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GCEM
Guidance
Navigation and
Controls
18AE743
Sept-Dec 2023
GCEM – Guidance Navigation and Controls
GCEM
GNC & RADAR

1.1

GCEM
Module -1 VTU Syllabus
 1.1
 Concepts of navigation, guidance and control.
 Introduction to basic principles. Air data information.
 Radar Systems: Principle of working of radar.
 1.2
 MTI and Pulse Doppler radar.
 Moving target detector.
 Limitation of MTI performance.
 MTI from a moving platform (AMTI)
 9 Hours L1, L2

Guidance and Control
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GUIDANCE:
Definition: The determination of a strategy for following the nominal
path in the presence of off- nominal conditions, wind disturbances, and
navigational uncertainties.
CONTROL:
Definition: The determination of a strategy for maintaining the angular
orientation of the vehicle during the flight that is consistent with the
guidance strategy, and the vehicle, crew, and passenger constraints.
The boundaries between these four categories are not very sharp and
they often overlap. For example, consider the aircraft velocity and its
angular orientation. These are coupled and so the guidance and control
of an aircraft must be considered together.

Navigation
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Definition: The determination of a strategy for estimating the position of a
vehicle along the flight path, given the outputs from specified sensors.
 A Navigation system may provide information in a variety of forms,
appropriate to the needs of the aircraft.
 In the Information is primarily for the benefit of the crew, It involves some
type of display
 Other outputs however may involve steerings signals sent directly to the
autopilot or digital information sent to a central computer
 The basic output of any navigation system is position. Position can be given
in geographic co-ordinates- Geodectic Latitude(φ), Geodectic Longitude(λ)
and altitude (h)
 The needs of the navigation systems have become more important in terms
of aircraft for the safe flight. Any Navigation system will take the inputs from
the respective sensors present onboard and calculates the
respective/relative position

Navigation
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Types of Navigation
All position-determination schemes can be classified
 dead reckoning
 Position fixing.
Dead Reckoning
Dead reckoning consists of extrapolation of a ’known’ position to some future time. It
involves measurement of direction of motion and distance travelled. The actual
computation is performed by taking the last known position and the time at which it was
obtained, noting average speed and heading since then and the present time. The speed is
usually resolved to get North and East components and each is multiplied by the time
elapsed since the last position to get distance travelled. This can be added to the initial
position to get the present position.
To perform all these functions the Navigation system requires the following instruments:
(1) A speed measuring device
(2) A heading sensor
(3)A timer and (4) A computer.
Navigation Heading
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N 12.9896
E 77.7127

Five Basic Forms of Navigation
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Dead Reckoning
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Dead reckoning consists of extrapolation of a ’known’ position to some future

time. It involves measurement of direction of motion and distance travelled. The
actual computation is performed by taking the last known position and the time at
which it was obtained, noting average speed and heading since then and the
present time. The speed is usually resolved to get North and East components
and each is multiplied by the time elapsed since the last position to get distance
travelled. This can be added to the initial position to get the present position.
To perform all these functions the Navigation system requires the following
instruments:
(1) A speed measuring device
(2)A heading sensor
(3)A timer and
(4) A computer.

Dead Reckoning 2
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Measurement of speed is usually done using an air-speed meter (which measures the
aircraft’s speed relative to the air and does not take into account the speed of the air
relative to the surface of the earth), or by measuring the ground speed using Doppler
effect (this is done by transmitting three or four beams in different directions toward
the ground and measuring the aircraft’s relative velocity along these beams . Heading
can be measured using a simple magnetic compass, a gyro-magnetic compass, or a
gyrocompass.
Simple integration of unresolved ground speed gives curvilinear distance but cannot
give the position.
The above equations are extremely simplified and are given only to impart an idea of
the principle on which the dead reckoning system works

Position Fixing
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In contrast to dead reckoning, position fixing is the determination

of the position of the craft (a fix) without reference to any former
position. There are three basic methods of fixing position :
1. Map reading
2. Celestial navigation and
3. Measuring range and/or bearing to identifiable points.

Map Reading
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Map reading involves matching what can be seen of the outside world with a map and
is the traditional method of position fixing on land and is also used by general aviation
in clear weather. Modern systems adopting this technique uses a radar to obtain a
picture of the ground from the air and a computer matches it with a map stored in the
form of a digital land mass database. These system are called terrain referenced
navigation aids.

