Professional Documents
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MATHEMATICS
Only study guide for
OPM1501
OPM1501/1/2021–2023
10000267
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HSY_Style
CONTENTS
Page
Introduction vii
UNIT 1: WHAT IT MEANS TO DO MATHEMATICS 1
1.1 What is mathematics? People’s views 1
1.2 A classroom environment for doing mathematics 2
1.3 What does it mean to learn mathematics? 4
1.3.1 A constrauctivist view of learning 4
1.3.2 Piaget’s ideas of assimilation and accommodation 4
1.3.3 Sociocultural theory 5
1.3.4 Implications for teaching 6
1.3.5 Construction in rote learning 7
1.4 What does it mean to understand mathematics? 8
1.4.1 Conceptual understanding of mathematics 10
1.4.2 Procedural knowledge of mathematics 10
1.4.3 Tools and manipulatives 12
1.4.4 Mathematical proficiency 13
References 14
UNIT 2: TEACHING THROUGH PROBLEM SOLVING 15
2.1 What is a problem? 15
2.2 What is problem solving? 15
2.2.1 Four-step problem-solving process 16
2.3 Routine and nonroutine problems 17
2.3.1 Starting where the learners are 18
2.3.2 How can lessons become more effective? 18
2.3.3 What does it mean in practice? 18
2.4 Good problems have multiple entry points 20
2.4.1 Before, during and after 22
2.4.1.1 The teacher’s actions in the before phase 22
2.4.1.2 The teacher’s actions in the during phase 23
2.4.1.3 The teacher’s actions in the after phase 24
2.4.2 Working towards problem-solving goals 24
2.4.3 Different levels of cognitive demands in tasks 25
2.4.4 The value of teaching using a problem-based approach 26
References 27
UNIT 3: NUMBERS AND OPER ATIONS 28
3.1 Numbers, numerals and digits 28
3.1.1 Development of Hindu-Arabic digits 28
3.2 The Hindu-Arabic numeration system 29
3.3 Understanding place value 30
3.3.1 Place value, face value and total value 30
3.4 Models to illustrate place value 31
3.4.1 Base 10 blocks (Dienes blocks) 31
3.4.2 Unifix cubes 32
3.4.3 Sticks or matches 33
OPM1501/1 (iii)
3.4.4 Beans 34
3.4.5 The hundred chart 34
3.4.6 Number cards 35
3.5 Operations on whole numbers 35
3.5.1 Addition and subtraction 35
3.5.2 Dienes blocks 38
3.5.3 Number cards 39
3.5.4 Vertical and horizontal algorithms 39
3.5.5 Other addition and subtraction strategies 42
3.5.6 Multiplication and division 44
3.5.7 Dienes blocks 45
3.6 Large numbers 48
3.6.1 Reading large numbers 49
3.7 Illustrating numbers on the number line 50
3.8 Rounding off 51
3.9 Prime numbers 51
3.10 Rules of divisibility 52
3.11 Multiples 53
3.12 Factors 54
3.12.1 The factor tree 54
References 55
UNIT 4: FR ACTIONS 56
4.1 Basic fraction concept 56
4.2 Fraction models 57
4.2.1 Area models 57
4.2.2 Set models 58
4.2.3 Length models 58
4.3 Fraction notation 59
4.3.1 Understanding fraction notation 59
4.4 Non-unit fractions 59
4.5 Number line presentations 61
4.6 Equivalent fractions 62
4.6.1 Continuous wholes (area model) 62
4.6.2 Discontinuous wholes (set model) 63
4.6.3 Number line 63
4.7 Comparing fractions 64
4.7.1 Comparing non-unit fractions 64
4.7.2 Which is bigger? 64
4.8 Addition of fractions 65
4.8.1 The three stages of teaching the addition of fractions 66
4.9 Subtraction of fractions 67
4.9.1 The three stages of teaching the subtraction of fractions 67
4.10 The meaning of “of ” 68
4.11 Multiplication of fractions 69
4.11.1 The three stages of teaching the multiplication of fractions 70
4.11.2 The area model 72
4.11.3 An algorithm for the multiplication of fractions 74
UNIT 5: NUMERIC AND GEOMETRIC PATTERNS 75
5.1 What is a pattern? 77
5.2 Numeric patterns 76
5.2.1 Identifying number patterns 77
5.2.2 Using words to describe number patterns 78
(iv)
Contents
OPM1501/1 (v)
PAGE
(vi)
1 INTRODUCTION
If you were unsuccessful in mathematics in high school, you should not feel
overwhelmed by having to study this module. If you work through this tutorial letter
meticulously, you might find that concepts become clearer, and that you actually
start to enjoy doing mathematics!
In this module, we endeavour to move away from the traditional way of teaching
mathematics. We focus on understanding the basic concepts, which form the
foundation of the learning of mathematics.
There are many activities in this study guide, and we advise you to buy an exercise
book and make an effort to do all of them.
OPM1501/1 (vii)
INTRODUCTION
Section 1 deals with the general aims of the curricula in the South African context.
AIMS
The teaching and learning of Mathematics aim to develop
SKILLS
To develop essential mathematical skills the learner should
On the next four pages, you will find a brief summary of the curriculum. It gives
you an idea of what has to be taught in the four school terms. This section serves to
inform you of the content you will be focusing on for the purpose of your study in
this module.
(viii)
Introduction
GRADE 4
OPM1501/1 (ix)
INTRODUCTION
GRADE 5
(x)
Introduction
GRADE 6
OPM1501/1 (xi)
INTRODUCTION
GRADE 7
The National Curriculum Statement Grades R-12 aims to produce learners who are
able to:
• identify and solve problems and make decisions using critical and creative thinking;
• work effectively as individuals and with others as members of a team;
• organise and manage themselves and their activities responsibly and effectively;
• collect, analyse, organise and critically evaluate information;
• communicate effectively using visual, symbolic and/or language skills in various
modes;
• use science and technology effectively and critically showing responsibility towards
the environment and the health of others; and
• demonstrate an understanding of the world as a set of related systems by recognising
that problem solving contexts do not exist in isolation. (DBE NCS 2011: 5)
SPECIFIC AIMS
The teaching and learning of mathematics aim to develop (Department of Basic
Education 2011:8):
(xii)
Introduction
• confidence and competence to deal with any mathematical situation without being
hindered by a fear of mathematics
• a spirit of curiosity and a love for mathematics
• an appreciation for the beauty and elegance of mathematics
• recognition that mathematics is a creative part of human activity
• deep conceptual understanding in order to make sense of mathematics
• acquisition of specific knowledge and skills necessary for
– the application of mathematics to physical, social and mathematical problems
– the study of related subject matter (e.g. other subjects)
– further study in mathematics
OPM1501/1 (xiii)
(xiv)
1 UNIT 1
1 WHAT IT MEANS TO DO MATHEMATICS
How would you describe what happens when you are doing mathematics? In the rest
of this unit, we will explore what it means to “do” mathematics. We hope that, after
you have worked through this unit, you will have realised that outdated ideas about
mathematics are not acceptable if you expect to be a quality teacher. Combining the
best of the old ideas with fresh ideas about teaching and learning will enable you to
become a better quality mathematics teacher.
Before you read any further, we need you to think about what mathematics means
to you.
Activity 1.1
Write a short paragraph on your experiences as a learner in a mathematics
class when you were at school. Write at least one good experience and one bad
experience.
OPM1501/1 1
• Every mathematics problem has only one correct answer and the goal is to find
the answer.
• Mathematics problems are meant to be solved as quickly as possible.
• Mathematics is all symbols and no words.
• School mathematics is useless.
Much of this restricted (even negative) view of mathematics stems from somewhat
authoritarian (which some people have called “traditional”) approaches to the teaching
of mathematics. In such “traditional” teaching, the teacher “tells” learners about or
explains a mathematical concept or idea to them. The teacher “tells” the learners how
to “use” a mathematical idea in a certain way in order to arrive at the correct answer.
Learners then practice the method and rely upon the teacher to tell them the correct
answers. This way of teaching produces a follow- the-rules, computation-driven,
answer-oriented view of mathematics. Learners exposed to this way of teaching
accept that every problem has one solution only and that they cannot solve a problem
without being told a “method of solution” beforehand. The “rules” often do not make
sense to learners and there is little excitement in lessons, particularly if you cannot
remember the rule!
The stereotypical traditional view emphasises procedures and the solving of routine
problems, with teachers showing and telling, while learners listen and repeat.
Activity 1.2
(1) Name the words that you can relate to teaching and learning in a traditional
mathematics classroom.
(2) Look at the verbs related to the “doing” of mathematics in a mathematics
classroom as mentioned in the text. Use each of them in a sentence to relate
them to the doing of mathematics.
(3) Describe the role of the teacher and the learners in a classroom where they
are doing mathematics.
It is the job of the teacher to ensure that every child learns to do mathematics, but
for this, the right environment is important.
Learners can create a “conjecturing atmosphere” in the classroom if the teacher assigns
appropriate tasks to them and promotes learner thinking and discussion about these
2
UNIT 1: What it means to do mathematics
tasks. This atmosphere is one in which the rightness or wrongness of answers is not the
issue, but rather an environment that encourages learners to make conjectures (guesses)
about the regularity (sameness) they see. They then discuss these conjectures with
others without fear of being judged wrong or stupid, to listen to the ideas expressed
by others, and consequently, to modify their conjectures.
Activity 1.3
A Grade 6 learner did the following calculation to find the product of 2 175 × 26:
Perhaps you are wondering, after working through that rather complex example in
activity 1.5, what mathematics teachers are supposed to do about basic skills? For
example, you may be asking, if learners do not need to count accurately, know the
basic facts of addition, multiplication, subtraction and division of whole numbers,
fractions and decimals, and so on?
OPM1501/1 3
The fact is, that when we teach an algorithm in mathematics (like long multiplication)
and then give learners exercises to do in their books, they are not “doing” mathematics.
This does not mean that teachers should not give learners this kind of exercise, which
is simple drill-work, but that drill should never come before understanding.
Repetitive drill of bits and pieces is not “doing” mathematics and will never result in
understanding. Only when learners are capable of making sense of things by “doing”
mathematics in the classroom will they be truly empowered.
The general principles of constructivism are based largely on the work of Piaget.
According to Piaget, when a person interacts with an experience/situation/idea, one
of two things may happen. Either the new experience is integrated into the person’s
existing schema (a process called assimilation) or the existing schema is adapted
to accommodate the new idea/experience (a process called accommodation or
adaptation).
4
UNIT 1: What it means to do mathematics
Activity 1.4
The diagrams below give a visual representation of the ideas of Piaget.
While there may be wide variation of activities and content in a Vygotskian classroom,
the following four principles always apply:
OPM1501/1 5
(4) Learning extends to the home and other out-of-school environments and
activities, and all learning situations should be related.
Activity 1.5
The following tasks are given (translated into a South African context):
Now look at two attempts from Grade 4 learners to solve this problem:
(a) Explain in your own words how the two learners solved the problem.
(b) What is an algorithm?
(2) LPQ Toy Store is filling small boxes with three Smarties in each. If they have
24 smarties, how many small boxes will they be able to make?
Both learners in the above activity display conceptual understanding. They did not
follow the formal division algorithm, but made up their own strategies.
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UNIT 1: What it means to do mathematics
Activity 1.6
Consider the following subtraction using the vertical algorithm, which a learner
did, and answer the questions:
(1) What calculation error did the learner make in the subtraction?
(2) What conceptual error did the learner make? (Think of place value.)
(3) Did the learner clearly understand the rule, “borrow from the next column”?
Explain your answer.
Constructivism is a theory about how we learn. So, even rote learning is a construction.
However, the tools or ideas used for this construction in rote learning are minimal.
You may well ask: To what is knowledge, which is learnt by rote, connected?
This makes learning much more difficult because rules are much harder to remember
than integrated conceptual structures that are made up of a network of connected
ideas. In addition, careless errors are not picked up because the task has no meaning
for the learners and so they have not anticipated the kind of result that might emerge.
OPM1501/1 7
going through the processes in question until he can perform the required
operations automatically and accurately. The teacher need give little time to
instructing the pupil in the meaning of what he is learning.
Activity 1.7
Read the section above about “rote learning”. Seven weaknesses are listed at the
end. Write your own interpretation of each of these weaknesses (do not simply
repeat what is said here).
Teaching strategies that you need to use for successful teaching of mathematics
are informed by constructivism, and sociocultural perspectives are informed by the
following ideologies:
Activity 1.8
Discuss each of the strategies in a paragraph of about five points each.
8
UNIT 1: What it means to do mathematics
Grossmann (1986) cites another obstacle to understanding, that is, the belief that one
already understands fully. Learners are often unaware that they have not understood
a concept until they have to put it into practice. How often has a teacher given a class
a number of similar problems to do (after demonstrating a particular number process
on the board), only to find a number of children who cannot solve the problems?
Those learners thought that they had understood, but they did not. The situation
becomes just as problematic when there is an absence of a schema – that is, no schema
to assimilate into – but just a collection of memorised rules and facts. For teachers
in the intermediate phase, the danger lies in the fact that mechanical computation
can obscure the fact that schemata are not being constructed or built up, especially in
the first few years – this is to the detriment of learners’ understanding in later years.
Grossman (1986) draws attention to one of Piaget’s teaching and learning principles:
the importance of children learning by their own discovery. When learners acquire
knowledge through self-discovery, the knowledge has more meaning because
discovery facilitates the process of building cognitive structures (constructing a
network of connected ideas). Recall of information (concepts or procedures) is easier
than recall of unrelated knowledge transmitted to the learner.
