The current issue and full text archive of this journal is available on Emerald Insight at:

https://www.emerald.com/insight/1759-0833.htm

Meaning of
When modesty meets fashion: hijab
how social media and influencers
change the meaning of hijab

ba Özbölük
Zerrin Karakavak and Tug 2907
Department of Marketing, Yozgat Bozok University, Yozgat, Turkey
Received 14 May 2021
Revised 18 August 2021
18 December 2021
8 June 2022
Abstract Accepted 12 November 2022
Purpose – This study aims to examine the functions of hijab fashion among hijab-wearing women and
explore the role of social media and influencers in hijab fashion.
Design/methodology/approach – The authors conducted in-depth interviews with 29 hijab-wearing
women in Turkey. The authors collected data in June–November 2020.
Findings – Findings show that hijab fashion functions as encouragement, attraction, modesty and social
image among Turkish Muslim women. This study also shows that social media and influencers change the
meaning of the hijab while promoting hijab fashion. Findings reveal that Instagram boutiques act as digital
fashion magazines, which enable women to integrate faster into popular culture today. While influencers have
increased the number of hijab-wearing women, they have also turned the hijab into a commodity in the
market by degenerating its true meaning.
Research limitations/implications – This study has several limitations regarding the sample and
geographic context of consumers. This study may not represent Turkish Muslim women’s behavior as our
sample consists of 29 women. Therefore, larger samples are needed to generalize our findings. Undertaking
cross-cultural studies will also enable marketers to make cultural comparisons.
Practical implications – This study offers some insights for Islamic marketing practitioners in terms of
influencer using in hijab fashion.
Originality/value – This study adds to the previous research on hijab fashion and hijab consumption on
Instagram. This study also extends the previous literature by examining the role of social media and
influencers in hijab fashion. Findings revealed that the hijab is gradually losing its spiritual value by
becoming a commodity packaged and marketed through Instagram and influencers.
Keywords Hijab fashion, Modest fashion, Hijabista, Influencer, Islamic fashion marketing,
Social media
Paper type Research paper

Introduction
Several scholars use the term Islamic fashion (Gökariksel and Secor, 2013; Lewis, 2007, 2013)
to describe the combination of Islamic clothing practices and contemporary fashion. Muslim
consumers see religion and daily life integrated and do not separate these two phenomena
(Alserhan, 2010). Therefore, those who define themselves as religious and want to separate
themselves from the secular segment and want to live their lifestyles have created an Islamic
version of consumption (Sandikci, 2017). From halal products and services to Islamic
fashion, Islamic consumerism is expanding all around the world (Hassan and Harun, 2016).
The notions of Islam and fashion often remain in a contradictory relationship. While
fashion is a dynamic phenomenon, religion is a static element of culture (Nestorovic, 2016). Journal of Islamic Marketing
Vol. 14 No. 11, 2023
pp. 2907-2927
Conflict of interest: On behalf of all authors, the corresponding author states that there is no conflict © Emerald Publishing Limited
1759-0833
of interest. DOI 10.1108/JIMA-05-2021-0152
JIMA As the profound and sacred universe of infinite values and temperance, Islam does not fit
14,11 into fashion that is qualified with instant change and liquidity (Moors, 2007). There is a
contradiction between fashion and modesty. A Muslim woman should wear clothes that
cover her body, conceal her body shape and contrast sharply with modern fashion, which
focuses on presenting feminine beauty (Nestorovic, 2016). While the hijab aims to protect
women from the male gaze and keep women from being attractive, fashion is a concept
2908 based on looking attractive through clothes. However, fashion, which has been associated
with western modernity, now manifests itself in Islamic fashion practices with the rise of the
visibility of Islam in the west (Lewis, 2015a, 2015b; Saeed et al., 2020). Therefore, the concept
of hijab, which has changed in line with modernization, faces a new definition and image
that unites the consumption culture and fashion and keeps up with the requirements of the
contemporary age.
The demand of conservative young women for both modest and fashionable clothing
options led to the emergence of companies specialized in hijab fashion or modest fashion,
which is a fashion trend including looser and longer clothes designed for women who want
to dress modestly (Adewunmi, 2011). According to the State of Global Islamic Economy
Report 2020, Muslim consumers spent $270bn on modest fashion in 2017. The report
estimates that sales will reach $361bn by 2023 and $402bn by 2024. The hijab fashion
market continues to grow with gathering demand from many Muslim countries and
attracting the attention of mainstream fashion actors. Many mainstream fashion brands are
also doing business for modest fashion and make their campaigns more inclusive in this
market.
With the existence of modern fashion, the meaning of hijab is undergoing a
reconstruction process. However, the reconstruction of the hijab meets a period that fits into
the global fashion trends. Therefore, for many, fashion seems to have contaminated the
authentic meaning of the hijab (Grine and Saeed, 2017). In the last two decades, the meaning
of hijab has been gradually shifting from a religious ritual to a fashion style (Kiliçbay and
Binark, 2002; Al-Qasimi, 2010; Abaza, 2007; Almila, 2016; El-Bassiouny, 2018). Hijab also
has an important role in determining social class and fashion communication (Al-Qasimi,
2010).
As a communication tool, Muslim women represent their individuality and style via their
hijab while following Islamic rules (Potts, 2009). In this context, hijab fashion provides a
sense of elegance and a trendy style for Muslim women (Hassan and Harun, 2016).
Alanadoly and Salem (2021) argue that hijabistas are willing to pay premium prices for
products with better design and reflect their social-identity. An increasing number of
fashion designers endeavored to fill the gap in the fashion market by establishing online
stores (Independent, 2019). The hijab fashion industry has started to grow steadily with the
increase in online shopping among Muslim female consumers. Fashion blogs and social
media influencers have also accelerated this growth alongside e-commerce (Peterson, 2016).
Fashion blogs and social media have become essential for the success of modest fashion
designers and entrepreneurs (Lewis, 2015a, 2015b). A recent study (Pemberton and Takhar,
2021) shows that the increasing visibility of hijab bloggers particularly affects the attitudes
of young millennials.
However, there is a scarcity of research on understanding the role of social media and
influencers in hijab fashion. Although there are limited studies (Lewis, 2013; Peterson, 2016;
Williams and Nasir, 2017; Kavakci and Kraeplin, 2017) examining the fashionable hijab
influencers, their influence on Muslim women has not received the attention of marketing
scholars. In this regard, this paper aims to understand how hijab fashion functions among
Turkish Muslim women and how social media and influencers play a role in hijab fashion.
The paper tries to fill a gap in the literature by understanding the role of social media and Meaning of
influencers in hijab fashion from a consumer-based perspective. hijab
In this paper, our context is hijab fashion in Turkey. Turkey is a key player in the hijab
fashion market, which influences neighboring countries and Muslims in Europe (Sandikci
and Ger, 2010). According to the State of the Global Islamic Economy Report (2020), Turkey
is the second country after Iran with a $28bn market share in the modest fashion market.
According to this report, Modanisa (an Istanbul-based online store) is one of the leading
modest fashion companies in the world. The report also shows that Turkey is among the 2909
first three Muslim countries (Iran, Turkey, Saudi Arabia), which have the largest consumer
number in consuming modest fashion.
Based on the introduction above, first, the paper examines the literature on hijab fashion
and the growing hijab market. Then, the paper discusses the role of social media and
influencers in hijab fashion. In the empirical part of the study, we presented findings from
the interviews conducted on hijab-wearing women. We finally concluded the paper with
implications for Islamic fashion marketing scholars and practitioners.

