such as hierarchy, specialisation, system of rules, and role specificity. The
set of behavioural characteristics identified with
bureaucracy are rationality,
mpersonality, rule orientation and neutrality.
at the outset that there is no clear and direct However, may be clarified
it
and functions. A!l similar structures do not relationship between structures
functions. Asocial structure may perform multiple necessarily pertorm similar
One function may be performed by more than onefunctions andsimilarly
structure. Structural
functionalists have helped to clarify the general misconception
Structures in diverse environments perform similar functions or that that similar
Of certain structures implies that absence
performed in particular social systems. particular functions are not being
in allNotwithstanding the fact that structure and functions are not uniform
societies various scholars of this approach have laid down what they
Consider certain necessary structural and
emergence of asociety. Though various scholars functional
have prerequisites for the
laid down different
 Public Administration.: Conce

"prerequisites," these requisite functions have been greatly heipful in the

Comparative analysis of different social systems.
AcCording to Riggs, there are five functional requisites of any Society,.
These are economic, social-communicational, symbolic and political 10
He has applied these functional requisites to the study of the administrative
Sub-system. Later he developed his Agraria-Transitia-Industria Model for
part of the wider
die comparative study of administrative systems as a
social system. approach in
Since then various other thinkers have adopted this
prove the
comparative public administration. This approach has helped to processes
vital points of differences between the administrative culture and
of the developing and developed societies.
Certain structures of developing societies which though apparentlv
dysfunctional from the westernpoint of view, may prove to be functional
in their own social or political milieu. In developed societies, structures
and functions may be relatively differentiated and autonomous in operation.
unlike developing ones where functions may be differentiated, but the
structures which perform these functions are rarely separate or distinct.
Ecological Approach
Various scholars and administrators have often referred to the need to
related public administration to the environment in which it functions.
'Ecology' refers to "the mutual relations, collectively, between organism
and their environment". The ecological perspective in the study of public
administration was introduced primarily through the writings of John Gaus,
who first elaborated this approach in his
Administration 1945. Gaus advocated the conceptReflections of Public
of relating government
functions to the environment which included such
situation, factors as people,
scientific technology, social technology, wishes and ideas,
catastrophe and personality. These factors, he concluded, must be
in the 'ecological' study of public included
The ecological approach assumes administration.!!
peculiarly moulded by the values of the that administrative behaviour is
functions, the administrative culture in administrative culture in which it
interaction of values and traits of the turn being an outgrowth of the
system as a whole. administrative system with the social
The ecological
approach is further based on the idea that
administrative Itsystem may not act as an independent variable in all
circumstances. acts and reacts under the influence of various
surrounding it. There is a great degree of sub-systemS
social organisations and their ecological interdependence between all
settingswhich include among
 Other Subjects 75
Approaches and Relations With
and social technology and
other topography. population, levelof physical
between people and organisations.
the interrelationships and interactions are largely created and
Organisations, structures, prOcedures and goals organisation and its
an
changed as a result of the interaction between
Thus, if an organ1sation is to survive it must adapt itself to
environment.
needs and conditions of its externalenvironment. Thus, if an
the changing
itself to the changing needs and
organisation is tosurvive it must adapt continuously changing. In
conditions of itsexternal environment whichis
highlyindustrialised and developed society like the USA the system of
a cater to public needs and
government and administration must not only economy. The level
American
demands, but alsoto the compulsions of the
production and consumption of material goods is the highest in the
of country in the world. Therefore, the
USA compared to any other
administrative framework most favoured in that country is a free market
which Americans are able to make free choices in
System through
production and consumption. A capitalistic econonmy with a democratic
controls is what the Americans
system of minimun state intervention and
country with only minor
have found suitable and that has existed in the
variations from time to time.
goals of administration are
In developing countries the two main
Administration in these
nation-building and socioeconomic progress.
countries functions in an environment of scarcity and multiple pressures
and controls.
an
Most of these excolonial developing countries inherited
colonial
authoritarian and unresponsive administrative culture, from their
days, which they carried into their systems even after the post-independence
has often been
adoption of rationalist western models of administration. It
found that mere imposition of western administrative systems on the
developing societies did not lead to their functioning in the same manner
as they did in the West. The Weberian model of bureaucracy, for example,
has been found to be dysfunctional for development in the Third World
societies.
Fred W Riggs is one of the foremost exponents of the ecological
approach in public administration. On the basis of certain functional
prerequisites of a social system, Riggs attempted a variety of models and
ypologies such as the "Agraria-transitia-industria" and fused-prismatic
diffracted societies, !2 His quest for an ecological-perspective in cross
cultural studies led him mainly to the field of development administration.
