The Future of Operations Manager Jobs: Trends and Predictions

As businesses continue to evolve and adapt to the changing landscape of the global market, one job that is
becoming increasingly important is that of an operations manager. These professionals are responsible for
overseeing the day-to-day operations of a company, ensuring that everything runs smoothly and efficiently.
However, as new technologies emerge and consumer expectations shift, the role of an operations manager is
also changing. In this article, we will explore some of the latest trends and predictions for the future of
operations manager jobs.

Operations manager jobs

From the rise of automation and artificial intelligence to the growing importance of sustainability and social
responsibility, we will take a closer look at how these changes will impact the way businesses operate and
how operations managers will need to adapt in order to succeed. So whether you are an aspiring operations
manager or simply interested in the future of business, read on to learn technical skills for resume.

What is an Operations Manager?

An operations manager is responsible for overseeing the day-to-day operations of a business and ensuring
that everything runs smoothly and efficiently. This can include managing staff, overseeing production
processes, and ensuring quality control. The role of an operations manager can vary depending on the size
and type of business, but they are typically responsible for ensuring that the business is operating at peak
efficiency and that all processes are aligned with the company’s goals and objectives.

The role of an Operations Manager

The role of an operations manager is constantly evolving and changing. In the past, operations managers
were primarily responsible for managing staff and ensuring that production processes were running
smoothly. However, as businesses have become more complex and global, the role of an operations manager
has expanded to include a wide range of responsibilities. Today, operations managers are responsible for
overseeing everything from supply chain management and logistics to customer service and marketing.
One of the key responsibilities of an operations manager is to ensure that the business is operating efficiently
and effectively. This means that they need to have a deep understanding of the company’s processes and
operations and be able to identify areas where improvements can be made. Additionally, they must be able
to work closely with other departments and stakeholders to ensure that all processes are aligned and that the
business is able to achieve its goals.
Current trends in Operations Manager jobs

As the business landscape continues to evolve, so too do the trends and demands of operations manager
jobs. One of the biggest trends in operations management is the rise of automation and artificial intelligence.
Automation and AI are transforming the way businesses operate, and operations managers need to be able to
adapt to these changes in order to remain competitive.

Another trend in operations management is the growing importance of sustainability and social
responsibility. Consumers are increasingly demanding that businesses operate in an environmentally
responsible and socially conscious manner, and operations managers need to be able to ensure that their
businesses are meeting these demands.

Finally, the rise of e-commerce and online businesses is also impacting the role of operations managers. As
more and more businesses move online, operations managers need to be able to manage the logistics and
supply chain processes that are necessary for e-commerce operations to succeed.

Predictions for the future of Operations Manager jobs

Looking ahead, there are several predictions for the future of operations manager jobs. One of the biggest
predictions is that automation and artificial intelligence will continue to play an increasingly important role
in operations management. Operations managers will need to be able to work with automated systems and
AI-powered tools in order to remain competitive and ensure that their businesses are operating efficiently.

Another prediction is that sustainability and social responsibility will become even more important in the
future. As consumers become more environmentally conscious and socially aware, businesses will need to
adapt their operations to meet these changing demands. Operations managers will need to be able to ensure
that their businesses are operating in a sustainable and socially responsible manner in order to remain
competitive.

Finally, the rise of globalization and the increasing complexity of the business landscape will also impact the
role of operations managers. Operations managers will need to be able to manage cross-functional teams and
work with stakeholders from around the world in order to ensure that their businesses are operating
efficiently and effectively.

Importance of technology in Operations Management

Technology is playing an increasingly important role in operations management. From automation and AI to
e-commerce platforms and online supply chain management tools, technology is transforming the way
businesses operate. Operations managers need to be able to work with these technologies in order to remain
competitive and ensure that their businesses are operating efficiently.

One of the biggest advantages of technology in operations management is that it can help to improve
efficiency and reduce costs. Automated systems and AI-powered tools can help to streamline processes and
reduce the need for manual interventions, allowing operations managers to focus on more strategic tasks.
Technology can also help to improve communication and collaboration between different departments and
stakeholders, making it easier for operations managers to manage complex processes and projects.

In addition to improving efficiency and reducing costs, technology can also help to improve the quality of
products and services. For example, quality control systems can be used to ensure that products are meeting
the required standards, while customer relationship management (CRM) software can be used to improve
customer service and satisfaction.

However, it is important to note that technology is not a panacea for all operations management challenges.
Operations managers need to be able to balance the benefits of technology with the potential risks and
challenges, such as cybersecurity threats and data privacy concerns. They also need to be able to ensure that
the technology is aligned with the business’s goals and objectives and that it is being used in a way that is
ethical and socially responsible.

Skills required for future Operations Managers

As the role of operations managers continues to evolve, the skills required for success are also changing. In
addition to the traditional operational and management skills, operations managers will need to develop a
range of new skills in order to remain competitive.

One of the key skills that operations managers will need to develop is digital literacy. As technology
continues to play an increasingly important role in operations management, operations managers will need
to be able to work with a range of digital tools and platforms. This includes being able to analyze data, work
with automation and AI systems, and manage e-commerce platforms and online supply chains.
Another important skill for operations managers is strategic thinking. Operations managers need to be able
to think strategically about how to align their operations with the broader goals and objectives of the
business. This includes being able to identify opportunities for growth and innovation, as well as managing
risks and challenges.

Finally, operations managers will need to develop their soft skills, such as communication, collaboration,
and leadership. As operations management becomes increasingly cross-functional and global, operations
managers will need to be able to work effectively with people from a range of backgrounds and cultures.
They also need to be able to communicate effectively with stakeholders at all levels of the organization and
inspire and motivate their teams to achieve their goals.

How to prepare for the future of Operations Manager jobs

If you are interested in pursuing a career in operations management, there are several steps you can take to
prepare for the future of the field. First, it is important to develop a strong foundation in the traditional
operational and management skills. This includes understanding the principles of supply chain management,
logistics, production processes, and quality control.

Second, it is important to develop strong digital literacy skills. This includes learning how to analyze data,
work with automation and AI systems, and manage e-commerce platforms and online supply chains. There
are many online courses and certifications available that can help you develop these skills.

Third, it is important to stay up-to-date with the latest trends and developments in operations management.
This includes reading industry publications and attending conferences and seminars. It is also important to
network with other professionals in the field and seek out mentorship opportunities.

