Unie 2

Sardar Patel College of Engineering,Bakrol
Unit -2
Problems, State Space Search &
Heuristic Search Techniques
Artificial Intelligence (3170716)

Outline
✔ Defining The Problems As A State Space Search
✔ Production Systems
✔ Production Characteristics
✔ Production System Characteristics and Issues in the Design of Search
Programs
✔ Generate-And-Test
✔ Hill Climbing
✔ Best-First Search
✔ Problem Reduction
✔ Constraint Satisfaction
✔ Means-Ends Analysis Artificial Intelligence (3170716)
Defining Problems As A State Space Search
• State space search is a problem-solving technique used in Artificial Intelligence (AI) to find the
solution path from the initial state to the goal state by exploring the various states.
• A state space is a way to mathematically represent a problem by defining all the possible states
in which the problem can be.
• This is used in search algorithms to represent the initial state, goal state, and current state of the
problem.
• Each state in the state space is represented using a set of variables.


State Space Representation
• State:
A state can be an Initial State, a Goal State, or any other possible state that can be generated by
applying rules between them.
• Space:
In an AI problem, space refers to the exhaustive collection of all conceivable states.
• Search:
This technique moves from the beginning state to the desired state by applying good rules while
traversing the space of all possible states.
• Search Tree:
To visualize the search issue, a search tree is used, which is a tree-like structure that represents
the problem. The initial state is represented by the root node of the search tree, which is the
starting point of the tree.

• State Space Representation
• Transition Model:
This describes what each action does, while Path Cost assigns a cost value to each path, an
activity sequence that connects the beginning node to the end node. The optimal option has the
lowest cost among all alternatives.

Production Systems
• A production system is based on a set of rules about behavior.
• These rules are a basic representation found helpful in expert systems, automated planning, and action
selection.
• Production systems are made up of a set of production rules. Each rule has a condition and an action.
The condition is tested to see if it is true. If the condition is true, the action is carried out.
• Production systems are used to create programs that can solve problems.
• The rules in the production system are used to find a solution to the problem. The production system
can be thought of as a set of instructions for solving a problem.

Components of Production Systems
• The components of a production system include:
• 1. A knowledge base: This is a collection of facts and

information that the production system can use to make
decisions.
• 2. Inference engine: This is the part of the system that uses
the knowledge base to make decisions.
• 3. Working memory: This is where the production system

stores information about the current situation.
• 4. Control strategy: This is the set of rules that the

production system uses to decide what actions to take.
Characteristics of Production System
• Declarative knowledge representation
• Production systems use a declarative approach to knowledge representation, meaning that they store
knowledge as a set of facts and rules that define the problem domain.
• Rule-based Reasoning
• Production systems use a set of rules to perform reasoning and decision-making. These rules are
defined in the knowledge base and are used by the inference engine to reach conclusions.
• Modularity
• Production systems are designed to be modular, meaning that the system is divided into different
components that can be easily modified or replaced without affecting the overall system.
• Reactive Behavior
• Production systems are reactive, meaning that they respond to changes in their environment or
problem domain. They can detect changes in the system state and take appropriate actions based on
the available knowledge and rules.

Characteristics of Production System
• Goal-oriented Behavior
• Production systems are goal-oriented, meaning that they are designed to achieve specific goals or
objectives. They can reason about the problem domain to determine the best course of action to
achieve a particular goal.
• Learning Capability
• Some production systems have the capability to learn from experience and improve their performance
over time. They use machine learning algorithms to adapt to changing circumstances and improve
their decision-making capabilities.

Issues in the Design of Search Programs
• Is the problem decomposable into a set of independent smaller or easier sub-problems?
• A very large and composite problem can be easily solved if it can be broken into smaller problems and
recursion could be used.
• Can solution steps be ignored or at least undone if they prove unwise?
• Problem fall under three classes, (i) ignorable, (ii) recoverable and (iii) irrecoverable.
• Is the problem’s universe predictable?
• Problems can be classified into those with certain outcome (eight puzzle and water jug problems) and
those with uncertain outcome (playing cards).
• Is a good solution to the problem obvious without comparison to all other possible solutions?
• There are two categories of problems — Any path problem and Best path problem.
• Is the desired solution a state of the world or a path to a state?
• Consider the problem of natural language processing.

