CS8691 ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE

UNIT I INTRODUCTION
Introduction–Definition - Future of Artificial Intelligence – Characteristics of
Intelligent Agents–Typical Intelligent Agents – Problem Solving Approach to
Typical AI problems.
UNIT II PROBLEM SOLVING METHODS
Problem solving Methods - Search Strategies- Uninformed - Informed -
Heuristics - Local Search Algorithms and Optimization Problems - Searching
with Partial Observations - Constraint Satisfaction Problems – Constraint
Propagation - Backtracking Search - Game Playing - Optimal Decisions in
Games – Alpha - Beta Pruning - Stochastic Games
UNIT III KNOWLEDGE REPRESENTATION
First Order Predicate Logic – Prolog Programming – Unification – Forward
Chaining-Backward Chaining – Resolution – Knowledge Representation -
Ontological Engineering-Categories and Objects – Events - Mental Events
and Mental Objects - Reasoning Systems for Categories - Reasoning with
Default Information
UNIT IV SOFTWARE AGENTS
Architecture for Intelligent Agents – Agent communication – Negotiation and
Bargaining – Argumentation among Agents – Trust and Reputation in Multi-
agent systems.
UNIT V APPLICATIONS
AI applications – Language Models – Information Retrieval- Information
Extraction – Natural Language Processing - Machine Translation – Speech
Recognition – Robot – Hardware – Perception – Planning – Moving
TEXT BOOKS:
1 S. Russell and P. Norvig, "Artificial Intelligence: A Modern Approach‖,
Prentice Hall, Third Edition, 2009.
2 I. Bratko, ―Prolog: Programming for Artificial Intelligence‖, Fourth edition,
Addison-Wesley Educational Publishers Inc., 2011.

2.1
 UNIT-I
INTRODUCTION
1. Define Artificial Intelligence formulated by Haugeland. (Remember)
The exciting new effort to make computers think machines with minds in
the full and literal sense.
2. Define AI (Remember)
The study of how to make computers do things at which at the moment, people are
3. Define Artificial Intelligence in terms of human performance. (Remember)
The art of creating machines that performs functions that require
intelligence when performed by people.
4. Define Artificial Intelligence in terms of rational acting. (Remember)
A field of study that seeks to explain and emulate intelligent behaviors in
terms of computational processes-Schalkoff. The branch of computer
science that is concerned with the automation of intelligent behavior-
Luger&Stubblefield.
5. Define Artificial in terms of rational thinking. (Remember)
 The study of mental faculties through the use of computational models-
Charniak&McDermott.
 The study of the computations that make it possible to perceive, reason
and act-Winston.
6. What does Turing test mean? (Remember)
The Turing test proposed by Alan Turing was designed to provide a
satisfactory operational definition of intelligence. Turing defined intelligent
behavior as the ability to achieve human-level performance in all cognitive
tasks, sufficient to fool an interrogator.
7. What are the capabilities, computer should posses to pass Turing test?
(Remember)
Natural Language Processing: To enable it to communicate successfully in
English.
Knowledge Representation: To store information provided before or during
interrogation.
Automated Reasoning: To use the stored information to answer questions
and to draw new conclusion.

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Machine Language: To adapt new circumstances and to detect and
explorate pattern.
8. Define total Turing test? (Remember)
The test which includes a video signals so that the interrogator can test the
person abilities of the machine
9. What is called materialism? (Remember)
An alternative to dualism is materialism, which holds that the entire world
operates according to physical law. Mental process and consciousness are
therefore part of physical world, but inherently unknowable they are beyond
rational understanding.
10. Define an agent. (Remember)
An agent perceives its environment through sensors and acting upon the
environment through effectors.
11. Define rational agent. (Remember)
A rational agent is one that does the right thing. Here right thing is one that
will cause agent to be more successful. That leaves us with the problem of
deciding how and when to evaluate the agent’s success.
12. Define an Omniscient agent.(Remember)
An omniscient agent knows the actual outcome of its action and can act
accordingly; but omniscience is impossible in reality.
13. What are the factors that a rational agent should depend on at any
given time? (Understand)
1. The performance measure that defines degree of success.
2. Ever thing that the agent has perceived so far. We will call this complete
perceptual history the percept sequence.
3. When the agent knows about the environment.
4. The action that the agent can perform.
14. Define an Ideal rational agent. (Remember)
For each possible percept sequence, an ideal rational agent should do
whatever action is expected to maximize its performance measure on the
basis of the evidence provided by the percept sequence & whatever built-in
knowledge that the agent has.
15. Define an agent program. (Remember)

2.3
Agent program is a function that implements the agents mapping from
percept to actions.
16. Define Architecture. (Remember)
The action program will run on some sort of computing device which is
called as Architecture.
17. List the various type of agent program. (Remember)
 Simple reflex agent program.
 Agent that keep track of the world.
 Goal based agent program.
 Utility based agent program
18. State the various properties of environment. (Remember)
Accessible Vs Inaccessible: If an agent’s sensing apparatus give it access to
the complete state of the environment then we can say the environment is
accessible to he agent.
Deterministic Vs Non deterministic: If the next state of the environment is
completely determined by the current state and the actions selected by the
agent, then the environment is deterministic.
Episodic Vs Non episodic: In this, agent’s experience is divided into
episodes. Each episode consists of agents perceiving and then acting. The
quality of the action depends on the episode itself because subsequent
episode do not depend on what action occur in previous experience.
Discrete Vs Continuous: If there is a limited no. of distinct clearly defined
percepts & action we say that the environment is discrete.
19. What are the phases involved in designing a problem solving agent?
(Remember)
The three phases are: Problem formulation, Search solution, Execution.
20. What are the different types of problem? (Remember)
Single state problem, multiple state problem, Contingency problem,
Exploration problem.
21. Define problem. (Remember)
A problem is really a collection of information that the agent will use to
decide what to do.
23. What is the structure of intelligent agent? (Remember)