Finally, it is important to develop strong soft skills, such as communication, collaboration, and leadership.
This can be done through volunteering, participating in extracurricular activities, and seeking out leadership
roles in your community.

Opportunities for Operations Managers in emerging industries

As new industries and technologies emerge, there are many opportunities for operations managers to apply
their skills and expertise. One emerging industry that is particularly relevant to operations management is
the renewable energy industry. Operations managers in this industry are responsible for managing the supply
chain and logistics for renewable energy technologies, as well as ensuring that production processes are
aligned with sustainability goals.
Another emerging industry that is relevant to operations management is the healthcare industry. Operations
manager in healthcare are responsible for managing the supply chain and logistics for medical equipment
and supplies, as well as ensuring that healthcare facilities are operating efficiently and effectively.

Finally, the e-commerce industry is also creating new opportunities for operations managers. Operations
managers in e-commerce are responsible for managing the logistics and supply chain processes that are
necessary for online businesses to succeed.

Conclusion
As businesses continue to evolve and adapt to the changing landscape of the global market, the role of
operations managers is becoming increasingly important. From the rise of automation and AI to the growing
importance of sustainability and social responsibility, the future of operations management is full of exciting
new opportunities and challenges. By developing the right skills and staying up-to-date with the latest trends
and developments, operations managers can position themselves for success in this rapidly evolving field.

Airline:
Inputs: Passengers, baggage, fuel, maintenance, flight schedules, weather forecasts, crew schedules, etc.
Transformation: Check-in, baggage handling, security screening, flight operations, maintenance, crew
management, etc.

Outputs: On-time departures and arrivals, safe flights, satisfied customers, revenue, etc.
Branch office of a bank:

Inputs: Deposits, withdrawals, loan applications, customer inquiries, financial reports, etc.

Transformation: Cash handling, account management, loan processing, customer service, etc.

What is the meaning of cost minimization?

Cost minimization is the process of reducing expenditures on unnecessary or inefficient processes. These
changes in spending can be slight or drastic, but any level of reduction in costs will likely have a dramatic
effect on maximizing profits.

Two cost minimization technique

Some common cost reduction examples are: Reducing labour costs by automating routine tasks or by
outsourcing non-core business functions. Bringing down office expenses, such as electricity bills, by opting
for energy-saving technologies or scaling down on office space by offering remote working options.

Why is value maximization important?

value maximization in financial management. Value maximization is considered the primary goal of
financial management as it takes into account not only profits but also long-term sustainability and growth
of the company.

Briefly put, value maximisation says that managers should make all decisions so as to increase the total
long-run market value of the firm. Total value is the sum of the values of all financial claims on the firm–
including equity, debt, preferred stock, and warrants.
Operations research tends to be strictly quantitative in character whereas operations management exhibits
psychosocial and socio-technical considerations. Operations management is the administration of business
practices to create the highest level of efficiency possible within an organization.

What is operation research and operations management?

Operations research (OR) is an analytical method of problem-solving and decision-making that is useful in
the management of organizations. In operations research, problems are broken down into basic components
and then solved in defined steps by mathematical analysis.

What are the adventages of bringing customers into the transformation process or technical core?

Technology has become a critical business resource in every industry. From cloud storage to software to
databases, every organization relies on business applications and digital services to connect to customers and
critical partners. But often, even industry leaders rely on legacy systems and apps that are holding back their
efficiency and innovation.

When trying to meet pressing project deadlines, upgrading existing resources and integrating new
technology are often deprioritized. But business transformation is critical to long-term success and
viability. It means more than updating your organization’s culture, technology, and business processes. (To
learn more, read our recent post, What is Business Transformation?)

When implemented throughout the organization, business transformation delivers improved customer
experiences, faster time to market, and more. Keep reading to learn seven key benefits of business
transformation and why this is a business strategy worth investing in.

ACHIEVE BUSINESS BENEFITS WITH AN ORGANIZATION-WIDE STRATEGY

When planning and executing a business transformation initiative, simply making larger technology
investments isn’t enough. According to Harvard Business Review, transformation is more about talent than
about the tech you have.

Any digital technology you use needs to promote:

 Collaboration across business functions

 Visibility across IT systems and teams
 A customer-centric approach to problem-solving

To truly transform how your business operates and adjusts to changes in the market, you need to
implement processes and organizational culture, supported by–not dictated by–the technology you
use. When you implement a plan that way, you can achieve business transformation that delivers the seven
key benefits outlined below.

1. GAINING VISIBILITY AND INSIGHT WITH NEW DATA ANALYTICS

To transform how your business operates, brings products and services to market, and interacts with
customers, first you need to know where you stand today. The best way to do that is with data and analytics
tools.
Business transformation requires you to create new ways of gathering and analyzing data across the
organization so that every team can contribute their perspective. This involves both technical and people-
driven insights. Just as you need new ways to oversee and assess your IT systems and networks, you also
need to survey your staff and customers.
This will allow you to start making data-driven decisions across your business. That can include everything
from recruiting and hiring to managing and assessing your marketing campaigns, giving you visibility and
insight into where you’re succeeding and where you need improvement.

2. BETTER MANAGING AND AUTOMATE CONNECTED SYSTEMS

Once you have more visibility into your systems and business processes, you can implement better
management processes. This also allows you to start automating routine tasks that take up too much staff
time–preventing them from moving forward on key, value-generating projects.

While automation is commonly associated with IT management and payroll, it can also apply for human
resources (HR), marketing, customer relationship management, and sales. One of the benefits of digital
transformation is that almost every function has a business application.

With improved data insights into how your various departments operate, your IT and development teams can
integrate different databases, allowing cross-team communication and collaboration enabled by automation.
And with managed services from experts at Standley Systems, you can better integrate cross-
team workflows and data management.

3. REDUCING OPERATIONAL EXPENSES

By automating IT operations, internal communications, marketing, and other functions, your business
can save time and money on operating expenses. Not only does that save on staff time, but it also gives your
teams more time to understand what projects are actually driving value.

The less time they spend taking care of minor, repetitive tasks–which are often more prone to costly human
error, especially in IT–the more time they have to make progress on strategic projects that improve the
customer experience.

4. IMPROVING CUSTOMER EXPERIENCES WITH NEW DIGITAL CAPABILITIES

Once you’ve prioritized business transformation and made efficient workflows part of your normal
processes, your customers will benefit from new digital capabilities and improved products and services.
According to consulting firm McKinsey Company, “A fundamental change of mindset focusing on the
customer, along with operational and IT improvements, can generate a 20 to 30 percent uplift in customer
satisfaction.”

