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PERFECT
PHRASES ™
for
ESL
Conversation Skills
00_Engelhardt_FM_i-xxii.indd 1 2/16/22 10:00 AM

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PERFECT
PHRASES ™
for
ESL
Conversation Skills
Premium Third Edition
Hundreds of Ready-to-Use Phrases That Help You

Express Your Thoughts, Ideas, and Feelings in English
Conversations of All Types
Diane Engelhardt
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Copyright © 2022, 2017, 2013 by Diane Engelhardt. All rights reserved. Except as permitted
under the United States Copyright Act of 1976, no part of this publication may be reproduced or
distributed in any form or by any means, or stored in a database or retrieval system, without the
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Contents
Acknowledgments xiii
Introduction: Who Can Benefit from
Using This Book? xv
Part 1 Phrases for Conversation

Chapter 1 Small Talk 3
Openers: Excuse Me . . . 5
Talking About Yourself 7
Showing Interest 8
Introducing Yourself 9
Breaking the Ice 11
Staying in Touch 13
Saying Good-Bye 14
Dialogue: Small World 16
Topics for Practice 18
Chapter 2 Past Experiences 20

Openers: Greetings 21
Greeting Friends and Acquaintances 22
Making Introductions 24
Catching Up 25
v

vi ➜ Contents
Past Experiences 26
Transitions and Connectors 27
Discourse Markers 30
Enjoyment and Pleasure 32
Expressing Emotions 33
Ending the Conversation 34
Time Expressions 34
Dialogue: Long Time No See 35
Chapter 3 Likes, Dislikes, and Interests 39

Openers: Feeling Things Out 40
Likes 41
Dislikes 44
Preferences 48
Interests 49
Desires and Dependency 50
Indifference 51
Making Offers 51
Dates and Invitations 53
Compliments 57
Dialogue: What’s for Dinner? 57
Chapter 4 Objects and Processes 62

Openers: Take a Look! 63
Describing Objects 64
Properties and Features 68

Contents vii
➜
Cost and Estimates 71

Use and Availability 73
Making Comparisons 74
Making Contrasts 78
Evaluations and Judgments 79
Giving Instructions 80
Dialogue: The New Smartphone 84
Chapter 5 Problems and Advice 89

Openers: What’s Wrong? 90
Stating a Problem 91
Asking for Help or Advice 93
Identifying the Cause of a Problem 95
Sympathy and Understanding 96
Advice and Assistance 97
Appreciation and Gratitude 103
Making Someone Aware of a Problem 104
Complaints 105
Reassurances 106
Reluctance and Avoidance 109
Dialogue: What’s the Matter? 112
Chapter 6 Decisions and Goals 117

Openers: What Are We Going to Do? 118
Options and Alternatives 119

viii ➜ Contents
Reasons and Purpose 120

Advantages and Disadvantages 122
Making a Decision 124
Indecision and Hesitation 129
Setting Schedules and Deadlines 130
Goals and Plans 131
Encouragement, Recognition, and
Congratulations 133
Dialogue: A Tough Decision 138
Part 2 Phrases for Discussions

Chapter 7 Opinions 145
Openers: Asking for an Opinion 147
Stating an Opinion 147
Value Judgments 149
Generalizations 150
Agreeing and Disagreeing 151
Supporting an Opinion 153
Figures and Statistics 155
Making an Argument 161
Solutions and Recommendations 164
Dialogue: The Best Idea I’ve Heard So Far 167

Contents ix
➜
Chapter 8 Group Discussions 172

Openers: Opening the Floor 173
Leading a Discussion 174
Participating in a Group Discussion 177
Interruptions 181
Clarification and Explanations 183
Misunderstandings 185
Managing the Discussion 188
In Conclusion 191
Dialogue: The Holiday Party 193
Chapter 9 Serious Subjects 198

Openers: Common Concerns 200
Offering Solutions to General
Problems 201
Levels of Language 202
Direct vs. Indirect Language 202
Irony, Sarcasm, and Euphemism 206
Complaints and Demands 208
Rules and Conditions 212
Bad News and Good News 214
Causes and Consequences 216
Certainty and Possibility 218
Apologies and Agreements 220
Dialogue: A Hard Bargain 225

x ➜ Contents
Part 3 Phrases for Special Occasions

Chapter 10 Special Occasions 233
Openers: Words of Welcome 234
Honors and Awards 234
Special Occasions 236
Vacations, Holidays, and Trips 238
Dining 239
Relationships 241
Romance 242
Personal Notes 244
Dialogue: Happy Birthday! 246
Part 4 Phrases for Telephone and

Video Conversations
Chapter 11 Telephone Basics 253
Making a Call 254
Receiving a Call 256
Checking Details 258
Connecting a Call 259
Information and Services 261
Emergency Calls 262
Telephone Etiquette 264
Ending a Call 266
Making Small Talk 267
Dialogue: Touching Base 267
Practice 269

Contents xi
➜
Chapter 12 Telephone Messages 271

Giving Details over the Phone 272
Leaving a Message 274
Taking a Message 275
Ensuring Communication 277
Returning a Call 279
Answering Machines, Voice Mail, and
Text Messages 279
Dialogue: A Message 282
Practice 282
Chapter 13 Telephone Business 285

Making Appointments 286
Making Bookings and Reservations 289
Changes and Cancellations 290
Orders and Services 291
Discussing a Problem 293
In Conclusion 296
Dialogue: Making an Appointment 296
Chapter 14 Telephone/Video Conferencing 300

Preparing the Call 301
Etiquette and Protocol 302
Getting Started 304
Preliminary Business 307
Discussion 309
Problems 311
Taking Action 312

xii ➜ Contents
Dialogue: Let’s Get the Ball Rolling! 315

About the Author 319
Index 321

Acknowledgments
I
would first like to express my gratitude to McGraw-Hill
Professional for the opportunity to publish this book, to
my first editor, Holly McGuire, for choosing me for this
particular project and to my publisher, Christopher Brown, for
his support in growing this book.
I would also like to acknowledge the valuable insights
my colleague and friend, Barb Donaldson, has provided along
the way.
My thanks go out as well to my students: Yuko, Joo-Weoun,
Hye-Sin, Chae-Rin, Mayumi, and Satoko for their perceptive
feedback.
Last but not least, my appreciation to my husband, Erich, for
his support and encouragement.
xiii


Introduction
Who Can Benefit from
Using This Book?
P
erfect Phrases for ESL: Conversation Skills was written for
ESL students and learners who want to improve their
conversation skills inside and outside of the classroom.
The content was selected to familiarize you with the kind of lan-
guage native English speakers use regularly in everyday conver-
sations and discussions at home, school, and work. Although it
was written with intermediate-level speakers in mind, there is
something for every motivated learner who aims to develop his
or her ability to participate in conversations and discussions on
a broad variety of topics.
How to Use This Book

The book consists of fourteen chapters divided into four
parts: phrases for conversation, discussions, special occa-
sions, and telephone and video conversations. Progressing in
depth and difficulty, this third edition covers topics relevant
to everyday life.
xv

xvi ➜ Introduction
Objectives
These indicate the skills you can expect to gain from using the
phrases in each chapter.
Phrases
Parts 1 to 3
The first three parts cover phrases for everyday conversation.
Each chapter begins with typical conversation openers and
contains a collection of topic-related phrases that will guide
you through a natural conversation or discussion. Although the
phrases are organized thematically, they are not exclusive to any
one topic. Where appropriate, reference is made to phrases that
appear in previous chapters and come in handy when you dis-
cuss different subjects.
Part 4
The four chapters in this section present phrases that are com-
monly used when you make telephone calls for both personal
and business purposes, and these are organized from formal to
informal. Because the content of a telephone conversation does
not differ greatly from a face-to-face conversation, the symbol
refers you to useful phrases from Parts 1 and 2. You will find these
phrases under the given section heading and page number, e.g.,
Discourse Markers, page 30.
Because language is closely tied to a country’s culture and
customs, many phrases are organized from formal to informal,
indirect to direct, strong to mild, and in degrees of politeness so
that you can choose the phrases that are appropriate to use in
different situations. The information symbol will also alert you
to language or culture tips.

