Machine Learning - Notes

DS1303-Introduction to Artificial Intelligence Department of ADS & AML 2022-2023
UNIT I INTRODUCTION
Introduction–Definition – Foundation and History of AI - Future of Artificial Intelligence –
Characteristics of Intelligent Agents–Agents and Environments – Nature of Environments –
Structure of Agents - Typical Intelligent Agents
UNIT I / PART- A
1. Define Artificial Intelligence.
The study of how to make computers do things at which at the moment, people are better.
 Systems that think like humans.
 Systems that act like humans.
 Systems that think rationally.
 Systems that act rationally.
2. Differentiate Natural Intelligence from Artificial Intelligence
Natural Intelligence Artificial Intelligence
Exhibited by human beings Programmed by humans in machines
Highly refined and no electricity required to It exists in computer system, so electrical
generate output. energy is required for activation of output.
No one is an expert. We can get better Expert system exists , which collect ideas
solution from one another of human beings
3. What is meant by a Turing Test?
A Turing Test is a method of inquiry in artificial intelligence (AI) for determining
whether or not a computer is capable of thinking like a human being. The test is named
after Alan Turing.
4. What are the capabilities, computer should possess to pass Turing test?
 natural language processing -to enable it to communicate successfully in English
 knowledge representation - to store what it knows or hears
 automated reasoning - to use the stored information to answer questions and
to draw new conclusions
 machine learning - to adapt to new circumstances and to detect and extrapolate
patterns.
5. What is meant by Total Turing Test ?
The test which includes a video signals so that the interrogator can test the perceptual
abilities of the machine is termed Total turing test. The Turing Test is a deceptively simple
method of determining whether a machine can demonstrate human intelligence. If a machine
can engage in a conversation with a human without being detected as a machine, it has
demonstrated human intelligence.
6. What are the capabilities computers needs to pass total Turing test?
 Computer vision - to perceive objects.
 Robotics - to manipulate objects and move about.
7. What are software agents?
An agent is anything that can be viewed as perceiving its environment through sensors and
acting upon that environment through actuators. A software agent receives keystrokes, file
contents and network packets as sensory inputs and acts upon the environment by
displaying on the screen, writing files, and sending network packets.
8. What is a rational agent?
An agent which acts in a way that is expected to maximize to its performance measure,
given the evidence provided by what it perceived and whatever built-in knowledge it
has. Such intelligent agents are also known as Rational Agents. Rational agents in AI are
closely related to intelligent agents, autonomous software programs that display
intelligence.
St. Joseph’s College of Engineering Page 1 of 16
9. Why are condition-action rules important in the design of an agent?
Rules are used to represent relationships. Rule-based knowledge representation employs
IF condition (premise antecedent) THEN action statements. (goal consequent)
For example: IF the heating element glows AND the bread is always dark
THEN the toaster thermostat is broken
When the problem situation matches the IF part of a rule, the action specified by the
THEN part of the rule is performed.
10. Give the structure of an agent in an environment
Structure of an agent is as follows
11. State the concept of rationality (or) List down the characteristics of rational agents?
An artificial intelligence system is rational if it is able to do the right thing based on what
it knows or has learned.
What is rational at any given time depends on four things:
 The performance measure that defines the criterion of success.
 The agent's prior knowledge of the environment.
 The actions that the agent can perform.
 The agent's percept sequence to date
12. How to measure the performance of an agent?
Performance measure of an agent is the criteria, which determines how successful an
agent is. Performance measure of an agent is obtained by analyzing two tasks. They are
How and When actions. Thus the performance of an agent can be measured.
13. Define Omniscience and information Gathering.
An Omniscience agent knows the actual outcome of its actions and can act accordingly.
But omniscience is impossible in reality. Doing actions in order to modify future precepts
sometimes called information gathering.
14. What is important for task environment?
The following are the important parameters for task environment
 Performance measure – evaluates the behaviour of the agent in an environment.
 Environment - Set of students testing Agency
 Actuators - Display exercises suggestions, corrections.
 Sensors - Keyboard entry
15. List the properties of environments.
The various properties of environment are as follows
 Fully Observable Vs Partially Observable
 Deterministic Vs Stochastic.
 Episodic Vs Sequential.
 Static Vs Dynamic.
 Discrete Vs Continuous.
 Single Agent Vs Multi agent.
 Competitive Multi agent.
 Co – operative Multi agent.
16. List the different type of agents.
Agents can be grouped into four classes based on their degree of perceived intelligence
and capability
 Simple Reflex Agents
 Model-Based Reflex Agents
 Goal-Based Agents
 Utility-Based Agents
 Learning Agent
17. Give Structure of Simple Reflex Agent
18. How can the performance of an agent are improved.