Celestial Navigation
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Celestial navigation has been used by mariners for centuries.

The basis of celestial navigation is that if the altitude of a celestial
object (measured in terms of the angle between the line-of-sight
and the horizontal) of a celestial object is measured then the
observer’s position must lie on a specific circle(called the circle of
position) on the surface of the earth centered on the point on the
earth which is directly below the object. This is shown in Fig.2. If
the time of observation is noted and the celestial object is a star
then this circle can easily be found using astronomical tables and
charts. Sightings on two or more such celestial objects will give
two or more such circles of position, and their intersection will
give the position of the craft. Though in the early days some
aircraft did use celestial navigation this has been abandoned
nowadays in favour of better navigational aids.
GCEM Air-data Measurements
• All of the air-data parameters that are relevant to
flight performance are derived by sensing the
pressure, temperatures, and flow direction
surrounding the vehicle
• Because air is moving past the acft, the pressure at
various places on the acft’s skin may be slightly
higher or lower than free stream
Airborne • Pressure
Sensors • Temperature Air-data
• Flow parameters
direction relevant to flight
performance
Air Data Information
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Air Data Information is provided by the Air data Systems of

Aircraft. Air data systems provide accurate information on
quantities such as pressure altitude, vertical speed, calibrated
airspeed, true airspeed, Mach number, static air temperature and
air density ratio. This information is essential for the pilot to fly the
aircraft safely and is also required by a number of key avionic
sub-systems which enable the pilot to carry out the mission. It is
thus one of the key avionic systems in its own right and forms
part of the essential core of avionic sub- systems required in all
modern aircraft, civil or military.

Air Data System Block Diagram
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Air Data System
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Air Data Measurement
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The air data quantities pressure altitude, vertical speed,

calibrated airspeed, true airspeed, Mach number, etc., are
derived from three basic measurements by sensors connected to
probes which measure:
Total (or Pitot) pressure Static pressure Total (or indicated) air
temperature
The total pressure, PT , is measured by means of an absolute

pressure sensor (or transducer) connected to a Pitot tube facing
the moving airstream. This measures the impact pressure, QC,
that is the pressure exerted to bring the moving airstream to rest
relative to the Pitot tube plus the static pressure, PS, of the free
air stream, i.e., PT = QC + PS.
Basic Principle of INS
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Definitions INS
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RADAR

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RADAR System
RADAR is an electromagnetic based detection system that works by radiating
electromagnetic waves and then studying the echo or the reflected back
waves.
The full form of RADAR is RADIO Detection And Ranging. Detection refers
to whether the target is present or not. The target can be stationary or
movable, i.e., non-stationary. Ranging refers to the distance between the
Radar and the target. Radars can be used for various applications on ground,
on sea and in space.
The applications of Radars are listed below.
Controlling the Air Traffic
Ship safety
Sensing the remote places
Military applications
In any application of Radar, the basic principle remains the same. Let us now
discuss the principle of radar.

RAdio Detection And Ranging
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The radar antenna illuminates the target with a microwave signal,

which is then reflected and picked up by a receiving device. The
electrical signal picked up by the receiving antenna is called echo
or return. The radar signal is generated by a powerful transmitter
and received by a highly sensitive receiver.
Radio Detection And Ranging
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Radar operates by radiating energy

Duplexer
Echo signal
Doppler effect

EM Spectrum
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RADAR Band Usage
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Classification by Function
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Classification of Waveforms
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RADAR Block Diagram
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RADAR System Components
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>Duplexer: An antenna switch that allows the transmit and receive channels to
share the antenna. Often it is a circulator. The duplexer must effectively isolate the
transmit and receive channels.
> Transmitter: Generates and amplifies the microwave signal.

>Low Noise Amplifier(LNA): Amplifies the weak received target echo without
significantly increasing the noise level.
>Mixer: Mixing (or heterodyning) is used to translate a signal to a higher frequency

> Matched Filter: Extracts the signal from the noise
> IF Amplifier: Further amplifies the intermediate frequency signal
> Detector: Translates the signal from IF to baseband (zero frequency)
> Video Amplifier: Amplifies the baseband signal
> Display: Visually presents the radar signal for interpretation by the operator.