Issues in the Design of Search Programs
• Does the task require interaction with a person?
• The problems can again be categorized under two heads. Solitary in which the computer will be given
a problem description and will produce an answer, with no intermediate communication and with the
demand for an explanation of the reasoning process.
• Conversational, in which there will be intermediate communication between a person and the
computer, either to provide additional assistance to the computer or to provide additional information
to the user, or both, such as medical diagnosis fall under this category, where people will be unwilling
to accept the verdict of the program, if they cannot follow its reasoning.

Generate-And-Test
• 1. Generate a possible solution. For some problems. this means generating a
particular point in the problem space. For others, it means generating a path
from a start state.
• 2. Test to see if this is actually a solution by comparing the chosen point or the
endpoint of the chosen path to the set of acceptable goal states.
• Generate-and-test, like depth-first search, requires that complete solutions be

generated for testing.
• Solutions can also be generated randomly but solution is not guaranteed

Generate-And-Test
• Example – Traveling Salesman Problem (TSP)
• A salesman has a list of cities, each of which he must visit exactly once.
• There are direct roads between each pair of cities on the list.
• Find the route the salesman should follow for the shortest possible round trip that both starts and
finishes at any one of the cities.
• – Traveler needs to visit n cities.
• – Know the distance between each pair of cities.
• – Want to know the shortest route that visits all the cities once.

Generate-And-Test
Length of
Search for Path
Path
1 ABCD 19
2 ABDC 18
3 ACBD 12
4 ACDB 13
5 ADBC 16
Continued

Search Techniques
• Uniformed/Blind Search Control Strategy:
– BFS(Breadth First Search)
– DFS(Depth First Search)
• Informed / Direct Search Control Strategy:

– Best First Search
– Problem Decomposition
– A* , Generate & Test
– Mean end Analysis

BFS & DFS
BFS DFS

BFS v/s DFS
BFS(Breadth First Search) DFS(Depth First Search)
• In BFS Searching of node done in level • In DFS Searching of node done in

wise. depth wise.
• It is implemented using queue. • It is implemented using stack.
• No backtracking is required. • Backtracking is required.
• Never goes in infinite loop. • It get trapped in infinite loop.
• It guaranteed gives best possible • It never gives best possible solution.
solution. • It requires less memory.
• It requires more memory.

Heuristic Search Technique
• Generate and test
• Hill climbing and Steepest-Ascent Hill Climbing
• Best First Search
• A* & AO*
• Constrain Satisfaction
• Means-end analysis

Hill Climbing
• A hill-climbing algorithm is an Artificial Intelligence (AI) algorithm that increases in
value continuously until it achieves a peak solution.
• This algorithm is used to optimize mathematical problems and in real-life
applications like marketing and job scheduling.
• A hill-climbing algorithm is a local search algorithm that moves continuously
upward until the best solution is attained. and comes to an end when the peak is
reached.
• This algorithm has a node that comprises two parts: state and value. It begins with a
non-optimal state (the hill’s base) and upgrades this state until a certain precondition
is met.
Hill Climbing
• The process of continuous improvement of the current state of iteration can be
termed as climbing. So algorithm is termed as a hill-climbing algorithm.
• A hill-climbing algorithm’s objective is to attain an optimal state that is an upgrade
of the existing state. When the current state is improved, the algorithm will perform
further incremental changes to the improved state.

Hill Climbing
Features of a hill climbing algorithm
• Greedy approach: This means that it moves in a direction in which the cost function
is optimized.
• No Backtracking: A hill-climbing algorithm only works on the current state and
succeeding states (future). It does not look at the previous states.
• Feedback mechanism: The algorithm has a feedback mechanism that helps it decide
on the direction of movement (whether up or down the hill). The feedback
mechanism is enhanced through the generate-and-test technique.

Hill Climbing
• Incremental change: The algorithm improves the current solution by incremental
changes.

Limitation of Hill Climbing
• Local maximum: A local maximum is a solution that
surpasses other neighboring solutions or states but is
not the best possible solution.
• Global maximum: This is the best possible solution

achieved by the algorithm.
• Current state: This is the existing or present state.
• Flat local maximum: This is a flat region where the

neighboring solutions attain the same value.
• Shoulder: This is a plateau whose edge is stretching

upwards.