Introduction xvii
➜
You will see that some phrases and parts of phrases appear:
■ in bold type
■ between slashes (/)
Bold type indicates variable phrases that require additional

information. For example:
➜➜ Let me introduce my fiancée, Alice. (Chapter 2)

➜➜ Why don’t you try doing volunteer work? (Chapter 3)
Slashes are used to show how a phrase in bold type can be

completed with various information. For example:
➜➜ Don’t you look charming / pretty / handsome today!

(Chapter 3)
➜➜ Please accept my apologies for the mistake / oversight /
inconvenience / trouble. (Chapter 9)
Slashes also indicate how a phrase can be varied with the use
of prepositions, gerunds or infinitives, or synonyms. For example:
➜➜ I plan to sail / plan on sailing around the world some day.

(Chapter 6)
➜➜ What’s your view / take / stand / position on the changes
to our curriculum? (Chapter 8)
Phrases that are not indicated in bold type are fixed expres-
sions and can stand on their own. For example:
➜➜ What a pity! (Chapter 5)

➜➜ I couldn’t agree with you more! (Chapter 7)

xviii ➜ Introduction
Of course it is not necessary for you to master or even attempt

to master all of the phrases under each heading and subhead-
ing. One or two may suit your purposes quite nicely. Choose the
phrases that fit your personal style, and once you’re comfort-
able using them, you can try out another one. Listen carefully to
native English speakers and make a note of the phrases that you
hear them use.
Dialogues
The dialogue in each chapter shows you how native English
speakers might use the particular phrases in a typical conver-
sation. Consult the McGraw Hill Language Lab app for native-
speaker recordings of all fourteen dialogues in the book. If you
are learning English in a classroom situation, you can act out the
dialogue as a skit or use it as a model for a conversation role-play.
Topics for Practice

At the end of each chapter you will find a list of topics to stimu-
late conversation. Practice with a friend or classmate. The more
people you include in the conversation, the merrier.
Vocabulary Notes
There are blank lined pages at the end of each chapter for
you to record new vocabulary. Make a point of writing down
the English definition. As you will notice, some words and
phrases cannot be easily translated into your native language.
Remember: It will be much easier to converse in English if you
learn to think and explain yourself in English.

Introduction xix
➜
A Final Note
In the end, the best and only way to develop your conversation
and discussion skills is to talk. I sincerely hope that Perfect Phrases
for ESL: Conversation Skills will accompany and guide you on the
road to successful communication!
Go for it!


PERFECT
PHRASES ™
for
ESL
Conversation Skills


PA R T 1
Phrases for Conversation
“Conversation is the laboratory and workshop of the

student.”
—Ralph Waldo Emerson
01_Engelhardt_CH01_001-019.indd 1 2/4/22 4:02 PM


CHAPTER 1
Small Talk
Objectives
■ to introduce yourself
■ to carry on a basic conversation about yourself and others
Chanwon is waiting for his connecting flight to Seattle. He’s come

to the United States for a year to study English before he returns
to Korea to finish his degree in electronic engineering. He has been
on short holidays abroad with his family, but this is the first time
that he will be living in an English-speaking environment with an
English-speaking family. Of course he’s nervous about his ability
to communicate in a language he has only studied in school. He’d

4 ➜ PERFECT PHRASES FOR ESL: CONVERSATION SKILLS
like to talk to someone while he’s waiting for his plane, but he’s not
sure how to begin or what to say. What if he uses the wrong word,
or no one understands him? And what if someone asks him a ques-
tion he doesn’t know how to answer? If only he had more vocabu-
lary! If only he could speak as naturally as everyone around him!
Y
ou could be like Chanwon waiting for your flight at the
airport with a long trip ahead of you. You could be hav-
ing a coffee in a café or a meal in a restaurant, standing
somewhere in a line, socializing at a party, or interacting with
people you’ve only just met. Situations in which people strike up
a conversation out of curiosity or mutual interest, or just to be
sociable, present themselves when you are traveling in a foreign
country.
Whether you’re meeting someone for the first time or connect-
ing with an old friend or acquaintance, most conversations start
out on a personal note. At first you’re most likely to talk about:
■ where you live or come from;

■ what you do for a living;
■ what brings you to a particular location.
If the conversation continues, you’ll usually move on to every-

day subjects with which you’re familiar such as:
■ personal interests and hobbies;

■ the weather;

Small Talk 5
➜
■ your environment (the airport, restaurant, hotel, park,

beach, etc.);
■ your location (city, country, school, or workplace);
■ current happenings such as sports and cultural events or
the news.
Although English-speaking people tend to engage eas-

ily in conversations with strangers, there are certain topics
that may be considered too intimate. Topics that should be
avoided are:
■ marital status,
■ age,
■ income,
■ religion,
■ politics.
Phrases
Openers: Excuse Me . . .
Most often a conversation begins with a simple question, a
request for information, or a comment about the weather or
surroundings. Depending on the person you’re talking to and
the situation you’re in—is the situation formal or casual, is the
person close to your age—there are two approaches you can
take.

The indirect approach is a polite and unobtrusive way to test

the waters in case the other person isn’t interested in talking at
length:
➜➜ May / could I borrow your newspaper / magazine / the salt

and pepper?
➜➜ Could you tell me if this is where the plane leaves for
Houston?
➜➜ Would you happen to know a good restaurant / a nice
hotel?
➜➜ I was wondering if you’re from around here. This is my first
visit to London.
➜➜ Sorry to bother you, but is this seat taken / is anyone sitting
here?
➜➜ Would you mind telling me where you got that book?
➜➜ Could I trouble / bother you for change? I don’t seem to
have any quarters.
➜➜ You wouldn’t happen to know if there’s a café / a bank / a
grocery store near here?
The direct approach takes the initiative in a friendly, open
manner:
➜➜ Excuse me, do you have the time?

➜➜ This is a great hotel, isn’t it?
➜➜ I can’t believe how busy the airport is today.
➜➜ Nice day, isn’t it / eh?
➜➜ So, what brings you here?

Small Talk 7
➜
➜➜ Do you come here often?

➜➜ Are you from here?
Talking About Yourself

A conversation with a stranger is a good opportunity not only
to pass the time but also to practice your English. If the person
to whom you are speaking is in the mood to continue the con-
versation, most likely he or she will be interested in finding out
more about you.
➜➜ Nationality I’m Korean / Japanese / German /

Mexican.
➜➜ Residence I’m from Seoul / Kyoto / Hamburg /
Guadalajara.
I come from Korea / Japan /
Germany / Mexico.
➜➜ Age* I’m twenty-five / thirty-two /
in my forties.
➜➜ Marital status** I’m single / married / divorced /
widowed.
* In English-speaking countries it is not common to talk about your age or

to ask a complete stranger his or her age. In fact, it can be considered rude,
particularly if the person is much older or much younger than you are.
** Again, marital status can be considered personal information, and a per-
son may take offense if asked if he or she is married or not. Some people may
not wish to mention if they are divorced or widowed.

➜➜ Job I’m an engineer / a teacher/

a student / a systems analyst.
I’m in advertising / in electronics /
in insurance.
I’m self-employed / retired.
I’m with McGraw-Hill / AT&T /
Siemens.
➜➜ Hobbies and interests I’m interested in sports / fashion /
traveling / art.
I’m into aerobics / gourmet
cooking / pottery.
Showing Interest
It is important and polite, of course, to show interest in what
your conversation partner tells you; otherwise what’s the point
of talking to someone? While it is courteous to respond to the
person you have just met, it is even more important to be sin-
cere and to reply in a comfortable, natural manner.
formal That must be very exciting / challenging /

interesting!
That sounds very interesting, indeed!
Now, isn’t that interesting!
You don’t say / don’t mean it!
You’re kidding!
How interesting!

