MFP1501 - STUDY GUIDE - 001 - 2021 - 4 - B

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CONTENTS
1 Page
LEARNING UNIT 1: Number and number system 1
1.1 INTRODUCTION 1
1.2 WHAT ARE NUMBERS? 3
1.3 TYPES OF NUMBERS 3
1.3.1 Natural or counting numbers 3
1.3.2 Whole numbers 3
1.3.3 Integers 4
1.3.4 Rational Numbers 4
1.4 ORDINALITY AND CARDINALITY OF COUNTING NUMBERS 6
1.4.1 Counting numbers as a list 6
1.4.2 Counting numbers as associated with quantity 7
1.5 STAGES OF EARLY NUMBER LEARNING 9
1.6 USING STRUCTURED IMAGES TO SUPPORT GROUP COUNTING 10
1.7 DECIMAL SYSTEM AND PLACE VALUE 12
1.8 CONCLUSION 16
LEARNING UNIT 2: Additive relations 17
2.1 INTRODUCTION 17
2.2 INTERPRETATIONS OF ADDITIVE RELATIONS PROBLEM TYPES 19
2.2.1 Level 1: Join problems 19
2.2.2 Level 2: Separate problems 20
2.2.3 Level 3: Part-part-whole problems 22
2.2.4 Level 4: Compare problems 23
2.3 REPRESENTING WORD PROBLEMS 27
2.4 PROGRESSION IN THE TEACHING OF ADDITIVE RELATIONS 29
2.5 CONCLUSION 35
LEARNING UNIT 3: Multiplicative reasoning 36
3.1 INTRODUCTION 36
3.2 DEVELOPMENTAL STAGES OF MULTIPLICATIVE THINKING 38
3.2.1 One-to-one counting 39
3.2.2 Additive composition 40
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3.2.3 Many-to-one counters 41
3.2.4 Multiplicative relations 41
3.3 MULTIPLICATION SITUATIONS 42
3.4 DEVELOPING EFFICIENCY WITH MULTIPLICATION CALCULATIONS 47
3.4.1 Doubling as pre-knowledge of multiplication 47
3.4.2 Knowing your multiples up to 12 51
3.5 Using area model to perform multiplication of 2- and 3-digit numbers 53
3.6 DIVISION SITUATIONS 54
3.6.1 Division as sharing 55
3.6.2 Division as grouping 56
3.7 DEVELOPING EFFICIENCY WITH DIVISION CALCULATIONS 58
3.7.1 Halving as pre-knowledge of division 58
3.7.2 Written division 61
3.8 CONCLUSION 62
LEARNING UNIT 4: Fractions 63
4.1 INTRODUCTION 63
4.2 LEARNER DIFFICULTIES WITH LEARNING FRACTIONS 66
4.3 PRE-FRACTION KNOWLEDGE 68
4.3.1 Equal sharing 68
4.3.2 Partitioning 69
4.3.3 Unitising 71
4.4 BASIC FRACTION CONCEPTS 72
4.4.1 Unitary and non-unitary fractions 73
4.4.2 Comparing, ordering and equivalent fractions 74
4.5 CONCLUSION 77
LEARNING UNIT 5: Patterns and relations 78
5.1 INTRODUCTION 78
5.2 IMPORTANCE OF PATTERNS AS ROUTE TO EARLY ALGEBRAIC THINKING 80
5.3 REPEATING PATTERNS 81
5.3.1 Constructing a general statement about repeating a pattern 81
5.3.2 Creating a repeating pattern 83
5.4 GROWING PATTERN 84
5.4.1 Constructing a general statement about growing patterns 85
5.4.2 Growing patterns in a variety of contexts 88
5.5 CONCLUSION 90
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LEARNING UNIT 6: Shapes, space and measurement 91
6.1 INTRODUCTION 91
6.2 CLASSIFICATION OF GEOMETRIC SHAPES 93
6.3 TWO-DIMENSIONAL SHAPES 93
6.3.1 Classification based on number of sides 94
6.3.2 Classification based on the length of the sides 99
6.4 THREE-DIMENSIONAL OBJECTS 101
6.5 TRANSFORMATION AND SYMMETRY 103
6.6 MEASUREMENT 105
6.6.1 Perimeter 105
6.6.2 Area 106
6.7 CONCLUSION 107
LEARNING UNIT 7: Data handling and probability 108
7.1 INTRODUCTION 108

7.2 COLLECTING, ORGANISING, REPRESENTING AND INTERPRETING DATA 110
7.3 MEASURE OF AVERAGES 112
7.4 PROBABILITY 115
7.5 CONCLUSION 116
LIST OF REFERENCES 117
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Learning unit 1
Number and number system
1.1 INTRODUCTION
Learning unit 1 focuses on three broad learning goals. Firstly, you will learn about
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characteristics of different types of numbers; and stages of early number learning. Secondly,
you will learn about structural images, and extend these images to higher number ranges.
Finally, you will learn about the decimal system and place value.
4Figure 1.1 illustrates the composition of learning unit 1.
Number systems Structured images that

support group counting
• Types of numbers
• Ordinal and cardinal of • Skip counting
counting number acquisition • Structured images in five-wise
and connection and ten-wise
• Stages of early number learning • Number within number
relationship
NUMBER AND
NUMBER
SYSTEM
Decimal system and place value
• Flexible place value decomposition of

numbers
• Using example sequences to build relationship
into large numbers
• Exchange and equivalence in the decimal system
Figure 1.1: Composition of learning unit 1

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Learning outcomes
When you have completed this learning unit, you should be able to:
yy e xplain the characteristics of different types of numbers; and stages of early number
learning
yy recognise structured images, and extend these images to higher number ranges
yy demonstrate a deeper understanding of the decimal system and place value
Key concepts
yy cardinality
yy ordinality
yy subtilising
yy one-to-one correspondence
yy structured images
yy exchange
yy equivalent
yy place value
yy base-ten number system
The focus on counting numbers is important because it forms core early ideas about
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numbers, which reveal surprising complexities that most adult are not aware of. For
example, Foundation Phase learners are often proud of the fact that they can count –
that is; recite the number word in the correct order. But it takes time for them to connect
this oral counting to finding the number of objects in a collection. This is what is often
called cardinality.
The idea of counting numbers is extended to place value and the decimal system. The
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base-ten system is an important idea that supports mental mathematics. To better

understand place value system, we focus on structured images that help learners to use
the value of 5 and 10 as referral benchmark using common and very affordable resources,
with emphasis on progression in the use of these resources.
Progression in the use of resources is very important in mathematics teaching, because

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when a number range gets bigger, it is difficult to work with some physical resources.
This is one of the reasons why many learners do not perform well in Annual National
Assessment (ANA) in Grade 4, because as the number range gets bigger, they still cling to
more concrete approaches. In our discussion, we acknowledge this temporality, and we
pay particular attention to the shift towards a more abstract notion of number, using an
empty number line. Building and decomposition of numbers into a place value decimal
system is also discussed by using the idea of exchange and equivalence. For example,
the number 12 can be represented as 1 ten and 2 units by exchanging 10 units into 1 ten.
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1.2 WHAT ARE NUMBERS?
What are numbers and why do we have them? Numbers provide us with a precise way
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to describe, represent and reason about quantities. Without the notion of number, we
would not be able to communicate specific, detailed information about collections and
quantities of things.
One of the greatest inventions in the history of civilisation is the creation of numbers.
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You can imagine the confusion when there were no answers to questions such as “How
many?”, “How much?” and the like.
We have many different kinds of numbers, for example, natural numbers, whole numbers,
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integers, rational and irrational numbers. But the most basic numbers, and the starting
point for Foundation Phase learners, are the natural numbers, commonly known as
counting numbers. We shall discuss each of the types of numbers very briefly, and counting
numbers in more detail.
1.3 TYPES OF NUMBERS
1.3.1 Natural or counting numbers

The counting numbers 1, 2, 3 ... constitute the system of natural numbers. These are the
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numbers which we use in our day-to-day life. There is no greatest natural number, for if 1 is
added to any natural number, we get the next higher natural number, called its successor.
Addition and multiplication of natural numbers again yield a natural number. But subtraction
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and division of two natural numbers may or may not yield a natural number. This was the
reason why extensions of natural number became necessary. You will understand this
very well when we get to the end of this unit.
Natural numbers are represented on a number track (see figure 1.2). A number track has
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no zero and shows counting numbers, which is ideal for young children because it shows
“distinct steps” that they can follow.
17 1 2
18 193 204 21 5 22 6 23 7 248 9
25 26 10
Figure 1.2: Number track
1.3.2 Whole numbers

As mentioned earlier, a situation exists where subtraction of natural numbers may not
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give you a number that belongs to the set of natural numbers. For example, when a
natural number is subtracted from itself, we get a number zero, which does not belong
to the set of natural numbers. With addition of zero to the set of natural numbers, we
get a new system of numbers, called whole numbers.
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Thus, the whole numbers are 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7 ... and it is best represented on a number
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line starting from 0 (see figure 1.3). Now the distance from 0 to 1 gives a unit size. So, the
number line serves as an extension of the number track. A number line includes zero;
shows whole numbers, relies on the ideas of length and distance from 0, and connects
all types of numbers.
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
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Figure 1.3: Structured number line
1.3.3 Integers
While dealing with whole numbers, we found that it is not always possible to subtract a big
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number from a small one, for example, (12 – 5), (3 – 7), (9 – 20) and so on. Thus, it needed
another extension of numbers which allows such subtractions. Thus, the whole numbers
are extended to include –1 (called negative 1), – 2 (negative 2) and so on, such that:
1 + (–1) = 0, 2 + (–2) = 0, 3 + (–3) = 0..., 99 + (– 99) = 0

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Thus, we have extended the whole numbers to another system of numbers, called
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integers, which is the set of whole numbers together with negative numbers. The integers
therefore are:
33 … – 6, – 5, – 4, – 3, – 2, – 1, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, ...
-4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4
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Figure 1.4: Integers consisting of positive and negative numbers
1.3.4 Rational Numbers

Sometimes you might encounter a situation where you are given, for example, a big pizza,
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and you are asked the following questions:
yy Can you finish the whole pizza?

yy If not, how much pizza can you eat?
1 is not the answer, and 0 is also not the answer. This suggests that we need a new kind
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of number.
The new number that we need is a quantity that cannot be represented by a whole number.
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This number is referred to as a “rational number” or fraction. Numbers such as: ½, ¼, ⅛,

⅜, ⅞ are all examples of rational numbers. This also includes negative fractions. When a
whole is divided into 8 equal parts, and 3 parts are shaded, the number ⅜ represents the
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number of the shaded part. The 3 tells how much is shaded, while the 8 tells the number
of equal parts the whole is divided into.
Activity 1.1
(1) What are the distinctions between counting numbers, whole numbers, integers, and
rational numbers?
(2) Provide a simple diagram that depicts the connections between the four types of
numbers discussed above.
Feedback on Activity 1.1

The need to address human problems provides impetus for the creation of a number system
and its extensions. As indicated, the natural numbers are the counting numbers and are the
earliest invention of a number system. All other types of numbers are extensions of counting
numbers. The need to incorporate 0 into the number system led to whole numbers. The need
to have negative numbers extended whole numbers to integers. The need to describe part of
a whole extended the integers to a set of rational numbers. Figure 1.5 provides one possible
diagram that can be drawn to provide connections between the four types of numbers.
Rational numbers
Integers
Whole
numbers
Counting
numbers
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Figure 1.5: Connections between the four types of numbers

Figure 1.5 shows the connections between the four types of numbers. The counting
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numbers are contained within the whole numbers, and the whole numbers are contained
within the integers. All three types of numbers are contained within the set of rational
numbers. But the most basic numbers, and starting point for Foundation Phase learners,
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are the counting numbers. We shall discuss the counting numbers in more detail in the
next session. Specifically, we shall discuss the two fundamental ideas about counting
numbers: ordinality and cardinality.
1.4 ORDINALITY AND CARDINALITY OF COUNTING NUMBERS

40 There are two distinct different ways of thinking about counting numbers. These are:
yy Ordinality – counting numbers as a list

yy Cardinality – counting numbers as associated with quantity for describing set size
Connecting these two views is an important foundational mathematical idea that early
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number learning is built on, and that every learner needs to know and understand this
connection before he/she can be successful in doing number operations. Below, we
discuss each of these views of counting numbers, and how they are connected.
1.4.1 Counting numbers as a list

Counting numbers can be seen as a list, for example, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6… The list starts with 1,
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and every number in the list has a unique successor. Except 1, every number has a unique
predecessor. Hence, the list of counting numbers is an ordered list. This also refers to the
ordinality of counting numbers. It is easy to forget that, at some point, we actually had
to learn the number-word sequence.
One way to understand how young learners struggle to memorise the number-word
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sequence is to try and learn the numbers in an unfamiliar language.
Activity 1.2
Number words as a list – counting 1 to 20 in an unfamiliar language
 Hausa  Tamil
Daya Goma sha daya Onnu Pathunonnu
Biya Goma sha biyu Rendu Pannandu
Uku Goma sha uku Moonu Pathumoonu
Hudu Goma sha hudu Naalu Pathunaalu
Biyar Goma sha biyar Anju Pathunanju
Shida Goma sha shida Aaru Pathunaaru
Bakwai Goma sha bakwai Yezhu Pathunezhu
Takwas Goma sha takwas Yettu Pathunettu
Tara Goma sha tara Onbothu Pathonbodhu
Goma Ashirin Pathu Yiruvathu
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(1) Try learning the number word sequence in one of these languages, or in another
language you are not familiar with. It is not easy to do!
(2) Working in pairs, one person calls out a number in the unfamiliar language; the partner
has to show that number using fingers (using both people’s fingers if needed).
(3) Working in pairs, one person calls out a number in the unfamiliar language; the partner
has to say the number after or before, or add or subtract 2 to that number and say
the correct number word.

A particular structure for the number-word sequence is embedded in every language. Working
with this “structure” of number is useful for emphasising the number relationships. This system
underlies the pattern of spoken number words in many languages, as well as our symbolic
written numbers. You would find activity 1.2 challenging the first time, but the more you
practise, the more familiar you will become with the number-word sequence. This is similar to
how young learners struggle to do the counting sequence in English, especially those learners
for whom English is their second language.
It is also important to consolidate learners’ understanding of counting numbers as an ordered

list by sometimes asking them to count “off decade” numbers. For example, instead of counting
in 10s from 10; 10, 20, 30, … you can ask learners to count in 10s from, say 17. Or ask learners
to count in 2s from 5, etc. The ordering of the list of counting numbers is important because
of the second way of thinking about counting numbers as associated with quantity.
1.4.2 Counting numbers as associated with quantity

The second way of thinking about counting numbers is as “telling how much”. In other
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words, counting numbers can be associated with quantity of a set describing how many
things are in a set. For example,
2 3 4
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Figure 1.6: Cardinality of a set of numbers
The number of quantities in a set is often referred to the cardinality of a set. Think for
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a moment how abstract the concept of cardinality is to young learners. The number 5,
for example, can be used to quantify countless different collections: 5 boys, 5 muffins,
5 pencils, and so on. The number 5 is abstract, and is the common thing that all these
collections share. It is important to connect these two conceptions of number. Counting
objects in a set connects numbers as a “list” and “tells us how many”, which is represented
by the last number in the counting list.
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Gelman and Gallistel (1978) outline five principles for counting that require learners to
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coordinate their knowledge across three key ideas (number-word sequence, cardinality,
and one-to-one correspondence) and to generalise them across different counting
situations. These are:
yy Stable order principle – Consistently use the number words in the same order.
yy One-to-one principle – Count every item in a set only once, using only one number
word.
yy Cardinal principle – Understand that the last number word used represents the
cardinality of the set.
yy Abstraction principle – Recognise that any collection of like or unlike items can be
counted as a set.
yy Order irrelevance principle – Understand that the result is the same, no matter the
order in which the objects are counted.
Proficient counters should be able to carry out all five principles. While this is not
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emphatically obvious for the learners, it is vital for teachers to recognise these principles,
and to respond when learners experience difficulties with any one of them. For example,
pointing at 3 when asked how many learners in a collection of three learners shows that
they have a problem with the cardinal principle. Let us consider Activity 1.3 (adapted
from Beckmann, 2014).
Activity 1.3
50 1 2
51 3
52 53 4 54 5
After learners have made a one-to-one correspondence between 5 blocks and the list 1,
2, 3, 4, 5, as shown above, the teacher then says: “Show me five blocks.”
Consider the responses of the following two learners:
55 Learner 1 Learner 2
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"Here is
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"Five all
five" together"
Do both learners appear to understand counting equally well? If not, what is the difference?
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To determine the number of blocks, we generally count the blocks one by one. The process of
counting the blocks connects the list view of counting numbers with cardinality. However, this
connection relies on another critical idea, an understanding that adults take for granted, but
which is not obvious to young learners. The last number we say when we count the blocks,
tells us the total number of blocks. Unlike learner 2, learner 1 pointed at the position of 5 in the
ordered list. This is evidence that learner 1 does not make a connection between the ordinality
and cardinality of a number.
1.5 STAGES OF EARLY NUMBER LEARNING

Wright, Martland and Stafford (2006) provide six hierarchical stages of early number
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learning (SEAL) that extend beyond ordinality and cardinality of number acquisition. These
stages are emergent counting, perceptual counting, figurative counting, initial number
sequence, intermediate number sequence and facile number sequence.
Stage 0 – Emergent counting – The child cannot count visible items. The notion of counting
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as an ordered list is still problematic. The child cannot make a one-to-one correspondence.
For example, when given a collection of items to count, the child would count an object
twice or skip one or two items.
Stage 1 – Perceptual counting – The child can perceive and count visible collections of
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items, but cannot count or add objects when screened. This stage involves seeing, hearing
or feeling items. For example, when given a collection of items, the child can make a one-
to-one correspondence, but when told that there are 5 counters here and 3 counters there,
the child cannot add them until he can touch or feel them.
Stage 2 – Figurative counting – The child can count items in screened collections, but
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always starts from 1. For example, when presented with two screened collections, and
told how many in each collection (e.g. 7 objects and 5 objects), and asked how many items
altogether, the child would have to start from 1 instead of “counting on 5”, to say 8, 9, 10, 11, 12.
Stage 3 – Initial number sequence – The child uses counting-on rather than counting
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from one, to solve addition or missing added tasks (e.g. 6 + [ ] = 9). The child may use a
count-down-from strategy to solve removed items tasks (e.g. 17-3 as 16, 15, 14 – answer 3).
Stage 4 – Intermediate number sequence – The child counts-down-to solve missing

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subtrahend tasks (e.g. 17 – 14 as 16, 15, 14 – answer 3). In essence, the child chooses a more
efficient strategy at this stage.
Stage 5 – Facile number sequence. The child uses a range of what are referred to as
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non-count-by-ones strategies. These strategies include compensation, using known facts,

adding to 10, commutativity, subtraction as the inverse of addition, awareness of ten in the
teen numbers, to name a few.
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Understanding the stage of a child allows for more appropriate support to “move” learners
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to a more efficient counting strategy. One of the major problems in the South African
mathematics teaching landscape is the fact that learners remain highly dependent on
concrete representations for solving problems at foundation and intermediate phase level.
Ensor, Hoadley, Jacklin, Kuhne, Schmitt, Lombard and Van den Heuvel-Panhuizen (2009)
found that teachers provided limited opportunities for learners to grasp symbolic number
conceptions within classroom practices that “privilege concrete modes of representation,
which restrict access to more abstract ways of working with numbers” (p 5). These
authors further argue that teachers were simply not presenting enough mathematics at
a sufficiently complex level in terms of content and representations to learners.
Activity 1.4
Consider the task 23 – 19 = [ ]
Learner 1 Learner 2
I can "take away" 19 from 23 by I can find the "difference" between
counting 19 backward from 23. I 23 and 19 by counting up from. I will
can say, 22, 21, 20, 19, 18, 17, 16, 15, say, 20, 21, 22, 23 – the answer is 4.
14, 13, 12, 11, 10, 9, 8, 7, 6, 5, 4 – the
answer is 4.
What stage of early number learning (SEAL) does Learner 1 represent? And Learner 2? Why?