His ecological-models emphasise an open system perspective that attempts
to describe and analyse the interaction between the administrative sub
system and the wider social system.
 Public Administration: Concepts and
76
Robert Dahl's advocacy of an ecological approach was baseddon what Theories
were three problematic
statedAdministrative
he ()) issues:
generalisations based on the experience of one
nation-state cannot be universally appliedto administrative systems
in allkinds of diverse environmental settings.
(ii) Before formulating theories and concepts of administration, it is
necessary to empirically test thcir validity in all types of SOcial
settings to see what is universal.
This implies that pubic administration must be truly interdisciplinary
and ecological in character, not only to widen its horizon but to make its
study more scientific andrelevant to all type of societies.
The great merit of this approach lies in the value and relevance of
studying people in relation totheir environment, taking intoconsideration
their peculiar characteristics and problems. Public cooperation is a vital
input for the successful operation of any administrative system. Unless
the administration caters to particular public needs, wishes, activities and
problems it cannot ask for public cooperation tothe extent desired. In the
Third World countries, public administration is ridden with corruption,
inertia and inefficiency. To improve its functioning one has to suggest
solutions and reforms keeping in mind the peculiar history, customs,
traditions and culture of the people coupled with their present needs and
aspirations. Every popular, efficient and democratic administration must
be ecological in character and approach.
Public Policy Approach
The general concern of the social sciences for
social
resulted in the laying of emphasis on public policy. Theengineering has
study of public
administration has also been influenced by the public policy perspective.
The abandonment of the
politics-administration dichotomy made the public
policy approach agrecable to administrative analysis.
Evjdence from the practical world of administration has bought out
the criteria of a cBose nexus between politics and
governments seek to
administration As
formulate and implement more and more welfare
programmes,policy studies in puble adninsraton will gather momentum
At this stage, the study of public administration has no doubt been gaining
in social relevance, but its boundaries as a descriptive study are not as
clearly distinguishable now as they used to beeinthe olden days of politics-
dichotomy. The discipline, to many
analysts, has gained in vigour, but it has suffered apublic
administration
crisis ofadministration
identity with
its diversification and strength.
 Subjects 77
Approaches and Relations With Other
Approach
16 Political Economy administration is brought about
Another development in the study of public approach to the analysis of
economny
hy the adoption of the political associated
administrative problems. This is with the moving of political
sCience closer to economicsinithe
interest of greater theoretical coherence
guidance. Economists like Anthony Downs and Gordon
andbetter policy
Dullock have adopted the interdisciplinary approach by experimenting
applicationof economic methods and models to political problems.
withthe political science and on its own
Thuspublic administration as a branch of
economics.
has moved closer to evolution of public
The liberal democratic tradition in the
starting with an assertion of
administration as described above shows that assimilation of ideas.
independent identity it has mnoved towards the disciplines. Thus the
science
methods and techniques of different social
while the question of its
scope of the discipline seems to be broadening
completely.
identity yet remains to be solved
Marxian Traditions
among the
The October Revolution of 1917 had generated debate
interest in
Marxists on the role of bureaucracy in Russia. But the Marxist
pronounced only
the bureaucracy, organisation and management became number of
in the decade following World War II, and developed in a
directions.
We have togo back to Marx to understand the classical Marxist view
of bureaucracy. Although Marx has not paid much attention to the concept
of bureaucracy, his views on bureaucracy and its relation to the power
structure of society found in his major works provide an importance due
tothe understanding of the later developments in the Marxist thought on
bureaucracy. In the wider context of class struggle, Marx regards
bureaucracy as an instrument of the dominant ruling class, promoting its
particular interests. Its existence and development thus have a transient
and parasitic character. Marx envisaged that with the abolition of the
classes, the state and its bureaucracy would 'wither away'. The 'withering
aWay' of the bureaucracy would mean its gradual absorption into the society
awhole. Thus instead of havingan oppressive structure, Marx visualised
hat in a Communist society, the functions of the bureaucracy would be
taken Over by the members of the society themselves. The administrative
tasks, by shedding their exploitative character, would come to mean
administration of things and not of people.
 Public Administration: CConcepts and
78

The October Revolution in Russia and

the establishment of Theories
governrnents in many countries of the world
in subsequent years led socialist
the socialist u
experimentationwith Marxian ideas. There has been in
proliferation of bureaucracy and agrowing tendency to apply Wester
amanagement techniques. Lenin, like Marx, considered bureaucracy
socialist sVSter
transitional phenomenon. In contrast, the critics of the
have put forward theories regarding the bureaucracy as a "New Class", je
the
anewly emerged class in socialist countries ruling in the name of
proletariat.
It is indisputable that Marxian studies of bureaucracy, its organisation
and management have added anew dimension to the study of public
administration and helped to develop it. The attempts of Stewart Clegg
and David Dunkerly, Nicos Mouzelis, Braverman, and many others to
buildaradical organisation theory have led to some significant advances
in the study of public organisation. Indeed, the Marxian traditions have
placed the study of public administration in the wider perspective of social
transformation.