Through the process of discovery (or investigation), a learner passes through a process
of grasping the basic relations (or connections) of an event, while discarding irrelevant
relations. In this way, they arrive at a concept (idea) together with an understanding
OPM1501/1 9
of the relations that give the concept meaning. They can therefore continue coping
with a good deal of meaningful new, but in fact highly related, information.
We infer from the above that the learner arrives at a concept that is derived from a
schema (a network of connected ideas) rather than from direct instruction from the
teacher. This produces the kind of learner who is independent, able to think, and
able to express ideas and solve problems. This represents a shift to learner centredness
– where learners are knowledge developers and users rather than storage systems
and performers (Grossman 1986).
Activity 1.9
(1) Explain the difference between relational understanding and instrumental
understanding.
(2) Explain why relational understanding has a far greater potential for
promoting reflective thinking than instrumental understanding.
(3) Explain what it means that understanding exists on a continuum from
relational to instrumental understanding. Give an example of a mathematical
concept and explain how it might be understood at different places along
this continuum.
Understanding is about being able to connect ideas together, rather than simply
knowing isolated facts. The question, “Does the learner know it?” must be replaced with
“How well does the learner understand it?” The first question refers to instrumental
understanding and the second leads to relational understanding. Memorising rules
and using “recipe” methods diligently in computations are to know the idea. Where
the learner connects a network of ideas to form a new idea and arrive at solutions
is called “understanding the idea” and contributes to how a learner understands.
Activity 1.10
Read the above description about “understanding mathematics”.
In the drawing alongside blue dots (B) are used to illustrate ideas we already have,
and the red dot (R) shows the new idea that we construct. In this way, a network
of connections between our ideas is established. The more ideas used and the
more connections made, the better we understand..
10
UNIT 1: What it means to do mathematics
A simple example of an algorithm is the set of steps used to perform the addition
1 5
of fractions, for example, 3 + 6 . The use of algorithms is often helpful, but, to be
helpful, algorithms must be understood. Njisane (Moodly 1992) comments that an
algorithm that is properly understood may free the mind for further thinking, whereas
using an algorithm without insight may be frustrating. This is the difference between
the “how” and the “why” or between procedural and relational understanding (i.e.
forming a network of connected ideas). If the procedure refers to what we do when
following a set of steps, then relational understanding refers to why we do whatever
we do.
Mathematics consists of more than just concepts. Of course, there are step-by-step
procedures for performing tasks such as the following:
(8 + 7) ÷ 3 + 10 = 15 ÷ 3 + 10 = 5 + 10 = 15 and
8 + 7 ÷ (3 + 10) = 15 ÷ 13 = 15 .
13
However, the meaning we attach to symbolic knowledge depends on how it is
understood – that is, what concepts and other ideas we connect to the symbols.
OPM1501/1 11
1.4.3 Tools and manipulatives
It is important for you to have a good perspective of how manipulatives (concrete,
physical models) can help or fail to help learners construct ideas.
Mathematical concepts have only mental existence – that is, the subject matter of
mathematics is not to be found in the external world, accessible to our vision, hearing
and other sense organs. We can only “do” mathematics because our minds have what
Skemp (1964) refers to as “reflective intelligence” – the ability of the mind to turn
away from the physical world and turn towards itself. We can use physical objects to
represent mathematical ideas, and to help us in the teaching of these ideas, but in the
end, learners will have to form the idea in their own head, as a concept, unattached
to any real object.
The figure below provides different mathematics representations (graph, table and
diagram are grouped as pictures).
Activity 1.11
Answer the following questions:
(1) You may talk of 100 people, 100 rand or 100 acts of kindness. Reflect on this
statement and then explain what is meant by the concept of 100. Discuss
this concept of 100 with fellow colleagues (students). If you do not agree,
establish why your understanding differs.
(2) Explain what a “model” for a mathematical concept refers to. Provide an
example.
(3) List at least five models (apparatus/manipulatives) that you would use in
your mathematics teaching. Indicate in each case how you would use the
particular model mentioned.
12
UNIT 1: What it means to do mathematics
FIGURE 2.2
Intertwined strands of proficiency (Kilpatrick et al 2001:117)
OPM1501/1 13
requires similarly interrelated components. In the context of teaching, proficiency
requires
Activity 1.12
(1) How would you differentiate between mathematical proficiency and math-
ematical teaching proficiency?
(2) What are the benefits of mathematical proficiency? Use your own words to
answer this question.
REFERENCES
Grossman, R. 1986. A finger on Mathematics. Johannesburg: Esson.
Kilpatrick, J, Swafford, J & Findell, B. 2001. Adding it up: helping children to learn
mathematics. Washington DC: National Academy Press, chapter 4, 115–155.
Njisane, RA. 1992. Mathematical thinking, in Mathematics education for in-service
and pre-service teachers, edited by M Moodly, R Njisane & N Presmeg.
Pietermaritzburg Shuler & Shooter.
Skemp, RR 1964. A three-part theory for learning mathematics, in New approaches
to mathematics teaching, edited by FW Land. London Macmillan.
Trapton, P 1986. Mathematical learning in early childhood. NCTM, 37th yearbook
14
2 UNIT 2
2 TEACHING THROUGH PROBLEM
SOLVING
Hiebert et al (1997) bring the problem-solving approach for the teaching and learning
of mathematics with understanding to the fore when they state the following:
OPM1501/1 15
We believe that if we want students to understand mathematics, it is more
helpful to think of understanding as something that results from solving
problems, rather than something we can teach directly.
However, problem solving should be more than a slogan offered for its appeal and
widespread acceptance – it should be the cornerstone of the mathematics curriculum
and instruction, fostering the development of mathematical knowledge and a chance
to apply and connect previously constructed mathematical understanding.
Problem solving is presented in the Curriculum and Assessment Policy Statement for
Intermediate Phase 4–6 (Department of Basic Education 2011) as follows:
Activity 2.1
Consider the following problem given to Grade 4 learners:
Complete the following to make it a true sentence. (A true sentence will be obtained
if the LHS of the equation is equal to the RHS of the equation.)
10 + _ _ _ = 4 + (3 + _ _ _ _)
(1) Find the numbers for each blank to make the equation true.
(2) Find different pairs of numbers that will make the equation true.
(3) What is the relationship between the two numbers of any correct solution?
16
UNIT 2: Teaching through problem solving
Activity 2.2
Select any strategy to solve the following problems. You must describe in your
own words how you are using the strategy.
Problem 1
Jack and Jill are at the same spot at the bottom of the hill, hoping to fetch a pail of
water. They both start walking up the hill. Jack walks 5 metres every 25 seconds,
and Jill walks 3 metres every 10 seconds. They walk at a constant rate. Who will
reach the pail of water first?
Problem 2
In the diagram alongside, assume that the edge of each
square is 1 unit. Add squares to this shape so that the
perimeter (the distance around the entire shape) is 18
units.
However, the explanation is of little value since the rule is all that is necessary to get
through the day. An atmosphere that promotes curiosity, which encourages learners
to test their own hypotheses and to pursue their own predictions, is lacking. Learners
are not encouraged to create and invent their own constructions or ideas.
Activity 2.3
Here are some examples of routine and non-routine questions. Which is which?
Why do you say that?
Find the solutions to each of the questions, and explain your own thinking processes.
You might find some of the questions problematic. Do not worry about that, but
give your best. Just try to do them to the best of your knowledge. Be honest when
you write about your own experience when writing up your solutions.
OPM1501/1 17
(5) A builder is building a new house. He worked out that 2 painters should be
able to complete the painting in 11 days. Each painter works an 8-hour day
at R7 per hour. The paint cost R1 260. How much money would the builder
spend on having the house painted?
Providing learners with opportunities to explore concepts in their own ways and
equipping them to deal with nonroutine tasks begs the question: Where do we start?
This approach has its problems, as Van de Walle et al (2005:37) point out:
The first difficulty with this approach is that it begins where the teacher is
rather than where the learner is. It assumes that all learners will be able to
make sense of the explanation in the manner the teacher thinks best. The
second difficulty with the teach-then-solve approach is that problem solving
is separated from the learning process. The learners expect the teacher to tell
them the rules and are unlikely to solve problems for which solution methods
have not been provided. In essence, learning mathematics is separated from
“doing mathematics”. This does not make sense.
• Begin where the learners are, not where you as teachers are.
• Teaching should begin with the ideas that learners already have – the ideas they
will use to create new ones.
• Engage learners in tasks or activities that are problem based and that require
thought.
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UNIT 2: Teaching through problem solving
The methods that are used may be varied. They may involve hands-on material or
drawings; they can be simple pencil-and-paper tasks; they may be strictly mental
work; or calculators may or may not be used.
Example
Cut open a cereal box so that it can lie flat:
OPM1501/1 19
Draw a flat box in this space:
Activity 2.4
This is a drawing of a cube without a top (called an open cube).
(1) Which of the nets can be folded to make this box? Redraw these in your script.
(2) Now draw three different nets for a closed cube (6 faces).
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UNIT 2: Teaching through problem solving
Learners in a class will have different ideas about how they can best solve a problem.
They will draw on their own network of mental tools, concepts and ideas. This means
that there will be many ways (multiple entry points) to tackle the problem. Although
most problems have singular correct answers, there are often many ways to get there.
Here is an example of a problem:
PROBLEM ON AREA
Having thought about these possible points, you will be better prepared to provide
a hint that is appropriate for learners who are “stuck” with strategies different to the
others.
Activity 2.5
(1) What does it mean to say that a task has multiple entry points?
(2) Write down any mathematical task for intermediate phase learners where
you can use at least two entry points.
OPM1501/1 21
already memorised. This approach conditions the learners to focus on procedures so
that they can master the exercises.
This is in stark contrast to a lesson where a class works on a single problem and
engages in discourse about the validity of the solutions – more learning occurs and
much more assessment information is available.
If you allow time for each of the before, during and after parts of the lesson, it is quite
easy to devote a full period to one seemingly simple problem. In fact, there are times
when the “during” and “after” parts may extend into the next day or even longer!
As long as the problematic feature of the task is the mathematics you want learners
to learn, much good learning will result from engaging learners in only one problem
at a time.
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UNIT 2: Teaching through problem solving
The following strategies may be used in the before phase of the lesson:
• Begin with a simple version of the task or reduce the task to simpler terms.
• Brainstorm: Where the task is not straightforward, allow learners to suggest
solutions and strategies, thereby producing a variety of solutions.
• Estimate or use mental computation. For the development of computational
procedure, allow learners to do the computation mentally or to estimate the
answer independently.
• Be sure the task is understood. This action is not optional. You must always be
sure that learners understand the problem before setting them to work. Remember
that their perspective is different from yours. Have them restate the problem in
their own words, as this will force them to think about the problem.
• Establish expectations. This action is essential. Learners need to be clearly told
what is expected of them, for example, the following:
– Explain (in writing) why you think your answer is correct.
– When working in groups, only one written explanation should come from
the group.
– Share your ideas with a partner and then select the best approach to be
presented.
• You must demonstrate confidence in and respect for your learners’ abilities.
• Your learners should get into the habit of working in groups (to indulge in co-
operative group work).
• Listen actively to find out what your learners know, how they think, and how
they are approaching the task.
• Provide hints and suggestions when the group is searching for a place to begin
or when they stumble.
• Suggest that they use a particular manipulative or draw a picture if it seems
appropriate.
• Encourage testing of ideas. Avoid being the source of approval of their results
or ideas. Instead, remind the learners that answers, without testing and without
reasons, are not acceptable.
• Find a second method. This shifts the value system in the classroom from answers
to processes and thinking. It is a good way for learners to make new and different
connections. The second method can also help learners, who have made an error,
to find their own mistake.
• Suggest extensions or generalisations. Many of the good problems are simple on
the surface. The extensions are normally excellent. The general question at the
heart of mathematics as a science of pattern and order is: What can you find
out about that? This question looks at something interesting to generalise. The
following questions will help to suggest different extensions: What if you tried
…? Would the idea work for …?
OPM1501/1 23
2.5.1.3 The teacher’s actions in the after phase
The “after” phase is critical, as everyone, learners as well as the teacher, often learn
the most in this phase. It is not a time to check answers, but for the class to share
ideas. As Van de Walle et al (2016:–) comment:
Over time, you will develop your class into a community of learners who
together are involved in making sense of mathematics. Teach your learners
about your expectations for this time and how to interact with their peers.
In the after phase of a lesson, you may find that you will engage in the following
activities:
• Engage the class in discussion. Rule number one is that the discussion is more
important than hearing an answer. Learners must be encouraged to share and
explore the variety of strategies, ideas and solutions, and then to communicate
these ideas in a rich mathematical discourse.
• List the answers of all groups on the board without comment. Unrelated ideas
should be listened to with interest, even if they are incorrect. These can be written
on the board, and testing the hypothesis may become the problem for another day,
until additional evidence comes up that either supports or disproves it.
• Give learners space to explain their solutions and processes. A suggestion here
is to begin the discussion by calling first on learners who are shy, passive or lack
the ability to express themselves – because the more obvious ideas are generally
given at the outset of a discussion. These reticent learners can then more easily
participate and thus be valued.
• Allow learners to defend their answers, and then open the discussion to the
class. Resist the temptation to judge the correctness of an answer. In place
of comments that are judgemental, make comments that encourage learners to
extend their answers, and that show you are genuinely interested. You may ask,
for example, “Will you please tell me how you worked that out?”
The following are three important goals of teaching using problem solving:
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UNIT 2: Teaching through problem solving
Activity 2.6
(1) Give reasons why there should be a shift in the thinking about mathemat-
ics teaching.
(2) Use your own words to describe the teacher’s actions in the before, during
and after phases of a problem-solving lesson.