Literature review
Cultural understanding of hijab and hijab fashion in Turkey
Hijab is an Arabic word that means “a veil (or drape, curtain, screen, partition, barrier) that
covers a woman’s hair, neck, chest, or even face” (Rahman et al., 2016, p. 218). Hijab is a form
of clothing determined by Islamic traditions and customs (Grine and Saeed, 2017). It also
acts as a barrier to the physical separation between men and women (Grine and Saeed,
2017). The term hijab means to cover one’s hair appropriately (El Guindi, 1999) to conceal
women’s sexuality (Sobh et al., 2010). Therefore, wearing the hijab functions as a means to
defeat the male gaze and resist sexual objectification and gain respect from others (Siraj,
2011).
Hijab is a religious practice evaluated within the scope of the Islamic religion. The
concept of hijab is also significant in terms of determining the limits of women on clothing in
Islam (Read and Bartkowski, 2000). The purpose of Islamic clothing is to ensure that the
body is properly covered and that the image is not an eye-catching element. In Islamic terms,
the dress worn by women should be modest and should not keep the figure. A Muslim
woman’s outfit should comply with the rules that it does not have bold designs or
ornaments that expose the entire body and femininity. The reason for these rules is to
protect the woman from vicious looks by reducing attractiveness (Fatema and Islam, 2014).
Hijab is defined in the 31st verse of Chapter 24 (Surah An-Nur) of the Qur’an:
And tell the believing women to lower their gaze and guard their modesty, and to display of their
adornment only that which is apparent, and to draw their veils over their bosoms, and not to
reveal their adornment except their own husbands or fathers or husbands’ fathers, or their sons
or their husbands’ sons, or their brothers or their brothers’ sons or sisters’ sons, or their women,
or their slaves, or male servants free of physical needs, or small children who know naught of
women’s nakedness. And let them not stamp their feet so as to reveal what they hide of their
adornment. And turn unto Allah together, O believers, in order that ye may succeed (Quran,
24:31).
The Quran instructs women to veil, not to show their adornments to anyone except their
relatives and not to display their attractiveness and beauty (Riza, 1984). However, the Quran
does not explain the details of veiling but allows it to each society’s own culture, local
customs and traditions. Although the hijab is a universal rule instructed to the entire
Muslim world, how to wear it is regional. Muslim women in many countries cover most of
their bodies, excluding hands and faces. However, many styles have emerged by making
JIMA Islamic interpretations of the customs and traditions in different countries. There are
14,11 various cultural manifestations of hijab, such as chador, abaya and purdah, in the light of
cultural values in different countries (Sobh et al., 2010).
In Turkey, the meaning of hijab goes beyond wearing a scarf. It is about veiling as a full
outfit. Unlike Iran, hijab-wearing women cover their hair with a bonnet under the scarf not
to show their hair. Sandikci and Ger (2007, p. 190) define the Turkish hijab wearing woman
2910 as a “modern consumer who actively seeks a fashionable and chic look and draws upon
multiple cultural references and resources while constructing her identity.” In Turkey, hijab
fashion has also become a growing segment of the textile industry since the 1980s. Sandikci
and Ger (2007, p. 195) explain how Muslim women in Turkey has changed their clothing
practices when tesettür has met fashion:
The initial uniformity of the dressing style gradually gave way to more heterogeneous styles,
signaling a rising fashion consciousness especially among the middle-/upper-class, urban, well-
educated, younger religious women. Tesettürlü [1] women wearing smaller headscarves and
tighter and shorter coats, skirts, pants, and jackets in brighter and trendy colors began to
populate the streets. By the end of the 1990s, the large headscarf and the long, loose overcoat
seemed to have migrated to the squatter areas, their symbolism limited to the urban poor. At the
same time, a multitude of styles of clothing and ways of tying variously shaped and sized
headscarves have developed as markers of taste, difference, and social position among the urban
upper classes. Tesettür has met fashion.
In addition to Sandikci and Ger’s (2007) observations about hijab culture in Turkey, women
in the urban areas who covered their heads before the 2000s still preserve some of the pre-
1990s styles of veiling. Although they do not wear loose headscarves and overcoats, they
wear abayas or a bit shorter (below the knees above the wrist) overcoats called “kap” to
cover their body. When they wear pants, they wear a long tunic, abaya or a kap on it. They
also do not wear makeup. However, the women who covered themselves after the 2000s
have a more modern style, including smaller headscarves, head wraps or turbans with
earrings, makeup, shorter coats and jackets, tight pants and skinny jeans.
Whatever the dress code it is important for Muslim women to be modest. Regardless of
culture and geographical location, Islamic clothing remains almost the same. Since Muslim
consumers should not consume products for worldly satisfaction, their ultimate goal is to
obey the rules of Islam (Sandikci and Ger, 2007). In this regard, hijab goes beyond a simple,
practical use-value item as it refers to an Islamic lifestyle (Grine and Saeed, 2017). In the
Islamic culture, wearing a hijab has a meaning beyond covering the hair; it is a
symbolization of modesty, virtue and respect (Hassan and Harun, 2016). While some
scholars identify hijab as an oppression symbol (Hirschmann, 1997; Hamdan, 2007; O’Neill
et al., 2014), hijab consumption is also associated with a sense of freedom, modesty and
femininity (El-Bassiouny, 2018). Jackson and Monk-Turner (2015) also assert that the hijab
represents modesty rather than a clothing choice.
Modesty is the “coveted and sacred aspects of one’s personality and character” (Siraj,
2011, p. 717). It not only includes the clothes worn but also extends to all aspects of one’s life.
However, the modesty of Islamic clothing is a highly controversial topic. With the rising
visibility of Islam in the west, fashion, which was associated with Western modernity, also
manifested itself in Islamic clothing practices (Lewis, 2015a, 2015b). The concept of fashion,
which serves women to make themselves more attractive with their appearance, poses a
great contradiction to the modesty of the hijab. While hijab aims to keep women away from
attractiveness by following Islamic rules (Sobh et al., 2010; Siraj, 2011), fashion is a concept
based on aesthetic judgments (Grine and Saeed, 2017).
 The meaning of the term modest varies according to culture. It has no definite meaning, Meaning of
as it is influenced by the sociocultural characteristics of each country. However, beyond the hijab
meanings, the fashion world converges that the term modest fashion is a style including
loose-fitting clothing. Modest fashion is a fashion trend including looser (which does not
show body curves) and longer clothes designed for women who want to dress modestly
(Adewunmi, 2011). Although modest fashion differs between cultures, regions and faiths, it
caters to individuals who like loose-fitting clothing. The basic principle of modest fashion is
not to reveal a woman’s body. Long sleeves, higher necklines, loose-fitting cuts and maxi 2911
length are common features of modest fashion (Lewis, 2013).
As modest fashion refers to a more political term, which can lead to the objectification of
hijab-wearing women, Wilson (2017) prefers to use the term hijabers to identify the Muslim
women who create their own style through their clothes, which expresses their worldview.
At this point, hijab fashion emerges as a fashion blended with hijab combinations created by
Muslim women motivated by the most recent patterns in mainstream fashion in accordance
with the rules of their religion (Hassan and Harun, 2016). El-Bassiouny (2018, p. 296) argues
that “the hijab fashion experience combines authentic religious meanings with cultural
ones.” Hijab fashion gives an advanced feeling of tastefulness and provides an original style
for the Muslim women who mix fashion with her Islamic convictions (Hassan and Harun,
2016). A Muslim woman can obey the Islamic principles on dressing codes while
appreciating new styles with hijab fashion (Mulali, 2009). Therefore, hijab fashion designers
develop unique designs that balance religious norms with the latest trend colors and styles
to meet the expectations of the hijab fashion market (Alanadoly and Salem, 2021).
Moreover, the Muslim population is growing all over the world. However, the increasing
Muslim population is not just a statistic. It has cultural and societal implications (Wilson,
2013). Hijab-wearing Muslim women’s actively participating in the public sphere accelerated
the spread of hijab fashion. Today, the hijab market has become one of the fastest-growing
global consumer segment (Hassan and Harun, 2016). Increasing Islamic fashion
consciousness enabled Muslim women to create new styles (Wilson, 2013). Many
mainstream fashion brands have been trying to do modest fashion business and make their
campaigns more inclusive by offering a variety of modest designs in their collections
(Alanadoly and Salem, 2021). The Islamic fashion market accounts for 12% of the global
fashion industry. Islamic fashion will continue to be a profitable part of the global market,
considering the increasing demand for stylish and religiously appropriate clothing
(Sandikci, 2017).
In the digital era, new fashion trends are becoming widespread through social media, as
social media platforms are used to interact with consumers in the fashion industry (Cao
et al., 2021). A growing number of young Muslim women are actively using social media and
follow fashion influencers (Kavakci and Kraeplin, 2017). Social media also creates a place
that accelerates the visibility and acceptance of veiled women by creating a free space for
self-expression (Goehring, 2019). That increases the importance of social media and
influencers in hijab fashion.