Small Talk 9
➜
Is that so!
Really!
informal Wow!
Introducing Yourself
If you and the person you’ve been talking to hit it off, you might
want to introduce yourself. Here are some tips when making
introductions:
■ In English-speaking cultures, it is usual for people to intro-

duce themselves with their first names rather than their fam-
ily or surnames. It is very rare that Americans or Canadians will
introduce themselves as Mr. or Mrs. Brown. If they give both
their first and last name, for example “I’m Judy Smith”, they will
usually expect you to call them by their first name. Also in the
English language there is no distinction between formal and
familiar address, as is the case in many other languages. “You”
is “you” regardless of age, social status, or familiarity.
■ Be careful not to confuse “how are you” and “how do you do.”
How are you is a question and requires an answer: I’m fine,
thanks or Not too bad (see Asking about Someone’s Well-
Being, page 23). How do you do looks like a question but is
really a greeting, and it is acceptable to respond with How do
you do, or one of the phrases that follow. If you want to know
about someone’s health, it’s better to ask, How are you feeling?
or How are you?

■ Traditionally people shake hands when they make introduc-

tions, particularly in business or formal situations. Men almost
always shake hands, whereas women may or may not. When
meeting a woman for the first time, wait for her to offer her
hand.
■ In more casual and informal situations shaking hands is not
always the custom. Young people will use gestures, such as wav-
ing their hand, to acknowledge the person. If you are not sure
what to do in a particular situation, do as others do.
■ We use the verb to meet when we want to say that we make a
person’s acquaintance. If someone asks you: How did you meet
your husband or wife, they mean how were you first introduced,
not when did you see him or her last.
Example:
A: How did you meet your husband?
B: Actually he was a friend of my brother’s from his college
days, and at first I didn’t even like him.
formal May I introduce myself? My name’s Mary Sutherland.

Let me introduce myself. I’m Jun-Hwi Kim.
informal By the way, I’m Jutta Hofmann.
Responses
formal How do you do.

My pleasure.
informal Nice / pleased to meet you.

Small Talk 11
➜
Breaking the Ice

Talking to someone you’ve just met can be awkward, especially
if you’re not sure what to say or ask. Walking away or cutting the
conversation short can appear rude and unfriendly. So what can
you talk about to break the ice?
If you feel uncomfortable about asking direct questions, “yes
or no” questions show that you’re interested in the other person
and allow the other person to elaborate if they wish to. Native
English speakers are often more direct and will almost always
ask strangers where they’re from and what they do for a living.
Questions to Ask if the Person Is New to the City
➜➜ Is this your first time to New York?

➜➜ Have you been to Victoria before?
➜➜ Are you new to the company?
➜➜ Are you familiar with this area?
➜➜ How long have you been here?
Questions to Ask Why the Person’s Here
➜➜ Are you here on business / a holiday?

➜➜ Did you come here to study English / to travel around?
➜➜ Do you plan to stay here long?
➜➜ Which school / university are you studying at?
➜➜ How long are you staying / visiting?

Questions About the Person’s Experiences So Far
➜➜ Have you seen much of the city / country?

➜➜ So how do you like it here so far?
➜➜ How was your flight / trip / first lesson?
➜➜ The weather’s been great / nice / very cold, hasn’t it?
➜➜ Are you used to / have you gotten used to the food yet?
Questions About the Person’s Personal Information
➜➜ Where are you from?

➜➜ Where do you call home?
➜➜ What part of Brazil / Rio de Janeiro do you live in?
➜➜ Are you traveling alone or with family / friends?
➜➜ Do you like music / theater / sports / skiing / swimming?
➜➜ What do you do for a living?
➜➜ What kind of business are you in?
If you’re the person being introduced, you’ll want to show inter-
est in the other person as well. If your answer to a question is neg-
ative, it’s a good idea to respond with a question so as not to cut
off the other person or force him or her to carry the conversation.
➜➜ Have you been here long? No, I’ve just arrived. And you?
➜➜ Have you been to the museum? No, not yet. Have you?
➜➜ Are you staying very long? No, only a few days. How
long are you here for?

Small Talk 13
➜
So as not to sound like a parrot, you can respond to a question

by asking the same thing in another way:
➜➜ Where are you from? From Osaka. And where do you

call home?
➜➜ Are you here on business? Yes, I am. What / how about
you?
➜➜ How long are you staying here? Two weeks. Are you here
very long?
➜➜ What do you do for a living? I’m an architect. And where
do you work?
Other acceptable topics for small talk are the weather, local
sights and attractions, the event you are attending, and the ser-
vices or facilities in the hotel where you’re staying.
Staying in Touch
➜➜ It’s been great seeing you / talking to you.

➜➜ We’ll have to stay in touch.
➜➜ We should get together again / sometime / soon.
➜➜ Look me up next time you’re in town.
➜➜ Don’t forget to give me a call / send me an e-mail.
➜➜ Drop in sometime.

Responses
➜➜ Give me a call / a ring / a buzz.

➜➜ That’s a deal.
➜➜ I’ll do that.
➜➜ I’ll sure try.
➜➜ You can count on it!
➜➜ For sure.
➜➜ You bet!
Saying Good-Bye
formal It was a pleasure meeting you / talking to you.

Nice / great to have met you.
I’m glad we met.
I enjoyed our conversation / talking to you.
I hope we meet again soon.
I look forward to working with you.
Maybe we’ll see each other around.
Till tomorrow / next time.
Good-bye.
Bye / bye now / bye-bye.
See you around / later / then.
See you.
So long.
informal Too-da-loo / ta-ta / cheerio.

Small Talk 15
➜
Responses
formal The pleasure was all mine.

My pleasure.
Same here.
Likewise.
Ditto.
Me, too.
I hope so.
informal Sure thing.
Wishing Someone Well
➜➜ Have a nice day / a pleasant evening / a safe trip / an

enjoyable flight back.
➜➜ Enjoy your flight / stay / tour.
➜➜ Good luck to you!
➜➜ All the best.
➜➜ Take care now.
➜➜ Take it easy.
Responses
➜➜ You have a nice day, too.

➜➜ I wish you the same.
➜➜ Same to you.
➜➜ Likewise.
➜➜ You, too.

Dialogue: Small World

This dialogue takes place at an airport café. Underline or high-
light the phrases from the chapter.
Jenny: Excuse me. Do you have the time?
Brett: Uh, sure. Let me take a look. It’s ten to.
Jenny: Thanks. I’m sorry to bother you, but my watch seems to
have stopped.
Brett: No problem.
Jenny: I’m always a little nervous about the time when I have to
fly somewhere.
Brett: I understand. You wouldn’t want to miss your flight.
Jenny: No, that‘s for sure. I’m flying to Las Vegas to see a friend
and I’m really excited.
Brett: Yeah, Vegas is quite the place.
Jenny: Have you been there before?
Brett: Actually, I live there.
Jenny: You’re kidding! Have you lived there long?
Brett: About five and a half years now.
Jenny: Wow, then you must know the city pretty well.
Brett: Well, I’m away on business a lot, but I get around.
Jenny: I’m kind of the opposite.
Brett: And where do you call home?
Jenny: I work in Vancouver, but I’m originally from Salt Spring
Island. I bet you’ve never heard of it.

Small Talk 17
➜
Brett: As a matter of fact, I was there on a sailing trip last summer.