Limitation of Hill Climbing
• Local Maxima: it is a state that is better than all its
neighbour But is not better than some other state.
To overcome local maximum problem
backtracking is required, make a list of visited not
and explore a new path
• Plateau: it is a flat area of the search space in

which whole set of neighboring states have the
same value. To overcome plateau Make a big
jump and randomly select a state far away from
current state.
• Ridge: it is an area of the search space that is higher

than surrounding Areas and that itself has a slope.
To overcome Rigid Apply two or more rules
corresponds to moving in several direction.
Steepest Ascent Hill Climbing
• In Simple hill climbing it consider all the moves from the current state and selects the
best one as the next state. This method is called steepest-ascent hill climbing.
Algorithm:
• Conduct an assessment of the current state. Stop the process and indicate success if it is a
goal state.
• Perform looping on the current state if the assessment in step 1 did not establish a goal state.
• Continue looping to attain a new solution.
• Establish or set a state (X) such that current state successors have higher values than it.
• Run the new operator and produce a new solution.
• Assess this solution to establish whether it is a goal state. If this is the case, exit the program.
Otherwise, compare it with the state (X).
• If the new state has a higher value than the state (X), set it as X. The current state should be
set to Target if the state (X) has a higher value than the current state.
Best First Search
• The Best first search uses the concept of a Priority queue and heuristic search. To search the
graph space, the best first search method uses two lists for tracking the traversal.
• An ‘Open’ list that keeps track of the current ‘immediate’ nodes available for traversal and a
‘CLOSED’ list that keeps track of the nodes already traversed.

Best First Search
Steps of Algorithm:
• Create two empty lists
• Start from the initial node and add it to the ordered open list
• Next the below steps are repeated until the final node or endpoint is reached
– If the open list is empty exit the loop and return a False statement which says that the final node cannot be
reached
– Select the top node in the open list and move it to the closed list while keeping track of the parent node
– If the node removed is the endpoint node return a True statement meaning a path has been found and moving
the node to the closed list

Best First Search
• However if it is not the endpoint
node then list down all the
neighboring nodes of it and add
them to the open list
• According to the evaluation

function re order the nodes.
• The time complexity of the

algorithm is given by O(n*logn).

8-Puzzle Problem
• The empty space can only move in four directions viz.,
• 1. Up
2.Down
3. Right or
4. Left

8-Puzzle Problem

8-Puzzle Problem

8-Puzzle Problem

8-Puzzle Problem

Water Jug Problem
• “You are given two jugs, a 4-liter one and a 3-liter one. Neither has any measuring
markers on it. There is a pump that can be used to fill the jugs with water. How can you
get exactly 2 liters of water into a 4-liter jug.”

Water Jug Problem
• Representation of water Jug Problem in terms of state-space search,
• State: (x, y)
• where x represents the quantity of water in a 4-liter jug and y represents the quantity of
water in a 3-liter jug.
• That is, x = 0, 1, 2, 3, or 4 y = 0, 1, 2, 3
• Start state: (0, 0).
• Goal state: (2, n) for any n.
• Here need to start from the current state and end up in a goal state.

Water Jug Problem
• The solution to Water Jug Problem in Artificial Intelligence
• (0, 0) – Start State

• (0, 3) – Rule 2, Fill the 3-liter jug
• (3, 0) – Rule 9, Pour all the water from the 3-liter jug into the 4-liter jug.
• (3, 3) – Rule 2, Fill the 3-liter jug
• (4, 2) – Rule 7, Pour water from 3-liter jug into the 4-liter jug until the 4-liter jug is full.
• (0, 2) – Rule 5, Empty the 4-liter jug on the ground
• (2, 0) – Rule 9, Pour all the water from the 3-liter jug into the 4-liter jug.