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Intelligent Agent=Architecture +Agent Program
24. What are the components of problem? (Remember)
Four components of problem are 1) Initial sate 2) Successor function
3) Goal test 4)Path test
25. Define state space (Remember)
The set of all possible states reachable form the initial state by any sequence
of action is called state space
26. List the steps involved in simple problem solving technique (Remember)
 Goal formulation
 Problem formulation
 Search
 Solution
 Execution phase
PART B
1. How does task environment specified? What are the tasks environments
explain in detail? Describe the various properties of the task
environment.
2. Write PEAS description for at least four agent types.
3. Write the environment characteristics of any four agent type.
4. What is an Agent? Explain in detail about various Agent programs in
detail?
5. What is learning agent? Explain in detail on the characteristics and
applications of learning agents.
PART-C
1. Define problem solving techniques with example
2. List the characteristics of Intelligent agent

ASSIGNMENT QUESTIONS
1. Explain about water jug problem

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 UNIT –II
PROBLEM SOLVING METHODS
1. Define problem. (Remembering)
is a collection of information that the agent will use to decide what to do.
2. How to solve a problem? (Knowledge)
 Define the problem precisely
 Analyze the problem.
 Isolate and represent the task knowledge that is necessary to solve the
problem.
 Choose the best problem solving techniques and apply it to the
particular problem.

3. What are the requirements of Control strategies? (Knowledge)

A good control strategy is that it causes motion and it must be
systematic

4. List the various search strategies. /List some of uninformed search

techniques (Apr/May-2017) (Remember)
a. BFS d. Depth limited search
b. Uniform cost search e. Iterative deepening search
c. DFS f. Bidirectional search

5. Define Heuristic search (Remembering)

A heuristic is a technique designed for solving a problem more quickly
when classic methods are too slow, or for finding an approximate
solution when classic methods fail to find any exact solution.

6. Differentiate BFS & DFS. (Understand)

BFS DFS
BFS Stands for “Breadth First
DFS stands for “Depth First Search”.
Search”.
starts traversal from the root node starts the traversal from the root node
and then explore the search in the and explore the search as far as
level by level manner i.e. as close as possible from the root node i.e. depth
possible from the root node. wise.
uses FIFO (Queue)implementation. uses LIFO(Stack) implementations.
BFS requires more memory compare DFS require less memory compare to
to DFS. BFS.

7. What are the key Dimension to analyze the problem? (Remember)

a. Is the problem decomposable into a set of independent smaller or easier
subproblems?
b. Can solution steps be ignored or least undone if they prove unwise?
c. Is the problems universe predictable?

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d. Is a good solution to the problem obvious without comparison to all other
possible solutions?
e. Is a large amount of Remember absolutely required to solve the problem.
f. Can a computer that is simply given the problem return the solution.

8. Will Breadth First Search always find the minimal solution?

Why?(Apr/May-2018)(Analyse)
breadth-first search always finds a shortest path to a goal. Since each
node can be generated in constant time, the amount of time used by
Breadth first search is proportional to the number of nodes generated,
which is a function of the branching factor b and the solution .

9. What are the Categories of production systems? (Nov/Dec-2017)

(Remember)
Monotonic Nonmonotonic
Partially Commutative Theorem proving Robot Navigation
Not Partially Commutative Chemical synthesis Bridge

10. What is Hill Climbing? (Remember)

Hill Climbing is a variant of generate and test in which feedback from the
test procedure is used to help the generator decide which direction to move
in the search space.

11. What is Steepest-Ascent Hill Climbing? (Remember)

Considers all the moves from the current state and selects the best one as
next state. This method is called steepest ascent hill climbing or gradient
search.

12. What is local maximum? (Remember)

It is a state that is better than all its neighbors but is not better than some
other states farther away. At a local maximum all moves appear to make
thing worse.

13. What are foothills? (Remember)

Local maxima are particularly frustrating because they often occur almost
within sight of a solution, In this case are called foothills.

14. Define plateau (Remembering)

Plateau is a flat area of the search space in which a whole set of neighboring
states has the same value. In this it is not possible to determine the best
direction in which to move by making local comparisons.

15. What is Constraint satisfaction problem? (Remember)

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It is a search procedure that operates in a space of constraint sets. The
initial state contains the constraints that are originally given in the problem
description. It is two step process Constraint are discovered and propagated
as far as possible throughout system, If there is still not a solution search
begins A guess about something is made and added as new constraint
propagation can then occur with this new constraint and so forth.

16. Give example for CSP? (Remember)

i. Crypt arithmetic problem
ii. Map Coloring Problem.

17. State about Performance of various search algorithm.

(Remember)(Apr/May 2019)
Criteria BFS DFS DLS UCS IDS BS

Time bd bm bI bd bd bd/2

Space bd bm bI bd bd bd/2

Optimal Yes No No Yes Yes Yes

Complete Yes No (yes Yes,if I=d Yes Yes Yes

on finite
trees with
no loops)

b-braching factor , d-depth , m- max depth , I – depth limit.