Performance of any agent can be improved by learning. Learning is a process that
improves the knowledge of an Artificial intelligent program by making observations
about its environment.
19. What are the applications of AI?
Astronomy, Planning, Computer vision, General game playing, Data Security, Automotive
Industry, Natural language processing, Robotics are some applications of Artificial
Intelligence.
20. Name the elements of an agent and list out the characteristics of Intelligent agent. (Apr 21)
An agent is anything that can be viewed as perceiving its environment through sensors and
acting upon that environment through actuators.
Characteristic of Intelligent Agent

 The agent's prior knowledge of the environment.
 The performance measure that defines the criterion of success.
 The actions that the agent can perform.
 The agent's percept sequence to date.
UNIT I / PART - B
1. What are the four approaches of Artificial Intelligence? Explain in detail.
2. Explain in detail about Agents and Environment.
3. Explain Problem Solving Agent. Describe the components of a Problem with an example.
4. Explain PEAS specification of the task environment of an agent.
5. Mention the various types of AI Agents. Explain any two Agents in detail.
6. Describe Model based Reflex Agent and Goal based Agent with necessary diagrams.
7. Explain 8 – queens and 8 Puzzle problem in detail.

8. For each of the following activities, give a PEAS description and characterize it in terms of
the properties.
• Exploring the subsurface oceans of Titan.
• Playing soccer.
• Taxi Driver
• Performing a high jump.
• Bidding on an item at an auction
9. Consider the given problem. Describe the process involved in it. Consider the water jug
problem: you are given two water jugs, a 4 gallon one and 3 gallon one. Neither has any
measuring marker on it. There is a pump that can be used to fill the jugs with water. How can
you get exactly 2 gallon of water from the 4-gallon jug? Explicit.
Assumptions: A jug can be filled from the pump, water can be poured from one jug to another
and that there are no other measuring devices available.
10. Define Artificial Intelligence (AI). Explain the techniques of AI and describe the characteristics
of Artificial Intelligence.
UNIT II PROBLEM SOLVING METHODS
Problem solving Methods - Search Strategies- Uninformed - Informed - Heuristics - Local
Search Algorithms and Optimization Problems - Searching with Partial Observations -
Constraint Satisfaction Problems – Constraint Propagation - Backtracking Search - Game
Playing – Optimal Decisions in Games – Alpha - Beta Pruning
UNIT II / PART- A
1. What are the components to define a problem? Define them.
A problem can be defined by five components:
a. Initial state: that the agent starts in.
b. Actions: description of the possible actions available to the agent
c. Transition model: a description of what each action does.
d. Goal test: determines whether a given state is a goal state.
d. Path cost: function that assigns numeric cost to each path.
2. Define graph and path.
The state space forms a directed network or graph in which nodes are states and the links
between the nodes are actions. A path in the state space is a sequence of states connected
by a sequence of actions.
3. What is an optimal solution?
A solution to a problem is an action sequence that leads from initial state to goal state.
A solution quality is measured by the path cost function and an optimal solution has the
lowest path cost among all solutions. If a solution found for an algorithm is guaranteed to
be the best solution among all other solutions, then optimal solution is obtained.
4. List the criteria to measure the performance of search strategies.
The criteria to measure the performance of search strategies are:
a. Completeness: is the algorithm guaranteed to find a solution when there is one?
b. Optimality: does the strategy find the optimal solution?
c. Time complexity: how long does it take to find a solution?
d. Space complexity: how much memory is needed to perform the search?
5. State the significance of using heuristic functions.
A heuristic function is used to estimate the cost of cheapest path from node n to a goal
node. A heuristic function, or simply a heuristic, is a function that ranks alternatives in
search algorithms at each branching step based on available information to decide which
branch to follow.