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RADAR Pulse Repetition Frequency
Radar signals should be transmitted at every clock pulse. The duration
between the two clock pulses should be properly chosen in such a way that the
echo signal corresponding to present clock pulse should be received before
the next clock pulse. A typical Radar wave form is shown in the following
figure.
As shown in the figure, Radar transmits a periodic signal. It is having a

series of narrow rectangular shaped pulses. The time interval between the
successive clock pulses is called pulse repetition time, 𝑇𝑃 .
The reciprocal of pulse repetition time is called pulse repetition
frequency, 𝑓 .
𝑃
it can be represented as

Beyond Syllabus
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Beyond Syllabus
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Beyond Syllabus
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RADAR Display Types
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RADAR Applications
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RADAR Applications
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RADAR Range
The distance between Radar and target is called Range of the target or simply
range, R. We know that Radar transmits a signal to the target and accordingly
the target sends an echo signal to the Radar with the speed of light, C.
Let the time taken for the signal to travel from Radar to target and back to
Radar be ‘T’. The two way distance between the Radar and target will be 2R,
since the distance between the Radar and the target is R.
Now, the following is the formula for Speed
We can find the range of the target by substituting the values of

C&T
RADAR Crosss Section (RCS)
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RADAR Range Equation

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RADAR Range Equation 2
Equation 6

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RADAR Range Equation 3

Range Equation 4
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Modified Form

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Range Equation 5 RMax

Example of RADAR Cross Section
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RADAR Numerical
Calculate the maximum range of Radar for the following specifications:
• Peak power transmitted by the Radar, 𝑃𝑡 = 250𝐾𝑊

• Gain of transmitting Antenna, 𝐺 = 4000
• Effective aperture of the receiving Antenna, 𝐴𝑒 = 4 𝑚2
• Radar cross section of the target, 𝜎 = 25 𝑚2
• Power of minimum detectable signal, 𝑆𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 10−12𝑊
standard form of Radar range equation is
maximum range of Radar

for given specifications is 𝟏𝟓𝟖 𝑲𝑴

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RADAR Numerical 2
Calculate the maximum range of Radar for the following specifications.
• Operating frequency, 𝑓 = 10𝐺𝐻𝑧
• Peak power transmitted by the Radar, 𝑃𝑡 = 400𝐾𝑊
• Effective aperture of the receiving Antenna, 𝐴𝑒 = 5 𝑚2
• Radar cross section of the target, 𝜎 = 30 𝑚2
• Power of minimum detectable signal, 𝑆𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 10−10𝑊
We know the following formula for operating wavelength, 𝝀 in terms of
operating frequency, f.

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RADAR Numerical 2

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Pulsed RADAR & MTI

1.2
MTI and Pulse Doppler radar. Moving
target detector. Limitation of MTI
performance. MTI from a moving
platform (AMTI).

Beyond Syllabus
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Beyond Syllabus
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Doppler Shift
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Doppler Shift
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Doppler shift is an apparent change in frequency (or wavelength) due to

the relative motion of two objects. Either one or both of the objects may
be moving with respect to the ground. Radar systems exploit the
Doppler shift to provide an indication of relative speed. When the two
objects are approaching each other (closing), the Doppler shift causes a
shortening of wavelength - or increase in frequency. When the two
objects are receding from each other (opening), the Doppler shift causes
a lengthening of wavelength - or decrease in frequency. In case of an
MTI RADAR, when the target is moving towards the RADAR, the
frequency of the echo received from the target increases whereas if the
target is moving away from the RADAR, the frequency of the echo
received from the target decreases. Difference in the transmitted
frequency and received frequency from the target is called as
dopplar frequency and is denoted by fd.
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Continuous wave RADAR
The Radar, which operates with continuous signal or wave is called
Continuous Wave Radar. They use Doppler Effect for detecting non-
stationary targets. Continuous Wave Radars can be classified into the
following two types.
Unmodulated Continuous Wave Radar
Frequency Modulated Continuous Wave Radar
Unmodulated Continuous Wave Radar

The Radar, which operates with continuous signal (wave) for detecting
non-stationary targets is called Unmodulated Continuous Wave Radar or
simply, CW Radar. It is also called CW Doppler Radar.
This Radar requires two Antennas. Of these two antennas, one Antenna is
used for transmitting the signal and the other Antenna is used for
receiving the signal. It measures only the speed of the target but not the
distance of the target from the Radar.