Jenny: Really? That’s interesting.
Brett: It’s a beautiful place.
Jenny: One of the best. Wow, this is a small world!
Brett: So how long are you staying in Vegas?
Jenny: Just a week. Unfortunately, that’s all the time I could get
off from work.
Brett: Look, here’s my card with my cell phone number and
e-mail. By the way, my name’s Brett.
Jenny: I’m Jenny.
Brett: Nice to meet you, Jenny.
Jenny: Nice to meet you, too.
Brett: I’ll be back in three days. Maybe we can get together for
a night out.
Jenny: That’s a deal. Hey, I’d better get going.
Brett: Yeah, you don’t want to miss that plane.
Jenny: It was great talking to you, Brett.
Brett: Same here.
Jenny: And thanks for your card.
Brett: My pleasure. Have a good flight, and don’t gamble away
your money.
Jenny: I won’t. Bye-bye.
Brett: See ya!

Topics for Practice

What can you say about:
1. your job or studies;

2. your family;
3. the city / town or country you come from;
4. the city / town or country you’re visiting;
5. the flight or journey you’ve been on;
6. the reason you’re at your location (hotel, airport, restau-
rant, city, school);
7. the weather or climate;
8. something you’ve seen or done on your trip;
9. a recent sports, social, or cultural event;
10. a very different custom or habit that you’ve noticed?

Small Talk 19
➜
Vocabulary Notes

CHAPTER 2
Past Experiences
Objectives
■ to introduce family members, friends, and acquaintances
■ to talk and inquire about past experiences and events
Jutta is showing her husband, Franz, around the city of Victoria,

British Columbia, while they are visiting on a holiday. Three
years ago when she was offered an exciting new job as an edito-
rial assistant with a publisher of trade journals in Nuremberg,
Germany, Jutta attended an intermediate English course at a lan-
guage school in Victoria to brush up on her high school English.
During her three-month studies she met many foreign students
and made friends from Japan, Korea, and Mexico.
20
02_Engelhardt_CH02_020-038.indd 20 2/21/22 9:28 AM

Past Experiences 21
➜
Although Jutta has lost touch with Yuko, Ryeowon, and Patricia,
she often wonders what happened to them, and how their lives have
changed. While Jutta and Franz are visiting the Butchart Gardens,
she spots a group of Korean tourists. Their guide looks so much like
Ryeowon, but that would be too much of a coincidence! The group
moves closer, and Jutta calls Ryeowon’s name. The young woman
turns around with a look of surprise on her face.
I
f you have traveled or studied abroad, chances are that when
you least expect it you will run into someone—a former class-
mate or colleague, a teacher, or a friend of a friend—on a holi-
day, at a conference, at a wedding, or even on the street. Time
has passed, and, of course, you have a lot to catch up on. There
are so many experiences you have to share, so many stories
you’d like to tell, and so many questions you’re anxious to ask.
Phrases
Openers: Greetings
formal Good morning / day / afternoon / evening!

Hello!
Hi!
Hi there!
Hi ya!
Howdy!
informal Hey!

We say Good night instead of Good-bye when we part

company late in the evening or before we go to bed.
The expression Hey was once considered rude, but it has
now become a common greeting among family members
and young people who know each other well.
Greeting Friends and Acquaintances

When you haven’t seen someone for a long time, it’s customary
to begin the conversation by asking about the other person’s
well-being and by commenting positively on changes that you
may notice.
formal Hello, Isaak! Remember me?
Say, Paolo. I don’t believe it! Is that really you?
Hi! Aren’t you So-Hee?
What a pleasant surprise!
Fancy meeting you here.
Hey, long time no see.
Speak of the devil.
Hi there!
informal Hey!
Addressing Someone Whose Name You Can’t Remember
➜➜ I don’t mean to be forward, but don’t I know you from

somewhere?
➜➜ Could it be that we’ve met before?

Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
As early as the reign of Edward III. (1327-1377), there is record of
a number of stationarii as carrying on business in Oxford. In an
Oxford manuscript dating from this reign, there is an inscription of a
certain Mr. William Reed, of Merton College, who tells us that he
purchased this book from a stationarius.[410]
In London, there is record of an active trade in manuscripts being
in existence as early as the middle of the fourteenth century. The
trade in writing materials, such as parchment, paper, and ink,
appears not to have been organised as in Paris, but to have been
carried on in large part by the grocers and mercers. In the
housekeeping accounts of King John of France, covering the period
of his imprisonment in England, in the years 1359 and 1360, occur
entries such as the following:
“To Peter, a grocer of Lincoln, for four quaires of paper,
two shillings and four pence.”
“To John Huistasse, grocer, for a main of paper and a
skin of parchment, 10 pence.”
“To Bartholomew Mine, grocer, for three quaires of
paper, 27 pennies.”[411]
The manuscript-trade in London concentrated itself in Paternoster
Row, the street which became afterwards the centre of the trade in
printed books.
The earliest English manuscript-dealer whose name is on record is
Richard Lynn, who, in the year 1358, was stationarius in Oxford.[412]
The name of John Browne occurs in several Oxford manuscripts on
about the date of 1400. Nicholas de Frisia, an Oxford librarius of
about 1425, was originally an undergraduate. He did energetic work
as a book scribe and, later, appears to have carried on an important
business in manuscripts. His inscription is found first on a manuscript
entitled Petri Thomæ Quæstiones, etc., which manuscript has been
preserved in the library of Merton.
There is record, as early as 1359, of a manuscript-dealer in the
town of Lincoln who called himself Johannes Librarius, and who
sold, in 1360, several books to the French King John. It is a little
difficult to understand how in a quiet country town like Lincoln with
no university connections, there should have been enough business
in the fourteenth century to support a librarius.
The earliest name on record in London is that of Thomas Vycey,
who was a stationarius in 1433. A few years later we find on a
parchment manuscript containing the wise sayings of a certain
Lombardus, the inscription of Thomas Masoun, “librarius of gilde
hall.”
Between the years 1461 and 1475, a certain Piers Bauduyn,
dealer in manuscripts, and also a bookbinder, purchased a number
of books for Edward IV. In the household accounts of Edward
appears the following entry: “Paid to Piers Bauduyn, bookseller, for
binding, gilding and dressing a copy of Titus Livius, 20 shillings; for
binding, gilding and dressing a copy of the Holy Trinity, 16 shillings;
for binding, gilding and dressing a work entitled ‘The Bible’ 16
shillings.”
William Praat, who was a mercer of London, between the years
1470 and 1480 busied himself also with the trade in manuscripts,
and purchased, for William Caxton, various manuscripts from France
and from Belgium.
Kirchhoff finds record of manuscript-dealers in Spain as early as
the first decade of the fifteenth century. He prints the name, however,
of but one, a certain Antonius Raymundi, a librarius of Barcelona,
whose inscription, dated 1413, appears in a manuscript of
Cassiodorus.
PART II.
THE EARLIER PRINTED BOOKS.
PART II.
THE EARLIER PRINTED BOOKS.
CHAPTER I.
THE RENAISSANCE AS THE FORERUNNER OF THE
PRINTING-PRESS.
T HE fragments of classic literature which had survived the