6. Define heuristics.
Heuristics is the study of the methods and rules of discovery and invention. In state
space search, heuristics define the rules for choosing branches in a state space that are
most likely to lead to an acceptable solution.
7. Differentiate uninformed search and informed search Algorithms
Basis of comparison Informed search Uninformed search
Uses knowledge to find the
Basic knowledge No use of knowledge
steps to the solution.
Highly efficient as consumes
Efficiency Efficiency is mediatory
less time and cost.
Cost Low Comparatively high
Finds the solution more Speed is slower than the
Performance
quickly. informed search.
Heuristic depth-first and Depth-first search, breadth-
Algorithms breadth-first search, and first search, and lowest cost
A* search first search
8. Define Breadth first search.
Breadth first search is a simple strategy in which the root node is expanded first, then
all the successors of the root node are expanded next, then their successors, and so on. In
general all the nodes are expanded at a given depth in the search tree before any nodes
at the next level are expanded. BFS is an algorithm for searching a tree data structure for a
node that satisfies a given property. It starts at the tree root and explores all nodes at the
present depth prior to moving on to the nodes at the next depth level.
9. Define Depth first search.
Depth first search always expands the deepest node in the current frontier of the search
tree. The search proceeds immediately to the deepest level of the search tree, where the
nodes have no successors. As the nodes are expanded, they are dropped from the frontier,
so then the search “backs up” to the next deepest node that still has unexplored successors.
10. Define iterative deepening depth-first search.
Iterative deepening search often used in combination with depth-first tree search, finds
the best depth limit. This is done by gradually increasing the limit- first 0, then 1, then 2
and so on until a goal is found. This occurs when the depth limit reached‘d’, the depth
of the shallowest goal node. In general, it is the preferred uninformed search method
when the search space is large and the depth of the solution is not known.
11. Define bi-directed search.
Bidirectional search is used to run two simultaneous searches – one forward from the
initial state and the other backward from the goal, stopping when the two searches meet
in the middle. The motivation is that bd/2+bd/2 is much less than bd.
12. Define alpha-beta pruning.
Alpha–beta pruning is a search algorithm that seeks to decrease the number of nodes
that are evaluated by the minimax algorithm in its search tree. It is an adversarial search
algorithm used commonly for machine playing of two-player games (Tic-tac-toe, Chess,
Go, etc.). It stops evaluating a move when at least one possibility has been found that
proves the move to be worse than a previously examined move. Such moves need not be
evaluated further. It achieves greater accuracy by eliminating sub trees that are provably
irrelevant.

13. Define Best-First search.
Best first search is an instance of general Tree-Search or Graph-Search algorithm, in
which a node is selected for expansion based on the evaluation function, f(n). The
evaluation function is defined as a cost estimate, so the node with the lowest evaluation
is expanded first. The best-first algorithms include a component of ‘f’ a heuristic
function denoted by h(n).
14. Define Hill climbing search algorithm.
The hill climbing search algorithm is simply a loop that continually moves in the direction
of increasing value. It terminates when it reaches a “peak” where no neighbor has a
higher value. The algorithm does not maintain a search tree, so the data structure for the
current node need only record the state and the value of the objective function. It does
not look beyond the immediate neighbors of the current state.
15. Define A* search algorithm.
A* search evaluates nodes by combining g(n), the cost to reach the node, and h(n), the
cost to get from the node to the goal : f(n)=g(n)+h(n) . g(n) - path cost from the start node
to node n. h(n) - estimated cost of the cheapest path from n to the goal. f(n) - estimated cost
of the cheapest solution through n.
16. What do you mean by local maxima with respect to search technique?
Local maxima are a peak that is higher than each of its neighboring states, but lower
than the global maximum. Eg: Hill climbing algorithms that reach the vicinity of a local
maximum will be drawn towards the peak
17. Define Local Search algorithm.
Local search algorithms operate using a single current node rather than multiple nodes
and move only to neighbors of that node. The paths followed by the search are not
retained.
18. List out the advantages of local search algorithms.
 They use a very little memory usually a constant amount.
 They can often find reasonable solutions in large or infinite state spaces for
which systematic algorithms are unsuitable.
19. Define Greedy best-first search.
Greedy best-first search tries to expand the node that is closest to the goal, on the grounds
that is likely to lead to a solution quickly. Thus it evaluates nodes by using the
heuristic function f(n)=h(n). This equivalency is what makes the search algorithm
‘greedy.’
20. List the disadvantages of hill climbing.
 Local Maxima
 Ridges
 Plateaux
21. Define Game.
A game can be defined by the initial state(how the board is set up), the legal actions in
each state, the result of each action, a terminal test (which says when the game is over)
and a utility function that applies to terminal state. Game Playing is an important domain
of artificial intelligence. The only knowledge we need to provide is the rules, legal moves
and the conditions of winning or losing the game.
22. List out the classification of CSP with respect to constraints.
 Unary constraint CSP restricts the value of a single variable.
 Binary constraint CSP relates two variables
 Global constraint CSP involves an arbitrary number of variables.