Relations with History, Law, Economics,Political Science and

Sociology
It is a well-known fact that all social sciences are interrelated. Public
administration, too, has close linksnot only with other social sciences like
history, 1law, economics, political science and sociology but with pure
sciences and technology as well. Therefore for an indepth study of public
administration an interdisciplinary perspective may often be required.
Public Administration and History
History provides much of the required data for the study of public
administration. The study of the administrative system of any country would
remain incomplete without a proper historical background. The origin
and growth of the various administrative institutions can be studied only
with the help of history.
The historical approach is essentially based on the belief that
knowledge of history is absolurely essential tor an indepth study of any
Subiect. For a proper undersunding o ne subject, the study of public
administration of the past in particular periods, is necessary to link it
systems. For up
with the present administrative example, for a
of the backgroundIand growth of proper
understanding administration in
historical perspective is essential. To understand the evolutionIndia,of thea
administrative system in India, the characteristics of British Indian
 Subjects
Approaches and Relations With Other 79

Administration and. also the pre-British period have to be: studied. White's
two volumes, The Federalists (1948) and The Jeffersonians (1951), are
important studies of the federal administration of the USA duringthe early
yearssof the Republic. Biographical and autobiographical studies are also
closelyrelated to the historical approach. In Europe and America,
reminiscences of ex-administrators revcal many important facts of
administrative processes. Several volumes in the Rulers of India series
sstudies dcaling with tenures of particular governor generals
andspecialisedi study of Indian administration
during the British era, are important to the
of these periods.
Law
Public Administration and administration would
Exponents of the legal approach to the study of public
of law and concentrate on the
liketo study public administration as part
bodies. Its chief concern
formal legal structure and organisation of public
functions. Its stress is on the formal
has been with power-its structure and power and
organisation of offices, official duties, limitations ofconstitutions,
are
discretionary authority of administrators. Its main sources decisions.
cojes of law,office manuals of rules and regulations and judicial
and France, have
Many countries of Europe like Germany, Belgium administration.
particularly applied the legal approach to the study of public
law--constitutional
Inthese countries there are two principal divisions of
three main
and administrative. Whereas constitutional law deals with the
distribution of
organisations of the government, their interrelation and the
the
power among them, administrative law is mainly concerned with
structure and functions of public bodies, departments and authorities. The
legal approach is valuable for the understanding of the legal framework
within which the administrative system has to operate, but by neglecting
the informal forces operating in the organisation (the sociological and
psychological variables), it remains to a great extent an incomplete
approach to the study of public administration.
The study of administrative, constitutional and various other kinds of
aw 1S important for the publicemployees because systematic and detailed
execution of public law is the responsibility of public administration.
Moreover, enforcement of law is closely related to the judicial branch and
Oner processes of adjudication, such as the laws govening the various
tribunals.
Public Administration and Economics
The economic environment of a country deeply influences the nature,
organisation and activities of public administration and vice versa. With
 Public Administration: Concepis and
80