Stein, Smith, Henningsen and Silver (2000) provide a framework for differentiating
between tasks, describing the different levels of thinking they require in order for
learners to be successfully engaged. They distinguish between tasks that have low-
level demands, such as memorisation and purely procedural tasks; those tasks that
demand a high level of mathematical thinking, such as procedural tasks that link to
enhancing understanding and sense-making; and those tasks that involve learners
in “doing mathematics” as they explore relationships and understand mathematical
concepts and processes.
The table below summarises the main features of the task analysis suggested by Stein
et al (2000).
OPM1501/1 25
Lower-level demands Higher-level demands
• When solving problems, learners focus their attention on ideas and sense-making.
This leads to the development of new ideas and enhances understanding. In
contrast, a more traditional approach emphasises “getting it right” and following
the directions supplied by the teacher.
• When solving problems, learners are encouraged to think that they can do
mathematics and that mathematics makes sense. As learners develop their
understanding, their confidence in mathematics also grows.
• As learners discuss ideas, draw pictures, defend their own solutions, evaluate other
solutions and write explanations, they provide the teacher with insight into their
thought process and their mathematical progress.
26
UNIT 2: Teaching through problem solving
Sense-making
Activity 2.7
Give your own opinion on the following statement: “It is easier for a teacher to
teach using rote learning”.
REFERENCES
Hiebert, J, Carpenter, TP, Fennema, E, Fuson, KC, Wearne, D, Murray, H, Olivier,
A & Human, P. 1997. Making sense: teaching and learning mathematics with
understanding. Portsmouth, UK: Heinemann.
Nicholson, MJ. 1992. Problem solving, in Mathematics education for in-service and pre-
service teachers, edited by M Moodly, R Njisane & N Presmeg. Pietermaritzburg:
Shuter & Shooter.
Pólya, G. 1957. How to solve it. Garden City, NY: Doubleday
Stein, MK, Smith, MS, Henningsen, MA & Silver, EA. 2000. Implementing standards-
based mathematics instruction: a casebook for professional development. New York:
Teachers’ College Press
OPM1501/1 27
3 UNIT 3
3 NUMBERS AND OPERATIONS
28
UNIT 3: Numbers and operations
Using only ten symbols, including a zero symbol, and the concept of place value,
we can represent any number we please.
The main features are summarised below (e.g. the number 4 213)
As the grouping number is 10, there will never be more than nine groups in each
place. Our numeration system
OPM1501/1 29
Activity 3.1
(1) Explain the difference between the concepts, digit, numeral and number,
by giving examples.
(2) What is a numeration system?
(3) What is the role of zero in our numeration system?
How many numbers can you make from the digits 3, 5 and 8? Let us take a look:
Units
Hundreds Tens
(ones)
3 5 8 = 358
In a basic digital system, a
numeral is a sequence of
3 8 5 = 385
digits, which may be of
5 3 8 = 538 arbitrar y length. Each
position in the sequence has
5 8 3 = 583 a place value, and each digit
has a value.
8 5 3 = 853
8 3 5 = 835
The place values are the value of the PLACE where the digit is in the numeral. In
a three-digit number, there are three places, the hundreds, the tens and the units.
The value of the numeral is computed by multiplying each digit in the sequence by
its place value, and summing
30
UNIT 3: Numbers and operations
The numeral 358 has the value of 3 hundreds plus 5 tens plus 8 ones.
“Listen” how we read it: three hundred and fifty eight or just three hundred fifty eight.
The face value of a digit in a numeral is simply the number that you see.
3 456
Total value
The total value (some textbooks refer to “the value” only) of a digit in a numeral is
the face value × the place value
In the tens place of the numeral 234, we have a digit with a face value of 3, and
a place value of 10, giving us a total value of 30.
Activity 3.2
(1) Our numeration system employs place value. What is your understanding
of place value?
(2) Write down the place value of the underlined digits:
54 982
459 234
(3) Write down the total value of the underlined digits:
54 982
459 234
OPM1501/1 31
Examples
Illustrate the following numbers using Dienes blocks (also called base 10 blocks):
H T U
326
3 2 6
TH H T U
2476
2 4 7 6
32
UNIT 3: Numbers and operations
Example
H T U
135
1 3 5
Activity 3.3
What numbers are represented in the grouping of sticks above?
OPM1501/1 33
3.4.4 Beans
Beans in bottle tops and empty match boxes
Example
H T U
148
1 4 8
34
UNIT 3: Numbers and operations
Activity 3.4
(1) Find a row or column where all the units digits have a face value of 3.
(2) Find a row or column where 9 of the tens digits have a face value of 3.
(3) Find the numbers where the face values of the tens digits are the same as
the units digits. What do you notice? Draw a line through them.
(4) Find the numbers where the sum of the tens digit and the units digit is 9.
What do you notice?
(5) What do the numbers in the last column have in common?
What is it?
Invented Strategies can refer to any strategy other than the traditional algorithm.
Invented Strategies do not employ the use of physical materials or counting by ones to
produce a product. It may be easier to think of them as personal and flexible strategies
(Van de Walle & Lovin, 2006). These strategies are built on students’ own ideas and
understandings, and often rely heavily on story problems and children’s literature.
OPM1501/1 35
Benefits of Invented Strategies
Explain to students that the standard algorithms are not always the best methods to
use. Break students into “teams” and challenge them to try to come up with a faster
way to solve a problem. Make sure they can explain how they got to the answer. Try
embedding the computational tasks within a simple context, such as a story problem.
By using this method, you can tailor your story problems to your advantage, to try
to coax a particular strategy out of your students. The use of children’s literature may
also be helpful here. Van de Walle (2006) suggests a book called Cookies about the
history of the Famous Amos cookie business. This may help get students engaged
in the subject matter. The most important aspect of Invented Strategies, however, is
that students are able to explain their solution methods. This is where whole-class
sharing is essential. Students must be able to share and explain their methods, to ask
and answer questions of their classmates and to learn and build on others’ strategies.
Van de Walle and Lovin (2006) suggest making a firm rule that no one may use a
strategy that he or she does not understand.
(1) Add tens, add ones, then combine (40 + 30 = 70, 6 + 8 = 14, 70 + 14 = 84)
(2) Add on tens, then add ones (46 + 30 = 76, 76 + 8 = 84)
(3) Move some to make tens (44 + 40 = 84)
(4) Use a nice number and compensate (46 + 40 = 86, 40 – 2 = 38, so 86 – 2 = 84)
Activity 3.5
You want to buy a book priced R105, but you find you only have R89 in your purse.
Think of ways in which you can find how much money you still need. You do not
have pen and paper or a calculator with you, and you do not want to rely on the
salesperson to work it out.
There are various ways in which you can reason to find the answer.
• If you had R100, how much would you have been short? R5
• If you had R90, how much would you have been short? R15
36
UNIT 3: Numbers and operations
• But now you have R89, so you have R15 + R1 short. R16
Now write down another way in which you could do the calculation.
An algorithm is
One of the most common algorithm for addition of whole numbers is based on the
following rules:
Activity 3.6
(1) What is an algorithm?
(2) Investigate and report on the differences between standard algorithm and
learners’ own invented strategies.
(3) Write down the benefits of student-invented strategies in your own words.
Example
Use Dienes blocks to explain how to add 8 + 6. This is a simple example, but it will
show you how to exchange the blocks. Develop the idea of a ten as a single entity.
Reflects the relationships within our base-10 number system. Helps learners make
sense of decomposition as a strategy for subtraction.
(2) Take 2 tinies from the second group and place it with the 8 tinies.
OPM1501/1 37
(3) You now have 10 tinies in the first group and 4 tinies in the second group.
Exchange the 10 tinies for one long.
38
UNIT 3: Numbers and operations
• In a horizontal algorithm, you will break up the numbers into 100s, 10s, etc.,
and place them in a row.
• In a vertical algorithm, you will place the numbers underneath each other.
For the horizontal algorithm, you need to separate the hundreds, tens and units,
from the number, and then add
• hundreds to hundreds
• tens to tens
• units to units
Traditionally, you might know this algorithm for addition as “carrying”. To “carry”
is another way of talking about exchange:
OPM1501/1 39
Here is another example to illustrate the “carrying” from one place value to the next.
40
UNIT 3: Numbers and operations
Activity 3.7
Use Dienes blocks to illustrate the following operations:
(1) 24 + 57 (2) 196 + 105
(3) 44 – 17 (4) 416 – 109
Use number cards to illustrate the following operations:
(5) 458 + 263 (6) 458 – 263
OPM1501/1 41
3.5.5 Other addition and subtraction strategies
Addition
Compensation
We can convert numbers to more manageable ones, to make the calculation easier.
42
UNIT 3: Numbers and operations
Subtraction
Compensation
Bridging
This is also called the shopkeeper’s method. This is how the shop assistant counts out
your change when you pay cash.
If you buy an article for R316, and you pay with two R200 notes.
Start with the 316, and then add on until you get to 400.
OPM1501/1 43
Activity 3.8
(1) Use compensation to add or subtract the following:
(a) 468 + 39
(b) 468 – 39
(c) 399 + 499 + 599
(d) 10 000 – 599
(2) Use the number line to show the addition or subtraction of
(a) 991 + 69
(b) 500 – 472
(c) 1 099 + 101
Activity 3.9
The excerpt below was taken from p 255/p 305 in your textbook. Explain in your
own words how each of the three children solved the problem:
There were 35 dog sleds. Each sled was pulled by 12 dogs. How many dogs were
there in all?
44
UNIT 3: Numbers and operations
Multiplication by 10
Often teachers would say to their learners: When you multiply by 10, “you must simply
put a zero at the end”. The problem is that this “rule” only works for multiplication of
whole numbers by 10. When dealing with decimals, that rule does not work. Now
teachers often say: “move the comma for every zero in the multiplier”.
Activity 3.10
(1) Show 329 × 100 by drawing a place value chart. Explain why there are now
2 zeros at the end.
(2) Mrs Tesfaya has 6 boxes of markers. Each box has 19 markers in it. If she
sold each marker for R2,70, how much money would Mrs Tesfaya earn?
OPM1501/1 45
Division
(1) Patsy wants to share 30 sweets between 5 children. How many will each child
receive?
(2) We have to transport 70 children to a function. Each mini-bus can take 10
children. How many mini-buses do we need?
SHARING
Sharing is usually the first concept of division that learners encounter. It is used to
share items out equally among a number of people, such as sweets.
• In sharing, the number of groups is known. The quantity of items in each group is
unknown. The answer is found by sharing the items equally between the groups.
Here one would ask the question: How many items will each person receive?
GROUPING
Solutions
(1) Sharing can be a one-by-one action. Patsy can share her sweets by handing
them out one at a time. Each child will receive 5 sweets.
(2) When grouping is involved, we have to make groups of 7 and see how
many groups we need to make
46
UNIT 3: Numbers and operations
Let us illustrate division of 234 ÷ 3 using Dienes blocks to show how the algorithm
can be understood.
First set out 2 flats, 3 longs and 4 tinies.
234 = 200 + 30 + 4
OPM1501/1 47
Activity 3.11
(1) Use the above method for division to find
228 ÷ 12
642 ÷ 6
(2) Mrs Tesfaya learnt that R1 340 worth of tickets were sold at the carnival. If
tickets cost 4 for R10, how many tickets were sold?
(3) A company donates 935 pencils to a school. The pencils are divided evenly
among 9 classrooms. The rest of the pencils are given to the library. How
many pencils were donated to the school and to the library?
(4) You have R15 in 5c and 10c pieces. If you have the same number of each
kind of coin, how many 5c pieces do you have?
(5) In the summer, you can earn R4 a day by cutting the neighbour’s grass.
How many days will it take you to earn R184?
(6) The goat in the village weighs 145 kg. It is five times heavier than the baby
goat. How much does the baby goat weigh?
(7) Three hundred children are divided into two groups. There are 50 more
children in the first group than in the second group. How many children are
there in the second group?
(8) Three thousand exercise books are arranged in 3 piles. The first pile has 10
more books than the second pile. The number of books in the second pile
is twice the number of books in the third pile. How many books are there
in the third pile?
We can use number cards to help learners understand the place values of larger
numbers.
48
UNIT 3: Numbers and operations
H T U H T U H T U H T U H T U H T U H T U
Activity 3.12
Write the following numbers in the table below:
(1) 234 567 890 Read the number (write down in words).
(2) 1 011 110 111 Read the number (write down in words).
(3) 70 010 001 002 Read the number (write down in words).
(4) Four million, five hundred and one thousand and one
(5) Twenty-five quadrillion, three hundred and ten billion six hundred and twelve
H T U H T U H T U H T U H T U H T U H T U
OPM1501/1 49
Complete
(6) What is one more than a million? _______________________________
Activity 3.13
Write the following numbers in symbols:
(2) One hundred and seven million five hundred and nine _________________
(3) Fifty billion two million and one hundred thousand ___________________
(5) Three trillion four hundred and eight million and eight thousand
___________________________________________________
For example:
• To show a number between 0 and 10, we will scale the number line from 0 to 10
(using 1cm for a unit).
• To show a number between 0 and 100, we will scale the number line from 0 to
100 (using 1cm for ten).
50
UNIT 3: Numbers and operations
• To show a number between 0 and 1 000, we will scale the number line from 0 to
1 000 (using 1cm for hundred).
If 23 533 tickets were sold for a cricket match, what then would the most appropriate
way to say how many people attended the match (provided they all attended of course).