With more data-driven insight into the customer experience and more time to develop innovative solutions
to customer problems, your marketing, sales, and line-of-business teams can deliver digital experiences that
differentiate your business and fulfill (and even exceed) customer expectations.

5. INCREASING CUSTOMER LOYALTY WITH RESPONSIVE SERVICE

Transformative processes also allow your business to be more responsive to customer and internal feedback.
Without flexible business processes, customer feedback is often filed away while overwhelmed teams wait
for a spare moment to integrate that feedback to update websites, fix app bugs, change product
specifications, or any other kind of improvement.

And often, the team that receives the feedback may not even have a consistent or effective way to share that
information with the right people. So by the time it gets used (if it gets used at all), it will be far too late to
have any meaningful impact on customer satisfaction.

Instead, with automated workflows, cross-team communication, and effective planning, customer loyalty
can be improved with responsive, timely services. Even if feedback can’t be integrated immediately,
something as simple as digital support or an automated email acknowledging the customer’s message can go
a long way to leaving a good impression and securing brand loyalty.

6. OPTIMIZING A GO-TO-MARKET STRATEGY

With any digital business, potential customers are often hard to pinpoint without expensive research. One of
the only ways to have insight into potential customers’ thought processes is to gather feedback from existing
customer interactions and consult third-party resources like analyst firms.

Once business leaders develop an effective way to gather this information, they need to encourage marketers
and line-of-business teams to maximize that data for effective go-to-market strategies. With more insight
into the customer experience, internal product management teams and product marketers will be much better
equipped to develop an effective go-to-market strategy.

7. GAINING MARKET SHARE AND REMAINING COMPETITIVE

Together, all these benefits increase the likelihood of achieving this final result: gaining market share and
remaining competitive. The more your business strategy encourages cross-functional collaboration, uses big
data insights to improve the customer experience, and continually updates business operations, the more
competitive your business will become.

Retaining business agility will not only help you shift and meet customer expectations, but it will also allow
you to weather changing market conditions and develop a lasting brand reputation associated with
innovation.

THE RISKS OF BUSINESS TRANSFORMATION INITIATIVES

Developing strategies to adopt new technology and update processes is critical for staying relevant to
customer needs and remaining competitive in your industry. However, despite all its potential benefits, the
business transformation process still has inherent risks.

When digital transformation takes up the main focus of a business’s transformation efforts, organizations
can be especially vulnerable to several factors like:

Poor resource management: When implementing new technologies, it’s important to make sure you’re not
overspending, especially on things that won’t have an immediate return on investment.

Investing in technology that becomes quickly outdated: This is one reason why public cloud providers
are so widely used. Not only do you not have to maintain your own physical servers, but you don’t have the
expense of upgrading when the latest hardware technology changes.

Unexpected shifts in the industry: While you can’t always predict drastic market shifts, it’s important to
be prepared for the unexpected, such as changes in industry regulations or disruptive technologies. Experts
(such as the business continuity experts at Standley Systems) can help make risk management part of your
transformation plans.

Exposing an organization to cyber threats: Any rapid adoption of new technology can expose an
organization to cyber threats it’s not prepared to protect against. Consulting IT experts can ensure you’re
onboarding new systems and network connections in a safe way that limits your potential exposure or risk of
data breaches.

While some of these risks (such as unexpected market shifts) can’t be predicted, many of these potential
setbacks can be mitigated if plans are made in consultation with key stakeholders and change management
and technology experts. That requires developing a thorough business transformation strategy and sticking
to it.
NEXT STEPS: HOW TO DEVELOP AN EFFECTIVE BUSINESS TRANSFORMATION
STRATEGY

Understanding the benefits of business transformation is important, but once you’re ready to move forward,
how do you actually implement an effective plan?

The first step is to determine what your project goals are and assign specific roles. While business
transformation can’t succeed without cross-team collaboration, it’s important to designate who’s ultimately
responsible for certain aspects of the project. That ensures you move forward with critical decisions.

Next, you need to:

 Assess existing processes and customer satisfaction.

 Solicit feedback from key stakeholders within the organization.
 Develop defined, time-sensitive goals based on the information you’ve gathered.

Then you can start putting the plans you’ve made into action, making sure to collect data and feedback along
the way so you can continually transform and improve your processes and technology as needed.Check out
our post on developing a business transformation strategy for more information.

WANT TO TRANSFORM YOUR BUSINESS? STANDLEY SYSTEMS CAN HELP

Standley Systems has been helping businesses in Oklahoma and across the United States take advantage of
the latest IT and business solutions for decades. We’re experts in using technology to drive business
transformation for our clients, whether they’re in healthcare, finance, energy, or other industries.Ready to
transform your business and meet new market and customer demands? We’ll conduct an assessment to
determine what your organization’s business transformation needs are. Contact us today to learn more.

What are the advantages of bringing customers into the transformation process or technical core? -
here are several advantages to bringing or involve the customer into the transformation process. For instances,
the company receives direct feedback from the final user, the people that use or interact with the goods or
deliverables. Customers add value with their appreciations because they have a different point of view of the
productive process, on basis of this appreciations the manufacture could be identify the roots or the causes of
operational problems, the manufactured gather all this information and tabulate the data and create a Paretto
diagrams, and study which is the most recurrent failure in his production lines, where when the problems come
where the process have a neck bottle, he could establish where the process its stable or were it is weak. The
manufacture will compare on basis of historical information which I the most accurate corrective action to
improve the process. Another point to consider form the customer opinions will be times of production What
are the major factors leading to the resurgence of interest in OM today? There are several factors in OM today
to consider. In my opinion globalization is the most important aspect to consider its involves all constrains
economic, political, technological, and cultural connections also involves the growth of multinational
corporations (businesses that have operations or investments in many countries) and transnational corporations
(businesses that see themselves functioning in a global marketplace). Globalization has opened up broader
communication lines and brought more companies as well as different worldwide organizations companies
perform benchmarked and in some cases interchange experience and ideas to achieve common goals and avoid
waste time in flow process no operatives.

Every business relies on processes, and every process requires efficiency. That’s where operations
management comes into play. Public and private companies all rely on operations management to ensure
things are running on-time and, notably, on-budget. But what are the functions of operations management?
And what are the skills you need to be a high-performing operations manager in modern business?