18. List the advantages of Depth first search. (Remember)

1. It requires less memory
2. DFS may find a solution without examining much of the search
space at all.

19. What is ridge? (Apr/May 2016) (Remember)

Special kind of local maximum. It is an area of the search that is higher
than the surrounding areas and itself has the slope.

20. How much knowledge would be required by a perfect program for the
problem of playing chess? (Apr/May 2016) (Remember)
Assume that unlimited computing power is available. Knowledge would be
required by a perfect program
 Rules for determining legal moves
 Control mechanism that implements an appropriate search procedure.
 Good strategy and tactics

21. What is heuristic function.(Nov/Dec-2016) (Remember)

2.8
The heuristic function is a way to inform the search about the direction to a
goal. It provides an informed way to guess which neighbor of a node will lead
to a goal.

22. State the advantages of Breadth First Search?(Nov/Dec-2017)

(Remember)
 Breadth first search will never get trapped exploring the useless path
forever.
 If there is a solution, BFS will definitely find it out.
 If there is more than one solution then BFS can find the minimal one
that requires less number of steps.

23. What is the difference between Simple Hill Generate and Test algorithm
Climbing [ MAY / JUNE 2016 ]
The key difference between Simple Hill Climbing and Generate and Test
algorithm is the use of an evaluation function as a way to inject task-
specific knowledge into the control process.

24. Differentiate uniformed and informed search? [APRIL/MAY 2017]

• Uninformed or blind search strategies uses only the information
available in the problem definition
• Informed or heuristic search strategies uses additional information

PART B
1. Give an example of a problem for which BFS would work better than
DFS. (Demonstrate) Apr/May 2019
2. Give an example of a problem for which DFS would work better than
BFS. (Demonstrate) Nov /Dec 2016
3. Describe a good heuristic function for the following problem
i. Blocks world
ii. Missionaries and cannibals. (Demonstrate)
4. Trace the constraint satisfaction procedure solving the following Crypt
arithmetic problem
CROSS
+ROADS
------------
DANGER (Analysis)(Apr/May 2019)

5. Explain about Hill Climbing in detail. (Demonstrate)

6. Explain the Heuristic functions with examples (Apr/May 2016)
(Demonstrate)
7. Write the algorithm for Generate and Test and simple Hill Climbing.
(Apr/May 2016) (Remember)
8. Solve the given problem. Describe the operators involved in it.
Consider a water Jug problem: You are given two jugs , a 4 gallon one
and a 3 – gallon one. Neighter has any measuring markers on it. There is
a pump that can be used to fill the jugs with water. How can you get

2.9
 exactly 2 gallons of water into the 4-gallon jug? Explicit Assumptions: A
jug can be filled from the pump, water can be poured out of a jug onto
the ground, water can be poured from one jug to another and that there
are no other measuring devices available. (Apr/May 2016) (Nov/Dec-
2017) (Application)
9. Explain the process of simulated annealing with example (Apr/May-2017)
10. i) Write the algorithm for steepest ascent hill climbing (Nov/Dec-2017)
(Remember)
ii) Explain the DFS algorithm with an example. (Demonstrate)
iii) State the characteristics of an AI problem. (Remember)
11. Analyze the following problem with respect to the seven problem
characteristics (Analyze Apr/May 2019)
1.Travelling Salesman problem
2.8-puzzle problem
3.Towers of hanoi
4.Chess
12. Explain AO* algorithm with an example (Remember Apr/May 2019)
13. Explain Means Ends Analysis (Remember)

PART C
1. Explain in detail about A* Algorithm with suitable example.
(Demonstrate)
2. Explain uniformed search strategies with an example. (Demonstrate)
3. Explain informed search strategies with an example(Apr/May-2017).
(Demonstrate)
4. Consider the Blocks World Problem with four blocks A,B,C and D with
the start and goal states given below.

Assume the following two operations: Pick and a block and put it on
table, pick up a block and put it on another block. Solve the above
problem using Hill Climbing algorithm and a suitable heuristic function.
Show the intermediate decisions and states. (Apply)(Apr/May-2018)
5. List and describe the problem characteristics that need to be considered
for selecting appropriate heuristics for a given class of
problems(Remember)(Apr/May-2018)
6. Consider the crypt arithmetic problem shown below. The goal is a
problem state where all letters have been assigned a digit in such a way
that all the initial constraints are satisfied
Problem: (Analysis)(Apr/May-2018)
SEND
MORE

MONEY

7. A diagnostic test has a probability 0.95 of giving a positive result when

applied to a person suffering from a certain disease and a probability

2.10
 0.10 of giving a (false) positive when applied to a non-sufferer.It is
estimated that 0.5% of the population are sufferers.Suppose that the
test is now administered to a person about whom we have no relevant
information relating to the disease(apart from the fact that he/she
comes from the population).Calculate the following probabilities
1. that the test result will be positive
2. that given a positive result the person is a sufferer
3. that given a negative result the person is a non-sufferer
4. that tha person will be misclassified (Analyze)

8. You have 12 litres of apple juice in 12 litres bucket and you want share
with your best friend. But you have all empty 8-litre and an empty 5-
litre bottle. Design the production system for it.(Design)

ASSIGNMENT QUESTIONS
1. Explain briefly various problem characteristics. (Demonstrate)
2. Explain about production characteristics. (Demonstrate)