In the first instance, you should acknowledge that both learners are correct. But Wright et al.’s
(2006) SEAL stages provide a way to categorise learners into hierarchical stages in relation to
efficiency of the strategy used. In the context of the task 23 – 19 = [ ], a variety of strategies
could be used to get the answer. Learner 1 chooses to “take away” 19 from 23, while Learner 2
chooses to find the difference between 23 and 19. Relate these two strategies to stages 0 to 5
discussed. Another important aspect of Wright’s work was linking assessment with intervention.
If, for example, a learner is at stage 2 – figurative counting – they can count screened items,
but in an inefficient way – for instance, always starting from 1. What kind of support can be
provided to this child? We shall discuss this in the next session.
1.6 USING STRUCTURED IMAGES TO SUPPORT GROUP

COUNTING
Structured images based on place value are advocated as a mechanism for supporting
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group counting, which is a more efficient counting strategy than counting in 1s. To
achieve this, teachers should encourage skip counting in the mental mathematics part
of your lesson (counting in 2s, in 3s, in 5s, in 10s). It is also important to provide variation
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in the skip-counting tasks. For example, counting in 2s starting from 5 or counting in 10s
starting from 13, and so on.
Images of numbers are useful for showing the quantities or measurements that numbers
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can represent. In particular, our focus is on what we call “structured” images – images that
allow us to see “numbers within numbers”, and therefore, the ways in which numbers
can be composed and decomposed. Number lines help us to compare the relative size
of numbers in ways that help us to compare and round off. For example,
yy Which is bigger: 23 or 18?

yy What is the 10 before 33? And the 10 after 33?
yy What is the nearest 5 to 87?
“Five-wise” and “ten-wise” images are particularly useful benchmarks in the decimal
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system, but array and skip counting images are useful for seeing and showing multiplicative
relationships. An important part of skilful teaching is about choosing images that are
particularly helpful in illustrating specific ideas and relationships. For example, look at
the images in figure 1.7 below of the number 16.
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72 Figure 1.7: Images of 16
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Activity 1.5
(1) What “numbers within numbers” can you see in each of the images above?
(2) What mathematical ideas, relationships and topics do specific images lend themselves
to? Can you explain why?

Recognising the “structure” of numbers allows us to think about quantities in terms of
relationships rather than as made up only of unit counts. For example, one can see 5, 5, and
2 as 12 in the finger pattern, similar to the dots arrangement using 2 different colours. However,
in the 100-square, the number 12 is seen as 10 and 2.
The dots arrangement, for example, lend itself to the idea of multiplicative reasoning. The
number 12 is seen as 3 X 4 or 4 X 3.
1.7 DECIMAL SYSTEM AND PLACE VALUE

Place value is the basis of our entire number system. A place value determines the value
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of a digit in any given number. Place value is based on the decimal system or base-ten,
whereby each place represents ten times the value of the place to its right. Think of this
as making groups of 10 of smaller units, and combining them to make a new unit. For
example, when you bundle 10 units of matchsticks, you make up a larger unit, tens. Ten
of those units, when bundled, make up one of the next larger unit, hundreds, and so on.
Figure 1.8: Building and exchanging into base-ten place value
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In figure 1.8, the ten ones can be exchanged with 1 ten, and 10 tens can be exchanged
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with 1 hundred. These exchanges and their underlying structure allow us to represent
large numbers. For example, in the number 326, the “3” represents three hundred, the “2”
represents two tens, and the “6” represents six units. This is illustrated in figure 1.9 below.
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Figure 1.9: The number 326 decomposed into place values
Recognising the “structure” of numbers allows movement to higher number ranges

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through allowing us to think about quantities in terms of relationships rather than as made
up only of unit counts. Let us consider decomposing the number 5 371 into place values.
5 371 is made of 5 thousands, 3 hundreds, 7 tens and 1 unit

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79 But we can play with other decompositions based on place value as well:
80 a) 5 371 = 5 thousands + 3 hundreds + 6 tens + __ units

81 b) 5 371 = 5 thousands + 2 hundreds + __ tens + 1 unit
In (a) we have 11 units, because the 7 tens are now down to 6 tens, that is to say, the 1
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ten has been broken down into 10 units and taken to the unit place value. While in (b)
we have 16 tens, because the 3 hundreds are now down to two hundreds, that is to say,
the 1 hundred, has been broken down into 10 tens and hence taken to the tens place
value. This kind of “flexible” decomposition supports effective and efficient calculation,
underpinned by a strong “number sense”. For example, understanding different ways to
decompose numbers would allow for more efficient calculation strategies based on place
value, without having to use terms like “carrying” or “borrowing”. For instance, consider:
83 5 371 – 4 190 = ?
Children often find it challenging to work out this problem, because in the tens place
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value, the number 9 in the subtrahend is greater than the number 7 in the minuend. The
word “borrowing” is traditionally used. Minuend is the first number in a subtraction, while
subtrahend is the number that is to be subtracted (i.e. minuend – subtrahend = difference).
But when a learner can decompose numbers in flexible place value, it aids meaningful
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calculation. For example, one can decompose
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86 5 371 = 5000 + 200 + 170 + 1 and
874190 = 4000 + 100 + 90 + 0
88= 1000 + 100 + 80 + 1
Therefore, 5 371 – 4190 = 1181. The point of attention is the breaking down of the 3
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hundreds into 2 hundreds, and 10 tens. The 10 tens are then added on to the 7 tens to
make up 17 tens. This allows us to take away 9 tens in the subtrahend.
There should also be strong encouragement on the focus on relationships through using
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example sequences that draw attention to these features, in ways that emphasise that
larger numbers are not really any more difficult to work with than small numbers:
91 9–5=4
92 29 – __ = 24
93 139 – __ = 13
Number line is another useful structured representation that is used in developing a strong
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understanding of place value. Number line provides a very strong visual image through
positioning of numbers on the number line based on place value. This allows learners
to develop understanding of relative sizes of numbers in relation to other numbers. For
example, figure 1.10 shows the position of the number 17, and also its size relative to the
number 73. The number line also shows that the number 73 is made up of 70 and 3.
17 73
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Figure 1.10: A number line showing the position of 17 and 73
Number line images and actions of making things “10 times smaller” rather than “10 times
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bigger” allow us to introduce decimal numbers and representations of them. For example,
consider cutting 1 unit into ten small equal pieces. Each piece is called a “tenth” (i.e. 0,1).
When you cut a tenth into 10 equal pieces, each piece is called a hundredth (i.e. 0,01).
Number line allows us to represent the tenth and the hundredth. Figure 1.10 shows the
position of 0,3 and 0,72 on the 0 to 1 number line. It also shows that the number 0,72 is
made up of 7 tenths and 2 hundredth.
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Figure 1.11: A number line showing the position of 0,3 and 0,72
Activity 1.6
Consider the number line 0 to 10 below.
(1) How do we label the number the arrow is pointing to?

(2) Find and label 3, 2; 5, 9 and 6,7 on the number line.
(3) Are there other ways of saying and writing “three comma two”?
(4) The strip below represents 1 unit. Use this strip to draw a ribbon 4,3 units long.
(5) What would happen if we took a tenth and cut that into ten equal parts?

It is important to always take into consideration the value of the marks on the number line.
For example, since the number line above is marked from 0 to 10, so each mark is one unit.
And between 0 to 1, you can also get another ten small marks, which are tenths (0,1). So,
understanding the value of the marks on the number line is a first step to place any number
on the number line. The mark just before the arrow is 6, and the arrow therefore is pointing
the mark between 6 and 7. It’s somehow in the middle between 6 and 7 (i.e. at 6,5). And 6,5
can be read as: 6 units 5 tenths.
1.8 CONCLUSION
In this unit, you have learnt about numbers and different types of numbers in the number
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system. First, you have learned that counting numbers are a subset of whole numbers,
because of the introduction of zero in the set of whole numbers. Whole numbers are also a
subset of integers because of the introduction of negative numbers. Integers are a subset
of rational numbers because of the introduction of fractions (part of a whole). Secondly,
we have explored the two characteristics of counting numbers: ordinality and cardinality.
Thereafter, we explored and considered the stages of early number learning, and structured
images that support more efficient counting strategies based on group counting. Lastly,
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we considered concept of decimal and place value. After studying this learning unit, you
should be aware of the fact that the teaching of numbers and the number system is the
very foundation of the teaching and learning of mathematics.
In learning unit 2, you will learn about addition and subtraction in connected ways, known
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as additive reasoning.
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Learning unit 2
Additive relations
2.1 INTRODUCTION
Learning unit 2 focuses on three broad learning goals. Firstly, you will learn to appreciate
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the need for progression in the teaching of addition and subtraction. Secondly, you will
learn about different interpretations of addition and subtraction in word problems and
numerical context. Finally, you would learn about the different models and alternative
mental strategies for teaching addition and subtraction.
ADDITIVE
RELATIONS
Subtopic 1 Subtopic 2
Progression from
Interpretations of
early counting into addition
addition & subtraction and subtraction
• Addition and subtraction in • Building fluency with mental

word and numerical context calculations
• Using a bar diagram to • Commutativity, compensation

represent additive relations and equivalence
problems
• Subtraction as take away
and as difference
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Learning outcomes
When you have completed this learning unit, you should be able to
yy r ecognise and appreciate the need for progression from early counting into addition
and subtraction
yy explain addition and subtraction problem types in word problems and numerical
context
yy understand a wide range of models and alternative mental strategies for solving
addition and subtraction problems
Key concepts
yy models
yy strategies
yy take away
yy difference
yy fluency
yy progression
yy commutativity
yy equivalence
yy compensation
yy representations
Early number concepts (ranging from counting and number bonds to number relations/
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place value) are discussed in learning unit 1, and our focus here is on addition and
subtraction, often referred to as additive relation. Additive relation refers to the concept
of addition and subtraction in connected ways. It is important to note that the counting,
number bonds and number relations (learning unit 1) are all pre-knowledge needed for
understanding additive relations. A sound understanding of additive relations is a building
block for understanding other mathematics content in the curriculum, and is therefore
seen as a foundational content area in the primary mathematics curriculum.
Research evidence shows that many South African learners perform poorly in additive
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relations and other number-related work, even in the later primary school years (Schollar,
2008). This poor performance has been linked to teachers’ mathematical knowledge and
pedagogy in mathematics classroom (Askew, Venkat, & Mathews, 2012; Ensor et al., 2009;
Venkat, 2013; Venkat & Naidoo, 2012). Hence, this learning unit will prepare you well enough
to teach the concept of addition and subtraction in connected ways. In doing so, strong
emphasis will be on progression through fluency, reasoning and problem solving. This
will be achieved through presentation and discussion of a range of tasks and activities,
which will deliberately move from more concrete to more abstract.
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2.2 INTERPRETATIONS OF ADDITIVE RELATIONS PROBLEM
TYPES
In researching children’s thinking in a project referred to as Cognitively Guided Instruction
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(CGI), Carpenter and his colleagues (Carpenter, Fennema, Franke & Levi, 1999) distinguished
between different types of additive relations word problems that reflected the way
learners thought about solving them. These problem types provide a useful structure
for teachers in selecting problems for instruction, and thinking about how learners can
approach these problems to support effective classroom interactions in a progressive
order. They identified four classes of word problems, and presented them as being in a
hierarchy from easiest to most difficult. These problem types are useful as a starting point
for thinking about this content domain. The four classes of word problems presented in
hierarchical order are:
1. join
2. separate
3. part-part-whole
4. compare
2.2.1 Level 1: Join problems

Join problems involve a situation in which a set is increased by a particular amount, for
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example:
107 3 birds were sitting in a tree. 2 more birds flew into the tree.
108 How many birds were in the tree altogether?
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Figure 2.2: Example of a join problem type
In join problems, an action takes place, with the start quantity being increased by a
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particular quantity (the change quantity) to give a third quantity (the result of joining
the two quantities). In the example of birds above, the 3 is the start quantity; the 2 is the
change; and the total (5) is the result.
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Carpenter and his colleagues further provide three distinct join problem types involving
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variation in the position of the unknown, hierarchically arranged from easiest to most
difficult (see table 2.1). Start unknown problems in the list below are much harder because
the operational action underlying these change problems cannot be executed directly.
Table 2.1: Join problem types with variations in the position of unknown
Problem types Word problem context Numerical

context
Result unknown: Situation where 3 birds were sitting in a tree. 2 3+2=□

the start and the change quantities more birds flew into the tree.
are given, and a learner is required How many birds were in the
to work out the result or total tree altogether?
Change unknown: Situation where 3 birds were sitting in a tree. 3+□ =5

the start and the result quantities Some more birds flew into the
are given, and a learner is required tree. Now there are 5 birds
to work out the change quantity altogether. How many birds
flew into the tree?
Start unknown: Situation where Some birds were sitting in a □ +2=5

the change and the result quantities tree. 2 more birds flew into
are given, and a child is required to the tree. Now there are 5 birds
work out the start quantity altogether. How many birds
were sitting in the tree?
2.2.2 Level 2: Separate problems

Separate problems involve a situation in which a quantity is removed from the given set,
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for example:
Mpho had 8 apples. She gave 3 apples to Sithole.

113
How many apples does Mpho have left?

114
115
Figure 2.3: Example of a separate problem type

116
117
20
In the separate problems, an action takes place where the start quantity is decreased by
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a particular quantity (the removed or change quantity) to leave another third quantity
(the result after removing a particular quantity). Similarly, three further separate problem
types are given, with variation of the position of the unknown and hierarchically organised
from easiest to harder, as in table 2.2 below.
Table 2.2: Separate problem types with variations in the position of unknown

context
Result unknown: Situation where Mpho had 8 apples. She gave 8–3=□
the start and the removed quantities 3 apples to Sithole. How many
are given, and a child is required to apples does Mpho have left?
work out the result
Change unknown: Situation where Mpho had 8 apples. She gave 8–□ =5
the start and the result quantities some apples to Sithole. Now
are given, and a learner is required she has 5 apples left. How
to work out the quantity that is many apples does Sithole
being removed have?
Start unknown: Situation where the Mpho had some apples. She □ –3=5
removed and the result quantities gave 3 apples to Sithole. Now
are given, and a child is required to she has 5 apples left. How
work out the start quantity many apples does Mpho have
at the start?
Activity 2.1
(1) Create a story problem using the following:
yy 12 – □ = 7
yy□ + 9 = 15
(2) Write two other number sentences for each of the problems in question 1 above.
Which of the problems would learners find more challenging? Why?

Activity 2.1 is aimed at exposing your ways of thinking about creating a variety of word
problems, and to make connections between additive relation problems in word and numerical
context. The key idea is to pay attention to the position of the unknown. This makes additive
relations problem simpler or harder.
In both the join and separate problems, there were actions on increasing or decreasing a
quantity. In the other two classes of the word problems that follow in the next section, you
will realise that these were static relationships.
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2.2.3 Level 3: Part-part-whole problems
The part-part-whole problems involve a static relationship between a set and its two
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disjoint subsets. The difference between join or separate problems and part-part-whole
problems is that in join or separate problems, there is an action of either bringing in an
additional quantity or removing a quantity over time. In part-part-whole problems, there
is a static relationship between the two given quantities, which requires simultaneous
rather than sequential attention to parts and/or the whole. Thus, there is no physical
action of increasing or decreasing with a particular quantity.
Carpenter et al argue that this lack of physical action makes the start unknown problems
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in this category more difficult for children than the problems discussed in levels 1 and
2. For example:
Mpunki has 10 apples. 6 are green apples and the rest are red apples.
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How many red apples does Mpunki have?

122
123
124 Figure 2.4: Example of a part-part-whole problem type
In this problem, the 10 apples are in one set – a whole – and within this set, there are two
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distinct subsets; parts of the whole (green and red apples). Two part-part-whole problem
types are described (see table 2.3 below):
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Table 2.3: Part-part-whole problem types with variations in the position of unknown
Problem types Word problem context Numerical context
Whole unknown: Situation Mpunki has 6 green apples 6+4=□

where the two disjoint sub- and 4 red apples. How many
sets are given, and a child is apples does Mpunki have?
required to work out the result
Part unknown: Situation Mpunki has 10 apples. 6 are 6 + □ = 10

where one subset quantity (a green apples and the rest or
part) and the result quantity are red apples. How many
are given, and a child is re- red apples does Mpunki 4 + □ = 10
quired to work out the other have?
subset (a part) quantity Mpunki has 10 apples. 4 are
red apples and the rest are
green apples. How many
green apples does Mpunki
have?
2.2.4 Level 4: Compare problems

Comparing problems involves a situation that depicts comparison between two distinct
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disjoint sets, for example:
Thandiwe has 7 ribbons. Nomonde has 3 ribbons. How many more ribbons does
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Thandiwe have than Nomonde?
Figure 2.5: Example of compare problem type

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In compare problems, there is a referent set (Thandiwe has 7 ribbons), compared set
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(Nomonde has 3 ribbons) and a difference (Thandiwe has how many more ribbons than
Nomonde?). The compare problem type has to do with situations in which two sets
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(Thandiwe’s ribbons and Nomonde’s) are considered simultaneously in a static relationship,
involving comparison of two distinct, disjoint sets.
The static relationship is in contrast with join and separate problem types, which
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involve an action on and transformation of a single set. This makes compare problems
more difficult for Foundation Phase learners. Another strand of difficulty for children in
interpreting compare problems is the issue of keywords. Teachers have been noted as
often attributing “more” to adding and “less” to subtracting. This link does not always
hold, and therefore emphasis on making sense of the quantitative relationships in the
situation is important. In the example provided in figure 2.4, the “more” does not indicate
that you do 7 + 3 =. Indeed, the problem is to perform 7 – 3 =.
As in the case of the other problem types discussed above, there are three compare
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problem types that are also hierarchical in terms of difficulty (see table 2.3 below).
Table 2.3: Compare problem types with variations in the position of the unknown

context
Difference unknown: Situation where Thandiwe has 7 ribbons. 7–3=□

the referent and the compared sets are Nomonde has 3 ribbons.
given, and a child is required to work How many more ribbons
out the difference does Thandiwe have than
Nomonde?
Compared set unknown: Situation Thandiwe has 7 ribbons. 7–□=4

where the referent set and the difference Thandiwe has 4 more
are given, and a child is required to work ribbons than Nomonde.
out the compared set How many ribbons does
Nomonde have?
Referent set unknown: Situation where Thandiwe has some □–4=3

the compared set and the difference are ribbons. Thandiwe has
given, and a child is required to work 4 more ribbons than
out the referent set. Nomonde. Nomonde
has 3 ribbons. How many
ribbons does Thandiwe
have?
This map of problem types provides a useful way of thinking about possibilities for range,
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progression and sequencing in teachers’ selection of examples in instruction. The Carpenter

et al. (1999) classification is summarised in figure 2.6, with arrows indicating the direction
of progression in sophistication levels of classes and problem types, as discussed above.
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Problem types
Join Result Change Start

Unknown Unknown Unknown
Separate Result Change Start
Classes
Whole Part
Part-part whole
Unknown Unknown
Difference Compared set Reference set

Compare
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Figure 2.6: Summary of additive relations problem types

Carpenter et al. (1999)
Activity 2.2
Sort the following word problems into join, separate, part-part-whole or compare and
problem type (e.g. result unknown, change unknown, etc). In each case, write the numerical
context as well. Number 1 has been done for you as illustration.
S/N Word problems Problem Problem Numerical

class type context
1 Sandile has 3 pencils. Thabo Compare Difference 12 – 3 = □

has 21 pencils. How many unknown
more pencils does Thabo
have than Sandile?
2 There were 12 bottles on the

table. Mom removed 7. How
many bottles are left?
3 Mandisa has 9 chocolate

sweets. Mbali has 6 straw
berry sweets. How many
sweets do they have
altogether?
4 Sandile has 14 pencils. Thabo

has 4 more pencils than
Sandile. How many pencils
does Thabo have?
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5 There were 8 people in the
van. More people got on.
Now there are 14 people.
How many more people got
into the van?
6 29 children are playing

outside. There are 14 girls
and some boys. How many
boys are there?
7 There were 23 people in the

bus. 5 more people got on.
How many people are on the
bus now?
8 Thuli has 12 chocolate sweets.