In this article, we’ll examine the purpose of operations management, why it’s critically important to
businesses large and small, and how you can succeed in an operations manager role.
 What Is Operations Management?

At its core, operations management is the development and execution of business strategies that maximize
the flow of information and productivity. Consider the role of an operations manager on a factory floor. It’s
that person’s job to examine the materials, equipment, and workforce and determine the exact process to
deliver the company’s goods or services into the hands of its customers.

Unlike project management — which also involves a step-by-step process but has a clearly defined
beginning and end — operations management is the ongoing day-to-day oversight of organizational
activities and processes with constant analysis to determine what’s working and what’s not.
What Are the Key Factors of Operations Management?

From the start, your operational strategy will revolve around key factors — also called
competitive priorities or performance objectives.

Key factors include:

 Cost – Managing costs of production, labor, and other operating expenses to keep your prices at an
acceptable level while still turning a profit.

 Quality – Delivering goods or services of the highest quality while also improving products.

 Speed – Delivering products on-time and determining ways to make the process faster while still
maintaining cost and quality.

 Flexibility – Keeping up with changes in the market and pivoting quickly to match a competitor who
develops a faster process.

What Are the Functions of Operations Management?

Operations management is a multi-tiered, “big picture” process, though some tiers may get more attention
than others, depending on your business or product. For example, if you’re an operations manager for an
online travel company that specializes in selling rooms to customers, you won’t utilize the supply chain in
the same way a company making energy bars would.

Here are four common functions of operations management:

1. Strategy: When developing strategy for your organization, you will spend significant time analyzing data
and information in order to determine how to reach your objectives. Multiple factors must be taken into
consideration during your strategy sessions, including the size of your workforce, your budget, your supply
chain configuration, and your timeline.
As an operations manager, your strategic tasks may include:

 Analyzing data — including identifying the underlying principles, reasons, or facts — by breaking it down
into separate parts

 Estimating the quantifiable characteristics of products, events, or information, such as sizes, distances, and
quantities; and determining time, costs, resources, or materials needed to perform a work activity
 Planning or directing activities — such as sales promotions — that require coordination with other
department managers

 Developing or implementing product marketing strategies, including advertising campaigns or sales

promotions
2. Forecasting: Predicting the financial future of your organization is known as forecasting. The process
involves knowing how much money you have to work with in the present, how much you hope to earn from
the sale of your product, and how environmental factors – inflation, consumer demand, technology
upgrades, etc. – will impact your budget and earnings in the years to come.
In an operations manager role, your forecasting responsibilities may include:

 Reviewing financial statements, sales or activity reports, or other performance data to measure productivity
or goal achievement or to identify areas needing cost reduction or program improvement

 Directing or coordinating financial or budget activities to fund operations, maximize investments, or

increase efficiency

 Setting prices or credit terms for goods or services, based on forecasts of customer demand
3. Supply Chain Management: Supply chain management may feel similar to operations management in
that both involve overseeing processes within the organization. But as we’ve discussed, operations
management exists at a higher level – viewing the company holistically and looking for efficiencies – while
supply chain management is focused on the processes that turn your raw materials into a final product. Take,
for example, a company that cultivates fruit that is shipped directly from the farm to the grocery store.
Supply chain management would involve processes such picking the crops, cleaning them, packaging them,
and putting them on trucks.
Operations managers are intimately involved in supply chain management decisions, and some of their
responsibilities include:

 Directing and coordinating activities of businesses or departments concerned with the production, pricing,
sales, or distribution of products

 Managing the movement of goods into and out of production facilities to ensure efficiency, effectiveness, or
sustainability of operations

 Monitor suppliers to ensure they efficiently and effectively provide needed goods or services within
budgetary limits
4. Quality Control: Because so much of operations management involves searching for efficiencies and the
fastest, safest, and most cost-effective ways to serve your customers, quality control is key. Not only are you
working to determine if your business processes are efficient, but you’re also constantly examining your
own product. Does it meet your brand standards? Does it meet customer expectations? Is it of the highest
quality?
Operations managers ask these questions and others every day, and their quality control responsibilities
may include:

 Inspecting equipment, structures, or materials to identify the cause of errors or other problems or defects

 Monitoring and reviewing information from processes, materials, events, or the environment to detect or
assess problems

 Using relevant information and individual judgment to determine whether events or processes comply with
laws, regulations, and standards
 Assessing value and importance of objects, services, and even people

 Handling complaints, settling disputes, and resolving grievances and conflicts, or otherwise negotiating with
others.

What Skills Do You Need in Operations Management?

Operations management is a leadership-level role that involves overseeing multiple departments, and a
successful operations manager will need to bring a combination of relevant hard and soft skills. According
to O*NET Online, a typical operations manager will need the following skills:
 Complex problem-solving: Like putting together the pieces of a puzzle, it will be your job to determine
how all the departments of your company will work together to ensure the business is running efficiently.
 Management of personnel resources: Can one person do the job of two? As an operations manager, you’ll
need to determine how to maximize productivity using the human capital at your disposal.
 Management of material resources: Do you have the necessary equipment, tools, or facilities to run your
business effectively? An operations manager will strategize to determine how to best use the resources at
hand, or determine how to get the proper tools for the right price.
 Persuasion: An essential soft skill for leaders, the art of persuasion is necessary to bring others onboard
with your vision for the company.
 Time management: This goes back to speed as a key performance objective. Operations managers know
how to manage their time while creating organization-wide processes that move things along at the right
pace.
 Systems analysis and evaluation: What’s working? What’s not? Analysis and evaluation are day-to-day
responsibilities for operations managers, who must constantly tweak the system in order to achieve better
results.

What Is the Job Outlook for Operations Managers?

Operations management is vital to every organization, which means the demand will always exist for
qualified, educated leaders who can get the most out of a company’s resources. According to O*NET,
operations management is a growing field, with as many as 300,400 projected openings through 2031. The
median wage for operations managers was $97,970 in 2021.
Overview: What Is Operations Management?

In summary, operations management is needed to make organizations run efficiently. You can have all of
the talent and all of the materials, but if you don’t have an operational strategy to put those resources to use,
your company will not succeed.