UNIT III
KNOWLEDGE REPRESENTATION
PART A
1. Define First order Logic? (Remembering)
Whereas propositional logic assumes the world contains facts, first-order
logic (like natural language) assumes the world contains:
Objects: people, houses, numbers, colors, baseball games, wars, …
Relations: red, round, prime, brother of, bigger than, part of, comes
between,… Functions: father of, best friend, one more than, plus, …

2. How can u represent the resolution of predicate logic? / What are

the steps needed to Convert FOL to Clause Form. (Remembering)
1. Eliminate .
2. Reduce the scope of each  to a single term.
3. Standardize variables so that each quantifier binds a unique
variable.
4. Move all quantifiers to the left without changing their relative
order.
5. Eliminate  (Skolemization).
6. Drop .
7. Convert the formula into a conjunction of disjuncts.
8. Create a separate clause corresponding to each conjunct.
9. Standardize apart the variables in the set of obtained clauses.

3. Differentiate between prepositional versus first order logic

(predicate logic). (Understanding)
Using Propositional Logic:
Theorem proving is decidable

2.11
 Cannot represent objects and quantification
Using Predicate Logic:
Can represent objects and quantification
Theorem proving is semi-decidable

4. What are quantifiers? (Remembering)

FOL contains two standard quantifiers called
Universal quantification
 (x) P(x) : means that P holds for all values of x in the domain
associated with that variable
 E.g., (x) dolphin(x) => mammal(x)
Existential quantification
 ( x)P(x) means that P holds for some value of x in the domain associated
with that variable
 E.g., ( x) mammal(x) ^ lays-eggs(x)
 Permits one to make a statement about some object without naming it

5. What are nested quantifiers? (Remembering)

Example-2
“Everybody loves somebody” means that for every person, there is someone
that person loves
x  y Loves(x,y)

6. Explain the connection between  and .(Understanding)

“Everyone likes icecream “ is equivalent “there is no one who does not like
ice cream”
This can be expressed as : x Likes(x,IceCream) is equivalent to
 Likes(x,IceCream)

7. What is Unification. (Remembering)

If the predicate symbols are the same,it attempts to unify two literals
,otherwise cannot be unified.
P(x,x)
P(y,z)
y / x substitute y for x
P(y,y)
P(y,z)
Now we can unify the arguments y and z with the substitution z / y.
The composition is (y / x) (z / y)

2.12
8. Differentiate forward chaining and backward chaining.
(Understanding)
Forward: from the start states.
Forward chaining or data-driven inference works by repeatedly: starting
from the current state, matching the premises of the rules (the IF parts), and
performing the corresponding actions (the THEN parts).Continue until a goal
state is generated.

Backward: from the goal states.

Backward chaining or goal directed reasoning works back from a conclusion
towards the original facts. When a conclusion matches the conclusion of a
rule in the database, the system tries to prove the antecedents of the rule.

9. What factor determines the selection of forward or backward

reasoning approach for an AI problem? (Remembering)
1.More possible start states or goal states?
Move from smaller set of states to the larger
2. Has program to justify reasoning?
Prefer direction that corresponds more closely to the way users think.
3. What kind of events triggers problem-solving?
If it is arrival of a new fact, forward chaining makes sense.
If it is a query to which a response is required, backward chaining is
more natural.
4. In which direction is branching factor greater?
Go in direction with lower branching factor.

10. What is forward chaining? Explain with an example.

(Remembering)
Using a deduction to reach a conclusion from a set of antecedents is called
forward chaining. In other words, the system starts from a set of facts, and a
set of rules, and tries to find the way of using these rules and facts to
deduce a conclusion or come up with a suitable course of action. This is
known as data driven reasoning.

11. What are the approaches to Knowledge representation?

(Remembering)
Good representation should possess the following properties:
1.Representational adequacy: the ability to represent the required
knowledge.
2.Inferential adequacy: the ability to manipulate the knowledge
represented to produce new knowledge corresponding to that inferred
from the original.
3. Inferential efficiency: the ability to incorporate into the knowledge
structure additional information. Focus the attention of inference
mechanism in the most promising direction.
4.Acquisitional efficiency: the ability to acquire new knowledge using
automatic methods wherever possible rather than relying on human
intervention.

2.13
 To date no single system optimizes all of the above

12. Represent the following sentence in predicate form.

(Understanding)
All the childrens likes sweets.
x: childrens(x)  likes(x,sweets)

13. Give the semantic representation of “john gave Mary the

book”.(Understanding)

14. What is Ontological Engineering? (Remembering)

Ontology refers to organizing every thing in the world into hierarch of
categories. Representing the abastract concepts such as
Actions,Time,Physical Objects,and Beliefs is called Ontological
Engineering.

15. How categories are useful in Knowledge representation?

(Remembering)
Categories And Objects
The organization of objects into categories is a vital part of knowledge
representation. Although interaction with the world takes place at the level
of individual objects, much reasoning takes place at the level of categories.

2.14
16. Explain the Ontology of Situation calculus. (Understanding)
Situations are logical terms consisting of the initial situation (usually called
So) and
all situations that are generated by applying an action to a situation. The
function Result(a, s) (sometimes called Do) names the situation that results
when action a is executed in situation s. Figure 10.2 illustrates this idea.
Fluents are functions and predicates that vary from one situation to the
next, such as the location of the agent or the aliveness of the wumpus. The
dictionary says a fluent is something that flows, like a liquid. In this use, it
means flowing or changing across situations. By convention, the situation is
always the last argument of a fluent. For example, lHoldzng(G1, So) says
that the agent is not holding the gold GI in the initial situation So. Age(
Wumpus, So) refers to the wumpus's age in So. Atemporal or eternal
predicates and functions are also allowed. Examples include the predicate
Gold (GI) and the function LeftLeg Of ( Wumpus).