Social media and influencers in hijab fashion

Social media has become a marketing instrument for companies to reach larger audiences
and increase their sales. The fact that accessing the target audience through social media
has less economic obligations and the ease of accessing more people encourages brands to
use marketing techniques more in this way. In this respect, brands in the fashion market use
social media to adapt to today’s requirements. With the increase in the number of social
media users, hijab companies have also started to sell products on social media and have
JIMA turned to advertising and marketing on social media. Particularly, Instagram has become
14,11 the most used social media platform for fashion brands (Casalo et al., 2020).
Furthermore, modern Muslim women have become more fashion-conscious (able to being
updated with the latest fashion trends) with the emergence of social media (Hassan and
Harun, 2016). Social media platforms allow these women to share their styles. Through
social media, they can evaluate their options, see what other women’s styles look like and
2912 learn about others’ perspectives easily. From bloggers to vloggers and Instagrammers,
veiled women also post their daily outfits on social media by combining their religious
beliefs with fashion trends. Several studies (Jones, 2017; Kavakci and Kraeplin, 2017) show
that Muslim women use Instagram to interface veiling to feminine beauty. A recent study
(Saeed et al., 2020) also shows that Muslim women use social media as a fashion knowledge
source to search for new trends and styles when deciding to purchase hijab.
Moreover, social media creates role models for consumers to follow. Media culture
provides a role model to individuals through images and symbols and shapes their behavior
(Kellner, 2003). According to Gökariksel and Secor (2010), on the websites, “what is
displayed and marketed is not just an outfit, but a complex set of aspirations for lifestyle,
taste, and beauty.” Through the effort to resemble admired people and the desire to be like
them, consumers tend to buy similar products that celebrities consume. With the
widespread use of social media, influencers are also becoming an important advertising and
marketing instrument to increase sales. Influencers, who have become opinion leaders
through social media platforms, generally enable their followers to purchase certain
products and services by sharing information about a product or brand (Sokolova and Kefi,
2020).
Influencers even have a more significant impact than celebrities on consumers’
purchasing behavior, as they are perceived more credible by young people (Djafarova and
Rushworth, 2017). Halvorsen et al. (2013) found that fashion bloggers influence consumers
by establishing a strong bond with their followers. Their study revealed that blog
advertisements made by bloggers enable the brand to communicate effectively with the
consumers and are much more effective than traditional advertising methods. Quelhas-Brito
et al. (2020) also found that fashion influencers have inherent motivations of sharing and
helping consumers to make fashion decisions.
Hijab fashion has also become more widespread with the advent of hijab influencers on
social media (Hassan and Harun, 2016). Hijabistas (religiously identified fashion bloggers)
have emerged in the Islamic fashion market in recent years (Kavakci and Kraeplin, 2017).
Hijabista refers to a trend created by women with stylish hijabs while obeying Islamic
modesty rules (Hassan and Harun, 2016). Waninger (2015, p. 2) describes the term hijabista
(comprising the words hijab and fashionista) as “a Muslim woman who dresses stylishly
while still adhering to an array of modest apparel that coincides with Islamic dress code.” In
another definition, hijabistas are defined as “women who dress fashionable and/or design
fashionable clothes while orienting towards what is being prescribed by their religion in
terms of dress” (Blommaert and Varis, 2015, p. 161). Alanadoly and Salem (2021) define
hijabistas as consumers who make social statements through hijab fashion. Hijabistas have
become more prevalent with the emergence of social media (Hassan and Harun, 2016). As
nontraditional users of the hijab (Williams and Nasir, 2017), hijabistas pose by wearing the
products of hijab companies and advise their followers to buy the product.
Hijab influencers are on the rise worldwide by becoming visible in every area of Muslim
women’s lives, like beauty, cosmetics, fashion and shopping. Lewis (2013) argues that the
internet facilitates Muslim women to negotiate fashion styles. Williams and Nasir (2017)
also note that hijabistas on Instagram redefine the hijab fashion by combining hijab with
clothes and makeup styles of modern fashion trends. Thus, they present alternatives for Meaning of
hijab wearing women by offering new styles on social media (Peterson, 2016). Besides hijab
sharing makeup and fashion styles, they also position themselves as the representatives of
new hijabi women (Pemberton and Takhar, 2021).
Hijabistas created an online presence becoming social media personalities with
thousands and even millions of followers (Kavakci and Kraeplin, 2017). As an example, a
Hijab Influencer and designer Dian Pelangi who has more than five million followers and
organizes fashion shows in many western countries, including the UK, France, Germany
2913
and Australia, is recognized as the “tour de force in the global Muslim Fashion scene and
beyond” (Independent, 2019). Kavakci and Kraeplin (2017) found that hijabistas create
culturally Islamic online personas that do not meet the expectations for religiously identified
Muslim women. Their study shows that influencers’ fashionable body becomes more
significant than their religious body, in terms of creating their online presence. However,
Baulch and Pramiyanti (2018) found that hijab-wearing women generate an Islamic
appearance for women by using Instagram to perform their middle-classness and Islamic
lifestyle.
Previous literature (Lewis, 2013; Peterson, 2016; Williams and Nasir, 2017; Kavakci and
Kraeplin, 2017; Baulch and Pramiyanti, 2018) mainly focuses on hijabistas’ online presence.
However, our study advances these studies by examining how social media hijabistas
influence Muslim women. Therefore, this paper aims to contribute to the discussion on the
changing meaning of hijab and the role of social media and influencers in hijab fashion by
exploring the issue from a consumer-based perspective.

Research methodology
Sampling procedure
The population of the study consists of hijab-wearing women living in Turkey. However,
the difficulty of reaching the whole population, we conducted in-depth interviews with 29
women. A sample size between 20 and 30 informants is acceptable in qualitative research
(Creswell, 2013). We used the snowball technique as a purposive sampling method. A
purposive sample is chosen from the participants who have specific characteristics related
to the research purpose (Miles and Huberman, 1994). Snowball sampling technique is one of
the purposive sampling methods in which one informant gives the interviewer the name of
at least one more potential informant. That informant then gives the name of at least one
more potential informant then the sample grows like a snowball (Patton, 1990). In our study,
the first author connected to one informant from her personal networks. Then, she contacted
with the help of the contact person and then another person in the same way. Thus, the
sample enlarged as a chain in the form of a snowball effect. Interviewees were selected who
were between 17 and 40 years, from various cities (Kayseri, Yozgat, Ankara, İstanbul and
Mug
la) and from different occupational groups to enhance the sample diversity and ensure
the validity of our research findings. We selected interviewees from millennials, who are the
most dynamic consumer segment in fashion markets (Rahman et al., 2021). We also chose
the 17–40 years range, as Muslim women begin wearing hijab in their 17s in Turkey. We
excluded women over 40 as they do not follow hijab fashion. We also classified
the participants as modest and fashionable. Modest participants include the women who
wear the traditional form of the hijab (e.g. abayas, kaps or longer jackets, loose clothes and
no makeup). Fashionable participants include the women who have more modern styles in
hijab (e.g. head wraps or turbans, tight pants, short coats and makeup). Table 1 shows the
demographic characteristics of the participants.
JIMA Participant Pseudonym Age Education Occupation Hijab status
14,11
1 Nuray 31 Associate degree Office staff Fashionable
2 Gülsüm 28 High school Child development specialist Fashionable
3 Esra 29 Bachelor’s Computer engineer Fashionable
4 Dudu 33 High school Office staff Fashionable
5 Hayriye 31 Associate degree Hairdresser Fashionable
2914 6 Asli 27 Associate degree Radiology technician Fashionable
7 Aylin 28 Associate degree Radiology technician Modest
8 Aybüke 26 Bachelor’s Medical secretary Fashionable
9 S ükran 27 Associate degree Officer Fashionable
10 Fatma 27 Postgraduate Doctor Modest
11 Nuran 35 Bachelor’s Nurse Modest
12 Tu
gba 36 Bachelor’s Business manager Modest
13 S uheda 23 Associate degree Child development specialist Modest
14 Leyla 33 Bachelor’s Chemist Modest
15 Zeliha 26 Bachelor’s Psychologist Modest
16 Tülay 31 Bachelor’s Landscape architect Fashionable
17 Aysenur 24 Bachelor’s Teacher Fashionable
18 İkra 17 High school Student Fashionable
19 Sevim 37 High school Housewife Fashionable
20 Safa 30 Postgraduate Office staff Modest
21 Sevda 24 High school Industrial designer Modest
22 Esma 40 Associate degree Housewife Modest
23 Esra 23 Bachelor’s Lawyer Fashionable
24 Eda 25 Postgraduate Architect Modest
25 Derya 38 High school Medical business owner Modest
26 Merve 33 Postgraduate Academician Fashionable
Table 1. 27 Nihan 34 Postgraduate Academician Modest
Demographic profiles 28 Fadime 40 High school Public worker Modest
of participants 29 Canan 27 Postgraduate Academician Modest

Data collection
We used semistructured in-depth interviews for the data collection. We chose this technique
to allow the informants more freedom to express their views (Creswell, 2009). We prepared
questions before the interview but also asked alternative questions to reach more details.
The interview form consisted of questions seeking answers to the participants’ opinions
about hijab fashion, social media and influencers. We conducted the interviews for a period
of six months between June and November 2020. The interviews were conducted face to face
with the participants at their homes or offices wearing masks and having social distancing
to take precautions for the Covid-19 pandemic. We recorded interviews using a voice
recorder. The interviews were conducted in the Turkish language and lasted from 30 to
50 min.