Operations management is not an entry-level discipline. Nearly 30% of operations managers have bachelor’s
degrees, according to O*NET and professionals in these roles must have several years of work-related
experience before rising to the leadership level. But if you have a passion for analyzing data, creating
strategy, and developing systems to see how things work, operations management may be the right career
for you.
 POM Chapter 2
What is meant by competitiveness?
1. possession of a strong desire to be more successful than others.
"a lot of people get wrapped up in competitiveness and jealousy"
2. the quality of being as good as or better than others of a comparable nature.
"the competitiveness of the agricultural sector"
o the quality of comparing well with rival traders in terms of pricing.
"shoppers are often pleasantly surprised by the competitiveness of the prices"

Competitiveness can be defined as: The ability of a business to deliver better value to customers than
competitors. A key part of all business activity – in which marketing plays a key role – is the search for
sustainable competitive advantage. This phrase means exactly "what is says on the tin".
The fact of being able to compete successfully with other companies, countries, organizations, etc.
The fact of a person wanting very much to win or be more successful than other people:

Define competitiveness

Competitiveness in business refers to a company’s ability to balance the price and the quality of its products
and services in order to provide customers with the optimal experience. Further, competitiveness in business
refers to a company’s ability to achieve more sales or customer loyalty than its competitors due to the
quality of its products and services, its low prices or a combination of both factors.

Competitiveness in business can be divided into two areas:

 Price competitiveness. Price competitiveness refers to the situation where a business can maintain
the quality of its goods or services while still pricing them lower than its competitors.
 Structural competitiveness. Structural competitiveness refers to the situation where a business can
maintain better sales or customer loyalty over competitors regardless of the prices it offers. This can
be because it has a stronger brand identity, better quality products and services or additional products
or services that its competitors don’t offer.

Identify the different types of competitive priorities. How has their relationship to each other changed
over the years?

Quality, cost, delivery, flexibility, customer focus and know-how these criteria as follows:

1. Quality: Low defect rate, product performance, reliability, certification and environmental concern.

2. Cost: The ability to manage effectively production cost, including its related aspects such as overhead and
inventory, and value-added.

3. Delivery which is considered a time-based issue. Delivery addresses how quickly a product or a service is
delivered to customers. It also incorporates the time-to-market for a new product.

4. Flexibility: This term represents the ability to deploy and/or re-deploy resources in response to changes in
contractual agreements which are initiated primarily by customers. It includes several features, such as
adjustment to design/planning, volume changes and product variety.

5. Customer focus: This concentrates on how to fulfil customers’ needs. It includes after-sale services,
product customisation, product support, customer information and dependable promise.

6. Know-how: This deals with the trend of decreasing product lifecycles. Therefore, knowledge
management, creativity and skills development are included.
For each of the different competitive priorities, describe the unique characteristics of the market
niche with which it is most compatitible.

What is a niche market advantage? A niche market advantage is a type of competitive advantage - one that
stems from targeting and winning a small portion of a larger market. At its core, this is the direct opposite of
a mass market, or “undifferentiated”, marketing strategy.

What are characteristics of a niche market?

A niche market is a smaller segment of a larger market. In niche markets, customers tend to have very
specific wants and needs. Niche segments tend to be small; the number of consumers and the quantity
(volume) of products or services consumed tend to be lower than other market segments.

Niche Market: Advantages and Disadvantages

There are several benefits and downsides to both mass and niche marketing.

Niche Market: Advantages of Niche Marketing

 Less competition, as not many firms offer the specialized product or service.
 Clear objectives and aims to reach the specific target segment.
 Customers could be easier to find and reach.
 The company gains market expertise due to the specialized skill set required to manufacture
the product or operate the service.
 Can often charge a higher price and benefit from higher profit margins.
 More loyal customers as limited options exist.

Niche Market: Advantages of Mass Marketing

 Benefits of large-scale production (economies of scale).

 The potential to minimize unit costs.
 Large-scale capacity - do not have to face supply issues.
 Large customer base and customer reach.
 The universal appeal of generic products (no need to heavily differentiate).
 Lower marketing costs.
 Customers' wants and needs tend to be general.

Disadvantages of Niche Marketing

 No economies of scale (low-scale production).

 Higher unit costs.
 Could attract competition if the product or service is successful.
 The company could become too reliant on the production of a single product. This could lead to
long-term inefficiencies.
 Sensitive to market changes.

Niche Market: Disadvantages of Mass Marketing

 The market is more competitive.

 It can be hard to persuade consumers of the product's superiority due to the lack of differentiation.
 High brand switching does not make much of a difference to customers which brand they purchase.
 Marketers must keep up with competitors' prices and changes, as demand can be sensitive. For
example, if a competitor lowers the price of their product, consumers will likely purchase the
competitor's cheaper product as opposed to yours.
  A lot of similar products are available to customers on the market.
 Consumer segments could be too broad to target customers appropriately.

Niche Market and Mass Markets - Key takeaways

 A niche market is a smaller segment of a larger market. In niche markets, customers tend to have
very specific wants and needs.

 Niche marketing involves outlining and understanding the needs and wants of customers in the small
(niche) market segment. Niche segments are usually created by identifying needs and wants that are
not addressed by the mass market or by other businesses.

 The mass market is a large part of the market. It includes a general and broad consumer segment.

 Mass marketing is a strategy in which businesses decide to target an entire market with
their product or service.

 Mass market products or services tend to be standardized and have universal appeal.

 There are several advantages and disadvantages to both niche and mass marketing.

Describe the difference between order-qualifiers and order-winners. What is the relationship between
the two over time?

Order qualifiers are necessary attributes that a product must possess for it to be entered into competition.
Order winners, however, are the 'winning' attributes that lead to customers buying a product.

The difference between order winners and qualifiers is that order qualifiers are the competitive standards
that make a firm's products viewed as fit for purchase by consumers, while order winners are the standards
that separate the products or services of one firm from another.

Which of the following pairs of attributes represent Galanz's competitive advantage (versus other firms)

a.low cost and low price

b.quality and innovation

c.first entry into market and sustainable competitive advantage

d.marketing and finance

Explain the concept of the core capabilities within an organization.

The knowledge and skill that resides in an organisation. Core capabilities include technical know-how,
technical skills, business process know-how and business skills. Distinct capabilities are those things that the
organisation is better at doing than its competitors.