17. What is event calculus? (Remembering)

Time and event calculus
Situation calculus works well when there is a single agent performing
instantaneous, discrete actions. When actions have duration and can
overlap with each other, situation calculus becomes somewhat awkward.
Therefore, we will cover those topics with an alternative for-
EVENTCALCULUS known as event calculus, which is based on points in
time rather than on situations. (The terms "event7' and "action" may be used
interchangeably. Informally, "event" connotes a wider class of actions,
including ones with no explicit agent. These are easier to handle in event
calculus than in situation calculus.)
In event calculus, fluents hold at points in time rather than at situations,
and the calculus is designed to allow reasoning over intervals of time. The
event calculus axiom says that a fluent is true at a point in time if the fluent
was initiated by an event at some time in the past and was not terminated
by an intervening event. The Initiates and Terminates relations play a role
similar to the Result relation in situation calculus; Initiates(e, f , t) means
that the occurrence of event e at time t causes fluent f to become true, while

2.15
Terminates (w , f, t) means that f ceases to be true. We use Happens(e, t) to
mean that event e happens at time t.

18. Define Prolog Programming. (Understanding)

Prolog is a logic programming language. It has important role in artificial
intelligence. Unlike many other programming languages, Prolog is intended
primarily as a declarative programming language. In prolog, logic is
expressed as relations (called as Facts and Rules).

19. State key features of Prolog. (Understanding)

1. Unification : The basic idea is, can the given terms be made to
represent the same structure.
2. Backtracking : When a task fails, prolog traces backwards and tries
to satisfy previous task.
3. Recursion : Recursion is the basis for any search in program.

20. What are all Advantages & Disadvantages of Prolog?

(Remembering)
1. Easy to build database. Doesn’t need a lot of programming effort.
2. Pattern matching is easy. Search is recursion based.
3. It has built in list handling. Makes it easier to play with any algorithm
involving lists.
Disadvantages :
1. LISP (another logic programming language) dominates over prolog with
respect to I/O features.
2. Sometimes input and output is not easy.

21. State the Applications of Prolog. (Understanding)

Prolog is highly used in artificial intelligence(AI). Prolog is also used for
pattern matching over natural language parse trees.

22. Define Reasoning with Reasoning with Default Information.

(Remembering)
In default reasoning, we specify general knowledge and modularly add
exceptions. The general knowledge is used for cases we don’t know are
exceptional. Classical logic is monotonic: If g logically follows from A, it also
follows from any superset of A. Default reasoning is non_monotonic: When
we add that something is exceptional, we can’t conclude what we could
before.
Default reasoning can be modeled using: H is normality assumptions F
states what follows from the assumptions. An explanation of g gives an
argument for g.

PART B
1. Explain in detail about forward and backward chaining algorithm with an
example.(Understanding)
2. Write an sample program in prolog language and name some data types
in prolog programming language? (Remembering)
3. What are the approaches to Knowledge representation? .(Understanding)

2.16
4. Write an algorithm for converting FOL to CNF. .(Understanding)
5. Explain resolution with an example.( Remembering)

PART C
1. Explain Reasoning Systems for Categories and Reasoning with Default
Information.(Remembering)
2. Explain about Mental Events and Mental Objects.( Remembering)

ASSIGNMENT
1. Consider the following sentences: (Apply)
John likes all kinds of food.
Apples are food.
Chicken is food.
Anything anyone eats and isn’t killed by is food.
Sue eats everything Bill eats
a)Translate these sentences into formulas in predicate logic
b)Prove that John likes Peanuts using backward chaining.
c)Convert the formulas of part a into clause form
d)Prove that John likes peanuts using resolution
e)Use resolution to answer the question “What food does Sue eat?”

2. What is Forward Chaining and how does it work? Explain the Forward
Chaining Algorithm for the following facts and prove that “West is a
Criminal”. (Apply)
 It is a crime for an American to sell weapons to hostile nation
 Nono owns some missiles
 All of its missiles were sold to it by Colonel West
 Missiles are weapons
 An enemy of America counts as “hostile”
 West, who is American
 The country Nono, an enemy of America.