Sam has some strawberry
sweets. Together they have
20 sweets. How many sweets
does Sam have?
9 There were bottles on the

table. Mom removed 5
bottles. Now there are 13 left.
How many bottles were on
the table to start with?
10 There were people in the

car. 2 more people got on.
Now there are 8 people. How
many people were in the car
to start with?

The intention of this activity is to provide you with more practice to deepen your understanding
of the different problem types. Reasoning about the situation and representing it will allow
you to do this activity very well. For example, join or separate problems involve an action of
increasing or decreasing a quantity. In other words, change in quantity occurs from the start to
the end of the story. But in the case of part-part-whole, the quantity at the start is same at the
end – “Mpunki has 10 apples. 6 were green apples and the rest were red apples. How many red
apples does Mpunki have?” You can see that Mpunki has 10 apples at the start and she still has
10 apples at the end. For compare problems, there is sense of comparison between two things.
In the next section, we will discuss simple steps that you can use to best represent additive
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relation word problems in the foundation phase in a connected way.
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2.3 REPRESENTING WORD PROBLEMS
Haylock and Cockburn (2008) highlighted the importance of establishing connections
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between concrete experiences, symbols, mathematical language and pictures when

teaching and learning number in the Foundation Phase. They posit that learners develop
a deeper conceptual mathematical understanding as they build meaningful connections
between concrete experiences, symbols, mathematical language and pictures. This is
illustrated in a simple model shown in figure 2.7 below. Each of the arrows represents a
possible connection between experiences that might form part of the understanding of a
mathematical concept.
Symbols
Language Pictures
Concrete experiences
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Figure 2.7: Significant connections in understanding numbers and number operations

(Haylock & Cockburn, 2008)
When children build such meaningful connections between these key mathematical
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experiences, their understanding is enhanced and becomes “more secure” (Haylock &
Cockburn, 2008, p. 9). They refer to learning without making connections as rote learning.
Therefore, it is important that teachers do not present concrete experiences, symbols,
mathematical language and pictures as isolated ideas. You should also not start with more
concrete and move to purely abstract ideas without making connections between them.
Always bring the concrete experiences, diagrams and symbols together and establish
the connection between them.
In the following simple steps, we discuss how you can best represent additive relation word
140
problems in the Foundation Phase in a connected way, by using different experiences in

support of learning. Consider the word problem:
141 In Grade 2 at Impilo Primary School there are 145 girls and 117 boys.
142 a) How many children are there altogether?

143 b) How many more girls are there than boys?
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144 Consider the following steps:
Step 1: Understanding the problem – Imagine a school, and all Grade 2 learners out for
145
assembly, and are separated according to boys and girls. Use pictures or make drawings
of the situation. The first problem is about the total number of learners in Grade 2 and it is
a part-part-whole problem with result unknown, while the second problem is a compare
problem with difference unknown.
Step 2: Model the problem with the aid of a diagram. You can use a bar diagram. There
146
are 145 girls and 117 boys.
For the first part of the question, how many children are there altogether? In the diagram
147
(see figure 2.8), you can see the 145 girls, and 117 boys. You should note that the bar for
145 girls is bigger than the bar for 117 boys. It doesn’t have to be to scale, but it should
still be a meaningful diagram.
148 145 girls 149 117 boys
150 ?
Figure 2.8: Bar diagram for the number of boys and girls together
For the second part of the question, about how many more girls than boys, the bar
151
diagram will be different. Now it is a comparison between the number of girls and boys.
You can see that the girls are more than the boys (see figure 2.9).
152 145 girls
153 117 boys 154 ?
Figure 2.9: Bar diagram for the comparison between boys and girls
Step 3: Write the number sentence. Decide on the operation. Since you are required to
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find the big bar in figure 2.8, the number sentence will be 145 + 117 =? For figure 2.9, you
are required to look for the difference between the girls and the boys, so the number
sentence will be 145 – 117 =?
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Activity 2.3
(1) Write a word problem that can go with each of the following bar diagrams.
? 97 apples 121 apples ?
218 apples 218 apples
218 apples 121 apples 97 apples
121 ? ?
(2) Use the three-steps method discussed above to work out each of the following word
problems:
yy Busisiwe has 21 muffins. Some of her muffins are choc-chip and some are blueberry.
Busisiwe has 12 blueberry muffins. How many choc-chip muffins does she have?
yy Busisiwe had some muffins. After she gave away 9 muffins, she had 12 muffins
left. How many muffins did Busisiwe have at first?

Activity 2.3 focuses on moving between representations (from diagram to the word problem).
You are free to decide on any of the four classes of the problem discussed in the previous section.
However, you must pay attention to the position of the unknown.
In the second section, you are required to follow the three steps of representing a problem
– from understanding the problem through modelling the problem using a bar diagram to
finally deciding on the operation to perform and generate the number sentence.
The next section focuses on progression in both representations and the way learners
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solve additive relations problems in numerical context.
2.4 PROGRESSION IN THE TEACHING OF ADDITIVE RELATIONS

The discussion of the problem types and steps for solving additive relations problems
158
points to the importance of progression in the teaching of additive relations. In this

section, we shall focus on progression in the calculation, and the representation use
to support it. In the early years of teaching and learning of mathematics, physical and
pictorial representations are widely used in order to enhance the teaching and learning
process. These representations act as intermediaries between the concrete (enactive) and
the abstract (symbolic) notion of working with number and relationships.
Bruner (1974) suggested three hierarchical, but complementary modes of representation.

159
The first level, which links to direct modelling, is the enactive level – where learning takes
place through physical actions and includes the use of manipulatives and other concrete
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materials (e.g. counters, abacus, bottle tops, etc). The next level, the iconic level, is where
learners make use of pictorial images in understanding the world. The highest level, the
symbolic level, is where mental manipulation of numerals takes place.
These levels are like steps on a ladder, where the first step is the most concrete, and the
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further up the ladder, the more abstract the form and its associated connections become.
In other words, the levels are broadly progressive and relate to increasingly “compressed”
representations of number. However, the pathway of this progression is emphatically not
a linear process in teaching (Roberts, 2015). Teachers need to decide when and how to
use the different levels of representations to support learners’ mathematics learning in
the classroom.
Learners’ ability to make a one-to-one correspondence between concrete objects and

161
number words is a pre-knowledge for addition and subtraction. As a teacher, you must
consolidate this understanding before you introduce addition and subtraction. In this
section, we shall outline the learning trajectory for the concept of addition and subtraction.
Level 1 – Count all: This is the situation where a learner performs triple count in solving
162
addition or subtraction problems. For example, 5 + 3
1st Count
163 2nd Count
164 165 3rd Count
Figure 2.10: Triple-count strategy for solving 5+3

As demonstrated in figure 2.10, the learner first counts five fingers, and then counts three
166
fingers. The learner then puts them together and recounts. This counting strategy is often
referred to as triple count or count all. Similarly, in the case of subtraction, learners often
begin with the triple count. Let us consider 12 – 5.
167
30
1st count: Learner
counts 12 tallies
2nd count: Learner

counts off 5 tallies
3rd count: Learner

counts the remaining
168
Figure 2.11: Triple-count strategy for solving 12-5
Level 2 – Count on: In this situation, a single count is used to solve 5 + 3. The learner has
169
begun to see numbers as a collection of objects. The number five is held as a quantity;
now the learner can open three fingers, and say, 6, 7, 8.
170 I have 5 in my head, and open three fingers, and say 6, 7, 8. The answer is 8.
Figure 2.12: Count-on strategy for solving 5+3
Subtraction follows a similar route. Let us consider 12 – 5. The learner can draw 5 tallies
171
or open five fingers, as demonstrated in figure 13 below.
172
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I have 12 in my head, and open five fingers, and count backward; 11, 10, 9, 8, 7. The
173
answer is 7.
Figure 2.13: Count-on strategy for solving 12 – 5
You would notice that little time is spent working out the problem in comparison to the
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triple count demonstrated in level 1.
Level 3–Count on a larger number: In this situation, we emphasise that addition takes
175
place, irrespective of the order of the numbers (commutativity property). It does not
matter from which of the two numbers you started (Note: this is not the same in the case
of subtraction). For example, 3 + 9 is the same as 9 + 3, and instead of counting on 9 from
3, it is much quicker to count on 3 from 9. This also emphasises the need for teachers’
careful selection of examples to cover a range of possibilities.
To work out 3 + 9, I can start from the larger number (9) and open three fingers and say,
176
10, 11, 12. This method is quicker.
Figure 2.14: Count-on larger number strategy for solving 3+9
Level 4 – Bridging through 10: This is a situation where a move is made to “non-count-
177
by-ones” strategy by using ten as a benchmark. As pre-knowledge for bridging through

10, a consolidation of number bonds and “add to 10” activities is required. Learners should
be able to say, as a rapid recall, that “if I have 7, I need 3 to get to 10” or “if I have 4, I need
6 to get to 10”, and so on.
178 Now, let us consider these two examples, 17 + 8; and 34 – 7.
To work out 17 + 8, I can break down the second number (8) into 3+5 because “if I
have 7, I need 3 to get to 10”. Now, 17+8 can be written as 17+3+5 = 20+5 = 25.
179
32
This can also be demonstrated on an empty or open number line. For addition as indicated
180
with the arrows, you jump to the right (see figure 2.15).
+3 +5
17 20 25
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Figure 2.15: Bridging through 10-strategy for solving 17+8
This can also be demonstrated on a number line. For subtraction as indicated with the
182
arrows, you jump to the left.
-4
-3
27 30 34
183
Figure 2.16: Bridging through 10-strategy for solving 34 – 7
Level 5 – Flexible working with numbers: This involves a range of strategies that indicate
184
a flexible and more efficient way of working with addition and subtraction. These include
strategies such as equivalence, compensation, and derived or known facts. Let us consider
the following examples:
1. 16 + 18
2. 234 + 189
3. 204 – 199
185 For example 1: 16+18, one can think of doubling. I know 16+16 is equal to 32.
So, if 16 + 16 = 32, then 16 + 18 is 2 more than 32, so my answer is 34. Here, known
fact – “doubling” is used to help the learner get the answer quickly.
For example 2, I can see that 189 is close to 200. I need to add 11. So, if I add 11, I need to
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subtract 11 from 234 to keep the number sentence the same, which will be 223.
234 + 189 is the same as 223 + 200. In this case, I am writing the equivalent, which
is a much easier and simpler way to get to the answer as a recall fact. So, my answer
is 423. Therefore,
234 + 189 = 223 + 200 = 423
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187 For example, 3, 204 – 199; children would think of the problem as take away 199 from 204.
But a quicker way is to think about the problem as finding the difference between
204 and 199. I can see very quickly that the difference is 5. Learners can do so in two
ways; either to “count-down-to” (start at 204, and count down to 199 – i.e. 203, 202,
201, 200, 199, the answer is 5). Or “count-up-from” (start at 199 and count up to 204
– i.e. 200, 201, 202, 203, 204, the answer is 5).
Note that you can also use “bridging through 10” to work out the problem by using both
188
strategies. For “count-down-to” I can count 4 down at once from 204 to get to 200 and
count 1 down from 200 to get to 199 (i.e. 204 – 4 – 1 = 200 – 1 = 199). So, 4 + 1 = 5 is my
answer. Similarly, for “count-up-from”, I can count 1 from 199 to get to 200, and count
4 from 200 to get to 204 (i.e. 199 + 1 + 4 = 200 + 4 = 204), and my answer in this case is
1 + 4 = 5. Both strategies can also be demonstrated on a number line, as shown below
(204 – 199 = 5; here you count the number of jumps).
189
Count-down-to
190 Count-up-from
191
192 Figure 2.15 Count-down-to and count-up-from strategies for solving 204 – 199
You would notice that, when you think about a problem such as 204 – 199 as difference,
193
you get to the answer quicker. This brought about two models of subtraction – subtraction
as takeaway and subtraction as difference. Both models are correct and can be used to
solve any subtraction problem. However, thinking about efficiency led to the distinction
between the importance of the two models. For example, the problem 204 – 199 was easily
solved as difference. But problems such as 204 – 7 can more easily be solved as takeaway
than difference. I can use bridging through 10 to partition 7 into 4 and 3, and write:
194 204 – 7 as 204 – 4 – 3 = 200 – 3 = 197
Across the five levels discussed above, you will notice that the big idea is about progression
195
from more concrete to more abstract ways of calculating addition and subtraction
problems. This progression is very important because, as the number range gets bigger,
learners working at a more concrete level take too much time to solve one problem, and
they are not likely to get it right. For example, in Hoadley’s work, she reported learners
using concrete strategies to calculate 214 + 12. You can see in figure 2.16 below that
learner working becomes increasingly long-winded and error prone when using concrete
representations.
34
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Figure 2.16: Learner’s drawing of counters to calculate 214 + 12

(Hoadley, 2007)
It is therefore important for you as a Foundation Phase teacher to note that, while arguing
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for the central role of concrete and pictorial representations in early primary mathematics
teaching, Anghileri (2000) cautions against over-reliance on concrete representations. It is
therefore important that children do not come to rely on using such materials [concrete
representation] for modelling numbers, but that they develop mental imagery associated
with these materials and can then work with “imagined” situations.
2.5 CONCLUSION
In this unit, you have learned the different interpretations of addition and subtraction in
198
word problem as well as numerical context. You have also learned the value of progression
in the teaching and learning of addition and subtraction in the Foundation Phase. We
see progression as moving from more concrete to more abstract representations,
and calculation strategies. You have learned that children learn better when they see
connections between different representations and that moving between concrete and
abstract representations in teaching is not a linear process. As a teacher, you need to
decide when to use the concrete or the abstract in your teaching, depending on what
your learners can or cannot do.
In compare problem types, you learned about problems by underlining keywords, and
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associating “more” with addition operation. Learners need to decode (work out) the
meaning of a word problem. To do this, they could model the word problems using a bar
diagram, write the number sentence related to the model, and then calculate the answer.
In learning unit 3 that follow, you will learn about different interpretations of multiplication
200
and division, and how to teach multiplication and division, often referred to as “multiplicative
reasoning”, in the Foundation Phase.
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Learning unit 3
Multiplicative reasoning
3.1 INTRODUCTION
Learning unit 3 focuses on multiplication and division in connected ways, referred to as
202
multiplicative reasoning. As with the discussion of additive reasoning (in learning unit 2),
our approach goes beyond simply looking at the calculation strategies. Instead, we focus
on the ideas behind thinking about quantities and relationships, and what it means to
think multiplicatively. Learning unit 3 comprises three broad learning goals. First, you will
learn about the stages of learners’ development of multiplicative thinking. Secondly, you
will learn about different multiplication situations, and associated models and strategies.
Finally, you will learn about division situations and associated models and strategies.
203 Figure 3.1 illustrates the composition of learning unit 3.
MULTIPLICATIVE
REASONING
Multiplication Developmental
Division
stages of
• Multiplication situations multiplicative • Division situations
• Models of multiplication thinking • Models of division
• Multiplication mental • Division mental strategies
strategies • Division algorithms
• Multiplication algorithms
36
Learning outcomes
yy nderstand the learners’ developmental stages of multiplicative thinking, and what
u
it means to think multiplicatively
yy describe different multiplication situations, models and calculation strategies,
including mental strategies and algorithms
yy describe different division situations, models and calculation strategies, including
mental strategies and algorithms
Key concepts
yy models
yy strategies
yy sharing
yy grouping
yy fluency
yy progression
yy commutativity
yy repeated addition
yy situations
yy algorithm
yy doubling
yy halving
Unlike additive reasoning, which is about how quantities are related in terms of how much
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more or less, multiplicative reasoning revolves around thinking about how quantities are
related in terms of how many times more or less. Research has shown that young learners
can think and reason multiplicatively and do not have to work on additive reasoning first.
Key important concepts such as doubling and halving, commutativity property of

205
multiplication, sharing and grouping models of division are discussed in ways that can
support you to teach these concepts in the Foundation Phase. We discuss modelling word
problems involving multiplicative reasoning and HOW to support learners in deciding
whether a problem can be solved by multiplication or division rather than addition or
subtraction. This is important for teachers, because learners in most cases guess which
operation to use, rather than make sense of the problem, and think multiplicatively.
In this module, we refer to mathematical modelling as the process whereby we use

206
abstractions of mathematics to solve problems in the real world. For example, there
are 21 learners in Grade 5 that will go on an excursion to Zoo Lake. If one car will take a
maximum of 6 learners, how many cars do we need to carry everyone? You may use one
car to work out 21 divided by 6. This will give you 3,5. So, you would need 4 cars. Haylock
(2014) argues that there are four steps involved in this reasoning. In step 1, a problem in
the real world is translated into a problem expressed in mathematical symbols (21 ÷ 6, in
this case). In step 2, the mathematical symbol is manipulated to obtain a mathematical
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solution (3,5). Step 3 is to interpret the mathematical solution back in the real world (3
cars, and a half). The final step is to check the answer against the constraints of the original
solution. In this case, since you cannot have half of a car, the appropriate conclusion is
that you need 4 cars. This process is summarised in figure 3.2 below:
Step 2
Mathematical Mathematical
model solution
Step 1 Step 3
Problem in the Solution in the

real world Step 4 real world
207
Figure 3.2: The process of mathematical modelling

(Haylock, 2014 p 55)
3.2 DEVELOPMENTAL STAGES OF MULTIPLICATIVE THINKING

The main goal of mathematics teaching is to help learners to create meaningful mental
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objects that can be manipulated, considered, and used flexibly and creatively to achieve
some purpose. This requires that teachers are knowledgeable of developmental stages
and key learning trajectories. For instance, children prolonging the use of additive thinking
often regard repeated addition as a familiar and more comfortable means of solving
multiplication problems. However, repeated addition does not provide children with an
important multiplicative structure.
In repeated addition terms, when I have 3 x 5, which is interpreted as 3 groups of 5, it is

209
represented thus:
210
38
211
Adding up the total number of dots gives the answer to 3 x 5, and of course this counting
212
is more efficient when learners can count in 5s, to say 5, 10, 15, and the last number
counted is the answer.
To think multiplicatively entails recognition of a multiplicative situation as involving three

213
aspects: group of equal size (a multiplicand, 5 dots in the above example); numbers of
groups (the multiplier, 3 groups), and a total amount (the product, which is 15). Unless
teachers consciously help children develop multiplicative thinking, which goes beyond
repeated addition, it may not happen for many learners. It is the intention of this learning
unit to support you to do so.
Jacob and Willis (2003) outline hierarchical phases through which multiplicative thinking
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develops, which include one-to-one counting, additive composition, many-to-one

counting, and multiplicative relations.
3.2.1 One-to-one counting

Children that operate at this phase can answer the “how many” question by counting
215
in ones. In the example of dots, learners count in ones, in other words, they understand
cardinality of a number (as discussed in learning unit 1). However, grouping, which is
fundamental to understanding multiplication or division, does not makes sense to them.
They can do recitation of counting in 2s 3s, 5s and so on, but when asked to say “how
many” in a collection of objects, they revert to counting in ones. They do not see counting
as a permanent indicator of the quantity of collection.
Jacob and Willis (2003) state that children in this phase need to learn that a collection can
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be counted or rearranged in different ways, while the quantity stays the same. You could,
for example, set up a simple activity with representations that promotes understanding
of commutativity of multiplication.
217
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218
(a) 3 groups of 2 (b) 2 groups of 3
Engage with learners to explore for themselves that 3 groups of 2 are the same in
219
quantity as 2 groups of 3. Symbolically, 3 x 2 = 2 x 3. This is referred to as commutativity

of multiplication.
It is also important to organise collections in a way that can be more efficiently skip
220
counted rather than counting by ones. An array diagram (arrangement in rows and
columns) is one representation that has been found useful in this regard. Remember to
always systematically draw your dots in rows and columns, so that learners can see the
size of the group and the number of groups, and always make connections to the oral
skip counting in 2s, 3s, 5, 10s, and so on.
3.2.2 Additive composition