destruction of the Western Empire, had, as we have seen, owed
their preservation chiefly to the Benedictine monasteries. Upon the
monasteries also rested, for some centuries after the overthrow of
the Gothic Kingdom of Italy, the chief responsibility for maintaining
such slender thread of continuity of intellectual activity, and of
interest in literature as remained. By the beginning of the twelfth
century, this responsibility was shared with, if not entirely transferred
to, the older of the great universities of Europe, such as Bologna and
Paris, which from that time took upon themselves, as has been
indicated, the task of directing and of furthering, in connection with
their educational work, the increasing literary activities of the
scholarly world.
With the increase throughout Europe of schools and universities,
there had come a corresponding development in literary interests
and in literary productiveness or reproductiveness. The universities
became publishing centres, and through the multiplication and
exchange of manuscripts, the scholars of Europe began to come into
closer relations with each other, and to constitute a kind of
international scholarly community. The development of such world-
wide relations between scholars was, of course, very much furthered
by the fact that Latin was universally accepted as the language not
only of scholarship but practically of all literature.
In Italy, by the beginning of the fourteenth century, intellectual
interests and literary activities had expanded beyond the scholastic
circles of the universities, and were beginning to influence larger
divisions of society. The year 1300 witnessed the production in
Florence of the Divine Comedy of Dante, and marked an epoch in
the history of Italy and in the literature of the world. During the two
centuries which followed, Florence remained the centre of a keener,
richer, and more varied intellectual life than was known in any other
city in Europe.
With the great intellectual movement known as the Renaissance, I
am concerned, for the purposes of this study, only to indicate the
influence it exerted in preparing Italy and Europe for the utilisation of
the printing-press. The work of the Renaissance included, partly as a
cause, and partly as an effect, the rediscovery for the Europe of the
fourteenth and fifteenth centuries of the literature of classic Greece,
as well as the reinterpretation of the literature of classic Rome.
The influence of the literary awakening and of the newly
discovered masterpieces would of necessity have been restricted to
a comparatively limited scholarly circle, if it had not been for the
invention of Gutenberg and for the scholarly enterprise and devotion
of such followers of Gutenberg as Aldus, Estienne, and Froben. It is,
of course, equally true that if the intellectual world had not been
quickened and inspired by the teachers of the Renaissance, the
presses of Aldus would have worked to little purpose, and their
productions would have found few buyers. Aldus may, in fact, himself
be considered as one of the most characteristic and valuable of the
products of the movement.
The Renaissance has been described by various historians, and
analysed by many commentators. The work which has, however,
been accepted as the most comprehensive account of the
movement and the best critical analysis of its nature and influence,
and which presents also a vivid and artistic series of pictures of Italy
and the Italians during the fourteenth, fifteenth, and sixteenth
centuries, is Symonds’ Renaissance in Italy. These volumes are so
thoroughly imbued with the spirit of the period, and the author’s
characterisations are so full and so sympathetic, that it is difficult not
to think of Symonds as having been himself a Florentine, rather than
a native of the “barbarian realm of Britain.”
I take the liberty of quoting the description given by Symonds of
the peculiar conditions under which Italy of the fifteenth century, in
abandoning the hope of securing a place among the nations of the
world, absorbed itself in philosophic, literary, and artistic ideals.
Freshly imbued with Greek thought and Greek inspiration, Italy took
upon itself the rôle played centuries earlier by classic Greece, and,
without political power or national influence, it assumed the
leadership of the intellect and of the imagination of Europe.
“In proportion as Italy lost year by year the hope of becoming a
united nation, in proportion as the military instincts died in her, and
the political instincts were extinguished by despotism, in precisely
the same ratio did she evermore acquire a deeper sense of her
intellectual vocation. What was world-embracing in the spirit of the
mediæval Church passed by transmutation into the humanism of the
fifteenth century. As though aware of the hopelessness of being
Italians in the same sense as the natives of Spain were Spaniards,
or the natives of France were Frenchmen, the giants of the
Renaissance did their utmost to efface their nationality, in order that
they might the more effectually restore the cosmopolitan ideal of the
human family. To this end both artists and scholars, the depositories
of the real Italian greatness at this epoch, laboured; the artists by
creating an ideal of beauty with a message and a meaning for all
Europe; the scholars by recovering for Europe the burghership of
Greek and Roman civilisation. In spite of the invasions and
convulsions that ruined Italy between the years 1494 and 1527, the
painters and the humanists proceeded with their task as though the
fate of Italy concerned them not, as though the destinies of the
modern world depended on their activity. After Venice had been
desolated by the armies of the League of Cambray, Aldus Manutius
presented the peace-gift of Plato to the foes of his adopted city, and
when the Lutherans broke into Parmegiano’s workshop at Rome,
even they were awed by the tranquil majesty of the Virgin on his
easel. Stories like these remind us that Renaissance Italy met her
doom of servitude and degradation in the spirit of ancient Hellas,
repeating as they do the tales told of Archimedes in his study, and of
Paulus Emilius face to face with the Zeus of Phidias.[413]...
It is impossible to exaggerate the benefit conferred upon Europe
by the Italians at this epoch. The culture of the classics had to be
reappropriated before the movement of the modern mind could
begin, before the nations could start upon a new career of progress;
the chasm between the old and the new world had to be bridged
over. This task of reappropriation the Italians undertook alone, and
achieved at the sacrifice of their literary independence and their
political freedom. The history of the Renaissance literature in Italy is
the history of self-development into the channels of scholarship and
antiquarian research. The language created by Dante as a thing of
power, polished by Petrarch as a thing of beauty, trained by
Boccaccio as the instrument of melodious prose, was abandoned
even by the Tuscans in the fifteenth century for revived Latin and
newly discovered Greek. Patient acquisition took the place of proud
inventiveness; laborious imitation of classical authors suppressed
originality of style. The force of mind which in the fourteenth century
had produced a Divine Comedy and a Decameron, in the fifteenth
century was expended upon the interpretation of codices, the
settlement of texts, the translation of Greek books into Latin, the
study of antiquities, the composition of commentaries,
encyclopædias, dictionaries, ephemerides. While we regret this
change from creative to acquisitive literature, we must bear in mind
that these scholars, who ought to have been poets, accomplished
nothing less than the civilisation, or, to use their own phrase, the
humanisation, of the modern world. At the critical moment when the
Eastern Empire was being shattered by the Turks, and when the
other European nations were as yet unfit for culture, Italy saved the
Arts and Sciences of Greece and Rome, and interpreted the spirit of
the classics. Devoting herself to what appears the slavish work of
compilation and collection, she transmitted an inestimable treasure
to the human race; and though for a time the beautiful Italian tongue
was superseded by a jargon of dead languages, yet the literature of
the Renaissance yielded in the end the poetry of Ariosto, the political
philosophy of Machiavelli, the histories of Guicciardini and Varchi.
Meanwhile the whole of Europe had received the staple of its
intellectual education.”[414]
Symonds finds in the age of the Renaissance, or in what he calls
the Humanistic movement, four principal periods: first, the age of
inspiration and discovery, which is initiated by Petrarch; second, the
period of arrangement and translation. During this period, the first
great libraries came into existence, the study of Greek began in the
principal universities, and the courts of Cosimo de’ Medici in
Florence, Alfonso in Naples, and Nicholas in Rome, became centres
of literary activity; third, the age of academies. This period
succeeded the introduction of printing into Italy. Scholars and men of
letters are now crystallising or organising themselves into cliques or
schools, under the influence of which a more critical and exact
standard of scholarship is arrived at, while there is a marked
development in literary form and taste. Of the academies which
came into existence, the most important were the Platonic in
Florence, that of Pontanus in Naples, that of Pomponius Lætus in
Rome, and that of Aldus Manutius in Venice. This period covered, it
is to be noted, the introduction of printing into Italy (1464) and its
rapid development. In the fourth period it may be said that
scholasticism to some extent took the place of scholarship. It was
the age of the purists, of whom Bembo was both the type and the
dictator. There is a tendency to replace learning with an exaggerated
attention to æsthetics and style. It was about the Court of Leo X.
(1513-1522) that these æsthetic literati were chiefly gathered.
“Erudition, properly so-called,” says Symonds, “was now upon the
point of being transplanted beyond the Alps.”
The names of the scholars and writers who, following Dante, gave
fame to Florence and to Italy, are part of the history of the world’s
literature. It is necessary to refer here only to those whose influence
was most important in widening the range of scholarly interests and
in preparing Italy and Europe for the diffusion of literature, a
preparation which, while emphasising the requirement for some
means of multiplying books cheaply, secured for the printing-press,
as soon as its work began, an assured and sufficient support. The
fact that a period of exceptional intellectual activity and literary
productiveness immediately preceded the invention, or at least the
introduction of printing, must have had an enormous influence in
furthering the speedy development and diffusion of the new art. The
press of Aldus Manutius seems, as before said, like a natural and
necessary outgrowth of the Renaissance.
The typical feature of the revival of learning in Italy was, of course,
the rediscovery of the literature of Greece. In the poetic simile of
Symonds, “Florence borrowed her light from Athens, as the moon
shines with rays reflected from the sun. The revival was the silver
age of that old golden age of Greece.”[415] The comparison of
Florence with Athens has repeatedly been made. The golden ages
of the two cities were separated by nearly two thousand years; but
history and human nature repeat themselves, and historians have
found in the Tuscan capital of the fifteenth century a population
which, with its keen intellectual nature, subtle and delicate wit, and
restless political spirit, recalls closely the Athens of Pericles. The
leadership which belonged to Italy in literature, art, scholarship, and
philosophy, was, within Italy, conceded to Florence.
The first name in the list of Florentine scholars whose influence
was important in this revival is that of Petrarch. He never himself
mastered the Greek language, but he arrived at a realisation of the