Core competencies differentiate an organization from its competition and create a company's competitive
advantage in the marketplace. Typically, a core competency refers to a company's set of skills or experience
in some activity, rather than physical or financial assets.
Core competencies differentiate an organization from its competition and create a company's competitive
advantage in the marketplace. Typically, a core competency refers to a company's set of skills or experience
in some activity, rather than physical or financial assets. An organizational core competency is an
organization's strategic strength. Honda's strategic strength, for example, lies in its engine and propulsion
systems. Sony has a core competency in miniaturization. Federal Express has a core competency in logistics
and customer service.

Three tests can be applied to determine a core competency:

• A core competency can lead to the development of new products and services and must provide potential
access to a wide variety of markets.
• It must make a significant contribution to the perceived benefits of the end product.
• It should be difficult for competitors to imitate. In many industries, such competencies are likely to be
unique.
The concept of core competencies was developed in the management field. C.K. Prahalad and Gary Hamel
introduced the concept in "The Core Competence of the Corporation," a 1990 Harvard Business
Review article. They wrote that a core competency is "an area of specialized expertise that is the result of
harmonizing complex streams of technology and work activity." They cited as an example Honda's expertise
in engines, which enabled it to develop a variety of well-regarded products, including lawn mowers, snow
blowers and automobiles.

Identifying and developing your company's core competencies contribute to sustaining your company's
long-term competitive advantage.

In determining your company's core competencies, identify the underlying skill, ability, knowledge,
experience, technology or process that enables your company to provide its unique set of products or
services. Determine how you can use your company's core competencies to develop strategic responsiveness
to gain competitive advantage. High-performing companies develop new core competencies and expand
their existing ones to enter new and future markets. A company at this level of functioning recognizes the
needs and wants of customers in new and future markets and develops the competencies necessary to meet
those needs and wants.
Apple's unique competence is its product design process. With the iPod, Apple combined the elements of
jukebox software, which can organize a large quantity of songs, and MP3 players, which can store a large
quantity of songs in a way that is simple to use. Simplicity turned out to be the core attribute that made the
iPod a revolutionary product that changed consumer expectations.

Company leadership should be aware that even the most successful strategy will eventually fail unless it is
continually monitored and refreshed to meet changing market conditions.
In your opinion, do business schools have competitive prioroties?

This article was first published by University World News.

How can leading business schools maintain a competitive edge in the face of decreasing post-study work
opportunities, weakening brands and increasing online and transnational alternatives? What are schools’
major concerns? What are the trends in student mobility? How are the top business schools adapting their
strategies to compete in the market? How can business schools become ‘future proof’?

These were some of the questions addressed in a webinar by a panel comprising Nadine Burquel, director of
business school services, EFMD (the European Foundation for Management Development); Thomas
Froelicher, director general and dean, Rennes School of Business, France; and Angus Laing, dean, Lancaster
University Management School, United Kingdom; and hosted by Rahul Choudaha, Studyportal’s executive
vice president of global engagement and research.

The webinar was hosted by Studyportals in partnership with

EFMD and University World News on 21 February. To access a video recording of the webinar, click here.

Kicking off the discussion, Choudaha pointed out that in the UK one-third of all enrolled business school
students are from overseas, making schools highly dependent on them. “International students are critical,”
he said.

In his opening remarks he argued that there are four main types of global engagement strategy for higher
education and the institutions that employ them can be characterised as defenders, innovators, adaptors and
challengers.

The defenders are traditional recruiters of international students in English-speaking destinations. The
innovators are continually looking for new ways of offering shorter credentials and adopting lifelong
learning models, while the adaptors are taking programmes to students by exploiting the growth in online
blended learning and transnational education.

The challengers, on the other hand, are located in continental Europe, China and Southeast Asia, and are
distinguished by their growing ambition of offering world-class universities.“This can be a useful
framework in which to assess how business schools approach internationalisation,” he said.
“Business schools are under pressure to offer better value for money and greater flexibility,” he continued.
In the United States 25% of programmes are now online, compared to just 2% in France and the
Netherlands. However, although around a quarter of the US courses cost more than €20,000 (US$22,700)
per year, the programmes in the latter countries are much more affordable.

The result is that students have much more choice and consequently are looking for much more “career
advancement” and return for their investment.

Choudaha then turned to the panel and asked: “What are the biggest concerns you are facing?”

Burquel immediately focused on quality. She argued that only quality will future-proof programmes, and for
that reason EFMD has developed 12 key dimensions to assess it. These include categories such as learning
resources, student support and the international office.

A second concern identified by Burquel was capacity. She cited UNESCO data that showed that the five
million students who are currently ‘mobile’ are set to increase by 25% in the next few years; so business
schools need to balance increasing capacity while maintaining quality.

Froelicher of Rennes School of Business, on the other hand, pointed to his school’s long history of
internationalisation in attracting students. “Every day we have at least 70 nationalities on campus and we
seek to draw on this capacity to aid our teaching,” he said.

That level of diversity is critical, he argued, as students who are seeking a career at international level do not
want a class overloaded with students from one particular country. There must be “less than 20% of students
from any one country in any particular classroom,” he said.

Laing pointed out that more than one-third of students at Lancaster University are international and that
figure includes a significant number who are undergraduates. “We have campuses in Malaysia, Ghana,
China and Germany,” he said, “and we push students to be mobile.”

Strategic priorities

At this point Choudaha held another poll, asking “What are the strategic priorities for internationalisation at
business schools?” Participants responded that the “desire to increase the number of international
enrolments” was the priority (at 39%); followed by the aim “to expand international partnerships” (31%).
“Launching new programmes” was only chosen by 3%; while “Other” encompassed the rest.

In the context of this poll, Laing pointed out that the UK “has particular issues” because of Brexit, partly
because students are worried about practical aspects such as visas, and partly because of the perception that
Britain is no longer going to be seen as an open country in which to study.

Froelicher agreed that Brexit was affecting intake, particularly from India, where students had fears about
obtaining visas and later finding a ‘nice position’ in a company. “You have to rethink your organisation,” he
said. “That is why we have developed a Global Business Unit that specialises in welcoming students,
managing the programmes and working with alumni,” he said.

“We have also established a Global Experience Team,” added Laing.

“It is good to see your two institutions being proactive and reaching out to students,” summarised Choudaha.

Burquel shifted the focus to China’s growth by stating that “China aims to bring half a million international
students into the country by 2020 and that target is backed up by a political and economic strategy, so we
must stay awake to this.”
She argued that everything in China moves very fast and that capacity will be there sooner than we think. “It
is both important and quite frightening in a way,” she said.