This is the second phase, where children recognise that counting is a permanent indicator of
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quantity. Unlike in phase 1, they understand that a quantity can be rearranged or counted
in different ways while remaining the same, and they can make connections with skip
counting rather than counting in ones. However, they may still need to lay items in the
groups out before they skip count or repeatedly add to find out how many. They do not
yet understand that groups themselves can be counted. In other words, they understand
multiplication as repeated addition, but they do not recognise the inverse relationship.
For example, children struggle to make sense of questions such as: “How many groups
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can you count 12 in threes?’ They can perform the skip counting in threes to 12, but can’t
keep track of the number of groups of 3. Their focus is on the multiplicand (size of the
group) and they do not understand the role of the multiplier (number of groups). Here,
they find it difficult to make a connection between multiplication and division, and this
connection is very necessary for thinking multiplicatively. This thinking goes beyond
understanding of multiplication and division as two separate concepts.
Children in this phase need activities to help them recognise the number in each group,
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the number of groups and the total in multiplicative situations. They need to be able to
describe multiplicative situations, for example in arrays, in terms of the number of groups
and the number in each group, without necessarily finding the total. They also need to
40
learn to count groups simultaneously with the number in each group in order to find out
how many in multiplication situations. They need to be able to count groups when given
the total amount and the size of the groups in division situations.
3.2.3 Many-to-one counters

Children at phase 3 can keep track of the number of groups and the total of the number in
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each group simultaneously. They can hold two numbers in their head at once and double
count. Children now know that they can represent one group and count repetitions of
that same group. They count the repetitions of the multiplicand (the size of the group)
and, as they go, they count the number of groups, that is, they keep track of the multiplier
as a way of knowing when to stop counting. For example, 5 for 1, 10 for 2, 15 for 3, 20 for
4, and so on.
Children in this phase generally carry out the double count for multiplication and
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division completely separately from one another. They do not fully understand or move
flexibly between multiplication and division. They cannot consistently use the inverse
relationship between multiplication and division. For example, in problems such as 3 x
4 =? and 3 x? = 12; children often do not recognise that it is the unknown quantity that
makes the situation a multiplication and/or a division. In this case, 3 x 4 =? is a multiplication
problem because the unknown is the total, while 3 x? = 12 or? x 4 = 12 are division problems
because either the multiplicand or the multiplier is the unknown.
Children need to learn to identify the number in each group, the number of groups and
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the total in a range of multiplicative situations and come to know that it is the unknown
quantity that makes the situation a multiplication or a division. This enables them to use
the inverse relationship and move more flexibly between multiplication and division.
3.2.4 Multiplicative relations

In phase 4, children come to know that multiplicative situations involve three aspects:
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groups of equal size (a multiplicand), numbers of groups (the multiplier), and a total amount
(the product). They can also coordinate the grouping structure in both multiplication
and division problems prior to carrying out the count. Children know which number tells
them how many in a group and which number tells them how to operate on that group.
For example, they know whether to find four times the amount in the group, or to find
one fourth of the amount. In multiplicative problems, one of those aspects is missing and
requires an operation to work it out. Having a deep understanding of the roles of these
numbers and the relationship between them also enables them to understand and use
the inverse relationship and commutativity more efficiently.
Moving to range of multiplicative problems involving derived fact indicates strong

228
development of multiplicative thinking. For example;
229 6 x 4 is 24, so 12 x 4 is 48 (doubling means multiply by 2)
230 72 ÷ 8 is 9, so 9 eights are 72
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231 3 x 7 is 21 so 42 ÷ 7 must be 6.
Activity 3.1
(1) List four hierarchical phases through which multiplicative thinking develops.
(2) Describe a child who is at the one-to-one counting phase. What can you do to support
this child to progress to the next phase?

The four hierarchical phases through which multiplicative thinking develops are one-to-one
counting, additive composition, many-to-one counting, and multiplicative relations.
A child who operates at one-to-one counting can answer the “how many” question by counting
in ones. However, grouping, which is fundamental to understanding of multiplication or
division, does not make sense to him. He does not see counting as a permanent indicator of the
quantity of collection. Now think of the kind of activities that can support a child to recognise
grouping as a unit, and to see counting as a permanent indicator of quantity, irrespective of
arrangement or ways in which the quantity is counted.
3.3 MULTIPLICATION SITUATIONS

When learners can “chant” or “recite” the multiplication tables, it is NO guarantee that
232
they understand what multiplication is about, or that they can apply their knowledge
of the multiplication tables in other situations. Learners must ultimately have their
multiplication tables at their fingertips, but before they can reach this stage, they need
to fully understand the conceptual meaning of multiplication. It is critically important to
expose learners to many kinds of situation where they are given the opportunity to gain
a full understanding of what multiplication, at their level, really entails – also in practice.
It is important at Foundation Phase level to start teaching multiplication with simple

233
contexts, rather than abstract calculation, like 5 x 3. Providing contextual situation will
allow meaningful discussion about multiplication. This can be achieved through acting,
and modelling the situation with a diagram, and can finally be represented by means of a
multiplication sentence. In this section, we will discuss different multiplicative situations,
and their associated representation, and finally calculation strategies including mental
and written algorithm.
Multiplication applies to situations that involve equal groups. For example, “If I have 5
234
bags and in each bag there are 7 balls, how many balls altogether?” This is a situation of
5 groups with 7 balls in each group as shown in figure 3.3. So, according to the meaning
of multiplication, there are 5 x 7 balls (35 balls).
235
42
236
Figure 3.3: 5 groups of 7 balls
So, a problem can be solved by multiplication when we have a number of groups, and
237
the number of objects in each group.
In the Foundation Phase, multiplication is commonly introduced as repeated addition,

238
that is, situations where several groups, all of the same size, need to be added together. We
usually ask questions such as: “How big is each group or how many groups?” For example:
239 a) On her meal on Monday, Shila saved R50. On Tuesday she saved R50 and on Wednesday
she saved R50. How much did Shila save altogether?
240 b) 3 packets with 5 apples in each. How many apples altogether?
241 c) 4 rows of 11 chairs. How many chairs altogether?
242 d) 12 girls each gets ¼ of an orange to eat at half-time. How many oranges in total?
All these situations can be interpreted or modelled directly as repeated addition. At

243
Foundation Phase level, array diagrams are used to provide a good representation of,
but are not limited to, repeated addition. Consider the problem:
244 3 rows of 5 chairs. How many chairs altogether?
The context lends itself to learners modelling the problem as a 3 x 5 array, either by means
245
of physical objects or drawing, as shown in figure 3.3 below.
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246
Figure 3.4: Three rows of 5 chairs
The number of chairs can be determined by viewing each row as a group: the array
247
diagram consists of 3 groups, and there are 5 chairs in each group. Therefore, the total
number of chairs is 3 groups of 5 chairs. This is same as 5+5+5 or 3 x 5 = 15
The discussion will be on how many chairs altogether and thinking about a quick way of
248
getting the answer without counting the chairs one by one. Using the learners’ explanation
and reasoning will lead to introducing the concept of multiplication. Learners could
calculate the number of chairs in a variety of ways. For example, a learner may say that
they added five and five and five or they multiplied five three times, meaning 3 groups
of 5, as demonstrated in figure 3.4 below.
249
Figure 3.4: 3 groups of 5
44
It is important to note that other learners may see it differently; they may add three and
250
three and three and three and three or multiply three five times, meaning 5 groups of 3,
as indicated in figure 3.5 below.
Figure 3.5: 5 groups of 3
While it is important to observe different strategies that learners use in working out
251
problems, it is equally necessary to comment on why quantity can be rearranged or

counted in different ways, while remaining the same. As argued earlier, it is an important
phase for developing a strong understanding of multiplication.
At the foundational level, multiplication is interpreted as repeated addition. However,

252
as a teacher you need to be aware of other interpretations of multiplication. Instead of

describing multiplication as a number being repeated many times, you could also view
multiplication as a “rate” in a ratio context.
The rate interpretation of multiplication entails a ratio, where explicitly or implicitly, there
253
is a “per” in the context, and can be described as a rate situation of multiplication. For
example,
254 a) If 5 litres of petrol costs R75, what is the cost of 20 litres of petrol?
255 b) The cost of photocopy is R1,50 per page. How much will cost to photocopy 25 pages?
All these situations can be interpreted or modelled as a rate situation of multiplication.

256
The double number line is used to provide a good representation of a rate situation.
Consider the problem:
257 If 5 litre of petrol costs R75, what is the cost of 20 litres of petrol?
258
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The context lends itself to learners modelling the problem as a ratio of 5 litres to R75
259
and then determining how much 20 litres will cost. This is well represented on a double
number line, as shown in figure 3.6.
0 5 10 15 20
Petrol
cost
0 75 150 225 ?
Figure 3.6: Double number line
The explicit ratio in this case makes this problem different from repeated addition. Another
260
representation or model that can be used in this case is the t-table, as shown in table 3.1.
Table 3.1: The T-table
Petrol (Litres) Cost (Rand)
5 75
10 150
20 300
In the T-table, you can skip numbers and work in more efficient ways to get to the answer.
261
For example, I can move directly from 10 litres to 20 litres. In a double number line, you
must keep the space the same, as it is a measurement of length. It is therefore more
advantageous to use the T-table than the double number line.
Activity 3.2
(1) Which other interpretation of multiplication do you know apart from repeated
addition?
(2) What is the benefit of introducing a variety of interpretations of multiplication to
Foundation Phase learners?

Situations where several groups, all the same in size, need to be added, describe multiplication
as repeated addition, but in other multiplication situations the image of repeated addition is
not used. An example is a situation where continuous quantity is increased by a scaling factor.
This situation refers to scaling up interpretation of multiplication, and is often indicated by
questions such as: “How many times as much?” or “How many times bigger?” Consider the
following examples:
46
a) Lebo’s ribbon is 2 cm long. If Shila’s ribbon is three times longer than Lebo’s ribbon, what
is the length of Shila’s ribbon?
b) The store manager earns four times more than the shop assistant
c) Sipho is three times older than his son who is 12. How old is Sipho?
Research has shown that a deeper understanding of the concept of multiplication requires
awareness of different interpretations of multiplication situations (repeated addition, rate
and scaling-up, for example). Practise and the need for multiple but VARYING opportunities to
develop understanding are essential. The focus on a variety of interpretations of multiplication
situations is important, because we often give children similar activities, rendering them unable
to transfer competencies when the situation changes. It might also be important for learners
to understand the way variety can play out in a given situation.
3.4 DEVELOPING EFFICIENCY WITH MULTIPLICATION

CALCULATIONS
The goal of this section is to explore different mental images that can aid efficient
262
multiplication calculations. We will begin with discussion of some pre-knowledge that

can serve as the basis where mental calculations will be based. These are: knowing your
multiples up to 12, doubling, and multiplying by 10.
3.4.1 Doubling as pre-knowledge of multiplication

Doubling is a method learners will develop as pre-knowledge to prepare them for
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multiplication. Doubling means to add the given number to itself (e.g. double 6 means
6 + 6) or to multiply the number by TWO (e.g. 6 x 2). Double 6 is 12. It is a useful strategy
for introducing early multiplication.
Always let learners work within the number range appropriate for their grade and ability
264
level, as prescribed by the curriculum. Start doubling small numbers and build up to
larger numbers. Start with concrete and familiar objects to more abstract conceptions
in the teaching of doubling.
There are varieties of ways that you can teach doubling in the Foundation Phase. These
265
approaches depend on the grade level that you are teaching or what learners can or
cannot do. It is important to be always responsive to the cognitive level of your learners.
You should always be moving learners to a more abstract level, but using concrete
apparatus to scaffold these moves.
Many objects in real life are double. Let us consider our body parts – the eyes, the legs,
266
the hands, the fingers, and so forth – they all come in doubles. You can use body parts
as a resource to introduce doubling to your learners.
We will discuss a variety of diagrams to teaching doubling apart from using body parts
267
as resources. Importantly, we will discuss the “strategic doubling” approach.
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268 Using diagrams to teach doubling
269 a) The use of a pyramid format
Pyramid formats to practise doubling like the ones below can be introduced later in Grade
270
1. Start with small numbers and let learners fill in the “empty blocks”:
Double
6 is 12
6 6
271
Give learners LOTS and LOTS of these to complete. Gradually increase the difficulty level
272
throughout the year. The formats for Grade 3 learners should be much more challenging.
273 b) The use of a spider web format
For Grades 2 and 3, more advanced exercises like the spider web format can be used. Give
274
the instruction in the middle and write the numbers (within the range of the learners)
that show double, in the blocks on the outside circle.
Leave the outside blocks open

7 2 for learners’ answers.
24 29
Double
8 15
4 10
275
276
48
Activity 3.3
(1) What other variety of diagrams can you use to teach doubling?
(2) What are the things to consider in designing activity tasks to cater for different grade
levels?
Feedback on activity 3.3

You could design a variety of diagrams as an activity for teaching doubling. A flow diagram
is another interesting doubling activity format that you can use. For example:
2 4 12
3 13
double double
5 15
10 20
Although the numbers used in these diagrams are within the Grade 1 number range, activities
like these should not be introduced too soon in Grade 1. Let Grade 1s work sufficiently with
concrete resources before introducing such formats. You could increase the number range to
cater for different grade levels. Therefore, activity format and number range are important
considerations to note when designing activity tasks to cater for different grade levels. But
always remember to be responsive to what learners can or cannot do.
277 Strategic doubling approach
When learners are familiar with doubling 1-digit numbers between 1 and 9 as recall fact,
278
this understanding can be extended to use benchmarks to find doubles of 2-digit and
3-digit numbers. For example, double 5 (equals 10), and double 10 (equals 20) can both
be used as benchmarks in finding doubles of other numbers in strategic ways. You may
ask learners to use what they know to derive to what they don’t know in connected ways.
Look at the examples below:
279 Double 7 is the same as double 5 + double 2
280 10 + 4 = 14
Double 13 is the same as double 10 + double 3

281
282 20 + 6 = 26
283
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284 More examples
285 Double 34 286 Double 30 + double 4
287 60 + 8 = 68
288 Double 107 289 Double 100 + double 7
290 200 + 14 = 214

Double 199
291 Double 200–double 1
292
293 400–2 = 398

294 Double 277 295 Double 200 + double 70 + double 7
296 400 + 140 + 14 = 554

297 Double 34 298
299 Double 340 300
301 Double 341 302
Learners can easily find doubles of large numbers by breaking down a number into its
303
place value.
304 Multiply by 10
Multiplying any whole number by 10 creates an interesting pattern of number, which

305
you can explore with the children. For example:
306 2 x 10 = 2 tens = 10 + 10 = 20
307 3 x 10 = 3 tens = 10 + 10 = 10 = 30
308 4 x 10 = 4 tens = 10 + 10 + 10 + 10 = 40
Allow learners to explore this pattern when we multiply by 10. You will notice that whenever
309
we multiply any whole number by 10, we keep the original number and add zero to the
right of the number. Now consider bigger numbers such as
310 23 x 10 = 230
572 x 10 = 5720
311
It is important to bring to the learners’ awareness that we can multiply by 10 from place
312
value. For example, 2 x 10
50
Thousands
Hundreds
By multiplying by 10, the number 2, which
321
Units
is in a unit column, will move to the left
Tens
to the tens column and you place 0 in the
313
314
315
316
317 2 unit column
318 X10 319 2 320 0
322 Let us look at 2-digit numbers; 37 x 10

Thousands
Hundreds
Units
Tens
By multiplying by 10, each number is

323
moved one place value to the left, and

3 7 you add zero to the unit column
X10 3 7 0
3.4.2 Knowing your multiples up to 12

Fluency in the recall of the multiplication bonds up to 12 x 12 is prerequisite knowledge
324
for efficient multiplication calculations. Learners need to practise recall of the bonds in
contexts that do not rely on going through the tables to arrive at a particular bond.
Learners may need a series of activities that will help them to develop this fluency, and
325
such activities need to be regularly carried out in the class as part of mental mathematics.
A spider web format can be used to complement the verbal recitation of the multiplication
bonds. Give the instruction in the middle, and ask learners to write the multiples in the
blocks in the outside circle.
326
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Leave the outside blocks open
1 2 for learners’ answers.
8 3
x 3
7 4
6 5
327
When children are fluent with the multiples of 2s, 3s, 4s, 5s, and 10s, as a recall fact, you
328
can then use these facts to derive the multiples of 6s, 7s, 8s, 9s, 11s, and 12s. For example,
equivalent multiplication could be explored:
5 x 8 can be written as 10 x 4 = 40
329
330 You will notice that it is simple to say 8 = 2 x 4 as a recall fact. Therefore,
5 x 8 = 5 x 2 x 4 = 10 x 4. This kind of thinking will help children to explore of multiples

331
of different numbers up to 12 x 12 and beyond.
Activity 3.4
Assume your learners are fluent with multiples of 2s, 3s, 4s, 5s, and 10s. Now show them
how they can use the knowledge of equivalent multiplication to calculate the following
problems:
a) 7x8
b) 6 x 12
c) 14 x 6
d) 8x9

Think of dividing one of the numbers by 2 or 3 in a way that can reduce the big number into
an equivalent multiplication that can be done as a recall fact. For example, 7 x 8 can be
expressed as 7 x 4 x 2 = 28 x 2. You can now see it is easier to calculate 28 x 2 (using the idea
of doubling) than 7 x 8.
332
52
3.5 USING AREA MODEL TO PERFORM MULTIPLICATION OF 2-
AND 3-DIGIT NUMBERS
When we multiply two numbers, we are finding the area with one number representing
333
the length and the other representing the width. Let us consider a simple calculation that
you could use with Grade 1s: 4 x 3
We can represent this as an area of which the length is 4 units and the width is 3 units, as
334
shown in figure 3.7.
3 3
4 4 12
4x3 4x3
Figure 3.7: Array diagram for working out 4 x 3
To work out 4 x 3, learners can count the number of squares in (a), which are 12 and
335
therefore, the answer to 4 x 3 is 12. However, we would not like learners to continue into
Grades 2 and 3 counting the number of squares before they can perform multiplication,
particularly when the number range gets bigger.
We can develop more efficient use of the area model with learners’ knowledge of known
336
facts in a range up to bonds of 12, from 1 x 1 to 12 x 12. For example, consider multiplication
of a 2-digit number with a 1-digit number:
337
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The number 13 was broken down into 10 and 3, which allowed an easy multiplication. You
338
can also apply this model to multiplication of a 2-digit by 2-digit number. Consider 25 x 17:
339
340 Therefore, 25 x 17 = 425
You will notice that the numbers 25 and 17 were broken down into their place value. This
341
provides easy multiplication.
3.6 DIVISION SITUATIONS

It is important at Foundation Phase level to start teaching division with simple contexts,
342
rather than abstract calculation, like 15 ÷ 3. Providing contextual situation will allow
meaningful discussion about division. This can be achieved through acting and modelling
the situation by means of diagrams, and finally represented by division sentences. In this
section, we will discuss different division situations, and their associated representation,
and finally calculation strategies, including mental and written algorithm.
Division applies to situations in which the quantity is shared equally into a given number
343
of portions, and we ask learners to determine how many are in EACH portion. For example,
8 pencils shared equally between 4 children, as shown in figure 3.8 below. The calculation
to perform here is 8 ÷ 4. This is the most common situation of division that is used in the
Foundation Phase.
344
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Figure 3.8: Sharing 8 pencils between 4 children (8÷4)
There are broadly two situations of division that you must know as Foundation Phase
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teacher. These are: division as sharing and division as grouping. As with other operations of
addition, subtraction, and multiplication, it helps us to connect these two situations with the
operation of division, if we ask the question: what calculation can we do in these situations?
3.6.1 Division as sharing

Division as sharing refers to a situation in which quantity is shared equally. In the Foundation
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Phase, division is commonly introduced as sharing equally. It is important to note that

young children develop the concept of sharing at home. Objects are shared among
families, and children experience the concept of sharing in practical ways.
As a teacher, you need to be aware of your learners’ everyday knowledge, and your role
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is to move children from everyday knowledge to more formal mathematical knowledge.