Water Jug Problem
• Production Rules for Water Jug Problem in Artificial Intelligence
1 (x, y) is X<4 ->(4, Y) Fill the 4-liter jug Pour all the water from
(x, y) if X+Y <=4
2 (x, y) if Y<3 -> (x, 3) Fill the 3-liter jug 9 the 3-liter jug into the
and y>0 -> (x+y, 0)
(x, y) if x>0 -> (x-d, 4-liter jug.
3 Pour some water out of the 4-liter jug.
d) Pour all the water from
(x, y) if X+Y<=3
(x, y) if Y>0 -> (d, 10 the 4-liter jug into the
4 Pour some water out of the 3-liter jug. and x>0 -> (0, x+y)
y-d) 3-liter jug.
5 (x, y) if x>0 -> (0, y) Empty the 4-liter jug on the ground Pour the 2-liter water
6 (x, y) if y>0 -> (x,0) Empty the 3-liter jug on the ground 11 (0, 2) -> (2, 0) from the 3-liter jug into
the 4-liter jug.
(x, y) if X+Y >= 4
Pour water from the 3-liter jug into the Empty the 2-liter in the
7 and y>0 -> (4,
4-liter jug until the 4-liter jug is full 12 (2, Y) -> (0, y)
y-(4-x)) 4-liter jug on the ground.
(x, y) if X+Y>=3 and Pour water from the 4-liter jug into the
8
x>0 -> (x-(3-y), 3)) 3-liter jug until the 3-liter jug is full.
Constraint Satisfaction
• Many AI problems can be viewed as problems of constraint satisfaction.
• For example, Crypt-arithmetic puzzle:
• As compared with a straightforward search procedure, viewing a problem as one of the constraint satisfaction can
substantially reduce the amount of search.
• Two-step process:
– Constraints are discovered and propagated as far as possible.
– If there is still not a solution, then search begins, adding new constraints.
• Initial state contains the original constraints given in the problem.
• A goal state is any state that has been constrained “enough”.
Example: The goal is to discover some problem state that satisfies the given set of constraints.

Solving Cryptarithmetic Puzzles
• Decode and solve the below mentioned Crypt Arithmetic problem:
CROSS
+ROADS
_________
DANGER
• Since it is already mentioned that the carry value of resultant cannot be 0 then lets
presume that the carry value of D is 1.
• We know that the sum of two similar values is even, hence R will have an even value
Hence S+S= R
• So R is an even number for sure.
So the value of R can b (0, 2, 4, 6, 8)

• Value of R cannot be 0 as two different values cannot be allotted the same digit,
• (if S=10 then their sum = 20 carry forward 2, then the value of R= 0) which is not
possible.
IF S= 1 :
Not possible since D has the same value.
• IF S = 2 :
• Then R= 4 which is possible
• Hence S= 2 and R= 4
C4+C+R= A+10
C4+C+4= A+10
C4+C>5 (Being the value of carry will be generated when the value of C is greater than 5)
• C= 9
C1+S+D= E
C1+2+1= E Artificial Intelligence (3170716)
• Therefore E= 3
C4+C+R= A+10
C4+9+4= A+10
Therefore A= 3 but it cannot be possible as E= 3
Now lets Consider S+D+C1= E
2+1+0= 3
Therefore E= 3 making C2= 0 since 2+1=3
Now lets consider the equation again:
C+R+C4= A+10
9+4+0= A+10
13= A+10
Therefore A= 3 but E= 3
So A is not equal to 3

• Again considering R= 6 So S= 3 C4= 0
C+R+C4= A+10
9+6+0= A+10
15= A+10
Therefore A= 5
And S+D+C1= E
3+1+0= E therefore E= 4 and C2= 0
Now considering the equation
R+O+C3= N
6+0+C3= N
So 6+0+C3< or equal to 3
Let C3= 1
Then O< or equal to 2

Water Jug Problem
• That is O= 0, 1, 2
Let O =2
Again considering R+O+C3= N
6+2+1= N
Hence N= 9 but C= 9 so N cannot be equal to 9.
Now let N= 8 and C3= 0
Let us consider equation
O+A+C2= G
Therefore G= 7
Hence D= 1, S= 3, A= 5, G= 7, C= 9, O= 2, E= 4, R= 6, N= 8
And C1= 0, C2= 0, C3= 0, C4= 0, C5= 1
Now verifying the above values in the equation we get:
• C5C4C3C2C1


A* Algorithm
• A * algorithm is a searching algorithm that searches for the shortest path between
the initial and the final state.
• sIt is used in various applications, such as maps.
• In maps the A* algorithm is used to calculate the shortest distance between the source
(initial state) and the destination (final state).

• A* Algorithm extends the path that minimizes the following
function-
• f(n) = g(n) + h(n)
• ‘n’ is the last node on the path

• g(n) is the cost of the path from start node to node ‘n’
• h(n) is a heuristic function that estimates cost of the cheapest
path from node ‘n’ to the goal node

A* Algorithm
Step 1:
– Start with OPEN containing only initial node.
– Set that node’s g value to 0, its h’ value to whatever it is, and its f’ value to h’+0 or h’.
– Set CLOSED to empty list.
Step 2: Until a goal node is found, repeat the following procedure:
– If there are no nodes on OPEN, report failure.
– Otherwise select the node on OPEN with the lowest f’ value.
– Call it BESTNODE. Remove it from OPEN. Place it in CLOSED.
– See if the BESTNODE is a goal state. If so exit and report a solution.