There were about 23 530 people at the match (rounded off to the nearest _____)
There were about 23 500 people at the match (rounded off to the nearest _____)
There were about 24 000 people at the match (rounded off to the nearest _____)
Activity 3.14
If 34 467 tickets were sold for a cricket match, round this figure off to the nearest
10 __________ Look at the units digit (if it is 5 or more, the tens digit
becomes one more)
34 467
100 __________ Look at the tens digit (if it is 5 or more, the hundreds
digit becomes one more) 34 467
10 000 __________ Look at the thousands digit (if it is 5 or more, the ten
thousands digit becomes one more) 34 467
A prime number is a number that has only two different factors, of which 1 is
one of them. 1 is not a prime number.
_________________________
OPM1501/1 51
The Sieve of Eratosthenes is a well-known way to find prime
numbers. In this example, we will find all the prime numbers
between 1 and 100.
Sieve of Eratosthenes
• A number is divisible by 3, when you add all the digits and the sum is a
multiple of 3.
Example: 3 567 3 + 5 + 6 + 7 = 21 and 2 + 1 = 3
∴ 3 567 is divisible by 3.
52
UNIT 3: Numbers and operations
• A number is divisible by 9, when you add all the digits and the sum is a
multiple of 9.
Example: 45 612 4 + 5 + 6 + 1 + 2 = 18 and 18 is a multiple of 9
• A number is divisible by 11, when you add every second digit, then add the others,
and then subtract the two sums. If the answer is 0 or a multiple of 11, then the
number is divisible by 11.
Example:
1 2 3 4 2 Add 1 + 3 + 2 = 6
1 2 3 4 2 Then add 2 + 4 = 6 6–6=0
∴ 12 342 is divisible by 11
Activity 3.15
Test the following numbers for divisibility by the given number. You may not do
the actual division, and no calculators are allowed.
3.11 MULTIPLES
You all know what a multiple of a number is
M3 = 0 ; 3 ; 6 ; 9 ; 12 ; …..
0 is a multiple of any number.
M4 = 0 ; 4 ; 8 ; 12 ; 16 ; …
The lowest common multiple (LCM) is the lowest number in which two or more
numbers can divide.
Activity 3.16
What is the LCM of 2 ; 3 and 5?
M2 = _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
The LCM of 2 ; 3 and 5 is
M3 = _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
__________
M5 = _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
OPM1501/1 53
3.12 FACTORS
A factor of a number is a number that can be divided into the number without
leaving a remainder.
Activity 3.17
(1) Complete the factor trees
54
UNIT 3: Numbers and operations
Useful websites:
• Long division
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=AXQNeP6NN44
REFERENCES
Van de Walle, J.A. & Lovin, L. (2006). Teaching Student-Centered Mathematics.
OPM1501/1 55
4 UNIT 4
4 FRACTIONS
In the previous unit, you were introduced to whole numbers and their operation. In this
unit, the number system is expanded by exploring fractions, and their representation
and operation.
Activity 4.1
Reflect on how you dealt with working with fractions when you were still at school.
Explain in your own words what the difficulties with fractions might be.
Let learners trace these shapes and fold along the dotted line.
Questions to ask learners:
• Into how many parts is each
shape divided?
• What do you notice when
you put one part on top of
the other?
• Which shapes are divided into
two equal parts?
• What name do we give to
each equal part?
56
UNIT 4: Fractions
Which of these
are thirds of the
whole?
Learners must say: “My whole is a ... (circle, rectangle, etc.). It is divided into three
equal parts. Each part is a third of the whole.”
Here we are establishing the concept of a WHOLE being cut or divided into
three EQUAL parts. Each part is a third of the whole.
Activity 4.2
Draw three diagrams that can be used to show wholes that are divided into four
parts, but which do not all represent fourths.
See examples of models to use in the classroom at the end of this tutorial letter
(appendices).
OPM1501/1 57
Language pattern:
My whole is a circle. To find one-eighth of the whole, I divide it into eight parts of
equal size, and shade one part. The shaded part is one-eighth of the whole.
Language pattern:
My whole consists of 12 bottle tops. I divided them into three parts of equal size. Each
part is one-third of the whole. Each part has four bottle tops. So one-third of 12 is four.
The diagram below is called a fraction wall, and it is used to show how the whole
can be divided into equal parts.
58
UNIT 4: Fractions
It is important for learners to still see the relation between a concrete example and
the notation. It is thus a good
Unit fractions are fractions with the numerator 1. It shows ONE part of the whole,
such as 1 , 1 , 1 .
3 4 6
OPM1501/1 59
We go through the same processes as
before.
Example:
Shade 2 of the triangle
3
Language: My whole is an equilateral
triangle. To shade 2 of
3
the triangle, I divide the
triangle into 3 equal parts,
and shade 2 of these parts.
Examples
Shade 2 of the pentagon
5
The whole is divided into five equal parts. Each part is one-fifth
of the whole. Two parts are shaded. So two-fifths of the whole is
shaded.
Activity 4.3
Shade the required parts of the given wholes.
4
(1) Shade of the whole
5
In the fraction 4 , what does the 5 mean? _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
5
What does the 4 mean? _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
(2)
5
Shade of the whole
8
60
UNIT 4: Fractions
Examples:
Activity 4.4
(1) Into how many parts is this unit divided? Label each of the parts.
(2) Count in thirds (place your pencil on the numbers as you are counting)
OPM1501/1 61
1 3 7 8 10
(5) Then show the following on a number line:
5 5 5 5 5
Activity 4.5
Help the boys
Sipho has a piece of string that is exactly 2 m long. He wants to divide it equally
among three friends. What part of the string will each one receive?
Activity 4.6
(1)
(2)
62
UNIT 4: Fractions
Farmer Bobo has 24 goats. He want Farmer Xomo has 24 goats. He want
to sell 2 of his goats. So he put them to sell 4 of his goats. So he put them
3 6
in 3 camps and choose the goats in in 6 camps and choose the goats in
two camps. four camps.
Complete the drawing. Complete the drawing.
Activity 4.7
(1) Use a number line to illustrate the equivalence of 1 and 2 .
3 6
(2) Use the same number line to illustrate the equivalence of 2 and 4 .
3 6
(3) Use a number line to illustrate the equivalence of 3 6
and .
4 8
OPM1501/1 63
Look carefully at the fractions 1 and 2 and the fractions 2 and 4
3 6 3 6
Activity 4.8
Fill in the missing numbers to make the fractions equivalent:
3 and [ ] 1 and [ ] 1 and 4 2 and [ ]
5 10 2 10 3 [] 3 12
Activity 4.9
(1) Use the wholes given below and shade the given fraction parts. Then arrange
the fractions from big to small.
Same numerators:
2 2 2 2
3 4 5 6
Same denominators:
2 3 4
5 5 5
(1) Compare the following two fractions, using blocked paper. Which is bigger?
3 or 5 ?
4 8
64
UNIT 4: Fractions
Firstly you have to remember that you can only compare fractions if
they are parts of the same whole.
Choose a whole that can be divided in 4 as well as 8 equal parts. So we
will choose the whole to be 8 blocks.
3 > 5
4 8
Making use of equivalence: 3 = 6 6 > 5
4 8 8 8
(2) Compare the following two fractions, using blocked paper: 2 or 3 .
3 5
Choose a whole that can be divided into 3 as well as 5 equal parts. So the whole has
to consist of 15 blocks.
∴ 2 > 3
3 5
Making use of equivalence: 2 = 10 and 3 = 9 10 > 9 2 > 3
3 15 5 15 15 15 3 5
Activity 4.10
Draw up a worksheet to compare fractions. A set model has to be used.
1 + 1 = ?
3 3 ?
1 + 1 + 1 = ?
4 4 4 ?
OPM1501/1 65
4.8.1 The three stages of teaching the addition of fractions
Stage 1
Illustrat:e 2 + 4
7 7
2 + 4 = 6
7 7 7
Stage 2
Illustrate: 1 + 1
3 6
Into how many parts must the whole be divided?
Stage 3
Illustrate: 1 + 1
3 4
Into how many parts must the whole be divided?
66
UNIT 4: Fractions
1 + 1
3 4
= + 3
4
12 12
= 7
12
Activity 4.11
Do the following examples on quad paper:
(1) 1 + 4 (2) 1 + 3
5 5 5 10
(3) 1 + 1 (4) 1 + 2 (5) 1 + 5
3 2 3 5 4 6
Illustrate: 7 – 3
10 10
Stage 2
OPM1501/1 67
The algorithm for subtraction:
7 – 2
10 5
= 7 – 4
10 5
= 3
10
Stage 3
What is 1 of 8? ______________________
2
What is 8 × 1 ? ______________________
2
The commutative property for multiplication: 3 × 4 = 4 × 3
1 of 8 is the same as 8 × 1 which is the same as 1 × 8
2 2 2
1
Therefore of 8 = × 81
2 2
68
UNIT 4: Fractions
Princess invited her two friends to her house for a pizza. When
they arrived, they found that her brother had already eaten one-
quarter of the pizza.
Shade the part of the pizza that is left.
What part of the pizza is left to share among the three of them?
Each one will receive one-third of _________.
Using drawings to illustrate the following (remember that the whole must be kept
the same if you want to compare the answers):
Is 1 of 1 the same as 1 of 1 ?
3 2 2 3
∴ 1 of 1 = 1
3 2 6
∴ 1 of 1 = 1
2 3 6
2 × 1 = ___
3
3 × 1 = ___
4
OPM1501/1 69
Complete:
2 = + =2×
3 3 3 3
3 = 1 + 1 + 1 =3×
4
Solutions:
2 = 1 + 1 =2× 1
3 3 3 3
3 = 1 + 1 + 1 =3× 1
4 4 4 4 4
Pre-knowledge
• multiplication of whole numbers
• multiplication as repeated addition
• commutative property for multiplication
• the meaning of “of”
• the notion of area
Illustrate: 4 × 2
3
Repeated addition
4× 2 = + + +
3
=
Solution:
4× 2 = 2 + 2 + 2 + 2 = 8
3 3 3 3 3 3
Stage 2
70
UNIT 4: Fractions
Show 2 of 4
3
Shade 2 of 4 wholes.
3
What part is shaded?
Solution:
Stage 3
Fraction × fraction
Pre-knowledge:
• the area of a rectangle
Illustrate: 1 of 1 Illustrate: 1 of 1
2 2 2 4
2 of 1 1 of 1
3 2 2 3
Activity 4.12
Use diagrams to show the following:
1
(1) A R5 coin is 2 cm wide. If you put seven R5 coins end to end, how long
2
would they be from beginning to end?
(2) You have 2 of a pumpkin pie left over from Sunday lunch. You want to give
3
1 of it to your sister. How much of the whole pumpkin pie would this be?
2
OPM1501/1 71
(3) Eric gave 2 of his money to his wife and spent 1 of the remainder. If he
5 2
had R300 left, how much money did he have at first?
(4) David spent 2 of his money on a storybook. The storybook cost R20. How
5
much money did he have at first?
(5) Penny had a bag of marbles. She gave one-third of them to Rebecca, and
then one-fourth of the remaining marbles to John. Penny then had 24 marbles
left in the bag. How many marbles were in the bag to start with?
(1) 3 × 4 (2) 5 × 6
8 3 3 5
72
UNIT 4: Fractions
Solutions:
(1) 3 × 4
8 3
3 × 4 = 12 = 1
8 3 24 2
(2) 5 × 6
3 5
5 × 6 = 30 = 2
3 5 15
OPM1501/1 73
4.11.3 An algorithm for the multiplication of fractions
Teachers should work with concrete apparatus (manipulatives) and drawings extensively
before involving learners with the algorithm.
Activity 4.13
Use the multiplication algorithm to find the product of
(1) 1 × 2
2 3
(2) 15 × 2
3
(3) 1
1 ×8
2
(4) 3 × 11
4 2
74
5 UNIT 5
5 NUMERIC AND GEOMETRIC PATTERNS
In the previous two units you were shown how to facilitate the operation of numbers,
including decimal and common fractions, for mathematics learners. In this unit, we
develop your understanding on these numbers by identifying, describing, completing
and, extending the representation of numeric and geometric patterns in different forms.
Activity 5.1
(1) Based on the above definition, can you think of an example from your own
environment that you would regard as a pattern?
(2) Would you consider counting as a pattern? If so, indicate why, and if not,
indicate why not?
Beadwork (see figures 3.1 & 3.2) in the AmaZulu tradition relates, in some way,
to courtship and marriage. According to Regina Twala (1951), beadwork also helps
to regulate behaviour between individuals of the opposite gender. This exclusively
feminine craft has an intuitive fluency found only in inspired forms of poetry and
visual art. Although the bead-workers may be unware of a “system” such as that
imposed upon language by spelling rules and grammar, the Zulu crafters, who are
usually women, accept the following fundamentals:
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• Beadwork is form of communication between unrelated males and females,
avoiding the discomfort of direct initial discourse on the sensitive subject of
personal relations.
• Men wear beadwork to show involvement with the women they may marry
(incestuous implications preclude beaded gifts from mothers, sisters and daughters).
• Beadwork symbolism is encoded within a limited number of colours and geometric
figures.
• Colour symbols have alternative values but those assigned to geometric figures
are constant.
• Values assigned to colours are in groups of positive and negative alternatives, except
for white, which has no negative connotation.
• Symbolic coding is influenced by a number of factors such as
– the combination and arrangement of colours
– the use and nature of an object
– the deliberate breaking of rules by which these factors operate
FIGURE 5.1
ISICHOLO (Zulu married woman’s headdress)
FIGURE 5.2
Zulu necklace Ubuhlalu (beads)
Activity 5.2
Use the above figures to identify as many patterns as possible that you are able
to recognise.
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UNIT 5: Numeric and geometric patterns
The table 5.1 provides examples of a set numbers that are patterns and those that
are not.