23. Define Minimax algorithm.
The minimax algorithm computes the minimax decision from the current state. It uses a
recursive computation of the minimax values of each successor state, directly
implementing the defining equations. The recursion proceeds all the way down to the
leaves of the tree and then the minimax vales are backed up through the tree as
the recursion unwinds.
24. Define a CSP.
Constraint satisfaction problems (CSPs) are mathematical questions defined as a set of
objects whose state must satisfy a number of constraints or limitations. A constraint
satisfaction problem or CSP is defined as a set of variables, X1, X2,……,Xn and a set of
constraints C1, C2,……,Cm. Each variable Xi has a nonempty domain Di of possible
values. Each constraint Ci involves some subset of the variables and specifies the
allowable combinations of values for that subset.
25. List out the types of assignment in CSP problem and explain each.
The various types of assignment in CSP are as follows
 Consistent or legal assignment an assignment that does not violate any
constraints.
 Complete assignment is one in which every variable is assigned and a solution
to CSP is consistent.
 Partial assignment assigns values to only some of the variables.
UNIT II /PART- B
1. Explain Depth First Search and BFS with example.
2. What are the five Uninformed search strategies? Explain any two in detail with example
3. Explain Iterative Deepening Search in detail
4. Explain A* Search Algorithm in detail
5. Describe Hill Climbing Search with example
6. Select the next move for MAX using minmax (putting a X)
7. Describe Minmax algorithm with an example.

8. Give a detailed note on Alpha Beta Pruning
9. What are the components of CSP? Describe Map Coloring with an example
10. Explain Cryptarithmetic problem with an example
11. Solve using Constraint Satisfaction Problem and explain the procedure for solving CSP
(i) SEND
+ MORE
MONEY
(ii) TWO
+ TWO
FOUR
UNIT III KNOWLEDGE REPRESENTATION
First Order Predicate Logic – Prolog Programming – Unification – Forward Chaining-
Backward Chaining – Resolution – Knowledge Representation - Ontological Engineering-
Categories and Objects – Events - Mental Events and Mental Objects - Reasoning Systems
for Categories - Reasoning with Default Information
UNIT III / PART - A
1. Define Universal quantifier
The expression: ∀x P(x), denotes the universal quantification of the atomic formula P(x).
Translated into the English language, the expression is understood as: "For all x, P(x)
holds" or "for every x, P(x) holds". ∀ is called the universal quantifier, and ∀x means all
the objects x in the universe.
2. Represent the following sentence in predicate form “All the children likes sweets”.
First-order logic is also known as Predicate logic or First-order predicate logic.
∀x Likes (x,sweets)
3. What is first-order logic?
The first-order logic is sufficiently expressive to represent a good deal of our commonsense
knowledge. It also either subsumes or forms the foundation of many other representation
languages.
4. Define Existential quantifiers.
The expression: ∈x P(x), denotes the existential quantification of P(x). Translated into the
English language, the expression could also be understood as: "There exists an x such
that P(x)" ∈ is called the existential quantifier, and ∈x means at least one object x in the
universe.
5. What is Prolog?
PROLOG (PROgramming in LOGic) is a logic programming language. It is based on the
first-order predicate calculus. A PROLOG interpreter systematically makes inferences
from a set of facts and rules specified in Horn clause notation, a notation equivalent to
first order predicate calculus. PROLOG is based on a proof procedure known as
resolution theorem proving, which was developed in 1965 by J. A. Robinson. PROLOG
uses a declarative programming approach.
6. What are the elements and symbols of First order logic.
The basic syntactic elements of first-order logic are the symbols that stand for objects,
relations, and functions. The symbols, therefore, come in three kinds: constant
symbols, which stand for objects; predicate symbols, which stand for relations; and
function symbols, which stand for functions.
7. Define terms.
A term is a logical expression that refers to an object. Constant symbols are therefore
terms, but it is not always convenient to have a distinct symbol to name every object. The
whole term refers to the object that appears as the (n+1)th entry in that type in the relation
whose first n elements are objects referred to by the arguments.
8. What are the three families of First-order inference algorithms?
The three families of First-order inference algorithms are,
 Forward chaining and its application to deductive databases and production
systems
 Backward chaining and logical programming systems
 Resolution-based theorem proving.
9. Define Atomic sentence
An Atomic sentence is formed from a predicate symbol optionally followed by an
parenthesized list of terms such as
Brother (Richard, John)
This states that Richard is the brother of John. An atomic sentence is a type of declarative
sentence which is either true or false (may also be referred to as a proposition, statement
or truth bearer) and which cannot be broken down into other simpler sentences.

10. Define complex sentences
Complex sentence is defined as the one which uses propositional logic and quantified
sentences as connectives for relating any two simple sentences. The connectives are
11. What are the four parts of knowledge in first-order logic?