Questions such as who gets a bigger share or a smaller share are useful. What is to be
emphasised here is the concept of EQUAL sharing – getting the same size or piece.
Drawing diagrams are useful representations to support young children in understanding
division. For example,
348 Mpho has 28 sweets. He shares them between 7 children. How many sweets does
each child get?
A first step to answer this question is to make sense of the situation “Mpho has 28 sweets”.
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You can imagine Mpho holding a container containing 28 sweets. “He shares them between
7 children.” – You can draw 7 circles to represent the 7 children. We can then share the
28 sweets between the children. You start by giving each child one sweet, and continue
in this manner until all the sweets are finished. Each child must get an EQUAL number
of sweets, and what each child gets is the answer to the question asked. The solution to
this problem is represented in figure 3.9 below:
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Figure 3.9: Sharing 28 sweets between 7 children (28 ÷ 7)
This is the situation that teachers most naturally connect with division and which is
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strongly associated with the language “sharing” and HOW MANY IN EACH GROUP. So,
when a division problem asks “how many (or how much) in each group?” it is associated
with the sharing model of division.
3.6.2 Division as grouping

The division as grouping situation interprets 28 ÷ 7 in a completely different way, as in
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the situation of division as sharing. The question being asked is: “How many groups of 7
sweets are there in 28 sweets?” In this situation, the problem depicts a situation where
you have one group of 7, and you keep on repeating this group until all 28 sweets are
finished (1 group of 7 is 7; 2 groups of 7 is 14, 3 groups of 7 is 21, and 4 groups of 7 is 28;
therefore 28 ÷ 7 = 4). This is shown in figure 3.10.
Figure 3.10 Finding how many groups of 7 in 28 (28 ÷ 7)
The interpretations of division in figures 3.9 and 3.10 are different as they are answering
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two different questions, but both are valid interpretations of the problem 28 ÷ 7. In division
as sharing, we asked “how many in each group?”. So, our answer is the number in each
group. While in division as grouping, we asked: “How many groups?” So, our answer is
the number of groups.
The two situations of division are important in helping learners to develop a comprehensive
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understanding of division, and provide a strong foundation for later work in division
algorithm. The following are useful questions to engage learners in a discussion about
division as sharing and division as grouping:
yy Where is the twenty-eight in each case?

yy Where is the seven in each case?
yy Where is the answer in each case?
yy Why can each of these situations be recorded as 28 ÷ 7?
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Table 3.2 presents a comparison between the two situations of division: Division as sharing
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and division as grouping in terms of problem structure and question asked.
Table 3.2: Comparison between division as sharing and division as grouping
Situations Problem Question Examples

of division structure asked
Sharing Size of the How many yy Jessica, Shila and Mpho share
group or (or how out 15 marbles. How many
portion is much) in marbles do they get each?
known each? yy Sameera has 28 cm of sticky
tape to wrap 4 small parcels.
What length of tape should she
use on each one?
Grouping Number of How many yy If a farmer has 30 eggs and

groups or groups? wants to put them into boxes
portions is of five, how many boxes does
known he need?
yy If there are 32 children waiting
to go on a trip and each car
holds 8 people, how many cars
will they fill?
Activity 3.5
Use dots to represent the following division problems. Discuss: What is the same? And
what is different?
(1) Mpho has 15 sweets. He shares them between 3 children. How many sweets does
each child get?
(2) Virginia has 15 sweets and some bags. She puts 3 sweets into each bag. How many
bags does she need?

The two problems have the same symbolic representation as 15 ÷ 3; however, they represent
different situations of division. The following representations can help you to discuss what is
the same, and what is different.
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3.7 DEVELOPING EFFICIENCY WITH DIVISION CALCULATIONS
The goal of this section is to explore different mental images that can aid efficient division
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calculations. We will begin with a discussion of halving as pre-knowledge of division.
3.7.1 Halving as pre-knowledge of division

Halving is a method that learners will develop as pre-knowledge in preparing them for
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division. Halving means to divide a number or an object into two EQUAL parts. Figure
3.11 represents the halving of different objects (i.e. object divided into two equal parts).
Figure 3.11: Halving of different objects

In figure 3.11, halving is represented for one object. It is possible to find the half of many
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objects. For example, half of 6 is 3, as represented in figure 3.12 below.
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Figure 3.12: Half of 6
Always let learners work within the number range appropriate for their grade and ability
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level, as prescribed by the curriculum. Start halving with a small number range and build
up to a bigger number range. Start with concrete and familiar objects and move to more
abstract conception in the teaching of halving.
There are several ways that you can teach halving in the Foundation Phase. These
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approaches depend on the grade level that you are teaching or what learners can or
cannot do. It is important to be always responsive to the cognitive level of your learners.
You should always be moving learners to a more abstract level, but using concrete
apparatus to scaffold these moves.
Pyramid formats can be used to practise halving of different numbers. It can also be
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used to delineate the inverse relationship between halving and doubling. You could ask
learners to fill in the “halves” in the “empty blocks”:
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More advanced exercises like the spider web format could also be used. Give the instruction
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in the middle, and write the numbers (within the range of the learners) that show half of
the number in the outer circle. Leave the outside blocks open for learners’ answers, for
example:
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Use even numbers so that the number can
be divided by 2 without a remainder.
3 22
28 24
Half
8 34
4 10
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When learners became familiar with halving numbers between 2 to 10 as recall fact, you
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can develop and extend this understanding to use as benchmarks for halving problems.
For example, as a recall fact we know that half of 10 is 5. You may ask learners to use what
they know to work out what they don’t know in strategic ways.
Example: Half of 12
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368 Half of 12 is the same as half of 10 + half of 2 = 5 + 1 = 6
Half of 18 Half of 10 + Half of 8 OR Half of 20 – Half of 2

5 + 4 = 9 10 – 1 = 9 Since 18 is
close to 20
Half 34
Half of 88
Half of 411
Half of 519
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3.7.2 Written division
Introduce the “long-division” method only when learners fully understand the horizontal
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division process. The traditional long-division method is without doubt one of the most
difficult of the algorithms for learners to understand. Many teachers struggle to teach it
and many learners struggle to learn it! This method should therefore NOT be introduced
too early.
Repeated subtraction is the basis of long-division algorithm. A scaffolding approach to

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written division is introduced here. This method allows greater flexibility in calculating
and can serve as a stepping stone to the standard long-division method. To demonstrate
this method, let us consider the problem:
371 48 ÷ 4
The scaffolding method is based on the grouping interpretation of division. Before you
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introduce this method, make sure you consolidate multiplication tables. For the problem,
48 ÷ 4, a strong knowledge of multiples of 4 is necessary. For example, as a recall fact
one should know that 10 groups of 4 is 40. When I take away 40 (10 groups of 4) from 48,
I will be left with 8, and 8 is 2 groups of 4. So, there are 12 groups of 4 in 48. Therefore,
our answer to 48 ÷ 4 is 12, as shown below.
373 4 48
374 - 4 0 10 groups of 4
375 8
376 -8 2 groups of 4
377 0 12 groups of 4
378 Therefore, 48 ÷ 4 = 12
379 Let consider another example.
380 Calculate 586 ÷ 5 using the scaffolding method
381 5 586
382 - 500 100 groups of 5
383 86 What is left over after subtracting 100 fives
384 -80 16 groups of 5
385 6 What is left over after subtracting 16 fives
386 5 1 groups of 5
387 1 What is left over after subtracting 1 five
586 ÷ 5 = 100 + 16 + 1 = 117

388
389
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390 Try out the following using the scaffolding method:
1. 265 ÷ 7
2. 589 ÷ 4
3. 735 ÷ 3
4. 4581 ÷ 7
3.8 CONCLUSION
In this unit, we have discussed the learners’ developmental stages for multiplicative
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reasoning (multiplication and division). We have pointed out how important it is for a
teacher to understand learners’ developmental stages, as it is a useful resource in lesson
planning and delivery in the classroom. We have described in detail the different situations
of multiplication and division, and strategies that you can employ for effective teaching
of multiplication in division in the Foundation Phase.
In learning unit 4, we will look at fractions and percentages, another important topic in
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mathematics, but difficult for teachers to teach and for learners to learn. To address this
challenge, we consider approaching the teaching of mathematics as meaningful problem-
solving rather than a set of rules and procedures to follow.
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Learning unit 4
Fractions
4.1 INTRODUCTION
Learners generally find learning about fractions difficult. This may be simply because of the
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abstract ways in which fractions are taught in schools. Therefore, learning unit 4 focuses
on teaching fractions as a meaningful, sense-making, problem-solving activity. To
do this, the unit is organised into three broad learning goals. First, you will learn about
the common difficulties that learners encounter when learning about fractions. Secondly,
you will learn about the pre-knowledge domains that are required in building a strong
foundation for fraction understanding. Finally, you will learn about basic fraction concepts,
such as unitary and non-unitary fractions, comparing, ordering and equivalent fractions.
FRACTIONS
Pre-fraction Basic fractions

knowledge Common difficulties concepts
with learning of
• Equal sharing • Unitary and
fractions
• Partitioning non-unitary fractions
• Unitising • Comparing, ordering,
and equivalent fractions
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Learning outcomes
yy identify common difficulties learners experience with fractions, and support them
to make sense of fractional situations
yy understand the pre-knowledge that is required for building a strong foundation for
the understanding of fractions
yy introduce basic fractions concepts, such as unitary and non-unitary fractions, comparing,
ordering and equivalent fractions as a meaningful, sense-making, problem-solving
activity.
Key concepts
yy partitioning
yy part of a whole
yy unitary
yy non-unitary
yy equivalence
yy equal sharing
yy unitising
yy fraction wall
Fraction is one of the important concepts in mathematics, with a wide range of applications
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in algebra, geometry, probability, as well as in our everyday life. Most of the information we
get daily in the media is presented in fraction or percentage terms. Nearly a ⅓ of the staff
in the organisation will lose their job. Approximately ⅔ of the population in South Africa
are younger than 18. On Black Friday, there will be sale at 50% off. To function effectively
in society, we must understand and be able to interpret fractions and percentages.
Learners have already been introduced to the idea of a fraction at home before formally
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learning about the concept in school – “a small piece”, “a little bit”, through sharing of
things at home. Learners are simply using these terms to describe well-known objects
without necessarily understanding the meaning of fractions. As mentioned in learning
unit 3, before introducing symbols, fraction ideas should also be introduced to young
children using real (contextual) problems, which involves equal sharing of objects. This
encourages learners to come up with their own solution strategies, and subsequently
develop a meaningful understanding of fractions. In doing so, as a teacher, you should
encourage learners to explain their solutions verbally and with concrete representations.
Consider the following examples involving equal sharing of chocolates that you could
use to introduce fraction ideas:
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yy Shila and Mpho want to share 3 chocolate bars equally. Show them how to do it.
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yy Elsie, Kelly and Lauren want to share 4 chocolate bars equally. Show them how to do it.
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yy Mpho, Lerato, Nomonde and Nkomazi want to share 5 chocolate bars equally. Show
them how to do it.
403
You will notice that in all three examples above, there is one more chocolate bar than the
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number of people that will share the chocolate bars equally. The reason for inclusion of
one chocolate bar more than the number of people is to introduce the notion of fractions
to young children. Here children are confronted with a situation where they need to share
a whole into equal parts, and it involves naming of those equal pieces of chocolate bars.
It is essential to allow learners to make sense of the situation and you should encourage
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them to make meaningful representations of the problems by means of, for instance,
drawings. They do not need the formal fraction names or notations at this stage. Although
the correct formal naming of the fraction is necessary (e.g. half, third, fourth), it should
not be overemphasised at this early stage. Accept learners’ ‘own’ appropriate names.
Building on the knowledge that learners draw upon as they make sense of mathematics
is an essential aspect of supporting their learning in a meaningful way. Remember,
learners come to your class with some informal knowledge of fractions.
In relation to the order of the problems, the first problem involves dividing the one extra
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chocolate bar into two equal pieces, the second problem into three equal pieces, and
the third problem into four equal pieces. This kind of sequence of example is to allow
learners to build progression from working on an easier problem (sharing one chocolate
bar between two persons) to more advanced problems (sharing one chocolate bar among
four persons). Using a sequence of examples teaches learners that a half is greater than
a third, and a third is greater than a quarter.
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In the next section, we will discuss some of the difficulties associated with learning of
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fractions. This is followed by some activities relating to the basic concepts of fractions
that will help you to teach early fractions at the Foundation Phase in a meaningful way.
4.2 LEARNER DIFFICULTIES WITH LEARNING FRACTIONS

Fractions are especially confusing because they break rules of whole numbers that children
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have already learned. For example, the statement that “multiplication gets bigger” is not
always true in the case of multiplication with fractions. For example, 20 x ½ gives 10, which
is a smaller number than 20.
Most children, therefore, find fractions very difficult to learn and fraction is one of the
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topics in mathematics that is poorly taught by many teachers. The Rational Number Project
(RNP) (Cramer, Behr, Post, & Lesh, 2009) in the United States of America identified some
distinct, but interrelated difficulties that young children demonstrated while learning
fractions. All these difficulties were associated with poor connections between whole
number and fractions conceptions. Some of these difficulties are:
1. Meaning of fraction symbols: Children have difficulty internalising that the symbol
for a fraction represents a single entity. When asked if ⅔ was one or two numbers,
many children would say that the symbol represented two numbers. When students
consider ⅔ as two numbers, it makes sense to treat them like whole numbers. Many
errors associated with fractions can be traced to learners’ lack of mental images for
the quantity the symbol represents. This may well be connected with children ap-
plying their knowledge of whole numbers. A fraction ⅔ stands as a single number,
and as such, has a location on the number line as shown below. The 3 tells us how
many equal pieces a whole is divided into, and the 2 tells us how many of such pieces
are considered.
2. Ordering fractions: Children have difficulty in ordering fractions. Comparing ⅓ and
⅕ conflicts with children’s whole number ideas. 5 is greater than 3, but ⅓ is greater
than ⅕. With fractions, more can mean less. The more equal parts you partition a
unit into, the smaller each part becomes. In contrast, ⅗ is greater than ⅖ because
3 of the same-size parts is greater than 2 of the same-size parts. In this case, more
implies more.
3. Equivalent fractions: Some children have difficulty noting equivalence from pictures.
Imagine a circle partitioned into fourths, with one of those fourths partitioned into
three equal parts. Some children were unable to agree that 3/12 equals ¼ even though
they agreed that physically the two sections were the same size.
0 /3
1 2
/3 1
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It can be concluded that working with whole numbers in the Foundation Phase for a
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long time interferes with learners’ understanding of fractions when introduced at an

early stage. Therefore, the emphasis on introducing the idea of fractions using contextual
problems cannot be overemphasised. It is also important during this phase that teachers
delay the introduction of symbolic notations of fractions until the meaning of fractions
is well understood by learners. Terms like half, quarter, two-thirds can be used verbally
and written in words.
Understanding the difficulties learners encounter while learning fractions, has important
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implications for the teaching of fractions. Although fractions receive little attention in
the Foundation Phase, establishing the foundations for understanding fractions as a
meaningful, sense-making, problem-solving activity during this phase contributes
significantly to the ways in which learners understand fractions and calculations involving
fractions in the later grades. Therefore, this unit will provide you with range of activities that
will equip you to teach fractions meaningfully at the Foundation Phase.
Activity 4.1
(1) Discuss how learners’ conception of whole numbers can interfere with their learning
of fractions.
(2) Mark on this number line:
0 1
/2
(3) Mark on this number line:
0 2
/3

In response to this activity, you need to look at the difference between whole-number conception
and that of fractions. The three difficulties learners encounter, as outlined in this learning
unit, will give you some direction on how best to respond to how whole-number conception
interferes with the learning of fractions.
One way to locate the fractions given in questions 2 and 3, is to identify the position of 1. For
example, the position of 1 in question 2 is one-third length from the two-third position, and
one-third length is a half-length from 0 to the two-third position. Knowing the position of 1, it
is easy to partition the unit length into four equal parts. And when this is done, you can locate
meaningfully the position of ¾.
In the next section, we will discuss some basic concepts of fractions that are useful at Foundation
Phase level to help you address the learning difficulties discussed above.
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4.3 PRE-FRACTION KNOWLEDGE
The word “fraction” is defined generally at Foundation Phase level as “part of a whole”. If a
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whole is divided into equal parts, we call each of these parts a fraction. For example, when a
chocolate bar is shared equally between two children, each will get a fraction of the whole,
referred to as a “half”.
415
Figure 4.2: A chocolate bar is divided into two equal parts

Certain pre-knowledge domains are necessary for developing a strong understanding
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of fraction concepts. Some of these knowledge domains include the following: equal
sharing, partitioning, and unitising. We will discuss these pre-knowledge domains
before introducing you to the basic fraction concepts that will help you to teach well in the
Foundation Phase.
4.3.1 Equal sharing

As mentioned earlier, learners understand the concept of sharing before receiving formal
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instruction about fractions. A 4 year old can distribute a set of objects among a small
number of persons (e.g. six chocolate bars shared between two people). By the age of
5, children can share a single object among multiple persons (e.g. a chocolate bar shared
among 3 of his/her friends). The notion of equal sharing is inherent in the effort to be fair
among children. You would often hear children saying “I got the bigger share” or “You
gave me a smaller share”.
Knowledge of equal sharing is necessary for developing initial fraction knowledge. Indeed,
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one of the interpretations of a fraction, besides part of a whole, is quotient (the result of
equal sharing). Hence, as a teacher you need to build on children’s informal knowledge
of equal sharing to attain meaningful fraction knowledge.
Children are often very confident to perform equal sharing of objects, as discussed in the
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previous unit, where there will be nothing left over. However, as presented in the opening
examples in this learning unit, there are situations where, for instance, 3 chocolate bars are
shared among two persons. The common response from learners will be that each person
will get one chocolate bar, and there will be one left over. Now, sharing the one left over
equally, results in the concept of fraction. The concept of sharing equally as precursor to
understanding division was already discussed in learning unit 3 of this module. Here, you
will learn how to make connections between equal sharing and fractions.
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In sharing equally, we now move to fractional parts, where the part left over needs to be
420
shared equally as well. Foundation Phase learners must be exposed to practical sharing
situations that are part of their everyday lives, for example food, books you share in
the class, pencils, money, and so on. It is also important that you use fraction language
(words) in everyday contexts, such as half, quarter and so on, so that learners get used
to hearing them.
At first, learners must use concrete objects to solve problems involving sharing equally
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into fractional parts. However, as they gain confidence and experience, they may move
to using drawings to record their ideas. Eventually, learners will learn to use more abstract
ways of solving problems and represent fractional parts using symbols.
Begin with simple sharing activities that involve dividing a set of objects equally among
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a small group of people without anything being left over. For example, six chocolate bars
shared by two people. You can describe the number of chocolate bars and the number
of people, and the learners can determine how many chocolate bars each person would
receive. Learners should be encouraged to use concrete objects, drawings or any other
meaningful representations to help them solve these problems. You need to emphasise
that each person needs to get an equal share.
Next, you could introduce examples where equal sharing may lead to fractions, such as
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the examples of chocolate bars in the opening part of this unit. For instance, if two people
share one chocolate bar, each person receives half of a chocolate bar. More similar examples
that require something left over can be introduced, like three people sharing four chocolate
bars, four people sharing five chocolate bars, and so on.
4.3.2 Partitioning
Partitioning is defined as subdividing of a whole into equal parts. Partitioning is fundamental
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to the meaningful construction of fractions, just as counting is the basis to understanding

the construction of a whole number. In fact, the construction of initial fraction concepts
centres on the coordination of counting and partitioning structures. Consider a whole
partitioned into two equal parts. Each part is called a half.
WHOLE
425
426 Half Half

427
Partitioning experiences permit learners to distinguish the relationship between the size
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and number of parts, and the inverse relationship between the number of equal pieces a
whole is divided into and the value of the fraction. This is possible for many young learners
even before formal instruction on symbols begins. Children as young as in Grade 1 can
use their developing notion of partitioning to recognise that a quantity divided more times
results in smaller pieces. For example, most young children often disagree that ½ is greater
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than ¼, simply because 4 is greater than 2. This is one of the difficulties that was identified
by the Rational Number Project discussed in the previous section. Activities such as paper
folding support children in developing partitioning knowledge and help in developing
meaningful ordering of fractions.
To perform the paper folding activity, give an A4 paper to each learner in your class. Ask
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learners to hold up their A4 paper and to have a good look at the whole paper. Now ask
them to fold the paper into two equal parts. Allow learners to explore the relationship
between the whole and the two parts.
Then ask them what they should do to make the paper whole again (unfold the paper).
430
Use the language whole, two parts, half, two halves in a whole.
431
Figure 4.3: A paper is folded into two equal parts
Ask learners to fold the half into another two equal parts. They will get four equal parts;
432
each one part out of the four is called a quarter. Ask learners to compare a half and a
quarter, and say which one is bigger or smaller. They will realise through this activity that,
when a paper is partitioned into four equal parts, each part is smaller compared to the
SAME paper partitioned into two equal parts. In figure 4.4 below, a whole is partitioned
into two equal parts, which gives two halves, and the two halves are further partitioned
into two equal parts, which gives four quarters.
Quarter Quarter
Half
A whole
Quarter Quarter
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Figure 4.4: Partitioning of a whole into halves and quarters

434
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435 Ask the following questions to guide the discussion in the class
yy How many parts of paper do I have now?

yy What will I call each part? Use fraction naming. In the Foundation Phase, we name
one half “1 half”. Two quarters are “2 quarters”. When this is well understood, you may
introduce symbols such as ½ and ¼.
yy Can I put the two parts together again? Consolidate that putting two quarters together
gives one half. And putting two halves together gives one whole.
yy What will I get if I put the parts together again?
Activity 4.2
(1) What do you understand by the term “partitioning”?