– Otherwise, generate the successors of BESTNODE but do not set the BESTNODE to point to them yet.

• Step 3: For each of the SUCCESSOR, do the following:
1. Set SUCCESSOR to point back to BESTNODE. These backwards links will make it possible to recover the path once a
solution is found.
2. Compute g(SUCCESSOR) = g(BESTNODE) + the cost of getting from BESTNODE to SUCCESSOR.
3. See if SUCCESSOR is the same as any node on OPEN. If so call the node OLD.
• Check whether it is cheaper to get to OLD via its current parent or to SUCESSOR via BESTNODE by comparing
their g values.
• If OLD is cheaper, then do nothing. If SUCCESSOR is cheaper then reset OLD’s parent link to point to BESTNODE.
• Record the new cheaper path in g(OLD) and update f‘(OLD).
• If SUCCESSOR was not on OPEN, see if it is on CLOSED. If so, call the node on CLOSED OLD and add OLD to
the list of BESTNODE’s successors.
• If SUCCESSOR was not already on either OPEN or CLOSED, then put it on OPEN and add it to the list of
BESTNODE’s successors.
Compute f’(SUCCESSOR) = g(SUCCESSOR) + h’(SUCCESSOR)

Problem Reduction
• AND-OR graph (or tree) is useful for representing the solution of problems that can be solved by decomposing
them into a set of smaller problems, all of which must then be solved.
• This decomposition or reduction generates arcs that we call AND arcs. One AND arc may point to any numbers
of successor nodes. All of which must then be solved in order for the arc to point solution.
• In order to find solution in an AND-OR graph we need an algorithm similar to best –first search but with the
ability to handle the AND arcs appropriately.
• We define FUTILITY, if the estimated cost of solution becomes greater than the value of FUTILITY then we
abandon the search, FUTILITY should be chosen to correspond to a threshold.

AND-OR Graph

AO* Algorithm
• traverse the graph starting at the initial node and following the current best path, and accumulate the
set of nodes that are on the path and have not yet been expanded.
• Pick one of these best unexpanded nodes and expand it. Add its successors to the graph and compute f
‘ (cost of the remaining distance) for each of them.
• Change the f ‘ estimate of the newly expanded node to reflect the new information produced by its
successors. Propagate this change backward through the graph. Decide which of the current best path.
• The propagation of revised cost estimation backward is in the tree is not necessary in A*
algorithm. This is because in AO* algorithm expanded nodes are re-examined so that the
current best path can be selected.

AO* Example
Advantages of AO*:
It is Complete
Will not go in infinite loop
Less Memory Required
Disadvantages of AO*:
It is not optimal as it does not explore all the path once it find a solution.
What is the difference between A* Algorithm and AO*
algorithm?
• A* algorithm provides with the optimal solution, whereas AO* stops when it finds
any solution.
• AO* algorithm requires lesser memory compared to A* algorithm.
• AO* algorithm doesn't go into infinite loop whereas the A* algorithm can go into an
infinite loop.

Means End Analysis
• Most of the search strategies either reason forward of backward, Often a mixture of the two directions is
appropriate.
• Such mixed strategy would make it possible to solve the major parts of problem first and solve the smaller
problems the arise when combining them together, Such a technique is called Means - Ends Analysis.
• The means -ends analysis process centers around finding the difference between current state and goal state.
• The problem space of means - ends analysis has
– an initial state and one or more goal state,
– a set of operate with a set of preconditions their application and difference functions that computes the
– difference between two state a(i) and s(j).

Means End Analysis
• The means-ends analysis process can be applied recursively for a problem.
• It is a mixture of Backward and forward search technique

• Following are the main Steps which describes the working of MEA technique for solving
a problem.
– First, evaluate the difference between Initial State and final State.
– Select the various operators which can be applied for each difference.
– Apply the operator at each difference, which reduces the difference between the
current state and goal state.