The four parts of knowledge in first-order logic are,
 A set of clauses known as set of support;
 A set of usable axioms that are outside the set of support;
 A set of equations known as rewrites or demodulators;
 A set of parameters and clause that defines the control strategy
12. State the use of unification. (OR) What is the significance in using the unification
algorithm?
Unification is used to determining the substitutions needed to make two predicate calculus
expressions match.
 All variables must be universally quantified.
 Existentially quantified variables may be eliminated by replacing them with
constants that make the sentence true.
For example, in ∃X mother(X,bill), we can replace X with a constant designating bill's
mother, ann, to get: mother(ann, bill).
The UNIFY algorithm takes two sentences and returns a unifier for them if one
exists: UNIFY(p,q)=θ where SUBST(θ,p)=SUBST(θ,q)
13. Define the first order definite clause.
First-order definite clauses closely resemble propositional definite clauses: they are
disjunctions of literals of which exactly one is positive. A definite clause either is atomic
or is an implication whose predecessor is a conjunction of positive literals and whose
consequent is a single positive literal. The following are first-order definite clauses:
King(x) ∧ Greedy(x) ⇒ Evil(x)
King(John)
Greedy(y)
14. Define Semantic networks
Semantic networks provide graphical aids for visualizing a knowledge base and
efficient algorithms for inferring properties of an object on the basis of its category
membership. A semantic network, or frame network is a knowledge base that represents
semantic relations between concepts in a network. A semantic network is a graphic
notation for representing knowledge in patterns of interconnected nodes.
15. Define Processes
Categories of events with this property are called process categories or liquid event
categories. Any process e that happens over an interval also happens over any subinterval:
(e ∈ Processes) 𝖠 Happens(e, (t1, t4)) 𝖠 (t1 < t2 < t3 < t4) ⇒ Happens(e, (t2, t3)) .
16. What is data-driven search?
Data-driven search is also called forward chaining. The problem solver begins with the
given facts and a set of legal moves or rules for changing the state. Search proceeds by
applying rules to facts to produce new facts. This process continues until it generates a
path that satisfies the goal condition.
17. Define Ontology Engineering
Ontology engineering in computer science, information science and systems engineering
is a field which studies the methods and methodologies for building ontologies.
Ontology engineering is one of the areas of applied ontology, and can be seen as an
application of philosophical ontology.
18. Compare forward chaining and backward chaining
Forward Chaining Backward Chaining
Forward chaining starts from known facts and Backward chaining starts from the goal and
applies inference rule to extract more data unit works backward through inference rules to
it reaches to the goal. find the required facts that support the goal.
Forward Chaining is a bottom-up approach It is a top-down approach
Forward Chaining is known as data-driven Backward chaining is known as goal-driven
interference technique as we reach to the goal technique as we start from the goal and divide
using the available data into sub-goal to extract the facts.
Forward Chaining reasoning applies a Backward Chaining reasoning applies a depth-
breadth-first search strategy. first search strategy
Forward Chaining tests for all the available Backward Chaining only tests for few required
rules rules.
Forward Chaining is suitable for the planning, Backward Chaining is suitable for diagnostic,
monitoring, control and interpretation prescription and debugging application
application.
Forward Chaining can generate an infinite Backward Chaining generates a finite number
number of possible conclusions of possible conclusions
19. Define Resolution
The generalized resolution interference rule provide a complete proof system for first order
logic, using Knowledge bases in conjunction normal form.
20. Define Event Calculus
Event calculus reifies fluents and events. The fluent At(Shankar , Berkeley) is an object that refers