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Continuous Wave RADAR
Frequency Modulated Continuous Wave Radar
If CW Doppler Radar uses the Frequency Modulation,
then that Radar is called the Frequency Modulated
Continuous Wave (FMCW) Radar or FMCW Doppler
Radar. It is also called Continuous Wave Frequency
Modulated Radar or CWFM Radar.
This Radar requires two Antennas. Among which, one
Antenna is used for transmitting the signal and the other
Antenna is used for receiving the signal. It measures not
only the speed of the target but also the distance of the
target from the Radar.

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CW Transmitter: It produces an analog signal having a frequency of 𝑓𝑜 .
The output of CW transmitter is connected to both transmitting antenna and mixer-i .
Local Oscillator: It produces a signal having a frequency of 𝑓 𝑙. The output
of Local Oscillator is connected to Mixer-I.
Mixer-I: Mixer can produce both sum and difference of the frequencies
that are applied to it. The signals having frequencies of 𝑓𝑜 and 𝑓 𝑙 are applied to
Mixer-I. So, the Mixer-I will produce the output having frequencie s 𝑓 + 𝑓 or 𝑓 − 𝑓 .
𝑜 𝑙 𝑜 𝑙
Side Band Filter: As the name suggests, side band filter allows a
particular side band frequencies — either upper side band frequencies or
lower side band frequencies. The side band filter shown in the above figure
produces only upper side band frequency, i.e., 𝑓𝑜 + 𝑓𝑙.
Mixer-II: Mixer can produce both sum and difference of the frequencies
that are applied to it. The signals having frequencies of 𝑓𝑜 + 𝑓𝑙 and 𝑓𝑜 ± 𝑓𝑑 are applied
to Mixer-II. So, the Mixer-II will produce the output having frequencies of 2𝑓 + 𝑓 ± 𝑓 or 𝑓 ± 𝑓 .
𝑜 𝑙 𝑑 𝑙 𝑑
IF Amplifier: IF amplifier amplifies the Intermediate Frequency (IF)
signal. The IF amplifier shown in the figure allows only the Intermediate
Frequency, 𝑓𝑙 ± 𝑓𝑑 and amplifies it.

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Detector: It detects the signal,
which is having Doppler
frequency, 𝑓𝑑
.
Doppler Amplifier: As the

name suggests, Doppler
amplifier amplifies the signal,
which is having Doppler
frequency, 𝑓𝑑
.
Indicator: It indicates the

information related relative
velocity and whether the target
is inbound or outbound.
CW Doppler Radars give
accurate measurement of
relative velocities. Hence,
these are used mostly, where
the information of velocity is
more important than the actual
range.
CW and Pulsed Doppler RADAR
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Pulse RADAR
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Pulse Radar
The Radar, which operates with pulse signal is called the Pulse Radar. Pulse
Radars can be classified into the following two types based on the type of the
target it detects.
Basic Pulse Radar
Moving Target Indication Radar Let us now discuss the two Radars briefly.
Basic Pulse Radar
The Radar, which operates with pulse signal for detecting stationary targets,
is called the Basic Pulse Radar or simply, Pulse Radar. It uses single
Antenna for both transmitting and receiving signals with the help of
Duplexer. Antenna will transmit a pulse signal at every clock pulse. The
duration between the two clock pulses should be chosen in such a way that
the echo signal corresponding to the present clock pulse should be received
before the next clock pulse.
Moving Target Indication Radar
The Radar, which operates with pulse signal for detecting non-stationary
targets, is called Moving Target Indication Radar or simply, MTI Radar. It
uses single Antenna for both transmission and reception of signals with the
help of Duplexer. MTI Radar uses the principle of Doppler effect for
distinguishing the non-stationary targets from stationary objects.
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Pulsed RADAR
Pulse Radar uses
single Antenna for
both transmitting
and receiving of
signals with the
help of Duplexer.
Following is the
block diagram of
Pulse Radar:

Pulse RADAR
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A simple CW radar consists of a transmitter, receiver, indicator, and the necessary

antennas. In principle, the CW radar may be converted into a pulse radar as shown
in Fig. by providing a power amplifier and a modulator to turn the amplifier on and
off for tllc purpose of generating pulses. The chief difference between the pulse
radar and the CW radar is that a small portion of the CW oscillator power that
generates the transmitted pulses is diverted to the receiver to take the place of the
local oscillator. It acts as the coherent reference needed to detect the doppler
frequency shift.