Ethical procedures
The research was conducted ethically as the subjects participated in the study voluntarily.
Before starting the interviews, participants were first informed about the research purpose.
We emphasized that all information from participants will be used for research purposes,
and the confidentiality of their identity will be protected when the research is published. The
first author scheduled an appointment with each informant for the date and location of
the interview. Informed consent was given by participants based on a clear explanation of
the purpose of the research. Then, questions about hijab, hijab fashion and social media Meaning of
were asked to the participants. Audio recordings of participants were transcribed, and hijab
quotes from the transcripts were used with their permission. Participants were informed
that their identities would be anonymized and pseudonyms would be used instead of their
real names. They were also informed about how their shared information will be used and
processed. Provided that identity information is kept confidential, participants consented to
the use of their responses for archiving and publication.
2915
Data analysis
We analyzed the data with qualitative data analysis software (NVivo) to organize the data
into similar categories. The first author transcribed the audio recordings of participants, and
we read through these transcripts several times. Then, we conducted a qualitative thematic
analysis on transcribed texts. We primarily coded the expressions about hijab fashion and
social media mentioned in the data. Statements in the interview transcripts, which point
directly or indirectly to the hijab fashion and social media, were encoded in the analysis.
Subsequently, we used these codes to form categories. Recurrent codes were categorized into
core groups (themes) to code more data from the interview transcripts. We also presented
verbatim quotations of the participants as evidence of the meaning transfer in the
conversations.
For the reliability of the research, we used intercoder reliability. This process provides a
reliability check, which is crucial for the rigor of the data analysis (Creswell, 2015). Coding
was conducted with two researchers in two rounds to increase the reliability of the research.
The first author created a codebook, and the other researcher applied this codebook for
coding independently. Two researchers then made the coding together. We compared the
codes and categories by examining matching and nonmatching codes. Then, we placed
nonmatching codes under appropriate categories. Table 2 shows the final codes and
categories (themes) created by the researchers.

Findings
Functions of hijab fashion among Turkish Muslim women
We found that hijab fashion has four functions as encouragement, attraction, modesty and
social image.
Hijab fashion as encouragement for wearing hijab. Findings show that hijab fashion
functions as encouragement for women to wear hijab. This encouragement sometimes
shows itself as a way of meeting the demands of veiled women, sometimes as an
encouragement for women to cover themselves with a head scarf and wear fashionable.
Participants consider the hijab fashion as a necessity of modern times. They think that the
hijab fashion and the brands that follow this fashion have a significant role in meeting the

Themes Codes

Functions of hijab fashion Encouragement

Attraction
Modesty
Social Image
The role of social media and Influencers Inspiration Table 2.
Digital Magazine Major themes and
Cultural Change codes
JIMA demands of hijab-wearing women. According to them, the rise of hijab fashion is very usual
14,11 as it emerged to meet the women’s needs with the increase in the number of covered women.
Many statements indicate that hijab fashion meets the needs of covered women, just as
mainstream fashion meets the demands of other women (Table 3, Statements 1.1–1.4).
These women appreciate hijab fashion for its enabling more visibility to hijab. They also
appreciate hijab fashion as it encourages younger women to veil. Some quotes explicitly
2916 exemplify a reflection of the admiration for hijab fashion in terms of its power to encourage
others to veil: Hijab Fashion is good for young people, as it encourages them to veil.
Therefore, I like hijab fashion (Gülsüm, 28, Child Development Specialist). I have friends
saying there are more beautiful and various clothes for covered women. Even this affects
women to veil (Sevda, 24, Industrial Designer). When they say young people, Gülsüm and
Sevda mean women who are younger than them. They think that hijab fashion encourages
younger women to wear hijab.
Hijab fashion as attraction. Fashionable participants associate hijab fashion with their
clothing style. They consider hijab fashion as something attractive. By wearing fashionable,
these women experience a sense of adoption of the hijab fashion. This adoption manifests
itself in some statements about the experiences that make veiled women attracted to various
styles and options of today’s fashionable Islamic clothes. These statements emphasize the
tempting and enticing aspects of the hijab fashion (Table 3, Statements 2.1–2.2).
Two fashionable participants even used expressions stating that veiling is too hard for
their nafs [2] and may be that is why they are attracted to the hijab fashion. These women
describe themselves as not fully veiled and use this as an excuse for them to follow the
fashion: I’m not fully veiled anyway. I always wear shawls, full makeup. Physical appearance is
very important for me. Fashion is very important for me, whether I wear a hijab or not
(Aybüke, 26, Medical Secretary). I am not fully veiled. I wear trousers without a tunic. I want
to wear a long abaya and to cover my shoulders with a scarf, but it is hard for my nafs (ego)
(Sevim, 37, Housewife).
Similarly, Dudu honestly expresses that her clothing style has nothing to do with veiling
but still follows the hijab fashion:
Yes, everyone follows fashion. Nothing as ridiculous as a covered lady wearing a pair of carrot
pants, but I am wearing it. We adapt it to ourselves, that’s all, we follow fashion. It is not the hijab
that we use. It is daily clothing that you adapt to yourself by covering your hair. Women only
adapt the hijab fashion to themselves (Dudu, 33, Office Staff).
Two women also stated that they were both against and impressed by the hijab fashion. For
these women, hijab fashion is something irresistible or a condition that should be followed.
They stated that the hijab fashion affected their clothing styles by imposing things to wear
(Table 3, Statement 2.3–2.4).
Hijab fashion as modesty. Following hijab fashion is also a motivation for modesty.
Although all the participants asserted that they are against the hijab fashion, this opposition
is not a sharp contradiction but rather a softened one. These women accept the opposition
between veiling and fashion. However, their rejection of hijab fashion is softer when it is
within the limits of religious rules. Their statements show that they are not against hijab
fashion when it has certain limits determined by the Islamic dress codes (Table 3,
Statements 3.1–3.4).
Hijab fashion as social image. Findings show that hijab-wearing women have changed
their clothing style to be accepted in society and respected in their working environment.
Hijab fashion is particularly appreciated by women who consider it necessary for today’s
working environment. Two academician participants claimed that their dressing styles
Hijab fashion as 1.1. I don’t see anything abnormal here. Since it is about women, I think a woman
Meaning of
encouragement with a hijab can be fashionable as a normal woman (Nihan, 34, Academician) hijab
1.2. I don’t think it’s wrong to look beautiful as a Muslim woman (Sevda, 24,
Industrial Designer)
1.3. Even the most popular brands try to adapt to the hijab fashion, I can find
suitable clothes even from the best brands (Nuray, 31, Office Staff)
1.4. Veiled women also want to show themselves in a way [. . .] They want to be
happy. We cannot show our dyed hair, instead, we present our colored scarves. 2917
There are too many options (Nuran, Nurse, 35)
Hijab fashion as 2.1. I think Hijab Fashion is progressing very well right now. For example, I had a
attraction hard time finding clothes when I was not veiled. But now, I see it so easy because
there is everything you like, the options are too many now for veiled women
(Aysenur, 24, Teacher)
2.2. We were having more difficulty 5–6 years ago, but now there are incredible
options for veiled women. It has increased a lot via the Internet (Hayriye, 31,
Hairdresser)
2.3. No matter how much I say we should not be affected, we are. For example, this
year, there is always the same style in hijab fashion in the online stores. We are
compulsorily impressed. We have to buy it again and again. Unfortunately, we
wear whatever is under the heading called fashion because we cannot find any
other options (Aylin, 28, Radiology Technician)
2.4. It would be a lie if I said fashion did not affect my clothing style. Because if you
try to buy something since everything is directed towards it, you inevitably have
to keep up with it after a while, because you have no other alternatives. You may
not find things that appeal to your style of clothing. That’s why it affects (Esra, 29,
Computer Engineer)
Hijab fashion as 3.1. Women wearing hijab can also be stylish; they can take care of themselves, but
modesty on the condition that they stay away from the attraction (Nuray, 31, Office Staff)
3.2. Yes, I wear it, I am fashionable, and frankly, I like being stylish, but as I said, I
do not wear the clothes that show themselves or a stylish dress, but a little simpler
and more modest (Safa, 30, Office Staff)
3.3. Hijab can be reflected in fashion in accordance with the verses of the Quran
(Dudu, 33, Office Staff)
3.4. The purpose of the hijab is not to be an extreme style. It can appeal to the eye,
but it should express something religious (Hayriye, 31, Hairdresser)
Hijab fashion as social 4.1.Fashion made the hijab more visible. It made it visible in every area. That
image image is not simple; I can say that it has created a classier, more elite, more elegant
image, together with the hijab fashion (Canan, 27, Academician)
4. 2. Since people wearing hijab were left behind in many areas and were a little
more excluded from society in the past, perhaps these are now being overcome by
hijab fashion (Nihan, 34, Academician)
4.3. Since I go to work, I buy more clothes from Mango or Zara to have more stylish Table 3.
clothes (Fatma, 27, Doctor) Sample quotes for
4.4. When working in a certain status, people look at your appearance when they functions of hijab
first look at you; so clothing is important there (Tu
gba, 36, Business Manager) fashion

