Intelligence vs Artificial Intelligence

 Intelligence is a property/ability attributed to people, such

as to know, to think, to talk, to learn, to understand.

Intelligence = Knowledge + ability to perceive, feel, comprehend,

process, communicate, judge, learn.

 Artificial Intelligence is an interdisciplinary field aiming at

developing techniques and tools for solving problems that
people at good at.
 Turing Test
• Human beings are
intelligent
• To be called intelligent,
a machine must produce
responses that are
Alan Turing
indistinguishable from
those of a human
 Definitions of AI
Existing definitions advocate everything from replicating human intelligence
to simply solving knowledge-intensive tasks. Examples:
“Artificial Intelligence is a study of complex information processing problems that
often have their roots in some aspect of biological information processing. The
goal of the subject is to identify solvable and interesting information
processing problems, and solve them.” -- David Marr.
“Artificial Intelligence is the design, study and construction of computer programs
that behave intelligently.” -- Tom Dean.
“Artificial Intelligence is the enterprise of constructing a physical symbol system
that can reliably pass the Turing test.” -- Matt Ginsberg.
 Goals of Artificial Intelligence

• Scientific goal: understand the mechanism behind human intelligence.

• Engineering goal: develop concepts and tools for building intelligent
agents capable of solving real world problems. Examples:
– Knowledge-based systems: capture expert knowledge and apply them to
solve problems in a limited domain.
– Common sense reasoning systems: capture and process knowledge that
people commonly hold which is not explicitly communicated.
– Learning systems: have the ability to expend their knowledge based on
the accumulated experience.
– Natural language understanding systems.
– Intelligent robots.
– Speech and vision recognition systems.
– Game playing (IBM’s Deep Blue)
 Why “meaning” is the central concept of AI

• For an entity to be “intelligent”, it must be able to understand the

meaning of information.
• Information is acquired / delivered / conveyed in messages which are
phrased in a selected representation language.
• There are two sides in information exchange: the source (text, image,
person, program, etc.) and the receiver (person or an AI agent). They must
speak the same “language” for the information to be exchanged in a
meaningful way.
• The receiver must have the ability to interpret the information correctly
according to the intended by the source meaning / semantics of it.
 Does AI have applications?
• Autonomous planning and scheduling of tasks
aboard a spacecraft
• Beating Gary Kasparov in a chess match
• Steering a driver-less car
• Understanding language
• Robotic assistants in surgery
• Monitoring trade in the stock market to see if
insider trading is going on
 A rich history
• Philosophy
• Mathematics
• Economics
• Neuroscience
• Psychology
• Control Theory
• John McCarthy- coined the term- 1950’s
Some of the Task Domains of
Artificial Intelligence
Some of the Task Domains of
Artificial Intelligence
Some of the Task Domains of
Artificial Intelligence
 Building a Problem-Solving Program

1. Define the problem precisely.

2. Analyze the problem.
3. Represent the task knowledge.
4. Choose and apply representation and reasoning
techniques.

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A Water Jug Problem

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Production Rules for the Water Jug Problem

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A Water Jug Problem (Cont’d)

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One Solution to the Water Jug Problem

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 To Specify a Problem

1. Define the state space.

2. Specify the initial states.
3. Specify the goal states.
4. Specify the operations.

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 What is a Production System?
• A production system consists of four basic components:
• 1. A set of rules of the form Ci → Ai where Ci is the
condition part and Ai is the action part. The condition
determines when a given rule is applied, and the action
determines what happens when it is applied.
• 2. One or more knowledge databases that contain
whatever information is relevant for the given problem.
Some parts of the database may be permanent, while
others may temporary and only exist during the solution
of the current problem. The information in the databases
may be structured in any appropriate manner.
3. A control strategy that determines the order
in which the rules are applied to the database,
and provides a way of resolving any conflicts
that can arise when several rules match at once.
4. A rule applier which is the computational
system that implements the control strategy and
applies the rules.
 Inference Rules
• Deductive Inference Rule
• Modus Ponens
• Given “A” and “A implies B”, we can conclude “B”:
A
A⇒B
B
• Example:
It is raining
If it is raining, the street is wet
The street is wet
• Abductive Inference Rule
• Abduction
• Given “B” and “A implies B”, it might be
reasonable to expect “A”:
B
A⇒B
A
• Example:
The street is wet
If it is raining, the street is wet
It is raining
 Control strategy
• Requirements of a good control strategy
1. it cause motion
2. it be systematic.
 Algorithm : Breadth-First Search
1. Create a variable called NODE-LIST and set it to the initial
state.
2. Until a goal state is found or NODE-LIST is empty:
(a)Remove the first element from NODE-LIST and call it E. If
NODE-LIST was empty, quit.
(b) For each way that each rule can match the state described in
E do:
– (i) Apply the rule to generate a new state,
– (ii) If the new state is a goal state, quit and return this
state.
– (iii) Otherwise, add the new state to the end of NODE-
LIST
Two Levels of a Breadth-First
Search Tree

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 Advantages and of BFS

• Breadth First Search will not get trapped

exploring blind alley.
• If there is a solution breadth-first-search is
guaranteed to find it. (Furthermore, if there
are multiple solutions, a minimal solution (i.e.
one that requires the minimum number of
steps) will be found.
 Disadvantages of Breadth First
Search
• It requires more memory, as all of the tree
that has so far been generated must be
stored.
• In it all parts of the tree must be examined to
level n before any nodes on level n + 1 can be
examined.
 Algorithm : Depth-First Search

1. If the initial state is a goal state, quit and return success.

2. Otherwise, do the following until success or failure is

signaled:

(a)Generate a successor, E, of the initial state. If there are no

more successors, signal failure.

(b) Call Depth-First Search with E as the initial state.

(c) If success is returned, signal success. Otherwise continue in

this loop.
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A Depth-First Search Tree

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 Advantages of Depth-First Search

• It requires Less Memory since only the nodes

on the current path are stored.
• By chance (or if care is taken in ordering the
alternative successor states), depth first
search may find a solution without examining
much of the search space at all.
 Disadvantages of Depth First
Search
• It may follow a single unfruitful path for a very
long time, perhaps forever, before the path
actually terminates in a state that has no
successors.
• It may find a long path to a solution in one
part of the tree, when a shorter path exist in
some other, unexplored part of the tree.