Pulsed RADAR Functional Blocks
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function of each block of Pulse Radar:
Pulse Modulator: It produces a pulse-modulated signal and it is

applied to the Transmitter.
Transmitter: It transmits the pulse-modulated signal, which is a
train of repetitive pulses.
Duplexer: It is a microwave switch, which connects the Antenna
to both transmitter section and receiver section alternately.
Antenna transmits the pulse- modulated signal, when the
duplexer connects the Antenna to the transmitter. Similarly, the
signal, which is received by Antenna will be given to Low Noise
RF Amplifier, when the duplexer connects the Antenna to Low
Noise RF Amplifier

Pulsed RADAR Functional Blocks 2
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Low Noise RF Amplifier: It amplifies the weak RF signal, which is received

by Antenna. The output of this amplifier is connected to Mixer.
Local Oscillator: It produces a signal having stable frequency. The output of
Local Oscillator is connected to Mixer.
Mixer: We know that Mixer can produce both sum and difference of the
frequencies that are applied to it. Among which, the difference of the
frequencies will be of Intermediate Frequency (IF) type.
IF Amplifier: IF amplifier amplifies the Intermediate Frequency (IF) signal.
The IF amplifier shown in the figure allows only the Intermediate Frequency,
which is obtained from Mixer and amplifies it. It improves the Signal to Noise
Ratio at output.
Detector: It demodulates the signal, which is obtained at the output of the
IF Amplifier.
Video Amplifier: As the name suggests, it amplifies the video signal, which is obtained
at the output of detector.
Display: In general, it displays the amplified video signal on CRT screen.

MTI
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The purpose of moving-target indication (MTI) radar is to
reject signals from fixed or slow-moving unwanted targets,
such as buildings, hills, trees, sea, and rain, and retain for
detection or display signals from moving targets such as
aircraft

MTI Block Diagram
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If the Radar is used for detecting the movable target, then the Radar should
receive only the echo signal due to that movable target. This echo signal is
the desired one. However, in practical applications, Radar receives the echo
signals due to stationary objects in addition to the echo signal due to that
movable target.
The echo signals due to stationary objects (places) such as land and sea are
called clutters because these are unwanted signals. Therefore, we have to
choose the Radar in such a way that it considers only the echo signal due to
movable target but not the clutters.
For this purpose, Radar uses the principle of Doppler Effect for distinguishing
the non- stationary targets from stationary objects. This type of Radar is
called Moving Target Indicator Radar or simply, MTI Radar.
According to Doppler effect, the frequency of the received signal will
increase if the target is moving towards the direction of Radar. Similarly, the
frequency of the received signal
will decrease if the target is moving away from the Radar.

MTI Block Diagram
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MTI Block Diagram
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The function of each block of MTI Radar with power amplifier
transmitter is mentioned below.
•Pulse Modulator: It produces a pulse modulated signal and it is
applied to Power Amplifier.
•Power Amplifier: It amplifies the power levels of the pulse
modulated signal.
•Local Oscillator: It produces a signal having stable frequency 𝑓𝑙.
Hence, it is also called stable Local Oscillator. The output of Local
Oscillator is applied to both Mixer- I and Mixer-II.
•Coherent Oscillator: It produces a signal having an Intermediate
Frequency, 𝑓𝐶 . This signal is used as the reference signal. The output
of Coherent Oscillator is applied to both Mixer-I and Phase Detector.
•Mixer-I: Mixer can produce either sum or difference of the
frequencies that are applied to it. The signals having frequencies of 𝑓𝑙
and 𝑓𝑐 are applied to Mixer-I. Here, the Mixer-I is used for producing
the output, which is having the frequency 𝑓𝑙 + 𝑓𝑐.
•Duplexer: It is a microwave switch, which connects the Antenna to
either the transmitter section or the receiver section based on the
requirementthe Antenna to Mixer-II.
.
MTI Block Diagram
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•
•Mixer-II: Mixer can produce either sum or difference of the frequencies that
are applied to it. The signals having frequencies 𝑓𝑙 + 𝑓𝑐 ± 𝑓𝑑 and 𝑓𝑙 are
applied to Mixer-
II. Here, the Mixer-II is used for producing the output, which is having
the frequency 𝑓𝑐 ± 𝑓𝑑 .
•IF Amplifier: IF amplifier amplifies the Intermediate Frequency (IF) signal.
The IF amplifier shown in the figure amplifies the signal having frequency
𝑓𝑐 + 𝑓𝑑 . This amplified signal is applied as an input to Phase detector.
Phase Detector: It is used to produce the output signal having frequency 𝑓𝑑