TABLE 5.1
4; 8; 3; 9; 2; 10; 1; … Pattern
Activity 5.3
Complete the following by indicating whether number sets are patterns or not:
TABLE 5.2
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5.2.2 Using words to describe number patterns
You may be able to describe how you decide whether a set of numbers is a pattern or
not, as shown in the following table:
TABLE 5.3
Pattern
Number set or not a Description
pattern
4; 6, 9; 12; ….. Not a pattern The first term (4) is not a multiple of
three like others. Can you think of
another description?
4; 8; 3; 9; 2; 10; 1; … Pattern
Activity 5.4
Complete the table below by describing how you decided whether the set of
numbers in the preceding tables is a pattern or not:
4; 8; 3; 9; 2; 10; 1; … Pattern
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UNIT 5: Numeric and geometric patterns
(1) 1+2=3
4+5+6=7+8
________________________________________
________________________________________
(2) 1×1=1
11 × 11 = 121
Continue with this pattern until you multiply 111 111 111 by 111 111 111
10989 × 9 = 98 901
_______________________________________
_______________________________________
1 = _____
3+5 = _____
7 + 9 + 11 = _____
13 + 15 + 17 + 19 = _____
21 + 23 + 25 + 27 + 29 = _____
31 + 33 + 35 + 37 + 39 + 41 = _____
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(5) An interesting pattern (use a calculator to determine the product)
99 × 11 = 1 089
99 × 22 =
99 × 33 =
99 × 44 =
99 × 55 =
99 × 66 =
99 × 77 =
99 × 88 =
99 × 99 =
Repeatedly fold a triangle through one of it vertices. Count the total number
of triangles after each fold.
Number of folds 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 10
Number of
triangles
Can you see the pattern evolving in the number of triangles? Do you recognise
these numbers? They are _____________________ numbers.
Activity 5.5
(1) Refer to section 3.1 and identify the rule for all the patterns in activity 5.4
above.
(2) Complete the table below by providing the pattern rule:
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UNIT 5: Numeric and geometric patterns
(3) Refer to the table in activity 5.4 to complete the table below. An example
is provided for pattern 1.
1 T1 = 22 = 22 + 0 T1 = 22 + 0 x 10
T2 = 32 = 22 + 10 T2 = 22 + 1 x 10
T3 = 42 = 22 + 10 + 10 T3 = 22 + 2 x 10
T4 = 52 = 22 + 10 + 10 + 10 T4 = 22 + 3 x 10
T 7 = 22 + 10 + 10 + 10 + 10 + 10 + 10 = ? T 7 = 22 + ? x 10
2 T1 = _________________________ T1 = _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
T2= _________________________ T2 = _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
T3 = _________________________ T3 = _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
T4 = _________________________ T4 = _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
T8 = _________________________ T8 = _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
3 T1 = _________________________ T1 = _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
T2 = _________________________ T2 = _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
T3 = _________________________ T3 = _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
T4 = _________________________ T4 = _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
4 T1 = _________________________ T1 = _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
T2 = _________________________ T2 = _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
T3 = _________________________ T3 = _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
T4 = _________________________ T4 = _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
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PASCAL’S TRIANGLE
Blaise Pascal (1623–1662) was a French scientist who was interested in mathematics
from an early age. Although this number pattern is named after Pascal, the Chinese
printed it in about 1300 AD.
Activity 5.6
(1) Use words to describe Pascal’s triangle?
(2) What would be the sum (represented as a power of 2) of the 20th row of
Pascal’s triangle?
(3) Let (n) represent the row number and (Sn) the sum of the number(s) in the
row(s). Complete the following table:
10
Algebraic statement:
Sn = _ _ _ _ _
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UNIT 5: Numeric and geometric patterns
(2) Explain why the use of diagrams is necessary for developing number patterns?
Activity
The following example indicates these relationships. Use matches to build the following
patterns:
This sequence shows the relationship between the pattern number and the number
of matches used to build the pattern.
Number of matches
4 7
(m)
Activity
Growing patterns can be represented geometrically and numerically. Study the
following growing patterns:
• Draw the next pattern in each row.
• Present the sequences in table form.
Number “A” is done as an example:
Next pattern in row:
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Frame 1 2 3 4 5
(number of picture)
Number of figure 1 2 3 4 5
(e) If the small squares are used as square units to measure the area for each
figure, use the table below to indicate the area of each figure:
Number of figure 1 2 3 4 5
Area of figure
(f) If the small squares are used as square units to measure the area for each figure,
use the table below to determine the area of the unshaded part of each figure:
Number of figure 1 2 3 4 5
(g) What is the relationship between the shaded and unshaded parts of each figure?
(h) Use the table below to show the relationship between the shaded and unshaded
parts of each figure:
Number of figure 1 2 3 4 5
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UNIT 5: Numeric and geometric patterns
(i) What would be the answer in the second row of each of the tables above for
the 10th figure? Indicate how you would determine your answer in each case.
Pedagogy:
• What kind of errors would one expect learners to make when doing each of these
activities?
• Indicate how you could mediate the errors identified above.
Activity 5.7
(1) Study the following patterns and then extend them by drawing in the next
two stages.
p p p
p p p p p
p p p p p p
1 2 3
l
l l l l
l l l l l l l l l
1 2 3
(2) Study the following number pattern and then complete the table that follows:
1234
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Stage 1 2 3 4 5 8 15 20 100
Number of dots 1 6 15 28
• Investigate a general rule that generates the above pattern. What type of
numbers are these?
A flow diagram is just another way to show how numbers are related. Let us look
how we can show the relation between the numbers in the table in a flow diagram.
It is important to note that when given two of the three (input, output and rule) you
can determine the missing one.
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UNIT 5: Numeric and geometric patterns
Example
In this example, you have to reverse the rule to obtain the input from an output value.
Activity 5.8
(1) Determine the missing inputs and outputs:
(3) Alexandra, the oldest township in South Africa, is also known as Dark City
and is home to thousands of residents who commute within the township
using taxis nicknamed “Amaphele” (Cockroaches). The Amaphele probably
based their name on the high number of these modes of transport and the
fact that they drive to all parts of the township. The fare for using Amaphele
is R7 for each trip per person. The taxi can take up to a maximum of seven
passengers per trip.
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Photo of one of the taxis named Amaphele in Alexandra township
Project
Find an example of an artefact from two different cultures in South Africa and
use them to determine the geometric and numeric patterns in them using as many
representations of the pattern as possible.
REFERENCES
Gildenhuys, DG & Paulsen, R. 1991. Mathematics in action. Pretoria: Kagiso
https://www.youcubed.org/resources/what-is-number-sense/
https://www.youcubed.org/resources/jo-teaching-visual-dot-card-number-talk/
https://www.learner.org/teacherslab/math/patterns/number.html
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UNIT 5: Numeric and geometric patterns
Meserve, BE & Sobel, MA. 1964. Introduction to mathematics. 4th edition. Upper
Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.
Miller, CD & Heeren, VE. 1978. Mathematical ideas. 3rd edition. Glenview, IL:
Scott,Foresman.
Mottershead, L. 1978. Sources of mathematical discovery. Oxford: Blackwell.
Sobel, MA & Maletsky, EM. 1975. Teaching mathematics: a sourcebook of aids, activities
and strategies. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.
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6 UNIT 6
6 SPACE AND SHAPE
Activity 6.1
Which of the following objects are space shapes, and which are flat shapes?
• a telephone
• a page in your textbook
• a soccer ball
• a stop sign
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UNIT 6: Space and shape
These levels are important for us to understand, because they influence the way in
which we teach “shape” to learners.
Level 0: visualisation
Level 1: description/analysis
Level 2: abstract/relational/informal deduction
Level 3: formal deduction and proof/deduction
Level 4: rigour
In primary school, as teachers, we hope that learners will achieve level 1, but they
seldom move to level 2. Note that a learner cannot be taught level 1 information
before he or she has achieved level 0. Learners will simply not be able to make the
connections if they have not had proper teaching at level 0.
Let us look at the first three levels, 0, 1 and 2. Although we might be teaching the
intermediate phase, it will be useful to test your learners to decide on which level
they find themselves.
LEVEL 0 VISUALISATION
Learners recognise and name figures according to their visual characteristics. They
will say the following: “This is a square because it looks like a square”.
Example:
If you place a square in a different position, learners might see the square as a diamond,
and no longer as a square.
Learners identify and reason about shapes and other geometric configurations based
on shapes as visual wholes rather than on geometric properties. Some properties of
the shapes are included in this level, such as right angles, parallel sides, but only in
an informal manner.
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LEVEL 1 DESCRIPTION/ANALYSIS
Learners are able to form abstract definitions and distinguish between necessary and
sufficient sets of conditions for a class of shapes, recognising that some properties
imply others. When learners reason about and compare the properties of a figure
they realise that there are relationships between them.
The relationships being perceived exist between the properties of
• a specific figure
• different figures
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UNIT 6: Space and shape
• One of the main differences between reasoning at a visual level and that at a
descriptive level lies in the difference in judgement the learner makes. Learning
at the visual level relies mainly on an intuitive understanding of the object or
situation. That is why the learner does not see the need to reason about what is
experienced. He or she will not see the need to reason about the relationships
between a rhombus and a square. The learner is so strongly bound by the intuitive
knowledge that he or she will argue that a square is also a rhombus.
• The reasoning that takes place at the third level (abstract relational) relies quite
heavily on the structure of the descriptive level. The judgement that the learner is
making does not rely on the fact that there are links between the relation networks,
but on the relationship between these links.
• The different thought levels have a hierarchical development. This implies that
thinking at the descriptive level is not possible unless the visual thought level has
been well established.
A teacher in the intermediate and/or senior phase, you should take special note of the
descriptors of level 0, level 1 and level 2. That will give you an idea of the types of
learning activities in which your learners should be involved. Levels 4 and 5 descriptors
are not applicable to learners in the above-mentioned two phases.
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Activity 6.2
This is an exercise for level 0 learners.
6.4 POLYGONS
A polygon is a closed plane (flat) shape made up of line segments. These line segments
must touch only once at their endpoints.
Activity 6.3
Which of the following are polygons?
Learners should be able to identify, classify and sort. This should be done before
teaching them the names of the shapes.
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UNIT 6: Space and shape
A polygon is a two-dimensional shape with sides made up from line segments. They
are simple, closed curves.
Activity 6.4
Classify the shapes as polygons or non-polygons
6.5 TRIANGLES
Learners should be able to recognise, classify and sort.
Activity 6.5
Draw the following triangles:
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6.6 QUADRILATERALS
Learners should be able to recognise, classify and sort.
Activity 6.6
Explain and draw an example of each of the following concepts:
Explanation Drawing
Line segment
Parallel lines
Equal sides
Diagonals
Perpendicular diagonals
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UNIT 6: Space and shape
Explanation Drawing
Right angles
Opposite sides
Opposite angles
Bisecting diagonals
Bisecting angles
Adjacent sides
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6.6.2 Classification of quadrilaterals
The minimum set of properties that will identify a quadrilateral is indicated below.
Properties
Quadrilateral
Sides Angles Diagonals
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UNIT 6: Space and shape
Activity 6.7
Name and draw the quadrilaterals below according to the description. Do not
assume properties that are not given.
Activity 6.8
Which of the following statements are true, and which are false? If false, draw a
diagram to illustrate your answer.
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Learners should be able to identify, classify and sort. This should be done before the
names of the shapes are taught.
Activity 6.9
Classify the following (draw one example of each):
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UNIT 6: Space and shape
They have
Activity 6.10
Write down the definition of a polyhedron.
Activity 6.11
Classify the following as polyhedra or non-polyhedra:
Prisms
A prism is a polyhedron with two parallel, identical bases. The lateral faces are
parallelograms. In a RIGHT prism, the lateral faces are rectangles.
Activity 6.12
When is a polyhedron a prism?
It must have _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
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Activity 6.13
What is the BASE of each object?
A is called a _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ prism.
B is called a _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ prism.
C is called a _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ prism.
D is called a _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ prism.
E is called a _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ prism.
Pyramids
A pyramid has BASE and all the other faces are triangles. The vertices of all the
triangles meet in one point, which is called the apex.
Activity 6.14
B is called a _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ pyramid.
C is called a _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ pyramid.
D is called a _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ pyramid.
E is called a _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ pyramid.
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UNIT 6: Space and shape
In summary
Activity 6.15
Complete the naming of the polyhedra. Where the names are given, draw the
polyhedron.
(2)
(3)
A cube
(4) An octahedron
(make TWO drawings)
(6) A pentahedron
(make TWO drawings)
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6.7.2 Regular polyhedra
There are only five regular polyhedra. Plato made this discovery, which is why they
are called Platonic solids.
_ _ _ _ _ faces _ _ _ _ _ faces
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UNIT 6: Space and shape
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Here are the nets of the five platonic solids.
Activity 6.16
Draw the nets of the following polyhedra:
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UNIT 6: Space and shape
Example
Draw the front, side and top views of the stack of cubes.
Activity 6.17
(1) Draw the front, side and top views of the following structures:
(3) Draw a solid with the following front, side and top views:
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7 UNIT 7
7 TRANSFORMATION GEOMETRY
In the previous unit, you learnt about the properties of two- and three-dimensional
shapes. In this unit, these shapes will be described in terms of their movement and
image.
UNIT OUTCOMES
After working through this unit you should be able to
7.1 INTRODUCTION
Transformation geometry is an important aspect of mathematics and forms the
cornerstone of the field. Transformation geometry lays the foundation for analytical
geometry in the Further Education and Training (FET) band. Simpler ways of
learning and teaching transformations are presented, and the knowledge you gain
will enhance your thinking and understating of some challenging sections in the
mathematics curriculum.