(2) In what ways does learners’ knowledge of partitioning support the development of
meaningful fraction ideas?

Thinking about how a whole is subdivided into equal parts, will help you to explain the meaning
of the term “partitioning”. Provide a representation of the equal splits in your explanation.
Partitioning is fundamental to the meaningful construction of fractions, just as counting is the

basis to understanding the construction of whole numbers. Partitioning allows young children
to discern relationships between the whole and the number of parts. This relationship is the
basis for the meaningful understanding of fractions. Partitioning images support children
to see that the more the number of partitions, the smaller the size, leading to elimination of
the common misconception when using symbols that a quarter is greater than half.
4.3.3 Unitising
Lamon (1996) defines unitising as the cognitive assignment of a unit of measurement
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to a given quantity. It refers to the size chunk one constructs in terms of which to think
about a given commodity. There is no definite unit, as a unit can mean something different
from one context to the next, so perceptual clues are no longer reliable. Consider the two
examples in figure 4.5 below that demonstrate different ways of thinking about a unit.
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One object as a unit
437 438Six objects as a unit
Figure 4.5: Different ways of thinking about a unit
To develop a good understanding of fractions, learners need to know that a whole or

439
unit can be a single object (a pizza, a loaf of bread), and can also be collection of objects
forming a unit (11 players in football team; six apples, 18 eggs, and so on). The knowledge
of unitising is critical when comparing fractions or performing operations on fraction.
It is important to always ask the question: what is the unit? Consider the problem ¼ (a
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quarter) + ¼ (a quarter). In the paper-folding activity in figure 4.4 we showed that the
solution to ¼ + ¼ is a half ( ½), but one learner said the answer was 2/8 (which is incorrect),
as shown below.
He explains that the first set of 4

442
circles show ¼ as does the second,

and that the sum depicted is
clearly 2 out of 8.
441
Set model used by student to model addition

443
of fractions
The learners’ reasoning indicates poor knowledge of unitising in representing the fraction
situations. Instead of taking 4 as a unit, the learner considered 8 as a unit, which resulted
in an incorrect answer.
4.4 BASIC FRACTION CONCEPTS

In this section, we introduce you to basic concepts, such as unitary and non-unitary
444
fractions, comparing, ordering and equivalent fractions.
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4.4.1 Unitary and non-unitary fractions
As already mentioned, a fraction is defined as part of a whole. When a whole or unit is
445
portioned into equal parts, we will have a fraction. For example, when an apple is shared
between two children, each gets one half, or when shared among three friends, each
will get a one third. So, one-half, or one-third, or one-fourth is called a unitary fraction. A
unitary fraction is therefore defined as a fraction where only one part is selected. Examples
of unitary fractions are: one-quarter, one-half, one-third, one-sixth, one-tenth, and so on.
In contrast, non-unitary fractions are fractions where more than one is selected or
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considered. Examples of non-unitary fractions are: three-quarters, two-thirds, three-fifths,

seven-tenths, and so on.
A pizza is partitioned into four equal parts. The father eats three pieces, while his son
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eats one piece. We can say that the quantity eaten by the son, one-quarter, is a unitary
fraction, while the quantity eaten by the father, three-quarters, is a non-unitary fraction
(see figure 4.6).
448
451
449 One-quarter of a pizza Three-quarters of a pizza

452
(Unitary fraction)
450
(Non-unitary fraction)
453
Figure 4.6: Example of unitary and non-unitary fractions
At the early introduction of fractions, you need to devote more time to unitary fractions.
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When learners have conceptualised the meaning of fractions, you could move to non-
unitary fraction. A fraction wall, as shown in figure 4.7 below, is an excellent resource that
you could use to show different unitary fractions.
455
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Figure 4.7: A fraction wall
4.4.2 Comparing, ordering and equivalent fractions

456 There are three considerations when thinking about comparing and ordering of fractions.
yy Comparing unitary fractions

yy Comparing non-unitary fractions
yy Comparing fractions with different partitions
457 Comparing and ordering unitary fractions
As indicated in the opening section of this unit, learners often find it difficult to compare
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unitary fractions, as a result of the dominant conception of a whole number. They often
believe that since 4 is greater than 2, ¼ should also be greater than ½.
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Using concrete representations, as discussed earlier, learners are quick to realise that the
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more a unit is partitioned, the smaller the pieces you get. For example, ½ is greater than
⅓, which is greater than ¼, which is greater than 1/ and so on. This is obvious when the
symbols are interpreted in meaningful ways. The sequence of examples presented in the
opening of this unit by means of the paper-folding activity, and the fraction wall (figure 4.7)
are useful resources to help you as a teacher to support learners to meaningfully compare
and order unitary fractions.
460 Comparing and ordering non-unitary fractions
In most cases, learners find it easy to compare and order non-unitary fractions when
461
working with the same partition, for example ⅜, ⅝, ⅞, and so on. Clearly, ⅝ is greater
than ⅜. Five-eighths of a pizza (⅝) is greater than three-eighths of a pizza (⅜).
You could ask learners to compare, for example, the following fractions and say which
462
one is bigger:
463
2
⁄ 7 and 3 ⁄ 7
464
8
⁄ 9 and 7⁄ 9
5
465 ⁄ 8 and 7⁄ 8
466
8
⁄ 15 and 13 ⁄ 15
467 Comparing fractions with different partitions
In some situations, the two fractions are partitioned differently, for example, comparing
468
⅞ and ⅔. In this situation, you need to convert them into equivalent fractions with
the same number in the bottom. For example, 2 ⁄4 and ½, as illustrated in figure 4.8, are
equivalent fractions.
Two-quarters (2 ⁄4) shaded

469 470 Half (½) shaded
Figure 4.8: Equivalent fractions
The key idea for finding an equivalent fraction is that of a scale balance. When a scale is
471
balanced at both ends, it will never change if you add, subtract, multiply or divide equal
quantities at both ends. If, for example, you take 2 ⁄4 and divide the top and bottom by 2,
you will get ½. This is true for any case.
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Now, let us find equivalent fractions for ⅞ and ⅔ in such a way that the bottom is the same.
472
A common multiple of 3 and 8 is 3 x 8 = 24.
473 ⅞ is equivalent to 21⁄ 24 (multiplying top and bottom by 3)

474 ⅔ is equivalent to 16 ⁄ 24 (multiplying top and bottom by 8)
With the same number in the bottom, it is now easy to compare the fractions, and we
475
can see that ⅞ is greater than ⅔.
476 Let us try more examples.
477 Order the following fractions from least to greatest.

9
478 ⁄ 10, ½, 4 ⁄ 5
To do this, we first need to convert them into having the same number at the bottom.
479
Currently, we have 10, 2 and 5 at the bottom. This must be the same for us to easily compare
and order the fractions.
480 ½ is equivalent to 5 ⁄ 10 (multiplying top and bottom by 5)

481 4 ⁄ 5 is equivalent to 8 ⁄ 10 (multiplying top and bottom by 2)
Now, all our fractions have 10 at the bottom, which makes it easier to order them. So, ½ is
482
the smallest, followed by 4 ⁄5 and then 9 ⁄10.
483 ½, 4 ⁄ 5, 9⁄ 10
Activity 4.3
(1) Compare the following fractions, and say which one is greater.
yy ⁄ 10 and ⁄ 8
7 5
yy ⁄ 10 and ⁄ 11
9 10
yy ⁄ 7 and ⁄ 5
3 2
yy
13
⁄ 15 and 11⁄ 12
(2) Order the following fractions from least to greatest. Put the least on the left.
yy
3
⁄ 7 , 17⁄ 21, 11⁄ 14, 2 ⁄ 3
yy
4
⁄ 9 , 3 ⁄4, 4 ⁄ 5,11⁄ 12 13 ⁄ 15

The key consideration in this activity is the idea of equivalent fractions. It is difficult to say which
fraction is bigger or smaller when the number at the bottom is different. You therefore need
to convert the fractions to equivalent fractions, to have the same number at the bottom. To
do so, you need to find the least common multiple.
In the following section, we consider percentages and how percentages link to fractions.
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4.5 CONCLUSION
In this unit, we have outlined some of the common difficulties that learners encounter
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when learning fractions, most of which originate from whole-number interference. To

develop a strong foundation for the teaching and learning of fractions, we discussed
pre-fraction knowledge of equal sharing, partitioning, and unitising. Finally, some basic
fraction concepts were discussed, such as unitary and non-unitary fractions, comparing,
ordering and equivalent fractions.
In the next learning unit, you will learn about patterns and relationships, a topic that will
485
introduce you to early algebraic thinking.
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Learning unit 5
Patterns and relations
5.1 INTRODUCTION
Pattern is at the heart of learning mathematics. We construct mathematical ideas through
487
the identification of patterns and relationships, which constitute the route to formal
algebra. Learning unit 5 focuses on patterns and relationships. Firstly, you will learn about
the importance of pattern as a route to early algebraic thinking. Secondly, you will learn
about repeating patterns, and construct a general statement about the repeating pattern.
Finally, you will learn about growing or increasing patterns, and construct a general
statement about the growing pattern.
PATTERNS
AND
RELATIONS
Repeating patterns Importance of Growing Patterns

pattern as route
• Describing, representing to early • Describing, representing
and creating repeating algebraic thinking and creating growing
patterns patterns
• Constructing a general • Constructing a general
statement about statement about
repeating patterns growing patterns
489

490
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Learning outcomes
yy appreciate the importance of patterns as a route to early algebraic thinking
yy describe, represent and create repeating patterns, and make a general statement
about repeating patterns using a variety of strategies
yy demonstrate an understanding of growing patterns by describing, representing,
and creating patterns, and make a general statement about growing pattern using
a variety of strategies.
Key concepts
yy repeating unit
yy term
yy position number
yy elements
yy predict
yy general statement
yy increasing pattern
yy repeating pattern
yy extend
yy multiples
In simple terms, pattern refers to the sequences or designs that are orderly arranged and
491
repeat themselves. We recognise patterns when we can figure out the relationship and
structure of this orderly arrangement, which could be an arrangement of numbers or
objects. Algebra, which forms a large component of the mathematics curriculum in high
school, is developed through patterns and relations. It is therefore important to develop
in learners a thorough understanding of patterns in order to have a firm foundation for
learning algebra in future.
The South African curriculum states clearly that Foundation Phase (FP) teachers should use
492
physical objects, drawings and symbolic forms to copy, extend, describe and create patterns
focusing on the logic of patterns and laying the basis for developing algebraic thinking
skills (DBE, 2011). Therefore, in this unit we begin with a discussion of the importance of
learning of patterns as a foundation to formal algebra. Repeating and growing patterns are
the two types of pattern that are taught at the Foundation Phase level. These two types
of pattern are discussed, with particular attention to how you would describe, represent,
create and make general statements about patterns as well as making predictions.
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5.2 IMPORTANCE OF PATTERNS AS ROUTE TO EARLY ALGEBRA-
IC THINKING
The importance of children learning patterns as preparation for formal algebra has been
494
widely acknowledged by researchers in the field of algebra. For example, Zazkis and
Liljedahl (2002) see pattern as the heart of mathematics and it is fundamental to focus
learners’ attention on those patterns that underlie many aspects of mathematics. Pattern
activities have the potential to be a powerful tool for developing understanding of the
dependent relations among quantities that underlie mathematical structure.
To understand the importance of patterns, one could ask the question: “What do
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mathematicians do?” In simple terms, mathematicians do the following as problem solvers:
yy Get to understand a problem

yy Look for patterns
yy Find strategies
yy Make generalisations
These are the principles that underlie most of the advances in mathematical theories today.
496
Looking for patterns is the beginning of discoveries and understanding of relationships

within a concept and across mathematics topics.
Pattern tasks which lead to general statements are important in making the transition
497
from arithmetic to algebraic thinking and provide a useful introduction to the concept
of variable and future work with symbols. Teaching algebra concepts in the early grades
requires the use of patterns for making connections in three ways:
yy using symbols to express general statement about patterns and relationships

yy developing meaning of or reasons for those symbolic generalisations
yy using algebraic representations such as graphs and tables to describe or better
understand the patterns and relationships
Pattern structures are inherently linked to mathematical activity through the recognition
498
of regularity and the description of the relationship through generalisation.
Activity 5.1
(1) Outline four basic things that mathematicians do as problem solvers.

(2) In your own words, discuss two reasons why you should teach patterns in the
Foundation Phase.

As problem solvers, mathematicians get to understand a problem, find patterns, develop
strategies, and make generalisations. Your response to reasons why young children need to learn
about patterns should be centred around the work of mathematicians, and the importance
of developing problem-solving skills in young learners.
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5.3 REPEATING PATTERNS
Repeating patterns consist of a series of related elements, in which each new element
499
relates to the previous one in some orderly manner. At the Foundation Phase level, we
can focus on both non-numeric and numeric patterns.
500 Consider the following example of non-numeric repeating patterns:
501
It is important to recognise how the pattern is repeated, and it is also useful to ask learners
502
to describe the pattern. The pattern above:
1. Consists of squares, triangles, and circles, which are called elements of the pattern.
2. Has three elements, meaning it repeats after every three elements. We can say that
the pattern has 3 repeating units.
3. The next element in the pattern will be a triangle, because a triangle follows every
square.
It is necessary to have a unit of the pattern repeated more than twice, because it is difficult
503
to identify a pattern from only a small part of it.
5.3.1 Constructing a general statement about repeating a pattern

How would you know the elements in the 17th position, the 34th position and the 99th
504
position? You could do so by extending the pattern to the required position. However,
this is inefficient, and error laden.
505 Let us re-examine the pattern and write the numeric term positions
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
506
Because the pattern has 3 elements that are repeated, and the last element is a circle, you
507
will notice that every position that is multiple of 3 must be a circle (i.e. 3, 6, 9, 12, 15, 18, 21
and so on).
You can now say that every element in a position that is a multiple of 3 subtracting one
508
– or one less than a multiple of 3 – must be a triangle (i.e. 2, 5, 8, 11, 14, 17 and so on).
In the same way, every element in a position that is multiple of 3 subtracting two – or two
509
less than a multiple of 3 – must be a square (i.e. 1, 4, 7, 10, 16, 19, and so on).
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Let us now return to our question about the 17th position, the 34th position, and the
510
99th position.
1. To get the 17th position, we must first find the multiple of 3 before 17. It is 15, therefore
17 is a multiple of 3 plus two. Alternatively, we can find multiple of 3 after 17. It is
18, therefore 17 is a multiple of 3 minus 1. Hence, the 17th position is a triangle.
2. The 34th position is a triangle because 34 is one less than a multiple of 3.
3. The 99th position is a circle because 99 is a multiple of 3.
511 There are two important questions to ask in respect of any repeating pattern:
1. What is the repeating unit?

2. How many elements does the repeating unit contain?
Activity 5.2
Consider the following repeating patterns
512 a)
513 b)
514 c) 515 103210321032103210321

yy Continue the pattern.
yy Describe the pattern.
yy In which ways are these three patterns similar? How are they different from one another?
yy What would be in the 12th position? The 13th position? The 23rd position? The 108th
position?

To be able to continue the pattern, we first need to identify the repeating unit. For example, in
(c) the repeating unit is 1032. It is now easy to continue the pattern; we know:
yy After every 1 follows 0,

yy After every 0 follows 3
Using the repeating unit and elements in the repeating unit, you can describe the pattern.
You will notice that all three patterns are similar in the sense that they are all repeating patterns.
They have repeating units that repeat continuously. Pattern (a) and (c) can be described in the
82
same way, because they are both repeating patterns with four repeating units. The pattern
(b) is different from the other two, because it is a repeating pattern with one repeating unit.
Through identifying the size of the repeating unit, and knowing your multiples, you can easily
predict every term position of every element in the pattern. For example, pattern (a) and (c)
have four elements as repeating units. So, a multiple of 4 will be a useful benchmark to find
the term position of any element in the pattern. For example, to find the 107th position, one
should think of a multiple of 4 just after 107. I know they are … 88, 92, 96, 100, 104, 108, 112
… Now I know that 107 is one less than a multiple of 4, and therefore the third element in the
repeating pattern will be in the 107th position.
5.3.2 Creating a repeating pattern

You can describe a pattern and ask learners to create a pattern when the size of the
516
repeating unit is provided. For example:
yy Create a repeating pattern with a repeating unit containing 4 elements.

yy Can you continue your repeating pattern?
yy What would go in 84th position? The 407th position?
When the repeating unit and the number of elements are provided, you have enough
517
information to create a repeating pattern. Note that you can create number of repeating
patterns with this structure.
518 10121012101210121012101
In each case, one can continue with the pattern. Take, for example, the second pattern
519
created with the letters A and B.
The repeating unit is ABBA, and therefore the next element will be B followed by A,
520
followed by A and so on.
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To find out the 84th position and the 407th position, we write numerical term positions as
521
we did before.
522
Since our pattern has 4 repeating units, our benchmark is a multiple of 4. So, our second A
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in the repeating unit (ABBA) is a multiple of 4, and from there we can work out the position
of each element in the repeating unit. For example, a multiple of 4 minus one is the second
B (i.e. 3, 7, 11, 15, 19, and so on).
yy The 84th position is the second A in the repeating pattern, because 84 is a multiple of 4.
yy The 407th position is the second B, because 407 is one less than a multiple of 4, since
408 is a multiple of 4.
5.4 GROWING PATTERN

Growing patterns are patterns in which one or more elements of the sequence increases.
524
Growing patterns can also be both numeric and non-numeric. Consider the following
pattern created with matchsticks.
525
Figure 5.2: Growing pattern constructed with matchsticks
1. Can you draw the next pattern?