from the applied two input signals, which are having the frequencies of 𝑓𝑐 +
𝑓𝑑 and 𝑓𝑐. The output of connected to Delay line canceller.

MTI
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The block diagram MTI - Employs a power amplifier

The significant difference between this MTI configuration and that Figure is the
manner in which the reference signal is generated. In Fig.3, the coherent reference is
supplied by at oscillator called the coho, which stands for coherent oscillator. The coho
is a stable oscillator whose frequency is the same as the intermediate frequency used in
the receiver. In addition to providing the reference signal the output of the coho. is also
mixed with the local-oscillator frequency.The local oscillator- must be a stable
oscillator and is called stalo.. The RF echo signal is heterodyned with the stalo signal
to produce the IF frequency just as in the superheterodyne reciever. They serve in both
the receiver and the transmitter mode.The characteristic feature of coherent MTI radar
is that the transmitted signal
must be coherent (in phase) with the reference signal in the receiver. This is
accomplished in the radar

Diff Pulse Doppler and MTI RADAR
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Both this RADAR basically depends on same principle of Doppler frequency

shift.But there are some difference that are some differences. MTI RADAR uses low
pulse repetition frequency while pulse Doppler uses high and medium pulse
repetition frequency. MTI RADAR has no range ambiguity while range ambiguity
may occur in pulse Doppler.
Usually magnetron oscillator is commonly used as transmitter ,in pulse Doppler high
power klyston amplifier is used as transmitter.
MTI RADAR uses analog delay line canceller while in pulse Doppler it uses analog
filter banks.
MTI RADAR receives less clutter signal while pulse Doppler RADAR receives more
clutter signals.

Moving targets distinguished from stationary targets by
observing the video output on an A-scope (amplitude vs. time
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MTI
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The purpose of moving-target indication (MTI) radar is to

reject signals from fixed or slow-moving unwanted targets,
such as buildings, hills, trees, sea, and rain, and retain for
detection or display signals from moving targets such as
aircraft

MTI
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Moving target indication (MTI) is a mode of operation of a

radar to discriminate a target against clutter.
The MTI radar uses Low Pulse Repetition Frequency (PRF)
to avoid range ambiguities.
Radar MTI may be specialized in terms of the type of clutter

and environment:
Airborne MTI (AMTI),

Ground MTI (GMTI), etc., or
may be combined mode: stationary and moving target
indication (SMTI).

Delay Line Canceler
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THE DELAY LINE CANCELLER IS A FILTER IN THE TIME-DOMAIN

THAT REJECTS STATIONERY CLUTTER AT ZERO D0PPLER FREQUENCY.
THE DLC IS USED FOR SWEEP TO SWEEP SUBTRACTION OF TWO
SUCCESSIVE SWEEPS.
MTI- RECIEVER WITH DELAY LINE CANCELER

GCEM Clutter Spectrum

Limitations of MTI
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AMTI
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AN MTI RADAR ON A MOVING PLATFORM THAT

USES TWO METHODS(TACCAR & DPCA) FOR
COMPENSATING FOR PLATFORM MOTION IS
KNOWN AS AN AMTI RADAR

AMTI
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•PERFORMANCE OF A MOVING MTI RADAR CAN BE

DEGRADED BY-
• 1) NON ZERO DOPPLER SHIFT FROM CLUTTER
•2) VARIATION IN CLUTTER SPECTRAL WIDTH
THE ABOVE TWO ARE COMPENSATED BY
•- TACCAR (CLUTTER- LOCK MTI) TIME AVERAGED
CLUTTER COHERENT AIRBORNE RADAR
•
- DPCA (DISPLACED PHASE CENTRE
ENNA) COMPENSATION FOR CLUTTER
DOPPLER SPREAD