Froelicher agreed: “For me it is a chance to see if Chinese students want to stay in Europe,” he said, while
Laing argued that “it is important that we don’t go in with a Western-dominant view”.

Turning to MBAs, Laing explained that demand now lies in more specific programmes such as those
focusing on management, finance and marketing. Burquel agreed, arguing that MBAs are suffering because
of the shift in demand towards specialised masters programmes: “MBAs need to review their offer,” she
said.Froelicher, on the other hand, pointed out that he is keen on growing the undergraduate intake at his
institution.

“It is incredible that 18-year-olds are looking for international experience and are prepared to leave their
home countries; that represents an opportunity for us,” he said.

Changing approaches

“How is your approach to the market changing?” Choudaha asked the panel.

“Whenever we use the word ‘digital’ in our conference titles, we always have more interest,” said Burquel,
in order to highlight the growing importance of online programmes.

Laing, on the other hand, argued that the different regulatory regimes in various countries represented a
particular challenge. Another issue was the need to develop the confidence of academics to do online
courses: “We need to develop their skills beforehand,” he contended.

Froelicher focused on the need to make semesters abroad compulsory for students and to work with a
limited set of partners to find innovative ways of doing things.

“It is important to focus on areas of excellence,” he said. “We have made the choice to focus on artificial
intelligence or the green supply chain, for example, and so we bring together professors and researchers in
those areas. On the other hand, immersive technology is important as the possibility now exists to invite
professors to lecture without them having to travel.”

The webinar then invited questions from the audience.

“Do accreditation agencies help or hinder internationalisation processes?” one participant asked. Burquel
responded that institutions are often blamed for standardising but “we seek to promote diversity”. Laing
argued that “there is more fear than substance around this issue; it is important to organise around quality”.

In response to a question about enhancing the diversity of the student body, Froelicher contended that the
priority was to select the best talent. “You have to look for a certain number of students country by country,”
he said. “You have to be strong and clear that that is an investment.”

However that investment does not finish when the students are in the classroom, Froelicher continued. “You
need to go into your cafeteria and if the French, Chinese and African students are there sitting in their own
groups, then you are not doing your job. The induction programme and the period before students even
arrive on campus is important,” he said.

“If you had one piece of advice for institutions, what would it be?” Choudaha enquired.

You need to make internationalisation core to your business and ensure that is absorbed by all your
colleagues and students,” responded Laing. “Look upon your progress as a learning journey and build
internationalisation into your school in every minute,” said Froelicher. “Be true to yourself and take
inspiration from all over the world,” concluded Burquel, “there is no time for complacency.
Why does the "proper" operations strategy keep changing for companies that are world-class competitions?
Continually Changing Operation Strategy for Companies
The world is evolving every day and is at a constant change or upgrade. So it only makes sense that the â??
proper� operation strategy will also evolve and change over time, otherwise your corporation could easily
get run over by the competition and transforming market. As a company its important to position yourself
with your product or service in the market, whether it would be high price and high quality or low price and
fast shipping. But once you have positioned yourself in the market, that does not mean you don't have to
change your goals and competitive dimensions. It's important to keep up and stay on top of the competition,
and the only way this can be accomplished is by redeveloping and evaluating as needed.

Another way to also look at the need to change strategies is that many operational goals will also change
over time, so a new design will need to be implemented for future accessibility. Your customers and
competition are also going to continue to look for the latest and most innovative product or service. In order
to keep up with the other world-class competitors, as a company, strategies will have to be updated and
evaluated on a regular basis whether it would be going over the cost, quality, delivery, or product changes.
As a company, differentiating yourself from the competition by having a specific skill or service is a must
due to the intense competition throughout the world.

Manufacturing in the information age

A unified network fabric based on standard IP with a strong physical infrastructure supports reliable, secure
networks that take advantage of the Industrial Internet of Things. Amaechi Oduah, marketing solutions
manager, EMEA,

Panduit Europe Ltd, reports.

The Industrial Internet of Things (IIoT) is expected to connect an astonishing 50 billion devices by 2020.
This is providing deeper insights into operations and new opportunities to improve quality, productivity,
efficiency and security.

New challenges come with new opportunities. The demand to collect and analyse production information in
real time is driving the need for manufacturers to converge their historically disparate industrial and
enterprise networks into a single network architecture. A well-designed and reliable physical layer, known
as the “network fabric,” serves as a critical foundation and strategic business advantage for forward-thinking
manufacturers who want to differentiate themselves from the competition.

We’ll discuss the importance of the network fabric in today’s information-enabled manufacturing
environments, the steps manufacturers can take to capture its value, and a methodology for improving an
existing network to a higher maturity level.

Manufacturing in the information age

The IIoT is reshaping the plant floor. A rapid influx of smart equipment and connected devices that can
communicate on an industrial Ethernet network is allowing manufacturers to understand machine and
process performance like never before.

Equally important to what is being connected is how it’s being connected. Innovative technologies are
helping to manage the infrastructure, deploy devices and share information in new ways.

Some examples include:

• Cloud computing can remotely monitor — in real-time and from a centralised location — equipment that is
dispersed across multiple sites, and can provide expanded processing power and storage capacity as
operational needs change.

• Virtualisation decouples software from hardware, providing improved application uptime, increased
deployment flexibility and faster upgrades.

• Wireless technology can reduce cabling costs and allow easier sharing of data, such as to mobile devices
on the plant floor.

The result of this abundance of information and seamless connectivity is faster decision-making, improved
collaboration and new opportunities to improve productivity.

It also represents a major turning point in how manufacturers design, install and maintain industrial
networks. The traditional approach of using separate IT and operations technology (OT) networks impedes
seamless connectivity, and is too limiting and insecure to be a valid option. Instead, manufacturers require a
single unified network architecture, built on a single physical network fabric leveraging the full power of
internet protocol and security defense-in-depth (DiD).

The unified network fabric

The unified network fabric includes all cabling, wireless, switching, computing and storage systems, and
uses standard, unmodified IP connectivity to help provide secure and open communications.

Network fabric is an industry term that describes a network topology in which devices pass data to each
other through interconnecting switches. Industrial plant automation systems are evolving from point-to-
point, dedicated connections to a more switch-centric design where traffic can be passed seamlessly with
much greater flexibility and enhanced throughput. Instead of inflexible direct connections between devices,
switches and a converged plant architecture allow data to be switched and routed securely across the plant
automation system and upstream.