almost similar levels of national

character and work habits
nation which
two Theories
nations
may differ in their levels of production, eglimited resources has abetter
the
institutional capacity to makethe best use of wil
correlation between the natural y
produce more. Generally there is a
environmnent and administrative organisation of a country.
We will economic
now
attempt to study this relation.
The economicsystenm isone of the subsystems of soCiety concerne.
with the production of goods and services and to meet the material nee
and wants of the citizens. The cconomic system includes the entire
productive processfactors and instruments of production, land, labour
capital andentrepreneurs, as wellas the clients and consumers of goods
and services. The economic system is vitally connected with the
administrative system in more than one way. Administrat1on executes and
implements policy, and the economic factor is one of the prime
determinants of public policy."
Marxist social thinkers view the entire political process as an outcome
of the economic prOcess; the economic system is the subsystem on which
the entire superstructure of politics and administration is built. Liberal
social scientists, though admitting substantial link between the
and other subsystems of society,emphasise the economic
and economic structures in society, especially inautonomy of the political
industrial societies.
Economic systems can be of various patterns--feudal,
socialist and mixed economy type depending on the capitalist,
nature and level of
socioeconomic development and economic infrastructure
societies. Different economic systems may coexist with existing in these
different types of
government-monarchical, democratic
common element in any kind of economic or and autocratic. But the only
political system is the
existence of a public administrative structure which is
the proper functioning of both the
economic and indispensable
political systems.
to
Economic activities not exclusively carried out by
are
of society, other structures--social, political or economic structure
perform economic functions. Inthe policy of
of the state in economic matters is minimum; adminisintervention
laissez-faire
the trative-also
mainly regulatory and negative in nature. admi n i
With thestrative functions are
welfare states the economic intervention of the advent of
modern
state has
tremendously--specially in developing countries where the increased
provides basic utilities and a wide range of services, but state not only
major responsibility of economic welfare and undertakes
development. entire
administrative machinery of the state is geared to the The
the
tasks of
nation-
building and socioeconomic progress. The. administration in a
developing
Appoaches and Relations With Other Subjects 81
country is overburdened with what may be called economic aspects of
administration, that is, tasks related to administration of
developmental
programmes. Administration is expected to be the key instrument of
sOCi0CCOnomic change and well-bcing of the citizens. The major
componcnt of development or modernisation is economiC progress and
the cntire succCss of administration depends on how wel it is able to
pertorm these tasks.
Public Administrationand Political Science
Palitics and administration are the two sides of a single coin. Pfiffner
states that in some instances politics and administration are so intermingled
that aclear distinction isdifficult. However some writers have developed
adichotomy between policy and administration. They believe that policy
making and its execution are the separate fields of politicians and
administrators. There are many people who advocate the taking of
administration out of politics, and the concept of civil service neutrality is
an outcome of that.
Political science studies the phenomena of 'state' and 'government'.
But recently. political science (or politics) has been described as the science
of power. According to Raymond Aron, politics is the study of authority
relations between individuals and groups, and the hierarchy power which
establishes itself within all numerous and complex communities. Public
administration deals with the execution of public policy and enforcement
of laws.
There are twoother notable aspects of the relationship between public
administration and political science. Firstly, political science is still a
nomative science, notwithstanding the stress by new approaches, ike
behaviouralism, on value free analysis. It therefore lays down the goals to
be achieved by the government of a country. This is generally
done
accordance with the professed ideology of the political leaders. In thisin
Way, they also define the framework for administrative practice. For
CXampBe, these ideals may be democratic government, welfare state, a
planned economy, etc.
Secondly, political science contributes greatly to the training of
administrators. DWaldo believes that political science is uniquely capabie
O contributing a scientific
that it understanding of public administration and
contributes
professional more than any
administrators. other discipline to the training of
 Public Administration: Concepts and
82

Public Administration and Sociology

In sociology we study (i) society, (ii) human interactions in society, and
Theories
(ii) social lgroups. Societyand sOcial relationships are always intthe process
of change. Government and administration exist for society. While the
former determines goals to be achieved,the latter helps in achieving the
In the process of administering laws, public administration becomes one
of the most important instruments of social change.
Public administration is deeply influenced by the social structure,
values,traditions, culture and aspirations of anation. Administrators are,
product of their sociocultural milieu. Their attitude to life and work is
moulded by current social attitudes which in turn moulds their
administrative behaviour and work. Consciously or unconsciously every
administrator's decisions will carry the stamp of the environment he lives
in, its social philosophy, cultural biases and pecularities. Most of the
administrative problems of developing countries are rooted in their cultural
milieu. When these countries try to adopt successful administrative
processes or institutions of the West they very often have to encounter
culturai hurdles. The public may adopt an attitude of suspicion or apathy
and refuse to cooperate with the administrators in implementing newor
modern programmes. Every new innovative programme, even though
welfare-oriented, may be simply resisted because they are alien to the
people. US society is market-oriented, intensely competitive and
individualistic. In such a society survival demands that every individual
put in one's best. People are efficiency-conscious since their
environment
requires it. In India a fatalistic attitude to life breeds a lackadaisical attitude
to work in most people. Other peculiarities of administration in
traditional
societies which are a product of their distinct sociocultural experience
andenyironment are: civil service as a profeSsion has
higher social status
compared to private employment; most educated young men prefer
oOvernment service as a career; however, recruitment is often not entirely
on merit since various kinds of pressure are brought upon
the recruiting
authorities due to acute problems of unemployment; government jobs have
permanent tenure, job security, however, leading often to
lethargy,
tape andlinertia in work; there is alot of difference in age, official
red
and social rankin various levels of administration and
seniority
few and far between; governmental administration
interaction
increases remains
by leaps
since public employment becomes a and
bounds channel to relieve
unemployment; nepotism and corruption are rampant; attitude to work is
rarely professional and there is usually a lack of skilled personnel for
higher level posts.