to the fact of Shankar being in Berkeley, but does not by itself say anything about whether it
is true. To assert that a fluent is actually true at some point in time we use the predicate
T, as in T(At(Shankar , Berkeley), t).
UNIT III/ PART- B
1. Explain the syntax and semantics of First Order Predicate Logic
2. What is predicate logic? Explain Predicate logic representation with suitable examples
3. Explain Wumpus world problem using First order logic.
4. Explain Substitution and Unification with examples
5. Explain Forward Chaining in detail with example.
6. “The law says that it is a crime for an American to sell weapons to hostile nations. The country
Nono, an enemy of America, has some missiles, and all of its missiles were sold to it by
ColonelWest, who is American”. Prove that West is a criminal by Resolution.
7. “Marcus was a man. Marcus was a Pompeian. All Pompeians were Romans. Caesar was a
ruler. All Romans were either loyal to Caesar or hated him. Everyone is loyal to someone.
People only try to assassinate rulers to whom they are not loyal. Marcus tried to assassinate
Caesar”. Query: Does Marcus hate Caesar? Prove by Resolution.
8. Consider the following cts Team India
 Team Australia
 Final match between India and Australia
 India scored 350 runs, Australia scored 350 runs
 India lost 5 wickets, Australia lost 7 wickets
 The team which scored maximum runs, wins
 If the scores are same the team which lost minimum wickets wins the match.
Represent the facts in predicate, convert to Clause form and prove by Resolution “India wins
the match”
9. Consider the following sentences:
Marcus was a man
Marcus was a Pompeian
Marcus was born in 40 AD
All men are mortal
All Pompeian’s died the Volcano erupted in 79 AD
No mortal lives for more than 150 years
i) Convert them to Clause form.
ii) Answer the question“ Is Marcus dead now” . Clearly state the assumption made.
10. Explain Categories and Objects, Events in Ontological Engineering
UNIT IV PLANNING
Planning – Introduction – Planning Problem – Planning with State Space Search – Partial
Order Planning – Construction and Use of Planning Graphs – Conditional Planning –
Continuous Planning – Multi Agent Planning.
UNIT IV/ PART - A
1. What is planning?
Planning refers to the process of computing several steps of a problem solving procedure
before executing any of them. The task of coming up with a sequence of actions that will
achieve a goal is called Planning.
2. What are the functions of planning systems?
Planning systems are problem-solving algorithms that operate on explicit propositional (or
first-order) representations of states and actions. These representations make possible the
derivation of effective heuristics and the development of powerful and flexible algorithms for
solving problems.
3. Define ADL
In artificial intelligence, Action description language (ADL) is an automated planning and
scheduling system in particular for robots. It is considered an advancement of STRIPS. It is an
example of an action language
In ADL, Fly action is represented as follows
Action (Fly(p:Plane, from:Airport, to:Airport)
4. How does a Planning agent differ from a Problem Solving Agent?
 Representation of goals, states, actions
 Use of explicit, logical representations
 Way it searches for solutions
5. What are the components of a planning system?
Components of a planning system are as follows:
1. Choose the best rule to apply next based on the best available heuristic information.
2. Apply the chosen rule to compute the new problem state that arises from its application.
3. Detect when a solution has been found.
4. Detect dead ends so that they can be abandoned and the system's effort directed in more
fruitful directions.
5. Detect when an almost correct solution has been found and employ special techniques to
make it totally correct.
6. List some well-known AI Planners
Some of the well known AI Planners are as follows
 STRIPS (Fikes and Nilsson, 1971): theoremproving system
 ABSTRIPS (Sacerdoti, 1974): added hierarchy of abstractions
 HACKER (Sussman, 1975): use library of procedures to plan
 NOAH (Sacerdoti, 1975): problem decomposition and plan reordering