Activity 7.1
Write a short paragraph in the provided space on your experiences in the learning
of transformation geometry. What can you remember?
...............................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................
1 FEEDBACK
Activity 7.1 is an open-ended question. This question is important because it gives
you the chance to reflect on your understanding of transformation geometry and
share your experiences with us.
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UNIT 7: Transformation geometry
Activity 7.2
What are your expectations in this unit? List them.
...............................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................
We trust that your expectations reflect what we hope you will achieve in this unit.
Engaging with the activities in this unit will enable you to
The rigid transformation does not change the shape or size of the pre-image, while
the non-rigid transformation changes the size but not the shape of the pre-image.
Another word for rigid transformation is isometry. Examples of these kinds of
transformations are translations, reflections and rotation. Any transformation that
results in enlargement and reduction of shapes is not isometry.
Activity 7.3
Use each of the above words in a sentence to relate them to the teaching of
mathematics.
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The following figures will help you to introduce your learners to the words used
in transformation:
TRANSLATION
FIGURE 7.1
Translating a toy or sliding a toy. The movement is described in terms of
direction and distance
REFLECTION
FIGURE 7.2
Flipping the toy. The movement is described in terms of the line of
reflection
ROTATION
FIGURE 7.3
Rotating the toy. The description of the movement is in terms of the point of
reflection, the angle of rotation and the direction
7.3 TRANSLATION
Translation means to change from one place or one condition to another, or to slide.
Let us look at the movement demonstrated by the vegetable below. The pre-image is
the original shape of the object and the final shape and position of the object under
transformation are called the image. In figure 7.1.1, A is called the pre-image and
the others are called images
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UNIT 7: Transformation geometry
FIGURE 7.3.1
Illustration of translation
Translation is a transformation that moves the object or figure in the same direction
and the same distance. Every point moves a distance in the same direction and
the shape moves in a straight line. The object and the image always have the same
orientation. It is also important to note that the pre-image and the image are the
same size and the movement produces congruent (the same in all respects) figures.
In describing the movements in figure 7.1.1, we could say the vegetable (pre-image)
has shifted (translated) from position A three units to the right to reach position B.
Similarly, the pre-image A has moved one unit down and two units to the right to
reach position D. Here translation occurs in a straight line.
Activity 7.4
Illustrate by means of drawings how translation occurs in any item in your bathroom/
toilet/kitchen/office/classroom or any real-life situation. For this activity, use different
directions, which you can indicate by means of arrows.
CONSOLIDATION
Translation is a transformation that moves each point of a figure in the same direction
and the same distance. The shape is repeated in the same orientation. The object and
the image have the same size, area, angles and line lengths.
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7.4 REFLECTION
Reflection means to give back an image of something or to mirror an image.
Write a paragraph to describe what you think of the picture below represents (your
discussion should be informed by your understanding of transformation).
FIGURE 7.4.1
Illustration of reflection
The aim of the above drawing is to help you to gain an understanding of the concept
of reflection in mathematics. The purpose of the mirror is to produce the image by
reflection. What you see in the mirror is exactly the reflection of the woman’s face.
The reflection of the mirror stares back at the woman. The face that appears in the
mirror is the image. The face of the woman is the pre-image.
Looking at the figures below, the line in between serves the same purpose as the
mirror and is called the mirror line or the line of reflection
FIGURE 7.4.2
Illustration of reflection
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UNIT 7: Transformation geometry
Activity 7.5
Take any piece of blank A4 paper. Fold the paper in such a way that the fold line
divides the paper into two equal halves. Use paint to draw any shape on one side
of the paper. Fold again along the fold line before the paint dries up. What do you
notice? Show the picture.
Fold the piece of A4 paper twice. Cut a pattern on the fold. Unfold and see your
magic picture. Show the picture.
FIGURE 7.4.3
Illustration of reflection
Looking at P1 and P2, these are the conclusions you can draw: If P2 is the image
of P1, then
FIGURE 7.4.4
illustration of reflection
The mirror line is called the line of symmetry/reflection symmetry because it has to
do with reflection, or the line that separates the picture into the pre-image and image
is called the line of symmetry.
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.
Picture 1 Picture 2
CONSOLIDATION
Looking at all the figures under reflection, they clearly indicate that to perform a
geometry reflection, we need to have a line of reflection. What is key to note also is
that the resulting orientation of the two figures (pre-image and image) is opposite.
This means that the direction of the image is different from the direction of the
object (i.e. the orientation changes). Corresponding parts of the figures are the same
distance from the line of reflection. Figures on each side of the line of symmetry are
congruent. The object (pre-image) and the image have the same shape.
7.5 ROTATION
A rotation is also an isometric transformation: the original figure (pre-image) and
the image are congruent. To perform a geometric rotation, we first need to know the
point of rotation, the angle of rotation (e.g. 90°, 45° etc.) and the direction (either
clockwise or counter-clockwise).
The face of an old man is rotated anti-clockwise at an angle of 67°. A is the pre-image,
B is the image and P is the point of rotation
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UNIT 7: Transformation geometry
FIGURE 7.5.1
Rotation of a shape
Activity 7.6
Look at the drawing below.
(1) Describe, in words, how figure A is transformed into figure B and how figure
D is transformed into figure C. You may use tracing paper to assist you
here. (Hint: It is important to specify the direction and the angle of rotation.)
FIGURE 7.5.2
Rotation
(2) Take any school textbook, find a problem on rotation, and briefly describe
how you could explain the concept to your learners.
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CONSOLIDATION
REAL-LIFE EXAMPLES: Moving a clock arm, opening the door of your office
or moving the handle of a door
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
FIGURE 7.3
Combination of transformations
Activity 7.7
Investigate what happens when you reflect an object over intersecting lines
(a combination of reflections).
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UNIT 7: Transformation geometry
2 FEEDBACK
A combination of the reflection over an intersecting line is the same as rotation
(twice the measure of the angles formed by the lines).
Activity 7.8
What combination of transformations is illustrated below?
S
R
Activity 7.9
Use the South African flag to illustrate a combination of transformations.
“Valuing indigenous knowledge systems: acknowledging the rich history and heritage
of this country (South Africa) as important contributors to nurturing the values
contained in the Constitution” (DBE :5) The figure below represents one of the
Ndebele houses in South Africa.
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(1) Briefly describe the type of transformations used in this house.
(2) Write two problems in which the ideas of transformation geometry could be
used. Show how you would use the ideas to solve the problems.
https://youtu.be/VJTxv-tRKj0
In a reflection, every point on the object is the same perpendicular distance from a
fixed line as the corresponding point on the image. The fixed line is called the mirror
line or the line of symmetry.
In a rotation, the angle between every point and its image, taken at the centre of
rotation, is the same for each point and its image, and a point and its image are the
same distance from the centre of rotation.
SELF-ASSESSMENT
Activity 7.10
(1) Describe the key concepts in transformation geometry. Use illustrations/
drawings or examples to support your argument in each case.
.................................................................................................................
.................................................................................................................
.................................................................................................................
(2) List as many situations as you can in which you have seen transformed
shapes and explain with illustrations the kind of transformation in each case.
(3) Think of any situation in your everyday life in which you can experience
transformation geometry. Illustrate your answers.
(4) Design an activity for Grade 5 learners that will help to them to recognise
and design their own patterns using transformation geometry.
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UNIT 7: Transformation geometry
Activity 7.11
ADDITIONAL ACTIVITIES ON TRANSFORMATION USING GEOGEBRA
STEP 1
www.geogebra.org/download
REFLECTION
Let us now refer back to the learning outcomes that we set at the beginning of this unit.
(1) Have you achieved the learning outcomes? Give reasons for your answer.
______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
(2) Which of the learning outcomes have not been addressed to your satisfaction?
Give reasons for your answer.
______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
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(3) Use the space below to note down any matters that you feel should have been
addressed in this unit.
______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
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8 UNIT 8
8 MEASUREMENT
In the previous unit, you learnt about developing an understanding of the basic
elements of transformation geometry. In transformation geometry, you were expected
to demonstrate the ability to do the following: translations of two-dimensional figures
on grid paper; perform translations of two-dimensional figures on grid paper; reflect
a two-dimensional figure in a line of symmetry; and rotate a two-dimensional figure
around a point.
Measurement plays a fundamental role in our daily lives. People tend to think that
measurement is a simple concept, but it needs one to concentrate more to have a
sound understand of what it is, and how and why measurement is important. Without
measurement we would not know how to take the temperature of a human being
using a thermometer, estimate how long a learner would take to walk to school,
determine the height of a child, measure out the correct quantity of medicine for a
patient, calculate the speed of a car on any national road, and find the weight, area
and volume of different materials we use in in everyday life. Measurement occurs when
we want to quantify certain physical objects around us. In other words, a number is
assigned to an attribute. An attribute is a characteristic that describes an object (e.g.
a person, thing, etc.). For example, Archimedes invented displacement by weight to
determine the density of a coin, showing whether or not it was pure gold.
• We can use metres to measure the length a classroom and millimetres to measure
the thickness of a table.
• We can measure the temperature of a human body by using a thermometer.
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• We use a speedometer to measure the speed of a vehicle.
• We use hours to measure the time it takes the driver of a motor car to travel from
his home to the city.
• We use measurement to measure the ingredients for baking cooking.
• Choosing a unit. Bear in mind that the unit that should possess the same attribute
as the object or event being measured.
• Comparing the same unit with that object being measured. Here you have to
indicate the number of units that are needed to cover or fill the object either by
counting or using a measurement tool (e.g. a ruler or a formula).
• Repeating the number of units. Here you could measure the length of a straw,
for example, by using six paper clips, or you could say that the capacity of a bottle
is 500 ml. As noted earlier, measurement units involve standard and non-standard
units, which are briefly explained below.
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UNIT 8: Measurement
A non-standard unit must possess the attribute it is to measure. Paper clips, straws
and toothpicks are non- standard units that would be appropriate to measure length,
while square tiles, square cards and square pattern blocks would be appropriate non-
standard units for measuring area. Table 6.2 lists materials that can be used as the
non-standard units that are investigated in primary schools.
TABLE 8.1
Materials used for non-standard units (Ontario Education 2007:16)
(1) Length and perimeter Toothpicks, straws, paper clips, Cuisenaire rods,
markers and blocks
Note: You will have difficulty finding non-standard units for measuring temperature.
Instead, temperatures can be related to familiar objects such as “as cold as ice”, “the
sewing machine is as hot as fire”.
Standard units of measurement can be organised around the following three broad
goals (Van de Walle 2015: 480–481).
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• Familiarity with the unit. As a learner, you should have an idea of the size
of commonly used unit and what attribute is measured. For example, knowing
approximately what one litre of water is.
• Ability to select appropriate unit. You should be able to practise selecting
appropriate standard units and judging the level of precision.
• Knowledge of relationships between units. You should realise the relationships
of units that are commonly used, such as those between millimetres, centimetres
and metres.
Standard units are conventional units of measure. Study table 8.3 below and fill in the
gaps to familiarise yourself with the attributes and their standard units of measure.
TABLE 8.2
Standard units of measurement
Metre ——————
Cm
—————-
millimetre ——————
—————— cm2
——————- g
—————— ml
—————— cm3
—————— m
—————— s
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UNIT 8: Measurement
You are exposed to standard units in everyday conversations at home and even when
you were at school. For example, the mathematics period took about an hour; and
the chalkboard is about two metres long. It is vital for you to learn standard units in
measurement, but these units are become clearer once you have learnt the measurable
attributes using non-standard units.
The metric system is a globally used system that students need to be familiar with
(National Council of Teachers of Mathematics [NCTM] 2011). The Common State
Standards (2010) introduce centimetres in Grade 2, with further expectations for units
such as metres, cubic centimetres, grams, kilograms and litres. The metric system is
created around powers of ten. The purpose of the decimal point is to indicate the unit
position as a powerful concept for doing metric conversions. The International System
of Units (SI) is used to measure standard units of measurement. The standard unit of
measuring length in the metric system is a metre (m). Different units of length in the
metric system are obtained by multiplying a power of 10 times the base unit. Table
6.4 below indicates the prefixes, symbols and multiplication factor for these units
TABLE 8.4
Metric system table
kilo k 1 000
hecto h 100
deca da 10
deci d 0,1
centi c 0,01
milli m 0,001
The metric prefixes, combined with the base unit metre, name different units of length.
kilometre km 1000 m
hectometre hm 100 m
decametre dam 10 m
decimetre dm 0,1 m
centimetre cm 0,01 m
millimetre mm 0,001 m
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The instruments used to measure a length depend on the distance being measured
(e.g. you cannot measure the distance between towns using a ruler) and the accuracy
required (e.g. to measure the thickness of a sheet of paper you will need a micrometre).
Activity 8.1
(1) Discuss the differences between standard and non-standard units.
(2) Design an activity that would enable you to demonstrate an understanding
of “non-standard units”. (3) Design an activity that would enable you to
demonstrate an understanding of “standard units”.
3 FEEDBACK
You should demonstrate your answers by giving examples that show different at-
tributes that can be measured using non-standard and standard units. The answers
to (1) and (2) above should substantiated with drawings.
For practice
You may then change their position or distort their appearance and ask your learners
if the two wooden sticks are still the same in length.
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UNIT 8: Measurement
Activity 8.2
In the above example of wooden sticks, if some of your learners say that the first
stick is bigger than the second one:
4 FEEDBACK
For learners to learn measurable attributes, they need to engage in activities that
require them to compare objects of the same length, such as the ones indicated
above. The learners who give the incorrect answer might be focusing on the
endpoint, and thus find that the second stick is longer than the first stick. In doing
the above activities, you should ask yourself what types of materials can be used,
written down or recorded. You should also be aware of the purpose of the activity,
that is, the mathematical ideas that the activity will develop.