have now changed to gain prestige in their working environment, although they were fully
practicing the hijab for many years. These women frequently express their satisfaction with
hijab fashion by emphasizing its necessity for today’s modern women. How hijab fashion
changed veiled women and made them more visible in society is evident in some statements
(Table 3, Statements 4.1–4.2).
Participants stated that they paid more attention to their physical appearance and tried
to be well-groomed and stylish in society. In this way, they stand out in society and are
accepted more. They evaluated old clothing styles like long overcoats and large scarves as
JIMA an obstacle to adaptation to social life. Hijab-wearing women softened their dressing rituals
14,11 not to separate from society and gain respect for their appearance. That is evident in two
statements (Table 3, Statements 4.3–4.4). We also observe that creating a social image with
hijab fashion is particularly important for doctors, academicians, and managers. In the
interviews, these women generally emphasized their working environment and social
image. They also stated that they did not follow only hijab fashion but also mainstream
2918 fashion. That may be due to their social status and more active participation in society than
the other occupational groups.
In the working environment, hijab fashion does not only include the clothes worn but
also wearing makeup. Modest participants stated that they did not use makeup because they
could not associate hijab with makeup. However, fashionable participants stated that they
used makeup in their daily routine when going to work or special events like wedding
ceremonies. For these women, practices like doing remarkable makeup, wearing skinny
jeans, slim-fit pants and tight-leg pants are evaluated as practices that make them feel more
fashionable and suitable to the modern world. These relaxed styles enable women’s
participation in the public.

Role of social media and influencers

One of the most important reasons for the increased interest of the participants in hijab
fashion is the social media accounts and websites that reflect the new clothing styles in
hijab. Participants who were 17–35 years old stated that they follow the outfit combinations
on social media.
Influencers for inspiration. We found that hijabistas inspire women on what to wear.
Particularly, women under 30 stated that they learned how to wear hijab by watching hijab
tutorials in their first days of veiling. Women who like and follow social media influencers
follow these pages not because they are suitable for hijab but because they look beautiful in
their eyes. They also follow influencers to learn about their lifestyle. Even they follow the
influencers like a hijab model. Participants who follow the social media influencers like a
model prefer to buy the outfit combinations offered by them and even reach the stores that
sell in this way that makes their decision making easier and buy the outfits without
exhausting themselves. That is explicit in the participant statements in Table 4 (Statements
1.1.–1.4).
Instagram as digital fashion magazine. Although modest participants do not want to
accept hijab fashion or think that it does not affect their own clothing style, almost all the
participants aged between 17 and 35 stated that they follow the outfit combinations
presented on social media. Furthermore, Instagram boutiques, which have recently gained
momentum in online sales, also attract great interest among participants. We observe that
one of the most important reasons for the increasing interest of the participants in hijab
fashion is the social media accounts on Instagram that reflect the new clothing styles in
hijab.
Another finding shows that Instagram boutiques are considered as digital fashion
magazines by the participants. Instagram boutiques are followed like fashion magazines
where hijab wearing women learn about trend colors and styles and shop the outfits. Even if
they do not choose it for various reasons in terms of purchasing, they apply this to their
clothing style as an idea and they examine which parts of the clothes should be integrated
with and what kind of harmony the colors should be (see Table 4, Statements 2.1–2.3).
Influencers for cultural change. Findings also show that the meaning of hijab has
changed from a religious practice into a fashionable commodity because of social media and
influencers. Modest participants state that social media influencers deliberately change the
Influencers for 1.1. It is easier to follow them and shop. They give an address and speed up
Meaning of
inspiration shopping (Fatma, 27, Doctor) hijab
1.2. I buy outfit combinations. It is easy for me to see them and get them ready
 ükran, 27, Officer)
(S
1.3. The brands they introduce make it easier for me to reach the hijab stores. I go to
the website they promote to buy the outfit or look to see if any similar pieces will
suit me (Esra, 23, Lawyer)
1.4 I especially follow Youtubers or Instagram influencers, and I like and buy their 2919
outfits (Aysenur, 24, Teacher)
Instagram as digital 2.1. I get ideas from there and find those clothes. For example, how to wear over
fashion magazine baggy jeans (Nuran, Nurse, 35)
2.2. I don’t like all the pieces in every outfit. I create something by changing those
parts myself, but it inspires me. For example, this color fits with this type of bag or
dress (Asli, 27, Radiology Technician)
2.3. I look at combinations to see what people wear. I follow it on the Internet to get
ideas. I had this color outfit so; I could wear it like this (Leyla, 33, Chemist)
Influencers for 3.1. I don’t approve of such pages. It is a trade that can be sold but, it is dangerous
cultural change because it negatively affects the hijab culture (Nihan, 34, Academician)
3.2 I think they emerged to skew the meaning of the hijab (Canan, 27, Academician)
3.3. I think this is not the life we need to live. Because the next generation takes us
as an example, we should be an example for them. Instagram is a world where
everything is overrated (Fadime, 40, Public worker)
Table 4.
3.4. I know many people who cover their heads because they believe that they will Sample quotes for the
look beautiful when wearing a hijab. That’s why they don’t wear bonnets; they role of social media
show their hair and earrings. They do it because they feel so beautiful (Eda, 25, and influencers in
Architect) hijab fashion

meaning of hijab, this situation poses a danger, so they are against following them. They
also claim that the influencers are particularly harmful for the new generation. They think
that influencers only visually affect young women who have no knowledge of Islam and
veiling takes shape according to the influencer’s behavior. These women state that they are
not affected by social media influencers; on the contrary, they consider influencers as a
wrong model for young veiled women (Table 4, Statement 3.1–3.3).
These women heavily criticize that hijab has moved away from its true meaning,
becoming just a visual, and the number of women unconsciously veiled has become so
widespread because of social media and influencers. They also emphasize that these days’
hijab is all about visuality, and women who are veiled think that they wear hijab only to
conform to fashion because they do not cover themselves wishfully (Table 4, Statement 3.4).
Aybuke also claims that hijab has turned into fashion because of influencers:
I can’t generalize, but most of us wear hijab as it is fashionable. For example, I see an influencer
on Twitter or Instagram who wears hijab with hair out. Then showing hair becomes fashion, and
most people follow this new style (Aybuke, 26, Medical Secretary).
Another participant even emphasizes that the hijab has become something different because
of Instagram. She also tells that she has turned off her mobile phone for several months not
to see the hijab posts that make her disturb:
While the hijab was a spiritual thing, it has turned into fashion now. Fashion has created many
options for us, but the hijab has turned in a different direction and has become something
different. That’s why it bothers me so much. I am disturbed seeing hijab fashion on Instagram.
Because of this, I turned off my mobile phone and did not use it for 5-6 months. On the Instagram
explore page, you can see women who cover half of their heads and show their hair and earrings.
JIMA And it begins to seem normal to me. When I first decided to wear a hijab, I was thinking of
wearing an abaya. But now, that seems impossible to me because of social media (Zeliha, 26,
14,11 Psychologist).
Zeliha wants to stay away from social media due to the opinion that it disrupts her wearing
style and her understanding of hijab. She tells with sadness that she is in a fight with herself
to leave social media, but still cannot give up and is affected adversely:
2920 I am also exposed to this on Instagram. I am not surrounded by people who are fully veiled. Even
my sisters, who veil very well, have started to wear short tunics. So I started saying, why not
wear it. That disturbs me internally. That is why I deactivate my Instagram account. Sometimes,
I say stop then; I say I can’t and activate it again (Zeliha, 26, Psychologist).
When we asked Zeliha, what made hijab influencers so much disturbing, she explained how
influencers changed the meaning of hijab among the young hijab-wearing women:
Particularly the young women between 20-25 wear hijab as it is fashionable. They are always on
Instagram and become very exposed to influencers. When I was younger, I thought for a long
time if I was ready to wear hijab. However, these teenagers can’t think like us. They believe that
they can both wear make-up and cover their head. They even suppose that they can go to the bar
with their hijab. Because they see hijab as fashion, they wear a scarf, put on earrings, and wear
make-up. They wear tight pants and short tunics. After a while, perhaps they will remove their
hijab. Because; they did not wear it consciously. Hijab has become a fashion for them because of
influencers (Zeliha, 26, Psychologist).
On the other hand, fashionable participants were also uncomfortable with the
commodification of the hijab. These women stated that because the sites promoted by the
influencers were very expensive, they did not buy clothes from there and they preferred
websites or stores that sell the similar outfits they saw there at more reasonable prices:
Because the products in their advertisements are expensive, I get substitutes (Esra, 23,
Lawyer). I can’t buy what I see from there because their clothes are very expensive (Dudu, 33,
Office Staff). There is an Instagram account called Kuaybegider. I like its designs. However, it
is too luxurious and expensive. So I don’t buy it (Merve, 34, Academician). When it’s
expensive, I don’t buy it. I look for something similar, or design it myself (Hayriye, 31,
Hairdresser).