7. What are Strips?
Strips or Stanford Reseach Institute Problem Solver is an automated planner.An strips instance
consists of
 An initial state
 The specification of the goal states – situations which the planner is trying to reach
 A set of actions. For each action, the following are included:
o preconditions (what must be established before the action is performed)
o postconditions (what is established after the action is performed)
8. Define STRIPS action schema
An action schema includes:
 action name & parameter list (variables)
 precondition: a conjunction of function-free positive literals. Any variables in it must
also appear in parameter list
 effect: a conjunction of function-free literals (positive or negative)
(i)add-list: positive literals (ii)delete-list: negative literals
9. Differentiate STRIPS and ADL
STRIPS language describes actions in terms of their preconditions and effects and describes
the initial and goal states as conjunction of positive literals. The ADL Language relaxes some
of these constraints, allowing disjunction, negation and quantifiers.
10. What are the challenges of AI and Planning
 Closed world assumption: assumes that world model contains everything the robot
needs to know
 Frame problem: how to represent real world situations in a manner that is
computationally tractable
11. What are the types of planner?
Situation space planner: search through possible situations
Progression planner: start with initial state, apply operators until goal is reached
Regression planner: start from goal state and apply operators until start state reached.
12. Define Progression Planning
Planning with forward space search is similar to the problem solving approach. This is called
Progression Planning because it moves in the forward direction. From initial state, search
forward by selecting operators whose preconditions can be unified with literals in the state.
New state includes positive literals of effect; the negated literals of effect are deleted. Search
forward until goal unifies with resulting state. This is a state-space search using STRIPS
operators
13. Define Regression Planning
The goal state must unify with at least one of the positive literals in the operator’s effect. Its
preconditions must hold in the previous situation, and these become sub goals which might
be satisfied by the initial conditions. It performs backward chaining from the goal. This is just
state-space search using STRIPS operator. Searching backwards is called Regression Planning.
14. What is the need of POP algorithms?
Partial-order planning (POP) algorithms explore the space of plans without committing to a
totally ordered sequence of actions. They work back from the goal, adding actions to the plan
to achieve each subgoal. They are particularly effective on problems amenable to a divide-
and-conquer approach.
15. Define Planning graph
A Planning graph can be constructed incrementally, starting from the initial state. A special
data structure called a planning graph can be used to give a better heuristic estimate. A
planning graph consists of a sequence of levels that correspond to time steps in the plan, where
level 0 is the initial state. Each level contains a set of literals and a set of actions.
16. Define Conditional Planning
Conditional Planning is a way to deal with uncertainty by checking what is actually
happening in the environment at predetermined points in the plan. Conditional plans allow
the agent to sense the world during execution to decide what branch of the plan to follow.
17. What is contingency planning?
Contingency planning is otherwise called as conditional planning. It deals with incomplete
information by constructing a conditional plan that accounts for each possible situation or
contingency that could arise. The agent finds out which part of the plan to execute by
including sensing actions in the plan to test for the appropriate conditions. For example, the
shopping agent might want to include a sensing action in its shopping plan to check the price
of some object in case it is too expensive
18. Define Continuous Planning
A continuous planning agent creates new goals as it goes and reacts in real time. In this
planning, the planner at first achieves the goal and then only can stop. A continuous planner
is designed to persist over a lifetime. It can handle any unfavorable circumstances in the
environment.
19. Define Planning Graph
A special data structure called a Planning graph can be used to give better heuristic estimates.
A planning graph consists of a sequence of levels that correspond to time steps in the plan,
where level 0 is the initial state. Each level contains a set of literals and a set of actions. Planning
graphs work only for propositional planning problems.
20. Define Multiagent Planning
In multiagent planning some other new agents may involve with the single agent in the
environment. Multiagent planning is necessary when there are other agents in the
environment with which to cooperate, compete or coordinate. Multi-agent planning
(MAP) deals with planning systems that reason on long-term goals by multiple collaborative
agents which want to maintain privacy on their knowledge.
UNIT IV/PART- B
1. List out the planning terminologies and components of planning
2. Explain in detail the basic representational language of classical planner STRIPS.
3. Explain in detail the components of STRIPS for the given scenario: “Transportation of Air Cargo
between Airports”
4. Consider the problem of changing a flat tire. The goal is to have a good spare tire properly
mounted onto the car’s axle, where the initial state has a flat tire on the axle and a good spare
tire in the trunk. To keep it simple, our version of the problem is an abstract one, with no sticky
lug nuts or other complications. There are just four actions: removing the spare from the trunk,
removing the flat tire from the axle, putting the spare on the axle and leaving the car unattended
overnight. Write the STRIPS and find out the solution.
5. Explain Planning with state space search
6. Describe Partial Order Planning with an example
7. How do you construct and use a Planning Graph
8. Explain the Planning methods used in Nondeterministic Domains
9. Describe Continuous Planning
10. Explain Multiagent Planning with example.
UNIT -V EXPERT SYSTEMS
Expert Systems – Architecture of expert systems, Roles of expert systems – Knowledge
Acquisition – Meta Knowledge, Heuristics – Typical expert systems - MYCIN, DART, XOON,
Expert systems shells.
UNIT -V /PART-A