UNIT – 4
SOFTWARE AGENTS
PART – A
1. What is a Software Agent? (Remeber)
A Software Agent receives keystrokes, file contents, and network
packets as sensory inputs and acts on the environment by displaying on the
screen, writing files, and sending network packets.
2. What is Intelligent Agent? (Remeber)
An Intelligent Agent is a program that can make decisions or perform
a service based on its environment, user input and experiences. These
programs can be used to autonomously gather information on a regular,
programmed schedule or when prompted by the user in real time.
3. List down the characteristics of Intelligent Agent. (April/May 2017)
(Understand)
Internal Characteristics are
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 Learning/Reasoning: An agent has the ability to learn from previous
experience and to successively adapt its own behaviour to the
environment.
 Reactivity: An agent must be capable of reacting appropriately to
influences or information from its environment.
 Autonomy: An agent must have both control over its actions and
internal states. The degree of the agent’s autonomy can be specified.
There may need intervention from the user only for important
decisions.
 Goal-oriented: An agent has well-defined goals and gradually
influence its environment and so achieve its own goals.
External Characteristics are
 Communication: An agent often requires an interaction with its
environment to fulfil its tasks, such as human, other agents, and
arbitrary information sources.
 Cooperation: Cooperation of several agents permits faster and better
solutions for complex tasks that exceed the capabilities of a single
agent.
 Mobility: An agent may navigate within electronic communication
networks.
 Character: Like human, an agent may demonstrate an external
behaviour with many human characters as possible.
4. What are the design objectives of intelligent agent? (Remember)
An Intelligent agent is one that is capable of flexible autonomous
action in order to meet its design objectives, where flexibility means three
things:
 Reactivity: Intelligent agents are able to perceive their environment,
and respond in a timely fashion to changes that occur in it in order to
satisfy their design objectives.
 Pro-activeness: Intelligent agents are able to exhibit goal-directed
behaviour by taking the initiative in order to satisfy their design
objectives.
 Social ability: Intelligent agents are capable of interacting with other
agents (and possibly humans) in order to satisfy their design
objectives.
5. What are functional and non-functional systems? (Remember)
Functional systems those that simply take some input x, and produce
as output some function f(x) of this input. Compilers are the classic
example of functional systems.
Non-functional systems, this simple model of goal directed programming
is not acceptable, as it makes some important limiting assumptions. In
particular, it assumes that the environment does not change while the
procedure is executing.

2.18
6. Illustrate diagrammatically Taxonomy of agents (Understand)

7. What is Interface Agent? (Remember)

Interface Agent is computer programs that employ artificial
intelligence techniques to provide active assistance to a user with
computer-based tasks. It does not act as an interface or layer between
the user and the application. It behaves as a personal assistant who is
collaborating with the user in the same work environment.
8. What is Information Agent? (Remember)
Software agents that manage the access to multiple, heterogeneous and
geographically distributed information sources. (or) An individual or a
business entity that has the task of providing explanations of various
transactions of another party to relevant persons who need to know the
information.
Information Agent = Internet Agent
9. What is Cooperation Agent? (Remember)
In a cooperative agent several agents attempt, through their
interaction to jointly solve tasks or to maximize utility. Due to the
interactions among the agents, multi-agent problem complexity can rise
rapidly with the number of agents or their behavioural sophistication.
10. What is Transaction Agent? (Remember)
A transaction agent provides third-party services to buyers and
sellers. Considering a real estate agent is, by law, legally bound to assist
only one party in a real estate transaction. Instead of acting as an agent
for the buyer or seller the transaction broker can be described as a
professional assistant.

2.19
 11. Explain the Abstract Architecture for Intelligent Agent.
(Understand)
 Purely Reactive Agents
 Perception
 Agents with State
12. Explain the Concrete Architectures for Intelligent Agent.
(Understand)
 Logic-based Architectures
 Reactive Architectures
 Belief-Desire-Intention Architectures
 Layered Architectures
13. Write a note on the characteristics of Multiagent Environment.
(Understand)
 Multiagent Environments provide an infrastructure specifying
communication and interaction protocols.
 Multiagent Environments are typically open and have no
centralized designer
 Multiagent Environments contain agents that are autonomous and
distributed, and may be self-interested or cooperative.
14. What is communication agent? (Remember)
Agent communication is based on message passing, where agents
communicate by formulating and sending individual messages to each
other. The FIPA ACL specifies a standard message language by setting out
the encoding, semantics and pragmatics of the messages.
15. What is KQML? (Remember)
Knowledge Query and Manipulation Language (KQML) as a common
Agent Communication Language (ACL). KQML defines a high level protocol
for the interaction and communication between agents, based on speech act
theory.
16. Describe the structure of KQML. (Understand)
The elegance of KQML is that all information for understanding the
content of the message is included in the communication itself. The basic
protocol is defined by the following structure
(KQML-performative
:sender <word>
:receiver <word>
:language <word>
:ontology <word>
:content <expression>
..)

17. What is Negotiation? (Remember)

2.20
 Negotiation is a process by which a joint decision is reached by two or
more agents, each trying to reach an individual goal or objective. The Agent
first communicates their positions, which might conflict, and then try to
move towards agreement by making concessions or searching for
alternatives.
18. List the features of Negotiation. (Understand)
 The language used by the participating agents
 The protocol followed by the agents as they negotiate
 The decision process that each agent uses to determine its positions,
concessions and criteria for agreement.
19. List the attributes that a negotiation mechanism should ideally
have. (Understand)
 Efficiency: The agents should not waste resources in coming to an
agreement.
 Stability: No agent should have an incentive to deviate from agree-
upon strategies.
 Simplicity: The negotiation mechanism should impose low
computational and bandwidth demands on the agents.
 Distribution: The mechanism should not require a central decision
maker.
 Symmetry: The mechanism should not be biased against any agent for
arbitrary or inappropriate reasons.
20. When the deal occurs conflict when the agents cannot reach a deal.
(Understand)
The conflict deal D occurs when the agents cannot reach a deal. A
deal d is individually rational if d > D. Deal d is pareto optimal if there is no
deal d' > d. The set of all deals that are individually rational and pareto
optimal is the negotiation set, NS. There are three possible situations:
1. conflict: the negotiation set is empty
2. compromise: agents prefer to be alone, but since they are not, they will
agree to a negotiated deal
3. cooperative: all deals in the negotiation set are preferred by both agents
over achieving their goals alone.
21. What is Logically Consistent. (Remember)
A logically consistent knowledge base is one that is stable at the time
that consistency is determined and in which no logical contradiction exists.
A consistent Knowledge base is one in which no datum is both believed and
disbelieved (or neither), or in which no datum and its negotiation are both.
22. Write a note on Bargaining. (Understand)
In a bargaining setting, agents can make a mutually beneficial
agreement, but have a conflict of interest about which agreement to make.
In classical microeconomics, assumptions of monopoly (or monopsony) or