AMTI TACCAR
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CLUTTER ECHO ITSELF IS UTILISED TO SET THE FREQ
OF COHO (REF OSC) SO THAT CLUTTER ECHO IS
ATTENUATED. EFFECT OF MOVING CLUTTER (OCEAN
CURRENTS ETC) CAN BE REDUCED BY USING
TACCAR. HOWEVER, BOTH MOVING AND
STATIONARYCLUTTER CAN’T BE REMOVED
SIMULTANEOU• SLY. IN SUCH A CASE ‘DOPPLER FILTER
BANK’ CAN DE
• TECT MOVING TGTS IN THE PRESENCE
OF BOTH MOVING CLUTTER AS WELL AS STATIONARY
CLUTTER, IF THEIR DOPPLER FREQ.SHIFTS ARE
DIFFERENT.

AMTI
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An MTI Radar when used on a moving platform is called

AMTI, where letter A- stands for Airborne
➢When the radar is mounted on a ship or an aircraft and it is
in motion , the detection of a moving target in presence of
clutter becomes more difficult than when it is in stationary
➢The design of an MTI is more difficult with an airborne radar
in comparison to a shipborne radar due to higher speeds, and
greater range of elevation angles
Doppler Frequency:
✓Doppler frequency shift of the clutter varies with direction of
the antenna in azimuth and elevation angles to the clutter Its
spectrum is also widened

MTI from a Moving Platform
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Delay Line Canceler Circuit

Pulsed Waveform
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Range Ambiguity
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Numericals

Numerical
GCEM
Calculate the maximum range of Radar for the following specifications:
Peak power transmitted by the Radar, 𝑃𝑡=250𝐾𝑊
Gain of transmittingAntenna, 𝐺=4000
Effective aperture of the receivingAntenna, 𝐴𝑒=4 𝑚2
Radar cross section of the target, 𝜎=25 𝑚2
Power of minimum detectable signal, 𝑆𝑚𝑖𝑛=10−12𝑊

Numerical 2 ( contd)
GCEM
Calculate the maximum range of Radar for the following specifications.

Operating frequency, 𝑓=10𝐺𝐻𝑧
Peak power transmitted by the Radar, 𝑃𝑡=400𝐾𝑊
Effective aperture of the receiving Antenna, 𝐴𝑒=5 𝑚2
Radar cross section of the target, 𝜎=30 𝑚2
Power of minimum detectable signal, 𝑆𝑚𝑖𝑛=10−10𝑊

Numerical 2
GCEM

Numerical 3
GCEM
If the Radar operates at a frequency of 5𝐺𝐻𝑧, then find the Doppler frequency of an
aircraft moving with a speed of 100KMph.

Numerical 4
GCEM
Calculate the a maximum range of a radar system which operates at 3 cm with a peak pulse power
of 500 kW, if its minimum receivable power is 10-13 W, the capture area of its antenna is 5 m2 and
the radar cross sectional area of the target is 20 Sq m. [JNTU May 2011]

Numerical 4
GCEM
Pulsed radar operating at 10 GHz has an antenna with a gain of 28 dB and a

transmitter power of 2 kW. What is the maximum range of the radar if its defined to
detect a target with a cross section of 12 Sq m and the minimum detectable signal is -
90dBm. [JNTU May 2010] [JNTU May 2009]

Numerical 5
GCEM
Consider for a given radar, if minimum receiver sensitivity is -120dB, trans-mitted

peak power is 100kW, gain of antenna is 30dB, target cross section is 5 square
meter and maximum range of the radar is 300km, calculate the effective area of the
receiving antenna. [JNTU May 2011]

RADAR Numerical
GCEM
Positions of the two aircraft, A and B, are as shown in the figure below. Aircraft A has a
speed of 600 m/sec and carries a CW radar transmitting at 300 MHz frequency and
tracking aircraft B which has a speed of 800 m/sec.
(a) What is the doppler frequency shift recorded by the radar in aircraft A?
(b) Is this shift positive or negative?
(c)What should be the flight direction of aircraft B for the doppler frequency shift to be
zero?