• In the MEA process, we detect the differences between the
current state and goal state.
• Once these differences occur, then we can apply an operator
to reduce the differences.
• But sometimes it is possible that an operator cannot be
applied to the current state.
• So, we create the sub-problem of the current state, in which

operator can be applied, such type of backward chaining in
which operators are selected, and then sub goals are set up to
establish the preconditions of the operator is called Operator
Subgoaling.

Algorithm: Means-Ends Analysis(CURRENT-GOAL)
1. Compare CURRENT to GOAL, if there are no differences between both then return Success and Exit.
2. Else, select the most significant difference and reduce it by doing the following steps until the success or failure
occurs.
a) Select a new operator O which is applicable for the current difference, and if there is no such operator, then
signal failure.
b) Attempt to apply operator O to CURRENT. Make a description of two states.
a) O-Start, a state in which O’s preconditions are satisfied.
b) O-Result, the state that would result if O were applied In O-start.

c) If (First-Part <------ MEA (CURRENT, O-START) And (LAST-Part <----- MEA(O-Result, GOAL), are
successful, then signal Success and return the result of combining FIRST-PART, O, and LAST-PART.

Example (Mean & Analysis)
Step-1: Evaluating the initial state

Step-2:Applying Delete operator
Step-3:Applying Move Operator
Step-4:Applying Expand Operator

8-Puzzle Problem
• N-Puzzle or sliding puzzle is a popular puzzle that consists of N tiles where N
can be 8, 15, 24, and so on.
• In our example N = 8. The puzzle is divided into sqrt(N+1) rows and sqrt(N+1)
columns.
• Eg. 15-Puzzle will have 4 rows and 4 columns and an 8-Puzzle will have 3 rows
and 3 columns.
• The puzzle consists of N tiles and one empty space where the tiles can be
moved.
• Start and Goal configurations (also called state) of the puzzle are provided.
• The puzzle can be solved by moving the tiles one by one in the single empty
space and thus achieving the Goal configuration.
Thank
You!

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Sardar Patel College of Engineering,Bakrol

Artificial Intelligence (3170716)

• Each state in the state space is represented using a set of variables.

Artificial Intelligence (3170716)

Artificial Intelligence (3170716)

Artificial Intelligence (3170716)

Artificial Intelligence (3170716)

• 1. A knowledge base: This is a collection of facts and

• 3. Working memory: This is where the production system

• 4. Control strategy: This is the set of rules that the

Artificial Intelligence (3170716)

Artificial Intelligence (3170716)

Artificial Intelligence (3170716)

Artificial Intelligence (3170716)

• Generate-and-test, like depth-first search, requires that complete solutions be

• Solutions can also be generated randomly but solution is not guaranteed

Artificial Intelligence (3170716)

Artificial Intelligence (3170716)

Artificial Intelligence (3170716)

– DFS(Depth First Search)

• Informed / Direct Search Control Strategy:

– Mean end Analysis

Artificial Intelligence (3170716)

Artificial Intelligence (3170716)

• In BFS Searching of node done in level • In DFS Searching of node done in

Artificial Intelligence (3170716)

Artificial Intelligence (3170716)

Artificial Intelligence (3170716)

Artificial Intelligence (3170716)

Artificial Intelligence (3170716)

• Global maximum: This is the best possible solution

• Current state: This is the existing or present state.

• Flat local maximum: This is a flat region where the

• Shoulder: This is a plateau whose edge is stretching

Artificial Intelligence (3170716)

• Plateau: it is a flat area of the search space in

• Ridge: it is an area of the search space that is higher

Artificial Intelligence (3170716)

Artificial Intelligence (3170716)

• According to the evaluation

• The time complexity of the

Artificial Intelligence (3170716)

Artificial Intelligence (3170716)

Artificial Intelligence (3170716)

Artificial Intelligence (3170716)

Artificial Intelligence (3170716)

Artificial Intelligence (3170716)

Artificial Intelligence (3170716)

• Representation of water Jug Problem in terms of state-space search,

Artificial Intelligence (3170716)

• The solution to Water Jug Problem in Artificial Intelligence

• (0, 0) – Start State

Artificial Intelligence (3170716)

– Constraints are discovered and propagated as far as possible.

• A goal state is any state that has been constrained “enough”.

Artificial Intelligence (3170716)

Artificial Intelligence (3170716)

Artificial Intelligence (3170716)

Artificial Intelligence (3170716)

Artificial Intelligence (3170716)

Artificial Intelligence (3170716)

Artificial Intelligence (3170716)

• ‘n’ is the last node on the path