2.21
perfect competition are often made. A monopolist gets all of the gains from
interaction while an agent facing perfect competition can make no profit.
Real world settings usually do not consist of a finite number of competing
agents, so monopoly nor do perfect competition assumptions strictly apply.
There are two major subfields of bargaining theory: axiomatic and strategic.
23. What is Axiomatic Bargaining Theory? (Remember)
Axiomatic bargaining theory does not use the idea of a solution concept
where the agents' strategies form some type of equilibrium. Instead,
desirable properties for a solution, called axioms of the bargaining solution,
are postulated, and then the solution concept that satisfies these axioms is
sought.
24. What is Strategic Bargaining Theory? (Remember)
Strategic bargaining theory does not postulate desiderata as axioms
on the solution concept. Instead, the bargaining situation is modeled as a
game, and the solution concept is based on analyses of which of the players’
strategies are in equilibrium. It follows that for some games, the solution is
not unique. On the other hand, strategic bargaining theory explains the
behavior of rational utility maximizing agents better than axiomatic
approaches. The latter, are not based on what the agents can choose for
strategies, but instead rely on the agents pertaining to axiomatic, imposed
notions of fairness.
25. Describe the searching techniques in bargaining. (Understand)
There are two searches occurring in bargaining. In the intra-agent
deliberative search, an agent locally generates alternatives, evaluates
them, counter speculates, does look ahead in the negotiation process etc. In
the inter-agent committal search, the agents make (binding) agreements
with each other regarding the solution
26. What is Trust and Reputation in Multi agent? (Remember)
Trust and reputation are central to effective interactions in open multi-agent
systems in which agents, which are owned by a variety of stakeholders,
continuously, enter and leave the system. This openness means existing
trust and reputation models cannot readily be used since their performance
suffers when there are various (unforseen) changes in the environment.
27. List the benefits of Multi Agent system. (Understand)
(I) Modularity: Each agent is specialised in the solution of a particular kind
of problems (leading also to reusability) the complexity of the construction of
agents is reduced the process of solving a complex problem is reduced to
solving easier subproblems
(II) Efficiency Problems can be solved more quickly, due to the inherent
concurrency/parallelism Different agents are working at the same time in
different parts of a problem These subproblems can be independent or
(slightly) dependent Share partial results Coordinate the use of shared
resources

2.22
(III) Reliability: Avoid single point of failure in centralised systems we can
have redundancy Different agents of the same type Different agents that can
do a certain task if an individual agent fails, the other agents can take its
work and re-distribute it dynamically
(IV) Flexibility: Agents can be created/deleted dynamically, depending on
the amount of work to be done, the available resources,etc Agents can
dynamically generate subtasks and look for helping agents Agents with
different skills may dynamically form teams/coalitions to work together
28. What are the steps in distributed problem solving? (Understand)
1. Task Decomposition
2. Task Allocation
3. Task Accomplishment
4. Result Synthesis
29. What is Argumentation? (Remember)
Argumentation can be defined as an activity aimed at convincing of
the acceptability of a standpoint by putting forward propositions justifying
or refuting the standpoint
PART-B
1. Describe in detail about architecture of intelligent agent with a neat
diagram. (Understand)
2. Explain about the abstract architecture of intelligent agent. (Remember)
3. Explain about the concrete architecture of intelligent agent. (Remember)
4. Explain in detail about KQML and KIF formats. (Understand)
5. Describe in detail about how agent communication. Suggest some basic
ideas used in communication with the advanced communication used in
current scenario. (Remember)
6. What is Argumentation? Explain the process how argumentation among
agent’s works and the computational models used. (Remember)
7. Describe about various negotiation models. (Understand)
8. What is Negotiation? Explain about its features and types of
environments used. (Remember)
9. Explain about Multi-Agent systems. How Trust and Reputation achieved
in Multi-Agent System. (Remember)
10. Compare KQML with FIPA ACL. (Understand)
11. Discuss with a case study, how agents are used for information
gathering. (Apply)
PART-C
1. Explain the following Agent Interaction Protocol
i) Blackboard Systems
ii) Multiagent Belief Maintenance (Understand)
2. What are the characteristics of Multiagent Environment. (Understand)
3. Explain
i) If the agents have symmetric bargaining costs

2.23
 ii) If 1's bargaining cost c1 is even slightly smaller than 2's cost c2
iii) If 1's bargaining cost is greater than 2's (Apply)
ASSIGNMENT
1. a) Sketch the requirements of ACL? Explain (Remember)
b) A KQML is called a performative. How? (Understand)
2. "Agents reduces work and information overhead" Justify. (Understand)
3. How does information sharing and coordination happen among agents?
Write the role of software agents in cooperative learning.
(Remember/Understand)
4. a) Explain FIPA Agent Communication specifications that deal with ACL
messages. (Understand)
b) Write the semantics for KQML performatives ask-if.
(Understand/Apply)