importance of Greek thought for the world, and he preached to
others the value of the studies which were beyond his own grasp. It
was at Petrarch’s instance that Boccaccio undertook the translation
into Latin of the Iliad. Among Latin authors, Petrarch’s devotion was
given particularly to Cicero and Virgil. The fact that during the first
century of printing more editions of Cicero were produced than of
any other classic author must have been largely due to the emphasis
given by the followers of Petrarch to the beauty of Cicero’s latinity
and the permanent value of his writings.
Petrarch was a devoted collector of manuscripts, and spared
neither labour nor expense to secure for his library codices of texts
recommended as authoritative. Notwithstanding his lack of
knowledge of Greek, he purchased for his collection all the Greek
manuscripts which came within his reach and within his means.
Fortunately for these expensive literary tastes, he appears to have
possessed what we should call a satisfactory independence. Some
of his manuscripts went to Boccaccio, while the rest were, at his
death, given to the city of Florence and found place later in the
Medicean Library.
Petrarch laid great stress on the importance, for the higher
education of the people, of efficient public libraries, and his influence
with wealthy nobles served largely to increase the resources of
several of the existing libraries. In his scholarly appreciation of the
value of such collections, he was helping to educate the community
to support the booksellers, while in the collecting of manuscripts he
was unwittingly doing valuable service for the coming printer. He
died in 1374, ninety years before the first printing-press began its
work in Italy. A century later his beautiful script served as a model for
the italic or cursive type which was first made by Aldus.
Symonds thinks it very doubtful whether the Italians would have
undertaken the labour of recovering the Greek classics if no Petrarch
had preached the attractiveness of liberal studies, and if no school of
disciples had been formed by him in Florence. Of these disciples, by
far the most distinguished was Boccaccio. His actual work in
furthering the study of Greek was more important than that of the
friend to whom (although there was a difference of but nine years in
their ages) he gave the title of “master.” Boccaccio, taking up the
study of Greek (at Petrarch’s instance) in middle life, secured a
sufficient mastery of the language to be able to render into Latin the
Iliad and the Odyssey. This work, completed in 1362, was the first
translation of Homer for modern readers. He had for his instructor
and assistant an Italian named Leontius Pilatus, who had sojourned
some years at Byzantium, but whose knowledge of classic Greek
was said to have been very limited. Boccaccio secured for Pilatus an
appointment as Greek professor in the University of Florence, the
first professorship of Greek instituted in Europe.
The work by which Boccaccio is best known, the Decameron or
the Ten Nights’ Entertainment, was published in 1353, a few years
before the completion by Chaucer of the Canterbury Tales. It is
described as one of the purest specimens of Italian prose and as an
inexhaustible repository of wit, beauty, and eloquence; and
notwithstanding the fact that the stories are representative of the low
standard of moral tone which characterised Italian society of the
fourteenth century, the book is one which the world will not willingly
let die. It is probably to-day in more continued demand than any
book of its century, with the possible exception of the Divine
Comedy. The earliest printed edition was that of Valdarfer, issued in
Florence in 1471. This was three years before the beginning of
Caxton’s work as a printer in Bruges. The Decameron has since
been published in innumerable editions and in every language of
Europe.
A far larger contribution to Hellenic studies was given some years
later by Manuel Chrysoloras, a Greek scholar of Byzantium, who,
after visiting Italy as an ambassador from the Court of the Emperor
Palæologus, was, in 1396, induced to accept the Chair of Greek in
the University of Florence. “This engagement,” says Symonds,
“secured the future of Greek erudition in Europe.” Symonds
continues: “The scholars who assembled in the lecture-rooms of
Chrysoloras felt that the Greek texts, whereof he alone supplied the
key, contained those elements of spiritual freedom and intellectual
culture without which the civilisation of the modern world would be
impossible. Nor were they mistaken in what was then a guess rather
than a certainty. The study of Greek implied the birth of criticism,
comparison, research. Systems based on ignorance and superstition
were destined to give way before it. The study of Greek opened
philosophical horizons far beyond the dream world of the churchmen
and monks; it stimulated the germs of science, suggested new
astronomical hypotheses, and indirectly led to the discovery of
America. The study of Greek resuscitated a sense of the beautiful in
art and literature. It subjected the creeds of Christianity, the language
of the Gospels, the doctrines of St. Paul, to analysis, and
commenced a new era of Biblical inquiry. If it be true, as a writer no
less sober in his philosophy than eloquent in his language has lately
asserted, that except the blind forces of nature, nothing moves in this
world which is not Greek in its origin, we are justified in regarding the
point of contact between the Greek teacher Chrysoloras and his
Florentine pupils as one of the most momentous crises in the history
of civilisation. Indirectly the Italian intellect had hitherto felt Hellenic
influence through Latin literature. It was now about to receive that
influence immediately from actual study of the masterpieces of the
Attic writers. The world was no longer to be kept in ignorance of
those ‘eternal consolations’ of the human race. No longer could the
scribe omit Greek quotations from his Latin text with the dogged
snarl of obtuse self-satisfaction, Græca sunt, ergo non legenda. The
motto had rather to be changed into a cry of warning for
ecclesiastical authority upon the verge of dissolution, Græca sunt,
ergo periculosa; since the reawakening faith in human reason, the
reawakening belief in the dignity of man, the desire for beauty, the
liberty, audacity, and passion of the Renaissance, received from
Greek studies their strongest and most vital impulse.”
Symonds might have added that the literary revival, which was so
largely due to these Greek studies, made possible, a century later,
the utilisation of the printing-press, the invention of which would
otherwise have fallen upon comparatively barren ground; while the
printing-press alone made possible the diffusion of the new
knowledge, outside of the small circles of aristocratic scholars, to
whole communities of impecunious students.
Florence had, as we have seen, done more than any other city of
Italy, more than any city of Europe, to prepare Italy and Europe for
the appreciation and utilisation of the art of printing, but the direct
part taken by Florence in the earlier printing undertakings was,
curiously enough, much less important than that of Venice, Rome, or
Milan. By the year 1500, that is, thirty-six years after the beginning of
printing in Italy, there had been printed in Florence 300 works, in
Bologna 298, in Milan 629, in Rome 925, and in Venice 2835.
The list of the scholars and men of letters who, during the century
following the work of Petrarch and Boccaccio, associated
themselves with the brilliant society of Florence, and retained for the
city its distinctive pre-eminence in the intellectual life of Europe, is a
long one, and includes such names as those of Tommaso da
Sarzana, Palla degli Strozzi, Giovanni da Ravenna, Niccolo de’
Niccoli, Filelfo, Marsuppini, Rossi, Bruni, Guicciardini, Poggio,
Galileo, Cellini, Plethon, and Machiavelli. It was to Strozzi that was
due the beginning of Greek teaching in Florence under Manuel
Chrysoloras, while he also devoted large sums of money to the
purchase in Greece and in Constantinople of valuable manuscripts.
He kept in his house skilled copyists, and was employing these in
the work of preparing transcripts for a great public library, when,
unfortunately for Florence, he incurred the enmity of Cosimo de’
Medici, who procured his banishment. Strozzi went to Padua, where
he continued his Greek studies.
Cosimo, having vanquished his rival in politics, himself continued
the work of collecting manuscripts and of furthering the instruction
given by the Greek scholars. The chief service rendered by Cosimo
to learning and literature was in the organisation of great public
libraries. During his exile (1433-1434), he built in Venice the Library
of S. Giorgio Maggiore, and after his return to Florence, he
completed the hall for the Library of S. Marco. He also formed
several large collections of manuscripts. To the Library of S. Marco
and to the Medicean Library were bequeathed later by Niccolo de’
Niccoli 800 manuscripts, valued at 600 gold florins. Cosimo also
provided a valuable collection of manuscripts for the convent of
Fiesole. The oldest portion of the present Laurentian Library is
composed of the collections from these two convents, together with
a portion of the manuscripts preserved from the Medicean Library.
In 1438, Cosimo instituted the famous Platonic Academy of
Florence, the special purpose of which was the interpretation of
Greek philosophy. The gathering in Florence, in 1438, of the Greeks
who came to the great Council, had a large influence in stimulating
the interest of Florentines in Greek culture. Symonds (possibly
somewhat biassed in favour of his beloved Florentines of the
Renaissance) contends that the Byzantine ecclesiastics who came
to the Council, and the long series of Greek travellers or refugees
who found their way from Constantinople to Italy during the years
that followed, included comparatively few real scholars whose
classical learning could be trusted. These men supplied, says
Symonds, “the beggarly elements of grammar, caligraphy, and
bibliographical knowledge,” but it was Ficino and Aldus, Strozzi and
Cosimo de’ Medici who opened the literature of Athens to the
comprehension of the modern world.
The elevation to the papacy, in 1447, of Tommaso Parentucelli,
who took the name of Nicholas V., had the effect of carrying to Rome
some of the Florentine interest in literature and learning. Tommaso,
who was a native of Pisa, had won repute in Bologna for his wide
and thorough scholarship. He became, later, a protégé of Cosimo de’
Medici, who employed him as a librarian of the Marcian Library. To
Nicholas V. was due the foundation of the Vatican Library, for which
he secured a collection of some five thousand works. Symonds says
that during his pontificate, “Rome became a vast workshop of
erudition, a factory of translations from Greek and Latin.” The
compensation paid to these translators from the funds provided by
the Pope, was in many cases very liberal. In fact, as compared with
the returns secured at this period for original work, the rewards paid
to these translators of the Vatican seem decidedly disproportionate,
especially when we remember that a large portion of their work was
of poor quality, deficient both in exact scholarship and in literary
form. To Lorenzo Valla was paid for his translation of Thucydides,
500 scudi, to Guarino for a version of Strabo, 1500 scudi, to Perotti
for Polybius, 500 ducats. Manetti had a pension of 600 scudi a
month to enable him to pursue his sacred studies. Poggio’s version
of the Cyropædia of Xenophon and Filelfo’s rendering of the poems
of Homer, were, from a literary point of view, more important
productions. Some of the work in his series of translations was
confided by the Pope to the resident Greek scholars. Trapezuntios
undertook the Metaphysics of Aristotle and the Republic of Plato,
and Tifernas the Ethics of Aristotle. Translations were also prepared
of Theophrastus and of Ptolemy.
In addition to these paid translators, the Pope attracted to his
Court from all parts of Italy, and particularly from his old home,