Discussion
The findings of this study revealed that hijab-wearing women gained visibility through
their fashionable clothing styles. Our research shows that hijab-wearing women have
changed their clothing style to be accepted in social life and respected in their working
environment. Today, hijab-wearing women who want to exist with their images have turned
to modern clothes (like head wraps or turbans, tight pants, shorter coats, shorter skirts and
jackets) and adapted themselves to contemporary society. While adapting to the hijab
fashion, these women feel a sense of belonging to a modern society with their fashionable
appearance.
Our findings support El-Bassiouny (2018), who found that the hijab has become a
tradition blended with modernity. Our study validates the previous studies (Moors, 2007;
Mulali, 2009; Gökariksel and Secor, 2010; Almila, 2016; El-Bassiouny, 2018), which found
that Muslim women engage in mediation between veiling and fashion. In our study,
participants emphasized that the hijab can be eye-catching but should also represent
modesty. This finding also validates Mulali (2009), who found that a Muslim woman can
both obey the Islamic rules on dressing codes and enjoy new styles with hijab fashion
trends. A recent study also argues that hijab fashion has emerged for Muslim women who
seek a modest veiling and a trendy look (Saeed et al., 2020). Our findings also support a Meaning of
recent study (Pemberton and Takhar, 2021) which found that the online content of hijab hijab
influencers reflect a lifestyle that both confirms religious standards and modern fashion.
Similar to previous research (Mulali, 2009; El-Bassiouny, 2018), we found that Turkish
hijab-wearing women also blend fashion with their Islamic beliefs. Almila (2016) previously
found that veiled women reject certain forms of fashion rather than all meanings of fashion.
We also found that veiled women in Turkey generally have opposing view to hijab fashion,
which is not a sharp contradiction but rather a softened one while within the limits of
2921
religious rules. Although the participants claim that they are against the hijab fashion, they
also state that they can accept hijab fashion when it has certain limits, determined by the
Islamic dress codes. They accept that hijab can appeal to the eye, but it should also express
modesty. There are also women who see hijab fashion as something irresistible, which
affects their clothing styles by imposing things on women to wear. For these women, hijab
fashion is irresistible because of its tempting and enticing aspects, making them feel trendy.
This study extends the previous literature by examining the role of social media and
influencers in hijab fashion from a consumer perspective. While previous studies (Lewis,
2013; Peterson, 2016; Williams and Nasir, 2017; Kavakci and Kraeplin, 2017) examine
hijabistas, we focused on their influence on Muslim women. We found that social media has
an important role in spreading the hijab fashion, and influencers have an important role in
changing the meaning of hijab. Kavakci and Kraeplin (2017) found that hijabistas’
fashionable body has more importance than their religious body in creating their online
persona. Our study extends this research by demonstrating that hijabistas change the
meaning of hijab. While their paper evaluates this change from hijabistas’ perspective, our
study focuses on hijab consumers.
We found that social media and influencers have both positive and negative influences
on hijab-wearing women. The positive side of hijab fashion and social media is that they
create alternative styles for Muslim women. Hijabistas inspire consumers on what to wear.
However, we also found that Instagram boutiques act as digital fashion magazines, enabling
women to integrate faster into the popular culture. In this regard, social media and
influencers created a shift in the meaning of hijab while enabling Muslim women to learn
new hijab styles and follow fashion trends. The fact that Instagram boutiques function like a
fashion magazine and that, influencers compete with their beauty like a fashion model has
caused the image of the stylish hijab-wearing woman to be normalized in the minds of veiled
women. However, modest participants believe that influencers are harmful to young Muslim
women, as they deliberately change the meaning of hijab.
Our study further shows that the hijab, which has become a commodity by being
packaged and marketed through social media and influencers, is losing its spiritual value.
Fashionable participants talked about how social media influencers commodified hijab and
how that caused women to spend more money on outfits presented on Instagram. We also
found that influencers have turned into models, influencing large masses particularly, the
young population. Supporting conspicuous consumption through social media and
influencers and the perception of hijab as fashion by the masses show that image has
become more important by moving beyond religious concerns about hijab. In our study,
women who admit that they wear hijab and wear daily makeup only to look beautiful show
that aesthetic concerns are getting more important than modesty in their clothing practices.
While influencers have increased the number of hijab-wearing women, they also have
turned the hijab into a commodity in the market by degenerating its true meaning. That also
means transforming a religious practice into a fashionable activity.
JIMA Conclusion and implications
14,11 The capitalist market has transformed the hijab, one of the visible parts of Islamic practices.
The hijab has turned into a commodity, not a symbol of preserving the Muslim female
identity in the globalized world. Hijab fashion created target markets mostly consisting of
young Muslim women combining their faith with fashion trends. Muslim consumers who
want to follow contemporary fashion have created more fashionable styles by blending
2922 mainstream fashion with their personal experiences. Islamic interpretation customized with
different traditions in different countries and various styles have emerged. Social media is
also instrumental in creating a unifying, descriptive hijab fashion trend by exchanging ideas
and accessing products. However, social media is not a passive platform where only people
are following each other; it has also caused the weakening of the spiritual by suggesting a
materialist lifestyle. In this direction, the inclusion of religious symbols in social media has
caused a loss of meaning in the spiritual, which manifests itself in the daily life practices of
religious individuals.
Although social media and influencers in hijab fashion have received attention in the
hijab literature, the subject has been understudied from a consumer-based perspective. This
study proposes that social media and influencers have changed the meaning of hijab while
promoting hijab fashion. Findings show that the hijab has turned into fashion by moving
away from its true meaning through social media. Our findings also reveal that social media
and influencers have an important role in commodifying the hijab. Influencers have turned
the hijab into a fashion object, a worldly commodity. As the influencers act as role models
and the young consumers emulate their lifestyles, their consumption habits are also
influenced. However, hijab influencers are not modest enough to represent the hijab’s true
meaning. In addition, the lifestyle promoted by hijab influencers also contradicts the ideal
Muslim identity. Hijab influencers have created identities that do not comply with Islamic
principles. In this respect, hijab brands need to break this perception.
Our study provides managers with significant implications regarding the use of social
media and influencers in hijab fashion. For marketers, Instagram can be used to increase the
visibility of the brand. Instagram boutiques can be effective in increasing sales. However,
marketing managers should be careful while using influencers, as we found that hijabistas
are degenerating the spiritual meaning of hijab. Social media managers of hijab brands
should adopt an approach to conduct their strategies following religious principles. They
should apply contemporary social media strategies while staying away from what is
prohibited by Islamic principles (Rahmawati et al., 2020). In this sense, using influencers
with more authentic styles will be more in line with Islamic principles.
Even if the hijab is commercialized, it should also express a religious meaning. The
marketing of the hijab should be different from the marketing of an ordinary product, as the
hijab is an object containing a spiritual value. Therefore, it would not be the right strategy to
promote it as an outfit. Hijab fashion should be different from mainstream fashion. In this
regard, we need a transformation of the hijab into its true meaning. Since social media and
influencers have changed the meaning of the hijab, marketers can use these tools for
transformation. Modest hijab can be popularized on social media, especially, on Instagram,
with a social movement shaped against existing hijab influencers’ styles.
Today, the hijab is marketed as part of a more conspicuous lifestyle, which also
contradicts the spirit of Islam. However, the hijab should be positioned as something
inconspicuous. The rise of inconspicuous consumption (Eckhardt et al., 2015) and the
growing popularity of simple and sustainable lifestyles indicate a significant change in
consumer behavior. Consumers are gradually turning toward lifestyles where they seek out
simplicity by becoming free from materialistic thinking (Lee and Ahn, 2016). Sustainable
clothing and slow fashion are also examples of these lifestyles where consumers avoid Meaning of
overconsumption (Magnuson et al., 2017). Modest hijab can be promoted as a part of these hijab
simpler, inconspicuous and authentic lifestyles by hijab influencers.
Our study also informs marketing managers that they should be cautious in choosing the
right influencer for the brand. Recent research (Mohamad and Hassim, 2021) shows that
microcelebrities who present their authenticity, everydayness and ordinariness on social
media are more influential on young female Muslims. Therefore, using influencers like a 2923
fashion model is not the right strategy for hijab brands. Instead of presenting an authentic
lifestyle, most hijab influencers in Turkey post their clothes like fashion models who wear
the hijab as an outfit regardless of religion. Although aesthetic concerns are getting more
visible in hijab fashion, managers should also focus on the influencer’s authenticity. When
the hijab-wearing woman relates herself with the influencer because of her Islamic lifestyle,
she will perceive the influencer as more intimate and natural. Influencers who are more
similar to the target audience will be more effective in this sense.