2. How many squares in the 5th and 6th patterns?
3. How many matchsticks in the 5th and 6th patterns?
You will notice that the pattern in figure 5.2 is different from the repeating pattern, where
526
we talk about a repeating unit. Here, the pattern increases by adding two more squares
from the previous position’s term. For example, the 1st position has one square, which is
constructed from 4 matchsticks. Two more squares were added in the 2nd position, and
you will notice that since the matchsticks were joined together, it wasn’t 8 matchsticks
added, but 6 (you can count the number of matchsticks). We can represent the problem
in table form:
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84
Table 5.1: Representation of the numbers of squares and matchsticks
Position number Number of squares Number of

matchsticks
1 1 4
2 3 10
3 5 16
4 7 22
5 ? ?
6 ? ?
Position no 1 2 3 4 5 6
No of squares 1 3 5 7
No of matchsticks 4 10 16 22
Return to our questions: How many squares in the 5th and 6th patterns? How many
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matchsticks in the 5th and 6th patterns?
We can see from table 5.1 that the number of squares increased by 2. Since the number
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of squares in the 4th pattern is 7, the number of squares in the 5th and 6th patterns will
be 9 and 11 respectively.
On the other hand, the number of matchsticks increases by 6. Since the number of
530
matchsticks in the 4th pattern is 22, the number of matchsticks in the 5th and 6th patterns
will be 28 and 34 respectively.
531Two important questions to ask about growing patterns:
yy How do they start?

yy How do they grow?
5.4.1 Constructing a general statement about growing patterns
It is easy to work out the number of squares and matchsticks in the 5th and 6th patterns,
532
but how can you work out the number of squares and matchsticks in, say, the 100th and
the 119th patterns?
As we did in the case of repeating patterns, we will show how you can find these without
533
having to continue with the pattern. By doing so, we are now constructing a general
statement about the pattern.
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534 Let us re-examine our pattern again:
Position No 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 5th 6th … nth
To construct a general statement is to work out how we can find the number of squares
535
and the number of matchsticks in the nth pattern (we use n to represent any number).
536 Finding the number of squares
Since the number of squares increases by 2, we can write the multiples of 2, and establish
537
the relationship with the number of squares in the pattern.
Position no. 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 5th 6th … nth
Multiples of 2 2 4 6 8
You can see that, in each case, the number of squares is one less the multiple of 2. We
538
can write this as:
yy 1st pattern is 2 x 1 – 1 = 1
yy 2nd pattern is 2 x 2 – 1 = 3
yy 3rd pattern is 2 x 3 – 1 = 5
yy 4th pattern is 2 x 4 – 1 = 7
yy …
yy nth pattern will be 2 x n – 1
The general statement for finding the number of squares for any position number in the
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pattern is to multiply the position number by 2 and subtract 1. For example, what is the
number of squares in the 10th and 105th pattern?
yy For the 10th pattern, there are 2 x 10 – 1 = 20 – 1 = 19 squares.

yy For the 105th pattern, there are 2 x 105 – 1 = 210 – 1 = 209 squares.
540 Finding the number of matchsticks
In a similar way, we can find the number of matchsticks. Here the number of matchsticks
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increases by 6, so we write the multiples of 6.
Position no 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 5th 6th … nth
Multiples of 6 6 12 18 24
86
You can see that, in each case, the number of matchsticks is two less than the multiple of
542
6. We can write this as:
yy 1st pattern is 6 x 1 – 2 = 4
yy 2nd pattern is 6 x 2 – 2 = 10
yy 3rd pattern is 6 x 3 – 2 = 16
yy 4th pattern is 6 x 4 – 2 = 22
yy…
yy nth pattern will be 6 x n – 2
The general statement for finding the number of matchsticks for any position number in
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the pattern is to multiply the position number by 6 and subtract 2. For example, what is
the number of matchsticks in the 10th and 105th pattern?
yy For the 10th pattern, there are 6 x 10 – 2 = 60 – 2 = 58 matchsticks.

yy For the 105th pattern, there are 6 x 105 – 2 = 630 – 2 = 628 matchsticks.
Activity 5.3
Figure 5.4 shows how learners can sit side by side at a dining table, with six children sitting
around one table. How many children would sit at?
(1) 7 tables
(2) 15 tables
(3) 100 tables
Feedback on activity 5.3

A useful way to respond to this activity, is to draw a table and record the information provided
to you. Look for the pattern in the numbers at your table. For example:
Number of tables
544 545 Number of children
546 1 547 6
548 2 549 8
3
550 10
551
Ask yourself the following questions?
yy How does the pattern increase?

yy Which multiples should I use to construct the general statement?
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5.4.2 Growing patterns in a variety of contexts
There are number of contexts familiar to learners that you can use to identify growing
552
patterns. Here are a few such contexts:
553 1. Patterns on a number line: Growing patterns can be shown on a number line
using skip counting.
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
554
555 2. Patterns on the 100-square chat: You can make learners aware of a number of
patterns on the 100-square chat:
556 a) For each row from left to right, the number increases by 1.
557 b) For each column from top to bottom, the number increases by 10.
558 c) On the diagonal from left to right, the number increases by 11.
559 d) On the diagonal from right to left, the number increases by 9.
560 e) Skip counting is often by 2s or by 5s or by 10s or by 100s.
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19
20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29
30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39
Increases 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49
by 10
50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59
60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69
70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79
80 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89
90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99
Increases
by 9 Increases
by 1
Increases
by 11
561
562 3. Patterns on a calendar: You can make learners aware of a number of patterns
on a calendar:
88
563 a) In each row, numbers increase by 1.
564 b) In each column, numbers increase by 7.
Increases
by 1
Increases
by 7
565
Activity 5.4
(1) Identify at least two other growing patterns in contexts that learners in the Foundation
Phase would be familiar with.
(2) Identify and describe growing patterns on the following chart:
5 10 15 20 25
30 35 40 45 50
55 60 65 70 75
80 85 90 95 100
105 110 115 120 125

To look for the pattern in the chart, look left to right; top to bottom and diagonally. Describe
the pattern of increase that you can see.
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5.5 CONCLUSION
In this unit, you have learnt about the importance of patterns as a route to formal
566
algebra, and because of the central role of algebra in mathematics, introducing pattern
at Foundation Phase level is critical as a foundation to early algebraic reasoning. You have
also learnt about the two types of pattern: repeating patterns and growing patterns. In
each type, you have learnt how to identify, describe and construct general statements
about the pattern in numeric and non-numeric contexts.
In learning unit 6, you will learn about space and measurement, another important topic
567
in the primary mathematics curriculum in South Africa and globally.
568
90
Learning unit 6
Shapes, space and measurement
6.1 INTRODUCTION
Learning unit 6 focuses on three important concepts in the primary mathematics
569
curriculum: shapes, space and measurement. Firstly, you will learn about the importance
of classification as a process for making sense of shapes around us. Secondly, you will learn
about equivalence, transformation and symmetrical shapes. Finally, you will learn about
the principle and concept of measurement of length, time and mass, including perimeter,
area and volume.
MEASUREMENT,
SHAPES AND SPACE
Classifying Shapes Transformation Measurement

of shapes Concepts
• Two-dimensional • Congruence Measurement of:
shapes • Translation • Perimeter
• Three-dimensional • Rotation • Area
objects • Reflection
571
572 Figure 6.1: Composition of learning unit 6
573
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Learning outcomes
yy classify two-dimensional and three-dimensional shapes according to their properties
yy describe equivalence, and different kinds of transformation of geometrical shapes
yy demonstrate an understanding of principle and concept of measuring perimeter
and area
Key concepts
yy transformation
yy symmetry
yy shapes
yy sides
yy straight edge
yy vertex
yy polygons
yy congruence
yy equivalence
yy transformation
yy reflection
yy translation
yy rotational
Unlike the previous learning units that focus on number and number relationships
574
involving basic operations, fractions, relations and early algebra, this unit will focus on
early geometry (shapes and space) and measurement. The term “geometry” comes from
the Greek words “geo” (earth) and “metry” (measure), meaning “to measure the earth”.
Basically, geometry is the study of shapes and is one of the oldest branches of mathematics.
Our modern understanding of geometry began with the Greeks over 2 000 years ago.
575
The Greeks felt the need to go beyond merely knowing certain facts to being able to
prove WHY they were true. Geometry and measurement are important topics in the
mathematics curriculum in the Foundation Phase, and essential at this level as foundation
for further work in these content areas. While geometry and measurement concepts are
crucial for learners, these topics are often challenging for many teachers to teach well in
primary schools. Learners need to have opportunities to think geometrically and reason
about shapes and space. These include classifying shapes; generalising characteristics of
classes of shapes (e.g., any closed shape with four straight edges is called a quadrilateral);
measuring shapes, transforming shapes in space, and so on.
Learners struggle to understand these key areas/concepts or ideas, not because they are
576
incapable, but they need variety of experiences and time to develop important geometric
thinking. To do this, there is need for careful and well-designed lessons by teachers that
underlie a thorough mathematical understanding.
92
577 Rich mathematical understanding guides teachers’ decisions in much of their work,
such as choosing tasks for a lesson, posing questions, selecting materials, ordering
topics and ideas over time, assessing the quality of students’ work, and devising ways
to challenge and support their thinking (NCTM, 2014 p2).
This unit, therefore, will help you to develop a rich mathematical understanding, enabling
578
you to transfer this understanding to Foundation Phase learners who, in turn, will learn
to think geometrically and reason about shapes and space. We will begin this unit with
a classification of geometrical shapes.
6.2 CLASSIFICATION OF GEOMETRIC SHAPES

Classification of geometric shapes is one of the important areas in geometry taught in
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mathematics in the Foundation Phase. From everyday experience, children have some basic
information about geometric shapes before entering formal schooling. The classification
of shapes is particularly important in making sense of shapes and for the development
of geometric concepts. Through classification, we explore some significant properties of
shape that are used to put them into various categories. In this unit, we discuss shapes
based on two broad classifications: two-dimensional and three-dimensional objects.
6.3 TWO-DIMENSIONAL SHAPES

There are basically two classifications of 2-D shapes. There are shapes with curved edges,
580
such as circles, semicircles and ellipses, and there are shapes with straight edges, often
referred to as polygons. Polygons are two-dimensional closed shapes with straight edges.
Classify the following shapes with straight edges (line segments) and those with curved
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edges (e.g. circles, semicircles and ellipses)
582
583 Shapes with straight edges 584 Shapes with curved edges
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At Foundation Phase level, emphasis is on the classification of shapes with straight edges.
585
We will consider different classifications of shapes with straight edges, which allow us to
group many shapes together into categories. We classify shapes based on the number
of sides or whether all the sides of a shape have the same length or angles.
6.3.1 Classification based on number of sides
1. TRIANGLES
Any shape with three sides is called a triangle. A triangle is an enclosed shape with three
586
sides. The following are examples of triangles in a real-life context:
587 Triangle: Tri – means three
588
Triangle
589 590 Road sign 591 Emergency stop sign
Figure 6.2: Triangles

There are four different types of triangle:
592
1. The equilateral triangle is one in which all three sides and angles are equal. It belongs
to the category of regular shapes.
2. The isosceles triangle is one with two sides and angles equal. It has a line of symmetry
that passes through the middle of the angle formed by the two equal sides.
3. The right-angled triangle is one in which one of the angles is a right angle (i.e. 900).
4. The scalene triangle is one with no equal sides or angles.
Figure 6.3 provides the four types of triangle; equal sides are indicated by marks with a
593
small dash.
594
94
2
1
Isosceles triangle
Equilateral triangle
4
3
Scalene triangle
Right-angled triangle
595
Figure 6.3: Four different types of triangle
2. QUADRILATERALS
Any two-dimensional shape with four sides is called a quadrilateral. A quadrilateral is an
596
enclosed shape with four sides. The following are examples of quadrilateral in a real-life
context:
Quadrilateral: Quad – means four

597
Photo frame
598 Blackboard
599
Figure 6.4: Quadrilaterals

600
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There are different types of quadrilateral. Below are four special types of quadrilateral:
601
A parallelogram has the following

properties:
y Opposite angles are equal.
y Opposite sides are equal.
y Adjacent angles are supplementary
(i.e. they add up to 1800).
y The diagonals bisect each other.
A rectangle is a special type of parallelo-

gram with four right angles, and with di-
agonals that are equal in size.
602
A rhombus is a parallelogram with four

equal sides; and diagonals intersect at
right angles.
603
A square is a parallelogram with all four

sides equal, and all four angles are right
angles.
604
Figure 6.5: Special types of quadrilateral

605
96
3. PENTAGON
606 PENTAGON
Any enclosed two-dimensional shape with five sides is called a pentagon. The following
607
are examples of pentagons in real-life situations:
608
4. HEXAGON
Any enclosed two-dimensional shape with six sides is called a hexagon. The following are
609
examples of hexagon in real-life situations:
610
611
5. OTHER POLYGONS
All enclosed shapes with straight edges are called pentagons. Below are further examples
612
of polygons, whose names are based on the number of sides:
613
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614 Heptagon 617 Octagon
Shape with
615 Shape with
618
seven sides eight sides
616
619 Nonagon 621 Decagon
Shape with nine

620 Shape with
622
sides ten sides
623
Activity 6.1
Mr Mpho bought land on which he proposes to build an estate. Figure 6.6 is the plan
for the estate:
Figure 6.6: Mr. Mpho’s proposed estate plan

Look at Mr. Mpho’s proposed estate plan and complete the table below.
Description Number of sides Name of polygon
1. Block A
2. Block B
3. Block C
4. Garden
5. GYM
6. Parking
7. Gate
8. Play area
98
Each of the sections of Mr. Mpho’s estate plan is a geometric shape. You are required to count
and write the number of sides, and the name of the polygon. For example, the garden is a
geometric shape with three straight edges (sides), and the name of the polygon is a triangle.
6.3.2 Classification based on the length of the sides

624 Polygons are further classified into regular and irregular polygons.
625 Regular polygons
Regular polygons are those in which all the sides have the same length, and all the angles
626
have the same size. Examples of regular polygons are shown in figure 6.7.
627
Figure 6.7: Examples of regular polygons
The first shape is a triangle with all the sides of the same length, and the second is a
628
square with all the sides of the same length. When the sides are all of the same length,
then the angles are also of the same size.
For a regular polygon, one can find the value of the angles. For example, we know that
629
the sum of angles in any triangle is equal to 180°. So, each angle in a triangle can be
obtained by dividing 180 into 3. This will give you 60°. Therefore, each angle in a regular
triangle is equal to 60°.
Similarly, the sum of angles in any quadrilateral is equal to 360°. Since all the angles are
630
equal in a regular quadrilateral, each angle can be obtained by dividing 360 into 4 equal
parts. This will give you 90°. Therefore, each angle in a regular quadrilateral is equal to 90°.
631
99 MFP1501/1
The following relationship is used to find the value of each angle in any regular polygon:
632
633
For example, to find the value of angles in a regular quadrilateral (sides equal to 4), we
634
can substitute the values into the expression above.
635
Activity 6.2
Find each angle of the following regular polygons:
1
636 2
637 638 3
639
641
640

The only information that is required to find the value of each angle in a regular polygon is
the number of sides of that polygon. In (1) above, the shape is hexagon, with six sides. You
need to multiply the number of sides by 2 and subtract 4; you can then multiply your answer
by 90. What you get, you divide by the number of sides; this gives you the value of each angle
in any regular polygon.
642 Irregular polygons
Irregular polygons are those shapes with different sides and angles. Examples of irregular
643
shapes are shown in figure 6.8.
644
100
645
Figure 6.8: Examples of irregular polygons
In the next section, we will discuss transformation and symmetry. You will learn about
646
the difference between regular shapes and symmetric shapes. For example, a rectangle
is a symmetrical shape, but irregular because the length of the sides is not all the same.
Similarly, a rhombus is also a symmetrical shape, but irregular despite all the four sides
being of the same length, because the angles are not the same.
For a shape to be classified as regular, all the ANGLES must be EQUAL and all the sides
647
must be of the SAME LENGTH. One can conclude that all regular shapes are symmetrical,
but not all symmetrical shapes are regular.
6.4 THREE-DIMENSIONAL OBJECTS

As in the case of a two-dimensional shape, a three-dimensional shape also has two broad
648
classifications in terms of how it is made. There are shapes with curved surfaces, such
as a sphere, cylinder, and a cone, and there are shapes with entirely flat surfaces, called
polyhedrons. Figure 6.9 provides examples of this classification.
649
3-D objects with curved surfaces

650 651 3-D objects with flat surfaces (polyhedron)
Figure 6.9: 3-D objects with curved and flat surfaces
101 MFP1501/1
At the Foundation Phase level, emphasis is on the classification of shapes with flat surfaces,
652
called polyhedron. We will consider different types of polyhedron in the following section.
653 POLYHEDRON
654 There are three components that are used to describe any kind of polyhedron. These are:
yy Face – a plane surface of the object

yy Edge – the line where two faces meet
yy Vertex – a point where edges meet
face
vertex
edge
655
656 Regular polyhedron
As with the polygons, regular polyhedrons are those 3-D objects with faces of the same
657
shape, all the edges of the same length, the same number of edges meet at each vertex,
and all angles between edges are equal.
While there are many kinds of regular polygon, there are only five kinds of regular
658
polyhedron, as shown in figure 6.10 below.
yy Tetrahedron – Has four faces and each of the faces is an equilateral triangle
yy Hexahedron – Has six faces and each face is a square
yy Octahedron – Has eight faces and each face is an equilateral triangle
yy Dodecahedron – Has twelve faces and each face is a regular pentagon
yy Icosahedron – Has twenty faces and each face is an equilateral triangle
659
102
Figure 6.10: Five kinds of regular polyhedron
6.5 TRANSFORMATION AND SYMMETRY

To understand mathematics is to recognise equivalence (what is the same?), and to
660
recognise when something has been transformed (What is different or how has it
changed?). These two questions are at the heart of learning mathematics in general,
and spatial reasoning in particular.
When you draw a big triangle on the board, and ask learners to copy it in their exercise
661
books, they will obey your instruction without hesitation, and draw the triangle in their
exercise books. However, they are only drawing a transformed version of your triangle, as
they do not have a big exercise book to draw as big as the one drawn on the blackboard.
662 Consider the following two shapes. What is the same? And what is different?
663
Figure 6.11: The same but different
We can see that the two shapes in figure 6.11 can be considered equivalent, because there
664
are a number of ways in which they are the same. All corresponding sides and angles
are the same. But they are also different in some way. For example, they are facing in
opposite directions; one is a mirror image of the other. We can therefore say that one is a
transformation of the other.
103 MFP1501/1
In other words, the two shapes are called congruent shapes. Congruent describes the
665
relationship between two shapes that have sides of exactly the same length, and angles
with exactly the same size, with all the sides and angles arranged in the same way.
There are three ways in which a shape can change or transform into a congruent shape.
666
These are translation, rotation and reflection.