The activity below will help learners to master the conservation concept regarding
the length of an object.
Activity 8.3
Take two pieces of string of the same length. Clearly show these to the learners.
Now put them next to each other like this:
5 FEEDBACK
Learners who state that the two pieces of string are the same, have mastered
the conservation concept regarding length, and are ready to proceed with the
length measurement. If those learners can explain that the lengths stay the same
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irrespective of their orientation and that the distorted piece of string retains its
original appearance, then they have mastered the concept of reversibility.
• Develop and use benchmarks or referents for important units. Referents should be
something you can easily envision, such as the height of a child. Learners should
pay attention to the size of the unit in order to estimate properly.
• Use “chunking” or subdivision. Windows, bulletin boards and the spaces between
them are regarded as chunks.
• Iterate units. For length, area and volume, it is sometimes easy to mark off single
units mentally or physically.
Activity 8.4
(1) Identify attributes that can estimated in the two objects above.
(2) Explain how those attributes would be estimated.
6 FEEDBACK
The exercise requires you to show an understanding of how you can estimate the
sides of different objects and what instrument to use.
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UNIT 8: Measurement
FIGURE 8.1
Ice-cream cone as an example of an object
Look at the ice-cream cone above and think about the attributes that can be measured.
This will reinforce your measurement vocabulary. This can be done by asking yourself
the following questions about what you observe about the ice-cream cone:
Activity 8.5
Explain in your own words what the author is referring to in the questions above.
This will help you to reinforce your measurement vocabulary.
Once you realise that an ice-cream cone is an object with different measurable
attributes, you will develop measurement vocabulary and be encouraged to use
appropriate mathematical language. Through the development of vocabulary when
using possible ways to measure an object or event, you will realise which measuring
units (whether standard or non-standard units) can be used to measure the various
attributes of objects or events. Length, capacity, volume, area and time are some of
the attributes that can be measured. If you do not know which attribute you have to
measure, this will be a source of difficulty in measurement. The Ontario Education
Excellence for All (2007) provides examples of questions that are related to the
measurement of objects or events and these questions will enable you to identify the
measurable attributes associated with each kind of question.
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TABLE 8.1
Questions relating to measurable attributes
After reading table 8.1 with understanding, you should be able to explain the
distinctions between different measurable attributes. Your vocabulary in measurement
will be developed and this will enable to realise when and where a particular attribute
will be measured. This vocabulary will also enable you to solve different problems
relating to the measurable attributes of different objects or events.
Activity 8.6
7 FEEDBACK
In this activity, you have demonstrated that you can move away from everyday
language use of measurement to mathematical language use of measurement.
This activity should increase your vocabulary of measurement concepts.
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UNIT 8: Measurement
If you want to determine the distance between point A and point B, you need to
measure the length between the two points. The length of an object is measured by
selecting the unit that is linear and repeatedly matches that unit to the object (Van
de Walle 2015). Van de Walle (2015:485) highlights common misconceptions and
difficulties learners might experience in learning about the length of objects. Note
the following:
The following are the specific terms used to measure the length of objects in relation
to particular concepts (Ontario Education 2007):
You can express the length of an object by using the following adjectives: long/short,
thick/thin, high/low, deep/shallow, far/near, wide/narrow, etc. According to Van de
Walle (2015), comparison is the first step in developing a sound understanding of
the length concept. A sound knowledge of comparing the length of objects can be
reinforced by using different objects of different lengths such as pens, pencils, rods,
sticks, etc., and asking the learners to hold them simultaneously and thus identify
the long and short ones.
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The perimeter of an object is referred to the length of the boundary of a shape or the
distance around a shape.
The main point here is for you to understand the meaning of the perimeter of a prism
before you can be introduced to the generalised procedure for actually finding the
perimeter of a prism. You have to demonstrate that the perimeter of a prism is a measure
of the length of each side, and adding the sides of those lengths. For example, you
can use straws to measure the sides of the rectangle above to determine its perimeter.
It is necessary to learn about perimeters before learning the area concept, because
the concepts of area and perimeter are widely used daily and often confusing topics
when it comes to studying them as part of the mathematics curriculum in school
(Watson, ---- & ---- 2013). The following are some of the challenges learners face
when learning about perimeter and area:
• Learners may see area and perimeter purely as an application of formulae without
understanding what these two concepts mean.
• They sometimes mix up the concepts of area and perimeter.
• They have difficulty developing an understanding of dimensions. They do not
understand that perimeter is a length, which is one-dimensional and measured
in metres, centimetres or inches, while area is measured in squares with bases
of certain length – hence it involves two-dimensional units such as m2 (metres
squared or square metres).
• They may not link their everyday experiences and intuitive understanding of area
and perimeter to what they learn in the mathematics classroom.
Once you have mastered the perimeter of objects, you will be ready to learn the area
concept, which is the space bounded within closed prism(s) or shape(s). You should
be able to demonstrate an understanding of area of different shapes before measuring
the spaces of those shapes. You should be able to think of an approach that can be
used to measure the area of shapes before using the formulae. An example of the area
of an object is provided below, without measuring the space of the shape.
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UNIT 8: Measurement
The space that is bounded in the region above is called the area of a rectangle. Your
learners should know that the surface of an object should be covered without gaps
in between or overlays. To demonstrate an understanding of area concept, you must
use concrete materials such as square tiles or grid paper. With your guidance, learners
should learn how to construct different shapes on grid paper, and those grids will
provide a way to measure the area using counting squares to determine the area.
Start with rectangle prisms for learners to be able to count the squares in order to
determine the area.
Activity 8.7
(1) Use grid paper and draw four rectangles that have different sizes and sides.
Measure the perimeter and the area of each rectangle using squares on the
grid paper (each side of the rectangle must be in whole units).
(2) Study the figure below and use the counting square method to determine
the perimeter and area of the diagram in the grid. The idea for using the
counting squares is to enable you to develop the formulae that can be used
to calculate the area and perimeter of a rectangle.
Explain step by step, how you arrived at your answer to determine the area
and perimeter of the figure in the grid paper.
8 FEEDBACK
This activity requires you to demonstrate an understanding of calculating the
area and perimeter using squares. In addition, the activity will help you realise
the difference between the area and perimeter of prims.
The use of counting squares or other concrete materials will enable you to
generalise about ways to find the area and perimeter of a rectangle. You can do
this by multiplying the number of squares in a column by the number of squares
in a row, which will ultimately give you the formulae to calculate the two attributes.
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TAKE-HOME ACTIVITY
Ask your learners to construct three shapes that have
9 FEEDBACK
Pay attention to the units of the measurements used. For example, perimeter is
measured in units and area is measured in square units.
Area is the amount of surface covered by a shape. To test for conservation of area,
show the learner two postcards that are exactly the same. They have the same
area. Let the learners satisfy themselves that both postcards have the same area.
Now take one of the postcards and cut it into two parts (second display). Ask the
learner if the two areas covered are still the same, or if they cover different areas.
You could then further distort the one postcard by cutting it up into a few pieces
(third display). Then ask again if the two displays still cover the same area.
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UNIT 8: Measurement
capacity of a container, but is also used for the space occupied by three-dimensional
objects. For the purpose of this unit, you will learn more about volume. Standard
units used to measure volume are cubic units, cubic inches, cubic centimetres, etc.
The most popular method to teach volume and formula for a rectangular prism is to
build rectangular structures using small cubes.
Because the rectangular prism above (Rubiks speed cube) consists of three layers,
the total number of cubes is 27. The rectangular prism has eight vertices, six faces,
12 edges and a base shape of a square. Other objects with this shape are a box, a dice
and an ice cube.
Activity 8.8
Design an activity that you can use to teach intermediate phase learners how to
develop the formula for the volume of a rectangular prism. You can use concrete
materials such as cubes for this activity. Allow your learners to record their findings
for each step in order to generate a rule that can be used to calculate the volume
of a rectangular prism.
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Activity 8.9
Most learners know how to calculate the volume of a cylinder using the formula V
= πr2h. How can you help them understand the formula to calculate the volume
of a cylinder? Demonstrate your answer by using concrete materials to explain
how to develop the formula.
Activity 8.10
Design an activity that will demonstrate an understanding the volume of irregular
objects such as stones, oranges, etc. Explain step by step, how you would perform
this kind of an experiment for the learners and list the resources you could use
for the same experiment.
Conservation of volume
Volume is the amount of space taken up. In testing for conservation of volume,
you could use balls of clay. Show the learners two balls of clay with the same
mass, and hence the same volume. Let the learners satisfy themselves that the
two clay balls have the same volume. You can use two glasses with the same
volume of water in them: the one long and thin, and the other short and fat. Ask
the learners which one contains more water? (Paulsen ----).
Conservation of capacity
Capacity is the amount of space inside, or the ability of an item to hold something
if it is filled up to the brim. By now, you should have a good idea of the procedure
for testing for conservation. Ask your learners to design an activity that would
demonstrate an understanding of conservation of capacity.
Activity 8.11
(1) What misconceptions do learners have when dealing with mass and weight?
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UNIT 8: Measurement
(2) How can you clarify those misconceptions for learners to understand the
two concepts?
10 FEEDBACK
The table below shows the different units that can be used to measure the mass
of an object.
Comparison activities
Activity 8.12
What is the difference between balances and spring scales? Explain how the two
scales are used to differentiate between the two concepts.
11 FEEDBACK
This needs you as a student to know what attributes are being measured by using
both balances and spring scales.
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Activity 8.13
What is time?
12 FEEDBACK
There are many reasons for individuals to understand the time concept, such
as wanting to know when to celebrate certain rituals, when to hunt and when
to plant and reap. We become aware of the “flow of time” when we observe the
succession of events. The passing of time can be divided up into three significant
times: sunrise, midday, sunset, as well as midnight.
The measurement of time involves determining of the number of periods that pass
during an event. Through the ages, a number of calendars were proposed. Over
3 000 ago, the Babylonians divided the day into 12 hours and the night into 12
hours. From the earliest periods, humans have used some form of measurement,
be it the seasons of the year or phases of the moon. However, the length of an
hour depended on the time of the year, in winter a day hour was shorter than a
night hour (Bassarear 2005). Different types of devices to measure time were
invented, like candle clocks, water clocks and shadow clocks.
Event 1: The following diagram illustrates two cars travelling at different speeds, but
starting and stopping simultaneously.
Slow car:
start stop
Fast car:
start stop
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UNIT 8: Measurement
Event 2: Water is allowed to flow [at the rate] into two glasses, one wide and the
other narrow. The flow starts simultaneously in each glass, and stops the
instant that the narrow glass is full.
QUESTIONS
• Did the water start to run into the glasses at the same time?
• Did the water stop running into the glasses at the same time?
• Did the water take the same time to run into the two glasses?
Initial response
Activity 8.14
Discuss the different responses of the learners to the questions above.
13 FEEDBACK
• Learners should be helped to acquire the vocabulary of time.
• Learners should be taught the skill of “telling the time” on a clock, reading a
calendar and also reading and interpreting time on the 24-hour clock.
• Learners should learn to estimate and measure the duration of a time interval
in seconds and minutes, and do calculations for longer intervals.
• Learners should learn to read timetables, for example taxi, train or bus timetables.
Activity 8.15
The following table gives the times of arrival at different bus terminals of a city-
to-city bus travelling from Polokwane to Cape Town. The bus stays at each bus
terminal for one hour 20 minutes.
Johannesburg 15:00
Kimberley 01:35
Beaufort-West 09:00
Worcester 18:25
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When working with time, keep in mind that 60 minutes equals one hour. If it is
08:20, the time after one hour 20 minutes will be 08h + 20min + 1h + 20min = 10:00.
The thermometer has been designed to measure temperature. There are many kinds
of thermometers, but their operations always depend on some properties of matter
that change with temperature (Giancoli 1998). The first idea for a thermometer, by
Galileo, made use of expansion gas. Common thermometers today consist of a hollow
glass tube filled with mercury or with alcohol coloured with a red dye, as were the
earliest usable thermometer.
Activity 8.16
Explain how each thermometer functions:
°C °F
On the Celsius scale, the freezing point of water is chosen to be 0 °C (“zero degrees
Celsius”) and the boiling point 100° C. On the Fahrenheit scale, the freezing point
is defined as 32 °C and the boiling point 212 °C.
From the table we see that the Celsius scale has 100 division between the freezing
point and the boiling point of water, whereas the Fahrenheit scale has 180 divisions.
This means that the two scales are 100 to 180, or 5 to 9. Therefore, for every 5 degrees
on the Celsius scale, there is 9 degrees on the Fahrenheit scale. For every 1 degree
on the Celsius scale there is 9 degrees on the Fahrenheit scale; and vice versa, for
5
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UNIT 8: Measurement
every 1 degree on the Fahrenheit scale, there is 5 degrees on the Celsius scale. Using
9
this relationship, we are able to convert temperatures from one system to the other.
The formula that describes this relation is C = 9 (F – 32). We will use this formula
5
to convert degrees on the Fahrenheit scale to degrees on the Celsius scale. To convert
degrees on the Celsius scale to degrees on Fahrenheit scale, we will use the following
formula: F = 9 C + 32.
5
Activity 8.17
(1) On a hot summer day in Phalaborwa it is 30 °C. What is the temperature
in °F?
(2) The temperature of the human body should be 98.4 °F. What is your normal
temperature in 0C?
(3) Does it ever happen that the temperature measured in Celsius degrees is
the same when it is measured in Fahrenheit degrees? If ever, when?