In addition, the network fabric can be the deciding factor in an industrial firm’s success. Similar to a “fabric
unraveling,” poor planning and reactive decision-making can make a network become a large tangle of
connections and switches that can cause plant downtime, security breaches and safety issues.

Consider these five key areas when designing and deploying a network fabric:

1. Scalability: Plant systems growth, new technology adoption or changing bandwidth requirements can be
difficult to predict. Allowing for infrastructure growth and scalability can help avoid “rip-and-replace”
upgrades, reduce reliability risks and shorten deployment times.

2. Reliability: Network downtime is becoming intertwined with machine downtime as more of the
automated production process is brought onto the network. Base the network fabric on a robust architecture,
follow industry standards and use IT/OT collaboration to help achieve high reliability across the industrial
plant.

3. Security: A DiD security strategy is an industry recommended best practice. It uses multiple layers of
protection at the physical, network, computer, application and device levels to establish several security
fronts.

4. Ease of Deployment: A well-planned, thoughtful approach to the network fabric helps ease design and
deployment, and reduces the likelihood of start-up or operational issues. Use standards such as ISA-99 and
TIA-1005 and validated architectures such as Converged Plantwide Ethernet (CPwE) to design the network
fabric with greater confidence. Use structured cabling best practices and validated integrated solutions to
reduce installation time and startup risks.
5. Innovation: The network fabric provides a platform for taking advantage of new innovations. For
example, Power over Ethernet (PoE) uses a single cable to deliver power and data, which can reduce wiring
complexity and lower installation and maintenance costs. A structured network of wired and wireless
connectivity creates opportunities for deploying new services such as remote monitoring and edge
intelligence for condition monitoring and predictive analytics.

A maturity model that assesses network fabric

Panduit developed the Network Fabric Maturity Model to help manufacturers map out their journey to a
unified network fabric. This model outlines the four levels of a network fabric — from multiple unmanaged
plant-floor networks to a fully unified network fabric.

The Network Fabric Maturity Model outlines the four levels of a network fabric, from multiple unmanaged
plant-floor networks to a fully unified network fabric, to help industrial firms understand where they stand
and provide guidance to help them progress through each level toward the goal.

The model can help industrial firms understand where through each level toward the goal. It’s about shifting
industrial networks from focusing solely on the organisational silos of the plant automation system to a more
holistic focus on mission, vision and overall business outcomes.

Improving from Restrictive to Functional — Level 1 to Level 2

Restrictive networks often result from disregarding OT/IT best practices in favour of taking shortcuts. This
can include using proprietary fieldbus and tiered networks to save on training and learning time, or using
commercial-grade unmanaged switches to save on costs. Such shortcuts can lead to network sprawl, islands
of data, and security holes.

Elevating the network infrastructure to the Functional level requires a more planned, standards-based
approach, gradually migrating on a priority basis.

These are three key objectives:

1. Spend the time and resources needed to understand the plant-floor environment. Identify physical and
security risks, from the environmental conditions in which the equipment must operate to security holes such
as open computer ports. Also, assess cell/area zone designs and apply best practices, such as using VLANs,
managed switches and resilient topologies.

2. Specify media, grounding and connectivity solutions that satisfy plant-floor requirements. Follow OT
standards such as TIA-1005-A for harsh environment connections. Use IT best practices, such as those
outlined in ANSI/TIA 568-C and TIA-1005-A for structured cabling, which can offer higher cable density,
greater network longevity, and better flexibility than point-to-point cabling.

3. Close security holes in the physical layer. Closing the security holes often found in Restrictive network
architectures requires implementing a physical security foundation. This can include using physical and
virtual segmentation to help limit user access to defined segments, and using lockable enclosures to secure
plant connections.

Evolving from Effective to Innovative — Level 3 to Level 4

Converged IT/OT networks is the defining characteristic of an Innovative network architecture, as it

provides new opportunities for collecting and using data across a manufacturing enterprise, and serves as the
foundation for DiD security. Achieving a fully unified network fabric that can deliver on its full potential
requires scaling the network foundation with adequate bandwidth and structure for the sudden increase of
wired and wireless connections and compute resources at the edge.
These are three key objectives:

1. Assess the network infrastructure’s capability to support the extension of computing and mobile access
capabilities with new IIoT architectures. Designing an infrastructure to support remote-access technology,
for example, can allow engineering specialists to monitor and access equipment from a centralized location,
or allow IT personnel to service plant-floor computers from their desks. Mobile technology can deliver
plant-floor visibility anywhere in a facility — rather than only in a fixed location — for faster responses and
decision-making.

2. Collaborate with IT/OT for network visibility documentation and diagnostic tools for sustainable value
throughout the network life cycle. Use of tools designed for network discovery and documentation of plant
industrial Ethernet networks fills a gap for a comprehensive view of enterprise-to-plant convergence down
to the device level. Likewise, providing plant-floor and operations real-time diagnostics of network alerts
speed troubleshooting and improves plant uptime.

3. Develop test beds and pilots for IIoT architectures that leverage cloud and fog computing for a broader
network fabric that includes gateways and wireless mesh networks. For instance, the cloud might not be an
option for manufacturers when real-time processing of manufacturing data is required. Instead, fog
computing can use intelligent gateways and integrated services routers to provide local, real-time data
processing closer to the machine. Additionally, wireless mesh solutions that connect to the network fabric
can provide opportunities to deploy wireless sensors cost-effectively.

The journey to achieving a fully unified Level 4 network fabric begins with understanding your network’s
current maturity level. Readers can visit: www.panduit.com/mapyourjourney to determine where your
network resides on the model.

Fulfilling the promise

IHS Technology predicts the industrial automation sector will account for nearly three-fourths of all
connected devices by 2025. The potential for value generated by all these industrial connections will drive
new business models, transforming productivity dramatically. The future competitiveness of almost all
manufacturing companies hinges on how rapidly they can embrace convergence and IP technologies.

A unified network fabric based on standard IP with a strong physical infrastructure will serve as the
foundation of tomorrow’s information and connectivity needs, and will support converging the networks to
gain robustness, visibility and reliability. Using maturity models can help guide both the OT staff and IT
staff to accelerate progress to more effective and innovative.

IIoT and network training opportunities

Trained system integrator and installation partners as well as vendor-provided services can help you bridge
the IT and OT gap to support the IIoT.

In addition, through the Industrial IP Advantage online www.industrial-ip.org, you can learn how to
implement and manage networked industrial control systems.