Florence, a number of scholars, of whom Poggio Bracciolini (or
Fiorentino) and Cardinal Bessarion were the most important.
Bessarion took an active part in encouraging Greek scholars to
make their homes and to do their work in Italy. The great
development of literary productiveness and literary interests in Rome
during the pontificate of Nicholas, is one of the noteworthy examples
of large results accruing to literature and to literary workers through
intelligently administered patronage. It seems safe to say that before
the introduction of printing, it was only through the liberality of
patrons that any satisfactory compensation could be secured for
literary productions.
During the reign of Alfonso of Aragon, who in 1435 added Sicily to
his dominions, and under the direct incentive of the royal patronage,
a good deal of literary activity was developed in Naples. Alfonso was
described by Vespasiano as being, next to Nicholas V., the most
munificent patron of learning in Italy, and he attracted to his Court
scholars like Manetti, Beccadelli, Valla, and others. The King paid to
Bartolommeo Fazio a stipend of 500 ducats a year while he was
engaged in writing his Chronicles, and when the work was
completed, he added a further payment of 1500 florins. In 1459, the
year of his death, Alfonso distributed 20,000 ducats among the men
of letters gathered in Naples. It is certain that in no other city of
Europe during that year were the earnings or rewards of literature so
great. It does not appear, however, that this lavish expenditure had
the effect of securing the production by Neapolitans of any works of
continued importance, or even of bringing into existence in the city
any lasting literary interests. The temperament of the people and the
general environment were doubtless unfavourable as compared with
the influences affecting Florence or Rome. It is probable also that the
selection of the recipients of the royal bounty was made without any
trustworthy principle and very much at haphazard.
A production of Beccadelli’s, perhaps the most brilliant of Alfonso’s
literary protégés, is to be noted as having been proscribed by the
Pope, being one of the earliest Italian publications to be so
distinguished. Eugenius IV. forbade, under penalty of
excommunication, the reading of Beccadelli’s Hermaphroditus, which
was declared to be contra bonos mores. The book was denounced
from many pulpits, and copies were burned, together with portraits of
the poet, on the public squares of Bologna, Milan, and Ferrara.[416]
This opposition of the Church was the more noteworthy, as the book
contained nothing heretical or subversive of ecclesiastical authority,
but was simply ribald and obscene.
Lorenzo Valla, another of the writers who received special favours
and emoluments at the hands of Alfonso, likewise came under the
ecclesiastical ban. But his writings contained more serious offences
than obscenity or ribaldry. He boldly questioned the authenticity of
Constantine’s Donation (a document which was later shown to be a
forgery), and of other documents and literature held by the Church to
be sacred, and the accuracy of his scholarship and the brilliancy of
his polemical style, gave weight and force to his attacks.
Denunciations came upon Valla’s head from many pulpits, and the
matter was taken up by the Inquisition. But Alfonso told the monks
that they must leave his secretary alone, and the proceedings were
abandoned.
When Nicholas V. came to the papacy, undeterred by the charge
of heresies, he appointed Valla to the post of Apostolic writer, and
gave him very liberal emoluments for work on the series of Greek
translations before referred to. Valla never retracted any of his
utterances against the Church, but he appears, after accepting the
Pope’s appointment, to have turned his polemical ardour in other
directions. He engaged in some bitter controversies with Poggio,
Fazio, and other contemporaries, controversies which seem to have
aroused and excited the literary circles of the time, but which turned
upon matters of no lasting importance. It is a cause of surprise to
later literary historians that men like Valla, possessed of real learning
and of unquestioned literary skill, should have been willing to devote
their time and their capacity to the futilities which formed the pretexts
for the greater part of the personal controversies of the time.
Professor Adams says of Valla: “He had all the pride and insolence
and hardly disguised pagan feeling and morals of the typical
humanist; but in spirit and methods of work he was a genuine
scholar, and his editions lie at the foundation of all later editorial work
in the case of more than one classic author, and of the critical study
of the New Testament as well.”[417]
During the two centuries preceding the invention of printing, it was
the case that more books (in the form of manuscripts) were available
for the use of students and readers in Italy than in any other country,
but even in Italy manuscripts were scarce and costly. Even the
collections in the so-called “libraries” of the cathedrals and colleges
were very meagre. These manuscripts were nearly entirely the
production of the cloisters, and as parchment continued to be very
dear, many of the works sent out by the monks were in the form of
palimpsests, that is, were transcribed upon scrolls which contained
earlier writing. The fact that the original writing was in many cases
but imperfectly erased, has caused to be preserved fragments of a
number of classics which might otherwise have disappeared entirely.
The service rendered by the monks in this way may be considered
as at least a partial offset to the injury done by them to the cause of
literature in the destruction of so many ancient writings. This matter
has been referred to more fully in the chapter on Monasteries and
Manuscripts.
One of the Italian scholars of the fifteenth century who interested
himself particularly in the collection of manuscripts of the classics
was Poggio Bracciolini. In 1414, while he was, in his official capacity
as Apostolic Secretary, in attendance at the Council of Constance,
he ransacked the libraries of St. Gall and of other monasteries of
Switzerland and Suabia, and secured a complete Quintilian, copies
of Lucretius, Frontinus, Probus, Vitruvius, nine of Cicero’s Orations,
and manuscripts of a number of other valuable texts. Many of the
libraries had been sadly neglected, and the greater part of the
manuscripts were in dirty and tattered condition, but literature owes
much to the monks through whom these literary treasures had been
kept in existence at all.
Poggio is to be noted as a free-thinker who managed to keep in
good relations with the Church. So long as free-thinkers confined
their audacity to such matters as form the topic of Poggio’s Facetiæ,
Beccadelli’s Hermaphroditus, or La Casa’s Capitolo del Forno, the
Roman Curia looked on and smiled approvingly. The most obscene
books to be found in any literature escaped the Papal censure, and a
man like Aretino, notorious for his ribaldry, could aspire with fair
prospects of success to the scarlet of a Cardinal.[418]
While there could be no popular distribution, in the modern sense
of the term, for necessarily costly books in manuscript, in a
community of which only a small proportion had any knowledge of
reading and writing, it is evident from the chronicles of the time that
there was an active and prompt exchange of literary novelties
between the court circles and the literary groups of the different
cities, and also between the Faculties of the universities. A
controversy between two scholars or men of letters (and there were,
as said, many such controversies, some of them exceedingly bitter)
appears to have excited a larger measure of interest and attention in
cultivated circles throughout the country than could probably be
secured to-day for any purely literary or scholastic issues. There
must, therefore, have been in existence and in circulation a very
considerable mass of literature in manuscript form, and we know
from various sources that Florence particularly was the centre of an
important trade in manuscripts. I have not thus far, however, been
able to find any instances of the writers of this period receiving any
compensation from the publishers, booksellers, or copyists, or any
share in such profits as might be derived from the sale of the
manuscript copies of their writings. It seems probable that the
authors gave to the copyists the privilege (which it was in any case
really impracticable to withhold) of manifolding and distributing such
copies of the books as might be called for by the general public,
while the cost of the complimentary copies (often a considerable
number) given to the large circle of friends, seems as a rule to have
been borne by the author.
As the author had to take his compensation in the shape of fame
(except in the cases of receipts from patrons), the wider the
circulation secured for copies of his productions (provided only they
were not plagiarised), the larger his fund of—satisfaction. For
substantial compensation he could look only to the patron.
Fortunately for the impecunious writers of the day, it became
fashionable for not a few of the princes and nobles of Italy to play the
rôle of Mæcenas, and by many of these the support and
encouragement given to literature was magnificent, if not always
judicious.
During the reigns of the last Visconti and of the first Sforza, or from
about 1440 to 1474, literature became fashionable at the Court of
Milan. Filippo Maria Visconti is described as a superstitious and
repulsive tyrant, and he could hardly by his own personality have
attracted to Lombardy men of intellectual tastes. Visconti appears,
however, to have considered that his Court would be incomplete
without scholars, and to have been willing to pay liberally for their
attendance. Piero Candido Decembrio was one of the most
industrious of the writers who were supported by Visconti. According
to his epitaph, he was responsible for no less than 127 books.
Symonds speaks of his memoir of Visconti as a vivid and vigorous
study of a tyrant. Gasparino da Barzizza was the Court letter-writer
and rhetorician, and, as the official orator, filled an important place in
what was considered the intellectual life of the city.
By far the most noteworthy, however, of the scholars who were
attracted to Milan by the Ducal bounty was Francesco Filelfo. He
could hardly be said to belong to Lombardy, as he was born in
Ancona and educated at Padua, and had passed a number of years
in Venice, Constantinople, Florence, Siena, and Bologna. The
longest sojourn of his life, however, was made in Milan, where he
arrived in 1440, and where he enjoyed for some years liberal
emoluments from the Court.
Filelfo was evidently a man with great powers of acquisition and
with exceptional versatility. He brought back with him from
Constantinople (where he had remained for some years) a Greek
bride from a noble family, an extensive collection of Greek
manuscripts, and a working knowledge of the Greek language; and
at a time when Greek ideas and Greek literature were attracting the
enthusiastic attention not merely of the scholars but of the courtiers
and men of fashion, these possessions of Filelfo were exceptionally
serviceable, and enabled him to push his fortunes effectively. He
seems to have possessed a self-confidence at least equal to his
learning. He speaks of himself as having surpassed Virgil because
he was an orator, and Cicero because he was a poet. Symonds
says, however, that, notwithstanding his arrogance, he is entitled to
the rank of the most universal scholar of his age, and his self-
assertion doubtless aided not a little in securing prompt recognition
for his learning. Venice paid him, in 1427, a stipend of 500 sequins
for a series of lectures on Eloquence. A year later he accepted the
post of lecturer in Bologna on Moral Philosophy and Eloquence, with
a stipend of 450 sequins. Shortly afterwards, flattering offers tempted
him to Florence, where he lectured on the Greek and Latin classics
and on Dante, with a stipend first of 250 sequins, and later of 450