Limitations and future studies

The change in the meaning of hijab has been the subject of many previous studies in
sociology, anthropology and marketing. However, studies examining social media in the
context of Islamic fashion marketing have been scarce. That also reveals the importance of
this study in terms of fashion marketing literature. However, this study has several
limitations regarding the sample and geographic context of consumers. This study may not
represent Turkish Muslim women’s behavior as our sample consists of 29 women.
Therefore, larger samples are needed to generalize our findings. In this regard, future
research can use a quantitative or a mixed method with a larger sample to gain richer
insights. Undertaking cross-cultural studies will also enable marketers to make cultural
comparisons. Thus, it will be possible to highlight the different hijab fashions in
international markets, and it will also reveal important findings for international Islamic
fashion marketing practitioners to benefit in building their marketing strategies. Another
limitation of the study is examining only Instagram as a social media platform. Therefore,
our findings require further research on other social media platforms before generalization.

Notes
1. Turkish word which describes Muslim women’s clothing. Being covered or veiled.
2. Lowest dimension of a person’s inward existence- his/her animal nature.

References
Abaza, M. (2007), “Shifting landscapes of fashion in contemporary Egypt”, Fashion Theory, Vol. 11
Nos 2/3, pp. 281-298.
Adewunmi, B. (2011), “Faith-based fashion takes off online”, The Guardian, available at: www.
theguardian.com/lifeandstyle/2011/jun/16/faith-based-fashion-online
Alanadoly, A.B. and Salem, S.F. (2021), “Hijabista willingness to accept premium pricing: an analytical
study of the effect of social and self-identity on hijab fashion brands satisfaction”, Journal of
Islamic Marketing, Vol. 13 No. 1, pp. 227-245.
Almila, A.M. (2016), “Fashion, anti-fashion, non-fashion and symbolic capital: the uses of dress among
Muslim minorities in Finland”, Fashion Theory, Vol. 20 No. 1, pp. 81-102.
JIMA Al-Qasimi, N. (2010), “Immodest modesty”, Journal of Middle East Women’s Studies, Vol. 6 No. 1,
pp. 46-74.
14,11
Alserhan, B.A. (2010), “Islamic branding: a conceptualization of related terms”, Journal of Brand
Management, Vol. 18 No. 1, pp. 34-49.
Baulch, E. and Pramiyanti, A. (2018), “Hijabers on Instagram: using visual social media to construct the
ideal Muslim woman”, Social Media þ Society, Vol. 4 No. 4, p. 2056305118800308.
2924 Blommaert, J. and Varis, P. (2015), “Culture as accent: the cultural logic of hijabistas”, Semiotica,
Vol. 203, pp. 153-177.
Cao, D., Meadows, M., Wong, D. and Xia, S. (2021), “Understanding consumers’ social media
engagement behaviour: an examination of the moderation effect of social media context”,
Journal of Business Research, Vol. 122, pp. 835-846.
Casalo, L.V., Flavian, C. and Ibañez-Sanchez, S. (2020), “Influencers on Instagram: antecedents and
consequences of opinion leadership”, Journal of Business Research, Vol. 117, pp. 510-519.
Crane, D. and Bovone, L. (2006), “Approaches to material culture: the sociology of fashion and clothing”,
Poetics, Vol. 34 No. 6, pp. 319-333.
Creswell, J.W. (2009), Research Design: Qualitative, Quantitative, and Mixed Methods Approaches, 3rd
ed., Sage Publications, Thousand Oaks, CA.
Creswell, J.W. (2013), Qualitative İnquiry and Research Design: Choosing among Five Approaches, 3rd
ed., Sage Publications, London.
Creswell, J.W. (2015), 30 Essential Skills for the Qualitative Researcher, Sage Publications, Thousand
Oaks, CA.
Djafarova, E. and Rushworth, C. (2017), “Exploring the credibility of online celebrities’ Instagram
profiles in influencing the purchase decisions of young female users”, Computers in Human
Behavior, Vol. 68, pp. 1-7.
Eckhardt, G.M., Belk, R.W. and Wilson, J.A. (2015), “The rise of inconspicuous consumption”, Journal of
Marketing Management, Vol. 31 Nos 7/8, pp. 807-826.
El-Bassiouny, N. (2018), “The hijabi self: authenticity and transformation in the hijab fashion
phenomenon”, Journal of Islamic Marketing, Vol. 9 No. 2, pp. 296-304.
El Guindi, F. (1999), Veil: Modesty, Privacy and Resistance, Berg Publishers, Oxford, UK.
Fatema, M. and Islam, A. (2014), “A conceptual framework on the study of trends of Islamic fashion and
clothing practices amongst young Muslim female in Bangladesh”, Advances in Environmental
Biology, Vol. 8 No. 9, pp. 715-720.
Goehring, D.L. (2019), “Muslim women on the internet: social media as sites of identity formation”,
Journal of South Asian and Middle Eastern Studies, Vol. 42 No. 3, pp. 20-34.
Gökariksel, B. and Secor, A. (2010), “Between fashion and tesettür: marketing and consuming women’s
Islamic dress”, Journal of Middle East Women’s Studies, Vol. 6 No. 3, pp. 118-148.
Gökariksel, B. and Secor, A. (2013), “Transnational networks of veiling-fashion between Turkey and
Western Europe”, in Tarlo, E. and Moors, A. (Eds), Islamic Fashion and Anti-Fashion,
Bloomsbury, London, pp. 157-167.
Grine, F. and Saeed, M. (2017), “Is hijab a fashion statement? A study of Malaysian Muslim women”,
Journal of Islamic Marketing, Vol. 8 No. 3, pp. 430-443.
Halvorsen, K., Hoffmann, J., Coste-Maniere, I. and Ve Stankeviciute, R. (2013), “Can fashion blogs
function as a marketing tool to influence consumer behaviour? Evidence from Norway”, Journal
of Global Fashion Marketing, Vol. 4 No. 3, pp. 211-224.
Hamdan, A. (2007), “The issue of hijab in France: reflections and analysis”, Muslim World Journal of
Human Rights, Vol. 4 No. 2.
Hassan, S. and Harun, H. (2016), “Factors influencing fashion consciousness in hijab fashion
consumption among hijabistas”, Journal of Islamic Marketing, Vol. 7 No. 4, pp. 476-494.
Hirschmann, N.J. (1997), “Eastern veiling, Western freedom?”, The Review of Politics, Vol. 59 No. 3, Meaning of
pp. 461-488.
hijab
Independent (2019), “What is modest fashion and why is It becoming mainstream?”, available at: www.
independent.co.uk/life-style/fashion/modest-fashion-asos-hijab-range-design-islam-religion-a887
5636.html (accessed 21 November 2020).
Jackson, K.E. and Monk-Turner, E. (2015), “The meaning of hijab: voices of Muslim women in Egypt
and Yemen”, Journal of International Women’s Studies, Vol. 16, pp. 30-48.
Jones, C. (2017), “Circulating modesty: the gendered afterlives of networked images”, in Jones, C. and
2925
Slama, M. (Eds), Piety, Celebrity, Sociality: A Forum on Islam and Social Media in Southeast Asia,
available at: https://americanethnologist.org/online-content/collections/piety-celebrity-sociality/
circulating-modesty-the-gendered-afterlives-of-networked-images/ (accessed 14 July 2021).
Kavakci, E. and Kraeplin, C.R. (2017), “Religious beings in fashionable bodies: the online identity construction
of hijabi social media personalities”, Media, Culture and Society, Vol. 39 No. 6, pp. 850-868.
Kellner, D. (2003), Media Culture: Cultural Studies, Identity and Politics Between the Modern and the
Postmodern, Routledge, New York, NY.
Kiliçbay, B. and Binark, M. (2002), “Consumer culture, Islam and the politics of lifestyle. Fashion for veiling in
contemporary Turkey”, European Journal of Communication, Vol. 17 No. 4, pp. 495-511.
Lee, M.S. and Ahn, C.S.Y. (2016), “Anti-consumption, materialism, and consumer well-being”, Journal of
Consumer Affairs, Vol. 50 No. 1, pp. 18-47.
Lewis, R. (2007), “Veils and sales: Muslims and the spaces of postcolonial fashion retail”, Fashion
Theory, Vol. 11 No. 4, pp. 423-441.
Lewis, R. (2013), “Fashion-forward and faith-tastic!”, in Lewis, R. (Ed.), Modest Fashion: Styling Bodies,
Mediating Faith, I.B. Tauris, London, pp. 41-66.
Lewis, R. (2015a), Muslim Fashion: Contemporary Style Cultures, Duke University Press, available at: https://