RADAR Numerical
GCEM

GNC module 1 VTU
questions
1. Define the terms; a) Navigation b) Guidance c) Control [ slide no.4]
2. Explain the different types of navigation techniques with a neat
sketch. [slide no.6]
3. Illustrate the basic principle of RADAR. With a neat sketch. [slide
no.22]
4. Explain the MTI RADAR and Pulsed Doppler Radar with a neat
diagram.with there applications and limitations.[slide no. 64].
5. Explain the effect of clutter by calculating the range and describe the
methods To eliminate clutters.[slide no. 75]
6. Derive RADAR Range Equation and explain each of the terms
involved in it.[slide no.40].
7. Define (a) Azimuth (ii) Elevation (iii) Range Ambiguity (iv) Radar
Cross Section with diagram as required.[slide no 84]
8. Calculate the maximum range of a radar system which operates at a
wave length of 3 cm with a peak pulse power of 500 kw, if its
minimum receivable power is 10-13 W, the capture area of its
antenna is 5 m2 and the radar cross sectional area of the target is 20
Sq m.[refer RADAR numericals].

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GCEM

GNC & RADAR

GCEM – Guidance Navigation and Controls

GCEM – Guidance Navigation and Controls

GCEM – Guidance Navigation and Controls

GCEM – Guidance Navigation and Controls

GCEM – Guidance Navigation and Controls

GCEM – Guidance Navigation and Controls

Dead reckoning consists of extrapolation of a ’known’ position to some future

GCEM – Guidance Navigation and Controls

GCEM – Guidance Navigation and Controls

In contrast to dead reckoning, position fixing is the determination

GCEM – Guidance Navigation and Controls

GCEM – Guidance Navigation and Controls

Celestial navigation has been used by mariners for centuries.

Air Data Information is provided by the Air data Systems of

GCEM – Guidance Navigation and Controls

GCEM – Guidance Navigation and Controls

GCEM – Guidance Navigation and Controls

The air data quantities pressure altitude, vertical speed,

The total pressure, PT , is measured by means of an absolute

GCEM – Guidance Navigation and Controls

GCEM – Guidance Navigation and Controls

GCEM – Guidance Navigation and Controls

GCEM – Guidance Navigation and Controls

The radar antenna illuminates the target with a microwave signal,

Radar operates by radiating energy

GCEM – Guidance Navigation and Controls

GCEM – Guidance Navigation and Controls

GCEM – Guidance Navigation and Controls

GCEM – Guidance Navigation and Controls

GCEM – Guidance Navigation and Controls

GCEM – Guidance Navigation and Controls

> Transmitter: Generates and amplifies the microwave signal.

>Mixer: Mixing (or heterodyning) is used to translate a signal to a higher frequency

GCEM – Guidance Navigation and Controls

As shown in the figure, Radar transmits a periodic signal. It is having a

GCEM – Guidance Navigation and Controls

GCEM – Guidance Navigation and Controls

GCEM – Guidance Navigation and Controls

GCEM – Guidance Navigation and Controls

GCEM – Guidance Navigation and Controls

GCEM – Guidance Navigation and Controls

GCEM – Guidance Navigation and Controls

We can find the range of the target by substituting the values of

GCEM – Guidance Navigation and Controls

GCEM – Guidance Navigation and Controls

GCEM – Guidance Navigation and Controls

GCEM – Guidance Navigation and Controls

GCEM – Guidance Navigation and Controls

GCEM – Guidance Navigation and Controls

GCEM – Guidance Navigation and Controls

• Peak power transmitted by the Radar, 𝑃𝑡 = 250𝐾𝑊

standard form of Radar range equation is

maximum range of Radar

GCEM – Guidance Navigation and Controls

GCEM – Guidance Navigation and Controls

GCEM – Guidance Navigation and Controls

Pulsed RADAR & MTI

GCEM – Guidance Navigation and Controls

GCEM – Guidance Navigation and Controls

GCEM – Guidance Navigation and Controls

GCEM – Guidance Navigation and Controls