UNIT-V
APPLICATIONS
1. Define Language Model (Remember)
Defn-1: A language model can predict the probability of the next word
in the sequence, based on the words already observed in the sequence.
Defn-2: Statistical Language Modeling, or Language Modeling and LM
for short, is the development of probabilistic models that are able to
predict the next word in the sequence given the words that precede it.
Defn-3: Models that assign probabilities to sequences of words are called
language models or LMs
2. List the application of Language Model (Remember)
speech recognition, machine translation, part-of-speech tagging, parsing,
Optical Character Recognition, handwriting recognition, information
retrieval and other applications.
3. What are the types of Language models(Remember)
a. Statistical Language Models: use traditional statistical techniques
like N-grams, Hidden Markov Models (HMM) and certain linguistic
rules to learn the probability distribution of words
b. Neural Language Models: new players and use different kinds of
Neural Networks to model language
4. What is N-gram model(Remember)
A model of the probability distribution of n-letter

2.24
 Or
An n-gram is a subsequence of n items from a given sequence.
 Unigram: n-gram of size 1
 Bigram: n-gram of size 2
 Trigram: n-gram of size 3
5. Define Information Reterival(Remember)
Information retrieval (IR) is the task of finding documents that are
relevant to a user’s need for information
6. What are the characteristics of IR?(Remember)
1. Corpus of documents
2. Queries posed in a query language
3. A Result set
4. A presentation of the result set.
7. What is smoothing n-gram models?(Remember)
The process of adjusting the probability of low-frequency counts
8. Define Laplace/add-one smoothing model(Remember)
add one to all the bigram counts, before normalizing them into
probabilities. Therfore all the counts that used to be zero will now have a
count of 1, the counts of 1 will be 2, and so on.
9. Define backoff smoothing model?(Remember)
 back off” to a lower-order n-gram if we have zero evidence for a higher-
order n-gram
 E.g., In trigram if the evidence is sufficient, stop it , otherwise use the
bigram, otherwise the unigram.
10. Define interpolation smoothing(Remember)
is a backoff model that combines trigram, bigram and unigram models by
linear interpolation.
11. What is perplexity(Remember)
 Measure of how well a model “fits” the test data
 The perplexity (PP for short) of a language model on a test set is the
inverse probability of the test set, normalized by the number of words
12. What is Boolean Keyword model?(Remember)

2.25
 Each word in the document collection is treated as a boolean feature that
is true of a document if the word occurs in the document and false if it
does not
 Search engine returns all documents that satisfy the Boolean expression
13. Define IR scoring Function?(Remember)
A scoring function takes a document and query as input and returns a
numeric scores. The most relevant documents have the highest score.
14. Define BM25(best matching 25) scoring function(Remember)
is a ranking function used by search engines to rank matching documents
according to their relevance to a given search query. It is based on the
probabilistic retrieval framework
15. What is IR System Evalution?(Remember)
Evaluation measures for an information retrieval system are used to
assess how well the search results satisfied the user's query intent.
16. Differeniate precision and recall IR System Evaluation(understand)
Precision
is the fraction of the documents retrieved that are relevant to the user's
information need. (Or) is a measure that shows the proposition of
documents in the result set that are actually relevant

Recall
Measures the propostion of all the relevant documents in the collection
that are in the result set (or) is the fraction of the documents that are
relevant to the query that are successfully retrieved.

17. What is page rank algorithm(Remember)

 PageRank (PR) is an algorithm used by Google Search to rank websites
in their search engine results.
 PageRank works by counting the number and quality of links to a page
to determine a rough estimate of how important the website is. The

2.26
 underlying assumption is that more important websites are likely to
receive more links from other websites.
18. Define HITS(Hyperlink-Induced Topic search) algorithm(Remember)
 Make use of link structure of the web in order to discover and rank pages
relevant for a particular topic.
 It determines two values for a page: its authority, which estimates the
value of the content of the page, and its hub value, which estimates the
value of its links to other pages.
 Ask searh engine uses this algorithm
19. Define information Extraction
is the process of acquiring knowledge by skimming a text and looking for
occurrences of a particular class of object and for relationships among
objects.
20. Define attribute based extraction.(Remember)
It assusmes the entire text to a single object and the task is to extract
attributes of that object.
21. List the advantages of using HMM in Information Extraction?
(Understand)
1. Are probabilistic and thus tolerant ot noise
2. Can be trained from data
22. Define NLP
Natural language processing (NLP) is a subfield of linguistics, computer
science, information engineering, and artificial intelligence concerned
with the interactions between computers and human (natural) languages
23. Define machine translation(Remember)
is the automatic translation of text from one natural language to
another.
24. Define speech recognition(Remember)
is the task of identifying a sequence of words uttered by a speaker, given
the acoustic signal
25. Define robots?(Remember)
are physical agents that perform tasks by manipluation the physical
world

2.27
26. Specify different hardware used by robot(understand)
Sensors, Effectors and processors
27. What do mean by robotic perception(Remember)
is the proces by which robots map sensor measurements into internal
representations of the environment

PART-B
1. Explain in detail about language models(Remember)
2. Write Page ranking algorithm and HITS algorithm(Remember)
3. Expain about information reterival in detail(Remember)
4. Define different hardwares used by robots(Remember)
5. Define different planning methods in Robots(Remember)
PART-C
1. Explain different component used in Natural Language
processing(Remember)
2. Define perception systems in Robot(Remember)
3. How movement happen in Robot(Remember)

ASSIGNMENT QUESTIONS
1. Explain in detail about Hidden markov model for information
reterival(Remember)
2. Explain about machine translation(Remember)
3. Elucidate speech recoginition(Remember)

2.28