1. What is Expert system?
Expert systems are computer programs that are derived from a branch of computer
science research called AI. The programs that achieve expert level competence in solving
problems in task areas by bringing to bear a body of knowledge about specific tasks are
called expert systems or knowledge base.
2. What are the most important aspects of expert systems?
 The knowledge base
 The reasoning or inference engine
3. What are the characteristics of expert systems?
 Expert systems use the knowledge rather than data to control the solution process.
 The knowledge is encoded and maintained as an entity separate from the control
program.
 They explain how a particular conclusion was reached.
 They use symbolic representations for knowledge and perform their inference
through symbolic computation.
 They often reason with Meta knowledge.
4. What is the use of expert systems building tools?
The use of expert system building tools is to build an expert system using a piece of
development software known as a tool or shell.
5. Define knowledge acquisition process
Knowledge acquisition is the programs that interact with the domain experts to extract
expert knowledge efficiently. These programs provides support for the following
activities
 Entering knowledge.
 Maintain knowledge base consistency.
 Ensuring knowledge base completeness
6. What are the stages in the development of expert system tools?
 Knowledge base.
 Inference process.
 Explaining how and why.
 Building a knowledge base.
 The I/O interface
7. What is meta knowledge?
The term meta-knowledge is possible to interpret as knowledge about knowledge. These
search control knowledge can be represented declaratively using rules
8. What are the players in expert system?
There are three main players in expert system . They are: Expert, Knowledge Engineer and
User
9. What are the advantages of Expert system?
Availability: Expert systems are available easily due to mass production software.
Cheaper: The cost of providing expertise is not expensive.
Reduced danger: They can be used in any risky environments where humans cannot work
with.
Permanence: The knowledge will last long indefinitely.
Multiple expertises: It can be designed to have knowledge of many experts.
10 What is MOLE?
MOLE works for systems which classify cases as instances of fixed categories, such as a
fixed number of possible diagnoses. It builds an inference network similar to belief
networks.
11. List out the limitations of expert system?
 Not widely used or tested
 Limited to relatively narrow problems
 Cannot readily deal with “mixed” knowledge
 Possibility of error
 Cannot refine own knowledge base
 Difficult to maintain
 May have high development costs
 Raise legal and ethical concerns
12. What are applications of Expert Systems?
 Credit granting
 Information management and retrieval
 AI and expert systems embedded in products
 Plant layout
 Hospitals and medical facilities
 Help desks and assistance
 Employee performance evaluation
 Loan analysis
13. What is expert system shell?
The Expert System Shell is essentially a special purpose tool that is built in line with the
requirements and standards of particular domain or expert-knowledge area applications.
It may be defined as a software package that facilitates the building of knowledge-based
expert systems by providing a knowledge representation scheme and an inference engine
The Shell refers to the software module containing an interface, an inference engine, and
a structured skeleton of a knowledge base (in its empty state) with the appropriate
knowledge representation facilities.
14. What is XCON?
The R1 (internally called XCON, for eXpertCONfigurer) program is a production-rule-
based system written in OPS5 by John P. McDermott of CMU in 1978 to assist in the
ordering of DEC's VAX computer systems by automatically selecting the computer system
components based on the customer's requirements. The development of XCON followed
two previous unsuccessful efforts to write an expert system for this task, in FORTRAN
and BASIC.
15. Define DART?
The Dynamic Analysis and Replanning Tool, commonly abbreviated to DART, is an
artificial intelligence program used by the U.S. military to optimize and schedule the
transportation of supplies or personnel and solve other logistical problems. DART uses
intelligent agents to aid decision support systems located at the U.S. Transportation and
European Commands
16. What are the properties of Expert system?
Availability: Expert systems are available easily due to mass production software.
Cheaper: The cost of providing expertise is not expensive.
Reduced danger: They can be used in any risky environments where humans cannot work
Permanence: The knowledge will last long indefinitely.
Multiple expertises: It can be designed to have knowledge of many experts.
Explanation: They are capable of explaining in detail the reasoning that led to a conclusion.
Fast response: They can respond at great speed due to the inherent advantages of
computers over humans.
Unemotional and response at all times: Unlike humans, they do not get tense, fatigue or
panic and work steadily during emergency situations.
17. What is MYCIN?
MYCIN was an early expert system that used artificial intelligence to identify bacteria
causing severe infections, such as bacteremia and meningitis, and to recommend
antibiotics, with the dosage adjusted for patient's body weight — the name derived from
the antibiotics themselves, as many antibiotics have the suffix "-mycin". The Mycin system
was also used for the diagnosis of blood clotting diseases.
18. List out the issues in knowledge Acquisition
 knowledge is in the head of experts
 Experts have vast amounts of knowledge
 Experts have a lot of tacit knowledge
 Experts are very busy and valuable people
 One expert does not know everything
 Knowledge has a "shelf life
19. Name some early expert systems
DENDRAL – used in chemical mass spectroscopy to identify chemical constituents
MYCIN – medical diagnosis of illness
DIPMETER – geological data analysis for oil
PROSPECTOR – geological data analysis for minerals
XCON/R1 – configuring computer systems
20. What are the advantages of the MYCIN
 It reduces the time taken to solve the problem
 It includes the knowledge of many experts , its more accurate than a single expert
 It improves customer/patient services and the standing of the expert
 Can predict future problems and solve current ones
 It saves the company money due to faster service time
UNIT-V / PART-B
1. Explain the architecture of an expert system in detail with a neat diagram and an example
2. With neat sketch explain the architecture, characteristic features and roles of expert system
3. Explain the basic components and applications of expert system
4. Discuss about the Knowledge Acquisition process in expert systems
5. Write notes on Meta Knowledge and Heuristics in Knowledge Acquisition
6. Explain in detail about the expert system shell
7. Write notes on expert systems MYCIN, DART and XCON and how it works? Explain
8. Explain the need, significance and evolution of XCON expert system
9. Explain Rule-based system architecture and Blackboard system Architecture
10. Design an expert system for Travel recommendation and discuss its roles

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DS1303-Introduction to Artificial Intelligence Department of ADS & AML 2022-2023

18. How can the performance of an agent are improved.

Characteristic of Intelligent Agent

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7. Describe Minmax algorithm with an example.

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11. What are the four parts of knowledge in first-order logic?

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