read.dukeupress.edu/books/book/150/Muslim-FashionContemporary-Style-Cultures (accessed
16 November 2020).
Lewis, R. (2015b), “Uncovering modesty: dejabis and dewigies expanding the parameters of the modest
fashion blogosphere”, Fashion Theory, Vol. 19 No. 2, pp. 243-269.
Magnuson, B., Reimers, V. and Chao, F. (2017), “Re-visiting an old topic with a new approach: the case
of ethical clothing”, Journal of Fashion Marketing and Management: An International Journal,
Vol. 21 No. 3, pp. 400-418.
Miles, M.B. and Huberman, A.M. (1994), Qualitative Data Analysis: An Expanded Sourcebook, Sage
Publications, Thousand Oaks, CA.
Mohamad, S.M. and Hassim, N. (2021), “Hijabi celebrification and hijab consumption in Brunei and
Malaysia”, Celebrity Studies, Vol. 12 No. 3, pp. 1-25.
Moors. (2007), “Fashionable Muslims: notions of self, religion, and society in San’a”, Fashion Theory,
Vol. 11 Nos 2/3, pp. 319-346.
Mulali, A. (2009), “Hijab fashion and Islamic clothing: hot and trendy”, available at: www.
ideamarketers.com
 (2016), “Islamic marketing”, Understanding the Socio-Economic, Cultural, and Politico-
Nestorovic, C.
Legal Environment, Springer International Publishing, Switzerland.
O’Neill, B., Gidengil, E., Côte, C. and Young, L. (2014), “Freedom of religion, women’s agency and
banning the face veil: the role of feminist beliefs in shaping women’s opinion”, Ethnic and Racial
Studies, Vol. 19 No. 11, pp. 1-16.
Patton, M.Q. (1990), Qualitative Evaluation and Research Methods, SAGE Publications, London.
Pemberton, K. and Takhar, J. (2021), “A critical technocultural discourse analysis of Muslim fashion
bloggers in France: charting restorative technoscapes”, Journal of Marketing Management,
Vol. 37 Nos 5/6, pp. 387-416.
JIMA Peterson, K.M. (2016), “Islamic fashion images on Instagram and the visuality of Muslim women”, Race
and Gender in Electronic Media: Content, Context, Culture, Routledge, New York, NY.
14,11
Potts, J. (2009), Lifting the Veil on Fashion Filling The Gaps Between Modesty and Fashion Apparels,
The OH State University, Columbus, OH.
Quelhas-Brito, P., Brandão, A., Gadekar, M. and Castelo-Branco, S. (2020), “Diffusing fashion
information by social media fashion influencers: understanding antecedents and
2926 consequences”, Journal of Fashion Marketing and Management: An International Journal,
Vol. 24 No. 2, pp. 137-152.
Rahman, O., Fung, B. and Yeo, A. (2016), “Exploring the meanings of hijab through online comments in
Canada”, Journal of Intercultural Communication Research, Vol. 45 No. 3, pp. 214-232.
Rahman, M.S., Hossain, M.A., Hoque, M.T., Rushan, M.R.I. and Rahman, M.I. (2021),
“Millennials’ purchasing behavior toward fashion clothing brands: influence of brand
awareness and brand schematicity”, Journal of Fashion Marketing and Management: An
International Journal, Vol. 25 No. 1, pp. 153-183.
Rahmawati, T.Y., Dewi, M.K. and Ferdian, I.R. (2020), “Instagram: its roles in management of Islamic
banks”, Journal of Islamic Marketing, Vol. 11 No. 4, pp. 841-861.
Read, J. and Bartkowski, J. (2000), “To veil or not to veil? A case study of identity negotiations among
Muslim women in Austin, Texas”, Gender and Society, Vol. 14 No. 3, pp. 395-417.
Riza, M.R. (1984), Hukûku’n-Nisâ fi’l-İslâm, el-Mektebetü’l-İslâmî, Beirut.
Saeed, M., Grine, F. and Shafique, I. (2020), “Integrating factors influencing hijab purchase intention
among Muslim women”, Journal of Islamic Marketing, Vol. 12 No. 1, pp. 95-112.
Sandikci, Ö. (2017), “Cultural industries and marketplace dynamics”, in Almila, A. and Inglis, D. (Eds), The
Routledge Research Companion to Veils and Veiling Practices, Routledge, London, pp. 197-212.
Sandikci, Ö. and Ger, G. (2007), “Constructing and representing the Islamic consumer in Turkey”,
Fashion Theory: The Journal of Dress Body and Culture, Vol. 11 Nos 2/3, pp. 189-210.
Sandikci, Ö. and Ger, G. (2010), “Veiling in style: how does a stigmatized practice become fashionable?”,
Journal of Consumer Research, Vol. 37 No. 1, pp. 15-36.
Siraj, A. (2011), “Meanings of modesty and the hijab amongst Muslim women in Glasgow, Scotland”,
Gender, Place and Culture, Vol. 18 No. 6, pp. 716-731.
Sobh, R., Belk, R. and Gressell, J. (2010), “The scented winds of change: conflicting notions of modesty
and vanity among young Qatari and Emirati women”, Campbell, M.C., Inman, J. and Pieters, R.
(Eds), NA – Advances in Consumer Research, Vol. 37, Association for Consumer Research,
Duluth, MN, pp. 905-907.
Sokolova, K. and Kefi, H. (2020), “Instagram and YouTube bloggers promote it, why should I buy? How
credibility and parasocial interaction influence purchase intentions”, Journal of Retailing and
Consumer Services, Vol. 53, p. 101742.
State of the Global Islamic Economy Report (2020), Available at https://cdn.salaamgateway.com/
reports/pdf/456642acf95a783db590e5b104cae94046047101.pdf
Waninger, K. (2015), “The veiled identity: hijabistas, Instagram and branding in the online Islamic
fashion industry”, Master’s Thesis, Georgia State University, Atlanta, GA.
Williams, J.P. and Nasir, M.N. (2017), “Muslim girl culture and social control in Southeast Asia:
exploring the hijabista and hijabster phenomena”, Crime, Media, Culture: An International
Journal, Vol. 13 No. 2, pp. 199-216.
Wilson, J.A., J. (2013), “Are ninjabis the new punk-rockers?”, available at: www.huffingtonpost.co.uk/
jonathan-aj-wilson/are-ninjabis-the-new-punk_b_4315438.html
Wilson, J.A., J. (2017), “Modest fashion or fashioning modesty? HijUp unveiled at London Fashion
Week”, available at: www.huffingtonpost.co.uk/jonathan-aj-wilson/modest-fashion-or-fashion_
b_9288670.html
Further reading Meaning of
Adelman, H. (2011), “Contrasting commissions on interculturalism: the hijãb and the workings of hijab
interculturalism in Quebec and France”, Journal of Intercultural Studies, Vol. 32 No. 3,
pp. 245-259.
Bourdieu, P. (1998), Practical Reason: On the Theory of Action, Polity, Cambridge.
Breward, C. (2003), Fashion, Oxford University Press, Oxford.
Crane, D. (2012), Fashion and İts Social Agendas: Class, Gender, and İdentity in Clothing, University of 2927
Chicago Press, Chicago.
Crane, D. and Bovone, L. (2006), “Approaches to material culture: the sociology of fashion and clothing”,
Poetics, Vol. 34 No. 6, pp. 319-333.
Easey, M. (2009), “An introduction to fashion marketing”, in Easey, M. (Ed.), Fashion Marketing, Wiley-
Blackwell, United Kingdom.
Gabrielli, V., Baghi, I. and Codeluppi, V. (2013), “Consumption practices of fast fashion products: a
consumer-based approach”, Journal of Fashion Marketing and Management: An International
Journal, Vol. 17 No. 2, pp. 206-224.
Hassim, N. (2014), “A comparative analysis on hijab wearing in Malaysian Muslimah magazines”, The
Journal of South East Asia Research Center, Vol. 6 No. 1, pp. 79-96.

About the authors

Zerrin Karakavak holds a master’s degree in marketing from Bozok University. Her research
interests include social media, fashion marketing and branding.
Tu
gba Özbölük is currently an Assistant Professor of marketing at Bozok University and teaches
undergraduate and graduate marketing classes. She holds a PhD in marketing from Erciyes
University, and her thesis focuses on an online brand community with a netnographic approach. She
has published several papers in journals such as Journal of Product & Brand Management, Journal of
Brand Management, Leisure Studies and International Journal of Internet Marketing and Advertising.
Her research interests include consumer culture, cybercultures, consumer tribes, branding and
influencer marketing. Tu
gba Özbölük is the corresponding author and can be contacted at:
tozboluk@gmail.com

For instructions on how to order reprints of this article, please visit our website:
www.emeraldgrouppublishing.com/licensing/reprints.htm
Or contact us for further details: permissions@emeraldinsight.com