667 TRANSLATION
Translation is transformation in which there is a change in the position of the shape,

668
without turning. Figure 6.12 shows how shape A is transformed into shape B by translation,
with movement from one position to another position by rotation, and with a change
in the orientation.
A B
669
Figure 6.12: A translation
670 ROTATION
When a shape changes orientation by rotating through an angle at the centre, where every
671
line in the shape turns through the same angle, this transformation is called rotation. Figure
6.13 shows how shape A is transformed into shape B.
A
B
Figure 6.13: A rotation
104
672 REFLECTION
When shape A is changed into a mirror image, we refer to this transformation as reflection.
673
Figure 6.14 shows how shape A is transformed into shape B through reflection.
A B
674
Figure 6.14: A reflection
6.6 MEASUREMENT
675 In this section, we considered measurement of perimeter and area.
6.6.1 Perimeter
A perimeter is the distance of the boundary around the edge of a two-dimensional shape.
676
For example, find the perimeter of the following shapes:
a) b) 9
7
4
4
4 4
4
4
7 9
677
Shape (a) has two sides of length 7 units and another two sides of length 4 units, so the
678
distance around the shape is 7+7+4+4 = 22.
Another easy way to work out the perimeter of a rectangle is to add the length of all the
679
adjacent sides and multiply by 2. We can say the perimeter of shape (a) is same as (7+4)
x 2 = 11 x 2 = 22.
105 MFP1501/1
Similarly, to calculate the perimeter of shape (b), we add all the lengths around the shape. We
680
will have 9+4+4 + 9+4+4 = 34. Since shape (b) is symmetrical and we can draw a line of
symmetry, the alternative and easier way to work out perimeter is to calculate the length of
one side of the line of symmetry and multiply by 2. We will have (9+4+4) x 2 = 17 x 2 = 34.
Activity 6.3
Calculate the perimeter of the following rectangles:
3 6 5
n
4 10 m
e 2

This activity is aimed at building a progression in the calculation of the perimeter of a rectangle,
as preparation for the use of variables. For example, the perimeter of 3 x 4 rectangle is (3+4)
x 2, therefore the perimeter of n x m rectangle will be (n+m) x 2 or 2(n+m).
6.6.2 Area
Area is a measurement of the amount of space inside a shape or covered by a shape. For
681
example, the area of the shape below is indicated by the number of the small squares
covered by the shape.
3 6
n
4 10 m
682
If you count the squares, there are 12 squares. This is the same as multiplying 3 by 4. Note
683
that area is measured in squares. So, if the length is in meter, we say the area is meter
square or if the length is measured in centimetre, we say our area is centimetre square.
684
106
685 What is the area of the following rectangles?
3 6 5
n
4 10 m e 2
686
From the previous example, we can say that the area of 6 by 10 rectangle is 6 x 10 squares
687
= 60 squares. If the length is measured in centimetre, we can say the area is 60 centimetre
square or written in short form as 60 cm2.
For n by m rectangle, we can say that the area is n x m. This also gives us a general rule
688
that we can apply to calculate the area of any rectangle.
6.7 CONCLUSION
In this unit, you have learnt about different classification of shapes, based on whether
689
they have straight or curved edges in the case of two-dimensional shapes, or plane or
curved surfaces in the case of three-dimensional objects. You have learnt about polygons
and polyhedrons, in particular regular and irregular, and some properties of common
shapes and objects that are taught in the Foundation Phase. You have also learnt about
transformation of shapes and symmetry as well as perimeter and area of shapes.
690 In the next unit, you will learn about data handling and probability.
691
107 MFP1501/1
Learning unit 7
Data handling and probability
7.1 INTRODUCTION
Learning unit 7 focuses on data handling and probability. The unit is organised into three
692
key areas. First, you will learn about how to collect, organise, represent, and interpret
data. Secondly, you will learn about the three measures of averages: mean, median and
mode. Finally, you will learn about the meaning of probability and how it is applied to
our everyday lives.
DATA
HANDLING
AND
PROBABILITY
Handling data Measures of Probability

averages
• Collect, • mean • Meaning of probability
• organise, • median • Probability as applied
• represent, and • mode to our everyday lives
interpret data
694
108
Learning outcomes
yy escribe how data can be collected, organised, represented and interpreted as
d
decision-making process
yy compare the three measures of averages: mean, median and mode
yy demonstrate an understanding of probability, and how it is applied to our everyday
lives
Key concepts
yy frequency
yy tally
yy data
yy statistics
yy cumulative frequency
yy event
yy chart
yy certain
yy impossible
yy likelihood
Data is a collection of facts, such as numbers, words, measurements, or observations for

695
the purpose of decision-making. When data is processed or transformed into information,

it is often called statistics. In our everyday lives, we always use data to make decisions.
As a teacher, you may be interested to know the performance of your learners in a test.
Individual learner score is called data. However, individual learner scores cannot tell you
much about the overall performance of the whole class. We often compute averages to
interpret and draw conclusions about the overall performance of our learners. The average
score is what we call statistics. When the average score is above 50%, we say that learners
have performed well in the test, and when the average score is below 50%, we say that
learners did not perform well in the test.
An understanding of data handling is helpful in many occupations. We use data in

696
business, education, agriculture, government and industries to make informed decisions.

In this unit, you will learn how to collect data, organise the data into frequencies, represent
the data using a chart, and interpret the data to make decisions about a particular event
or situation.
109 MFP1501/1
7.2 COLLECTING, ORGANISING, REPRESENTING AND INTER-
PRETING DATA
As already mentioned, data are facts, such as numbers, words, measurements, or
697
observations. To process data into information, we first need to collect such data in a
systematic way. As a teacher, you always want to know how your learners perform. In
order to do so, you collect data by administering a test. The test is called an instrument
for data collection, because it is through the test that you gather information about your
learners’ performance.
Assume you administered a test out of 5 marks to a group of 40 learners in your Grade
698
3 class, and the following individual scores were obtained:
5 2 1 3 4 3 2 1 3 4
2 0 5 2 1 1 0 0 3 4
2 2 3 5 1 1 3 3 2 1
0 4 5 2 3 1 2 4 2 1
From the data above, it is difficult to comment on the overall performance of your learners
699
in the class. We need to organise the data in a way that is easy to read and interpret, and
from which conclusions can be drawn about the performance of your learners. The first
step of organising data is to construct a frequency table. A frequency table is a way of
organising data to show how often a particular score occurs. To do so, you start by making
tallies as shown in table 7.1 below.
Table 7.1: Frequency distribution table
Score Tally Frequency
0 //// / 6
1 //// // 7
2 //// //// 10
3 //// /// 8
4 //// 5
5 //// 4
Total 40
700
110
Organising the data into a frequency table allows easy reading of the data, and one
701
can draw some useful conclusions about the performance of this group of learners. For
example:
yy 6 out of 40 scored 0 in the test

yy Only 4 out of 40 passed everything in the test
yy 9 out of 40 scored above 3 in the test
The above data can also be represented pictorially using a bar chart. A bar chart is a
702
graphical display of data using different heights. Figure 7.2 presents a bar chart for the
data in table 7.1.
12
10
8
FREQUENCY
0 1 2 3 4 5
SCORES
Figure 7.2: A bar chart
A bar chart presents an excellent way to show relative sizes: we can see at a glance which
703
mark is scored most, and which scored the least. For example,
yy Most learners scored 2.

yy The least number of learners scored 5.
Activity 7.1
In a survey, 40 parents were asked how many children they have. Here are the numbers
they gave in their replies:
4 3 3 1 7 2 1 2 3 4
1 1 4 6 5 3 6 4 1 2
2 3 5 3 3 2 2 1 3 1
1 4 2 3 1 2 1 1 4 3
111 MFP1501/1
(1) Construct a frequency distribution table to summarise the data.
(2) Represent the data using a bar chart.
(3) Which family size has the most number of occurrences?

To construct a frequency distribution table, you need to have three columns: family size, tally,
and frequency. List all the possible family sizes in ascending order, from 1 (least) to 7 (most),
and make tally marks, then frequency.
For the bar chart, you should draw a bar graph with frequencies on the y-axis and family sizes
on the x-axis. The family size with the highest bar represents the biggest number of occurrences.
7.3 MEASURE OF AVERAGES

The purpose of finding an average is to produce a single value to represent the set of data,
704
and allow a decision-making process to happen. We will consider three averages or measures
of central tendencies in this section. These are: mean, median and mode.
yy Mean is defined as the sum of all the numbers in a set divided by the total frequency.
yy Median is simply the number that comes in the middle when the numbers in a set are
arranged in either ascending order (from smaller to bigger numbers) or descending
order (from bigger to smaller numbers)
yy Mode is the number in a set with the highest number of occurrences or the highest
frequency
705 Using the data below, compute the mean, median and mode.
5 2 1 3 4 3 2 1 3 4
2 0 5 2 1 1 0 0 3 4
2 2 3 5 1 1 3 3 2 1
0 4 5 2 3 1 2 4 2 1
To compute the mean of the distribution, we add all the numbers in the set (i.e.
706
5+2+1+3+4+3+2+1+3+4+ …) and divide by the total number of frequency, which is 40.

Another quick way to do this, is to represent the data in a frequency table, as shown below.
707
112
Score Frequency Total score
0 6 0
1 7 7
2 10 20
3 8 24
4 5 20
5 4 20
Total 40 91
You will notice here that an additional column is added, which says total score. In this
708
column, we multiply the score with the frequency. For example, 10 learners score 2, so
the total number of scores for those learners will be 20 (i.e. 2 x 10). The column therefore
presents the sum of all numbers in the set, which is easier than adding up individual scores.
In the data above, the sum of all numbers in the set is 91, and total frequency is 40,
709
therefore mean is thus:
Mean = 91 710 = 2.275

711 40
The mean score is 2.275 out of 5.00. This can be interpreted as having the mean score
712
below 50%. What does this say about the learners’ performance? Having a mean or
average below 50% indicates that learners do not perform very well in the test. As a
teacher, you need to revise the concept with the whole class, possibly with alternative
teaching approaches.
To compute the median, we arrange the number in either ascending order (from smaller to
713
bigger numbers) or descending order (from bigger to smaller numbers), and the number
in the middle is the median.
It is easy to locate the number in the middle when there are odd numbers in the set. For
714
example, if there are 15 numbers in the set, after arranging the numbers in order, the 8th
number is the median. Sometimes, you will have even numbers. In this case, you take the
average of the two middle numbers. For example, if there are 16 numbers in a set of data,
we take the average of the 8th and the 9th number, after arranging the numbers in order.
Returning to our data set, we have 40 number of scores. To find the median, we take
715
the average of the 20th and 21st numbers. The frequency distribution table is also very
helpful in finding the median of any data set.
113 MFP1501/1
Score Frequency Cumulative
frequency
0 6 6
1 7 13
2 10 23
3 8 31
4 5 36
5 4 40
Total 40
You will see that an additional column is added, cumulative frequency. A cumulative
716
frequency is the running total of all frequencies.
You will notice here that the 20th and 21st numbers are in the highlighted column, which
717
contains 10 numbers, from 14 to 23. So, both the 20th and the 21st numbers are 2. Therefore,
our median is 2; if you take the average of 2 and 2, you will still get 2. Please note that the
median is not the frequency, but the score in the distribution.
Mode is the score with the highest frequency, and this score can easily be located in
718
the frequency distribution. In the data set, the score 2 has the highest frequency of 10.
Therefore, the score 2 is our mode.
Activity 7.2
Using the data below, compute the mean, median and mode.
4 3 3 1 7 2 1 2 3 4
1 1 4 6 5 3 6 4 1 2
2 3 5 3 3 2 2 1 3 1
1 4 2 3 1 2 1 1 4 3

An easier way to approach this activity is to first construct a frequency distribution. In the
next section, we will discuss the meaning of probability and how probability is applied to our
everyday lives.
719
114
7.4 PROBABILITY
It is important to note that, in mathematics, probability is a measurement, just like any
720
other measurement, such as length or mass. For probability, the measurement is applied
to events.
721 Probability is thus defined as the likelihood or chance of an event occurring.
There are two extreme measurements of events occurring, as we are either “certain” it
722
will happen or it is “impossible” that it will happen. This is described on a number line
below, with measurement from 0 (impossible) to 1 (certain).
Impossible
724
Certain
729
0
726
728 1
0%
725 100%
727
723
730 Consider the following events:
A teacher chooses a student at random from a class of 30 girls.

731
yy What is the probability that the student chosen is a girl?

yy What is the probability that the student chosen is a boy?
The probability of choosing a girl is certain, since all the students in the class are girls and
732
the probability is 1.
The probability of choosing a boy is impossible, since all the students in the class are girls
733
and the probability is 0.
There are certain events that we cannot say are certain or impossible, and the measure of
734
the likelihood or chance of such event will be based on our experiences, in which case the
judgement about how likely one event may be compared with another is fairly subjective.
For example, consider the following events:
1. Is it going to rain today in Johannesburg?

2. Will Bafana qualify for the Africa Cup of Nations?
3. Will I improve my marks in the second test?
4. Will I graduate with distinction?
5. Will I get a new phone as a gift on my birthday?
The chance of each of the above event occurring depends on individuals and their
735
experiences. For example, when the sky is clear, it is unlikely that it will rain on that day,
and therefore the probability will be close to 0. When I consistently get 75% and above in
my courses, there is a likelihood that I will graduate with distinction, and the measure of
probability will be close to 1.
115 MFP1501/1
Activity 7.3
(1) Name two each of certain and impossible events.

(2) Name five events that are likely to occur in our everyday lives. State from your own
experience the probability of the likelihood of occurrence of each event.
(3) A spinner has 7 equal sectors numbered 1 to 7. What is the probability of landing
on the following?
a) A number between 1 to 7?
b) A number greater than 7?
c) The number 2?
736

Almost everything in our lives happens by chance; however, effort is required to increase the
chance of certain events happening in our lives. If you study hard and with understanding,
you increase the chances of passing your exams, and the probability of your pass is close to 1.
One can consider many examples of likely, certain and impossible events, and you can judge
– based on some sort of evidence – what the likelihood is for them to occur or not.
7.5 CONCLUSION
In this learning unit, we have discussed how data is collected, organised, represented and
737
interpreted as a process for decision-making. We have also discussed the three measures
of averages: mean, median and mode. In the last section, we discussed the meaning of
probability, and how probability is applied to our everyday lives.
738
116
LIST OF REFERENCES
Anghileri, J. (2000). Teaching number sense. London: Continuum.
Askew, M., Venkat, H., & Mathews, C. (2012). Coherence and consistency in South African
primary mathematics lessons. In T. Y. Tso (Ed.), Proceedings of the 36th Conference of
the International Group for the psychology of mathematics Education (Vol. 2, pp. 27–34).
Taipei, Taiwan: PME.
Beckmann, S. (2014). Mathematics for elementary teachers with activities (4th Ed). USA:
Pearson Education Inc.
Bruner, J. (1974). ‘Representation in childhood’, in beyond the information given. London:
Gorge Allen & Unwin.
Carpenter, T.P., Fennema, E., Franke, M.L., & Levi, L. (1999). Children’s mathematics: cognitively
guided instruction. Portsmouth: Heinemann.
Cramer, K., Behr, M., Post, T., & Lesh, R. (2009). Rational Number Project: initial fraction ideas.
Dubuque, Iowa: Kendall/Hunt Publishing Co.
Ensor, P., Hoadley, U.K., Jacklin, H., Kuhne, C., Schmitt, E., Lombard, A., & van den Heuvel-
Panhuizen, M. (2009). Specialising pedagogic text and time in Foundation Phase
numeracy classrooms. Journal of Education(47), 5–29.
Gelman, R., & Gallistel, C. (1978). Young children’s understanding of numbers. Cambridge:
Harvard University Press.
Haylock, D., & Cockburn, A. (2008). Understanding mathematics for young children. London:
Sage.
Hoadley, U. (2007). The reproduction of social class inequalities through mathematics
pedagogies in South African primary schools. Journal of Curriculum Studies, 39(6),
679–706. doi:10.1080/00220270701261169
Jacob, L. & Willis, S. (2003). The development of multiplicative thinking in young children. Paper
presented at the Mathematics Education Research Group of Australasia, Geelong, Vic.
Lamon, S.J. (1996). The development of unitizing: its role in children’s partitioning strategies.
Journal for Research in Mathematics Education, 27(2), 170–193. doi:10.2307/749599
National Council of Teachers of Mathematics. (2014). Principles to actions: Ensuring
mathematical success for all. Reston, VA: Author.
Roberts, N. (2015). Interpreting children’s representations of whole number additive relations
in the early grades. Paper presented at the ICMI Study 23 Primary mathematics study
on whole numbers, Macau, China.
Schollar, E. (2008). Final report: the primary mathematics research project 2004–2007 –
towards evidence-based educational development in South Africa. Johannesburg: Eric
Schollar and Associates.
Venkat, H. (2013). Curriculum development minus teacher development ≠ mathematics education.
Paper presented at the Proceedings of the 19th Annual National Congress of the
Association for Mathematics Education of South Africa.
Venkat, H., & Naidoo, D. (2012). Analyzing coherence for conceptual learning in a Grade
2 numeracy lesson. Education as Change, 16(1), 21–33.
Wright, R.J., Martland, J. & Stafford, A.K. (2006). Early numeracy: Assessment for teaching
and intervention: Sage.
Zazkis, R. & Liljedahl, P. (2002). Arithmetic sequence as a bridge among conceptual fields.
Canadian Journal of Science, Mathematics and Technology Education, 2(1), 91–118.
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LEARNING UNIT 1: Number and number system 1

LEARNING UNIT 2: Additive relations 17

LEARNING UNIT 3: Multiplicative reasoning 36

LEARNING UNIT 4: Fractions 63

LEARNING UNIT 5: Patterns and relations 78

LEARNING UNIT 7: Data handling and probability 108

7.1 INTRODUCTION 108

4Figure 1.1 illustrates the composition of learning unit 1.

Number systems Structured images that

Decimal system and place value

• Flexible place value decomposition of

Figure 1.1: Composition of learning unit 1

base-ten system is an important idea that supports mental mathematics. To better

Progression in the use of resources is very important in mathematics teaching, because

1.3 TYPES OF NUMBERS

1.3.1 Natural or counting numbers

Figure 1.2: Number track

1.3.2 Whole numbers

Figure 1.3: Structured number line

1 + (–1) = 0, 2 + (–2) = 0, 3 + (–3) = 0..., 99 + (– 99) = 0

Figure 1.4: Integers consisting of positive and negative numbers

1.3.4 Rational Numbers

and you are asked the following questions:

yy Can you finish the whole pizza?

This number is referred to as a “rational number” or fraction. Numbers such as: ½, ¼, ⅛,

Feedback on Activity 1.1

Figure 1.5: Connections between the four types of numbers

1.4 ORDINALITY AND CARDINALITY OF COUNTING NUMBERS

yy Ordinality – counting numbers as a list

1.4.1 Counting numbers as a list

sequence is to try and learn the numbers in an unfamiliar language.

Number words as a list – counting 1 to 20 in an unfamiliar language

Feedback on Activity 1.2

It is also important to consolidate learners’ understanding of counting numbers as an ordered

1.4.2 Counting numbers as associated with quantity

Figure 1.6: Cardinality of a set of numbers

1.5 STAGES OF EARLY NUMBER LEARNING

Stage 4 – Intermediate number sequence – The child counts-down-to solve missing

non-count-by-ones strategies. These strategies include compensation, using known facts,

Consider the task 23 – 19 = [ ]

Feedback on Activity 1.4

1.6 USING STRUCTURED IMAGES TO SUPPORT GROUP

yy Which is bigger: 23 or 18?

72 Figure 1.7: Images of 16

Feedback on Activity 1.5

1.7 DECIMAL SYSTEM AND PLACE VALUE

Figure 1.8: Building and exchanging into base-ten place value

Figure 1.9: The number 326 decomposed into place values

Recognising the “structure” of numbers allows movement to higher number ranges

5 371 is made of 5 thousands, 3 hundreds, 7 tens and 1 unit

80 a) 5 371 = 5 thousands + 3 hundreds + 6 tens + __ units

calculation. For example, one can decompose

874190 = 4000 + 100 + 90 + 0

88= 1000 + 100 + 80 + 1

Figure 1.10: A number line showing the position of 17 and 73

Consider the number line 0 to 10 below.

(1) How do we label the number the arrow is pointing to?

Feedback on Activity 1.6

• Addition and subtraction in • Building fluency with mental

• Using a bar diagram to • Commutativity, compensation