Perfect Phrases For Esl Conversation Skills 3Rd Edition Diane Engelhardt All Chapter

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Perfect Phrases™ for ESL:

Conversation Skills 3rd Edition Diane

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Hundreds of Ready-to-Use Phrases That Help You

New York Chicago San Francisco Athens London Madrid

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eBook conversion by codeMantra

McGraw Hill Language Lab App

Part 1 Phrases for Conversation

Chapter 2 Past Experiences 20

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Chapter 3 Likes, Dislikes, and Interests 39

Chapter 4 Objects and Processes 62

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Cost and Estimates 71

Chapter 5 Problems and Advice 89

Chapter 6 Decisions and Goals 117

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Reasons and Purpose 120

Part 2 Phrases for Discussions

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Chapter 8 Group Discussions 172

Chapter 9 Serious Subjects 198

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Part 3 Phrases for Special Occasions

Part 4 Phrases for Telephone and

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Chapter 12 Telephone Messages 271

Chapter 13 Telephone Business 285

Chapter 14 Telephone/Video Conferencing 300

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Dialogue: Let’s Get the Ball Rolling! 315

About the Author 319

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How to Use This Book

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Bold type indicates variable phrases that require additional

➜➜ Let me introduce my fiancée, Alice. (Chapter 2)

Slashes are used to show how a phrase in bold type can be

➜➜ Don’t you look charming / pretty / handsome today!

➜➜ I plan to sail / plan on sailing around the world some day.

➜➜ What a pity! (Chapter 5)

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Of course it is not necessary for you to master or even attempt

Topics for Practice

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“Conversation is the laboratory and workshop of the

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Chanwon is waiting for his connecting flight to Seattle. He’s come

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■ where you live or come from;

If the conversation continues, you’ll usually move on to every-

■ personal interests and hobbies;

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➜➜ Nationality I’m Korean / Japanese / German /

➜➜ Job I’m an engineer / a teacher/

formal That must be very exciting / challenging /