In the table below, degrees Celsius are the left column and degrees Fahrenheit in
the right column. Ask the learners to indicate the positions of each of the following:
A cold day
A cool day
A warm day
A hot day
Boiling point of water at sea level
Body temperature of a human being
Melting point of ice
Melting point of ice-cream
100 212
90 194
80 176
70 158
60 140
50 122
40 104
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30 86
20 68
10 50
0 S 32
-10 14
-20 -4
8.8 CONCLUSION/SUMMARY
Exercises
(1) What is meant by the statement, “All measurements are approximate”? What
experiences help learners to grasp this idea?
(2) What is meant by the statement, “Using measurements is arbitrary”? What
experiences would help learners reinforce this idea?
(3) Summarise some important things learners should be able to do if they are to
be regarded as skilful in measuring the length of a segment.
(4) Mr Madikiza has just finished building a new house. He measured the distance
around his yard and found that it was 90 metres.
(a) The fencing material costs R95,20 per metre. How much is the fencing
material going to cost him?
(b) If he needs to place a pole at 1.5 metres intervals along the fence, how
many poles will he have to buy?
(c) If the fencing poles cost R65 each, calculate the total costs of the poles
alone.
(d) Calculate the total cost of fencing for the yard.
(5) Suppose that paint costs R28 per litre and one litre covers approximately 9
square metres of surface.
We are going to paint (on side only) 50 congruent pieces of wood that are
rectangular in shape, with a length of 60 centimetres and a width of 30
centimetres. What would the approximate costs be?
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UNIT 8: Measurement
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9 UNIT 9
9 STATISTICS OR DATA HANDLING
In this unit, we introduce you to the concept of statistics, also referred to as data
handling, which is a branch of mathematics. Statistics involves the collection, display
and analysis of information. Usually the information is numerical or it is changed
into numerical form. Data handling is also concerned with collecting, organising and
interpreting data. Data refers to the complete set of individual pieces of information
that are used in any of the processes related to statistics. Data enables you to collect
information or facts from descriptions, values or measurements in order to solve a
problem or draw conclusions.
• collect data
• read information from data representations, such as bar graphs, pictograms and
measures of central tendency
• demonstrate the ability to calculate and interpret the measures of central tendency
from basic data sets
Nowadays we are informed about what is happening in the world around us. Statistics
as sets of mathematical equations are used to update us on trends in the past, and
can be useful in predicting what may happen in the future. For example, trends can
be determined and predictions can be made in weather forecasts, medical studies,
genetics, stock markets, quality testing and so on.
144
UNIT 9: Statistics or data handling
Activity 9.1
What type of data can you collect from the objects in figure 9.1? Complete the table
and classify the data as qualitative or quantitative for each set. For the quantitative
data, state whether it is discrete or continuous.
FIGURE 9.1
Cell phones
Source: Wireless Revolution (2016)
Qualitative Quantitative
14 FEEDBACK
Activity 9.1 will help learners to collect data from a variety of contexts dealing
with social and environmental issues. It will also teach them how to pose their
own questions, and select the different sources and methods for collecting data.
OPM1501/1 145
9.3.1 Tally charts
• A tally is a mark representing data items.
• Tally marks are used to show how many items there are.
Activity 9.2
Mark did a survey of each Grade 7’s favourite fruit. His survey yielded the following
results:
apple, pear, apple, mango, pineapple, orange, apple, melon, pear, apple, pineapple,
mango, mango, banana, melon, apple, pear, pineapple, melon, apple, pineapple,
pear, pear, apple, orange, mango, banana, pineapple, mango, mango, melon,
apple, mango, pineapple, banana, pear, pineapple, melon, apple, pineapple
TABLE 9.1
15 FEEDBACK
Activity 9.2 is focused on organising and recording data using tally marks.
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UNIT 9: Statistics or data handling
Example
A group of people were asked what their favourite fruit is. The following data was
recorded:
TABLE 9.2
Apples 30
Bananas 10
Grapes 15
Strawberries 25
Horizontal graph
OPM1501/1 147
Activity 9.3
A charity group donated bags of vegetables to an old-age home. The caretaker
used the following table to record the donated bags of vegetables:
TABLE 9.3
Green beans 8
Cabbage 5
Onions 2
Potatoes 10
Pumpkins 6
TABLE 9.4
16 FEEDBACK
Activity 9.3 should help you to assess the knowledge and skills of the learners
regarding the following:
• where and how to label a bar graph, that is, writing the title of the graph
• where and how to label to label the axes (axes titles)
• how to place the bars
Activity 9.4
Examine the following bar graph and answer the questions that follow: Bar graph 1
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UNIT 9: Statistics or data handling
Bar graph 1
17 FEEDBACK
Activity 7.4 focuses on reading the graph. The questions provided will help you
to guide learners on how to write a paragraph in order to summarise the data.
Furthermore, the data in the graph is used to make predictions and draw conclusions.
9.3.3 Pictograms
A pictogram, also called a pictograph, is an ideogram that coveys its meaning through
its pictorial resemblance to a physical object. A pictograph is a way of showing data
using pictures, where pictures stand for quantities. One picture can represent one
item or a number of items. A pictorial representation of statistics can be on a chart,
graph or computer screen. Pictographs were the earliest known form of writing, and
examples were discovered in Egypt and Mesopotamia from before 3 000 BC.
Examples of a pictograph
Fruit is sold in the school tuckshop. The pictograph (figures 9.3 and 9.4) shows the
number of apples sold each day of the week from Monday to Friday.
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Days Number of apples sold
Monday
Tuesday
Wednesday
Thursday
Friday
FIGURE 9.2
= 5 apples = 10 apples
NUMBER OF APPLES
DAYS
FIGURE 9.3
Key: = 5 apples = 10 apples
Use a pictograph (figure 9.3) to find the total number of apples sold from Monday
to Friday.
Activity 9.5
Examine the information in the boxes below. Use the information provided to draw
your own pictograph.
150
UNIT 9: Statistics or data handling
A farmer has the following animals on his farm: 20 goats, 18 cows, 10 sheep
and 5 horses:
(1) Heading: Farm animals
(2) Vertical axis: Number of animals
(3) Horizontal axis: Animals at the farm
(4) Fill in these labels under the vertical columns (goat, sheep, cows and
horses)
(5) Cut and paste the number of animals in each column (Hint: 1 creature
represents 5 creatures)
18 FEEDBACK
• Constructing a pictograph in the above activity will show the guide learners
how to label a pictogram; how to label the axes (axes titles); how to place the
bars using pictures’ and how to represent a collective using one item.
• The questions answered based on the pictogram will guide the learners on
how to read and interpret the pictogram.
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(6) To divide the circle into 8 equal parts, draw radii from the centre O to the
circumference – that is, to the midpoints of arcs AC, AD, BD & BC. Label
the points E, F, G and & H. Each sector is equal to 12.5%
(7) Label each part or sector.
(8) Write a suitable title for your pie chart.
Example
Boys in Grade 5 were asked about their favourite sport. The total number of boys
who participated was 32. The data that was collected is presented in the table below.
TABLE 9.9
Number of
learners/ 4 16 4 8
frequency
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UNIT 9: Statistics or data handling
Display the data collected about the boys’ favourite sports by using a bar and a pie
chart.
Activity 9.6
A survey was conducted on 120 learners in Grade 8 to find out what their favourite
subject was at school. It was found that 30 preferred history, 40 preferred geography
and 50 preferred maths.
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Illustrate this information by drawing:
(1) a table
(2) a bar chart
(3) a pie chart
19 FEEDBACK
The knowledge and skills conveyed in this activity are the representation of data on
a pie chart using fractions and percentages. You should also be able to compare
data represented in a pie chart and a bar graph.
One of the simplest ways of explaining the concept of mean (average) is making a
set of numbers that are not the same to be equal to one another. For example, given
the set of 11 numbers viz. 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9 and 10, by reducing (subtracting)
from the larger numbers (on the right of 5) and adding whatever is subtracted to
smaller numbers (on the left of 5) as per the figure below, all the numbers will have
a value of 5. Therefore 5 is the average of the 11 numbers. Does this work for all sets
of numbers? Use a set of 7 different numbers to prove or disprove this.
The arithmetic mean of a set of data is the numerical value found by adding together
all the values of the data and dividing them by the number of pieces of data there are
(see the example in table 9.10). The arithmetic mean is taken to be the same as the
arithmetic average and is represented by the symbol x (pronounced as x bar).
The median of a set of data is the numerical value of the piece of data in the middle of
the set when the data is arranged in ascending (increasing) or descending (decreasing)
order. The mean divides the distribution in half. In a data set where the total elements
of a set give an odd number, the median value is the middle value. For example, in
the data set, 21, 24, 27, 28, 28, the total elements in the set are five. Therefore, the
median value is 27.
154
UNIT 9: Statistics or data handling
When the total number of elements in a data set is even, the median value is the
mean of the two middle values. For example, in the data set, 21, 24, 27, 28, 28, 29,
the total elements in the set are six. Therefore, the median value is 27 + 28 = 27.5.
2
A mode (modal value) of a set of data is the value that occurs most often. It occurs
more than the other values. For example, in the data set, 21, 24, 27, 28, 28, 29, 28
is the modal value because it occurs two times more than other values.
TABLE 9.10
Example 1
Question
Find the mode, median and mean of the following values:
1; 5; 7; 3; 5; 9; 5; 8; 10
Answer
(1) Arrange in ascending (increasing order):
1; 3; 5; 5; 5; 7; 8; 9; 10
(2) Mode = 5
(3) Median = 5 (total number of elements is 9, which is odd). The middle
number therefore consists of only one number that is 5.
NB: If the middle number consists of 2 numbers, and the total number of
elements in the data set is even, add the numbers and divide the sum by 2.
Example:
Find the median 1; 3; 5; 5; 6; 7; 8; 9
Median = 5 + 6
2
= 5.5
(4) Mean
= 1 + 3 + 5 + 5 + 5 + 7 + 8 + 9 + 10
x 9
= 53
x 9
= 5,89 (rounded off to two decimals)
Activity 9.7
The ages of 13 patients in a male ward of a hospital on a certain night were as
follows:
25; 57; 72; 89; 56; 74; 33; 61; 67; 61; 91; 43; 78
(2) What conclusions can you draw from the mode, median and mean ages in
this ward?
OPM1501/1 155
20 FEEDBACK
• Activity 9.7 focuses on helping you to analyse data critically by answering
questions relating to the measures of central tendencies (i.e. the mean, median
and mode).
Activity 9.8
The heights (in centimetres) of Grade 9 learners were taken and recorded as follows:
21 FEEDBACK
After doing activity 9.8, learners should be able to report data by
Thus far, you have learnt the basics of data handling. You should now be confident
enough to present data handling content in the intermediate mathematics classroom.
Complete the following self-evaluation sheet to assess whether you have achieved the
outcomes for this unit.
SELF-ASSESSMENT
Tick the boxes to assess whether you have achieved the outcomes for this unit.
If you cannot tick the box, you should go back and work through the section or
sections that you still find challenging.
156
UNIT 9: Statistics or data handling
Tick
Criteria
REFERENCES
Department of Basic Education. 2017. Mathematics in English Grade 9: Book 2. 7th
edition. Pretoria: Department of Basic Education.
Facer, Kruger & Pretorius. Headstart Mathematics grade 4, Facer, Kruger and
Pretorius. Laridon . 2006. Classroom mathematics, Grade 11.
Statistical language. Measures of central tendency. 2013. Australian Bureau of
Statistics. Retrieved 3 August 2017, from http://www.abs.gov.au/websitedbs/
a3121120.nsf/home/statistical+language+-+measures+of+central+tendency.
Statistics South Africa. 2011. Census @ school. Data handling, Grades 7, 8, & 9.
OPM1501/1 157
10 APPENDIX 1
10 ACTIVITY FOR DIENES BLOCKS
158
APPENDIX 1: Activity for dienes blocks
OPM1501/1 159
160
APPENDIX 1: Activity for dienes blocks
OPM1501/1 161
http://www.curriculumsupport.education.nsw.gov.au/secondary/mathematics/assets/pdf/
literacw7/s4placevalu e2.pdf
162
APPENDIX 1: Activity for dienes blocks
OPM1501/1 163
11 APPENDIX 2
11 FRACTION RESOURCES
164
APPENDIX 2: Fraction resources
OPM1501/1 165
166
APPENDIX 2: Fraction resources
OPM1501/1 167
Teaching of fractions concepts
Hand out shapes to the learners. Each learner must have at least one shape.
Each learner must show his or her shape and use the correct language pattern. Allow
learners to swop shapes and to repeat the language pattern with the new shape.
Learners have to know the correct vocabulary when dealing with fraction concepts.
They must say the following over and over, until they have mastered the correct
vocabulary.
Examples
My whole is a triangle.
My whole is divided into two equal parts.
(Now the learner has to show how the two equal parts fit into the triangle.)
Each part is one half of my whole.
So two halves make one whole
168
APPENDIX 2: Fraction resources
My whole is a square.
My whole is divided into four equal parts.
(Now the learner has to show how the four equal parts fit into the square.)
Each part is one-quarter (or one-fourth) of my whole.
So four-quarters make one whole.
My whole is a hexagon.
My whole is divided into three equal parts.
(Now the learner has to show how the three equal parts fit into the hexagon.)
Each part is one-third of my whole.
So three-thirds make one whole.
My whole is a circle.
My whole is divided into eight equal parts.
(Now the learner has to show how the eight equal parts fit into the circle.)
Each part is one-eighth of my whole.
So eight-eights make one whole.
My whole is a rectangle.
My whole is divided into six equal parts.
(Now the learner has to show how the six equal parts fit into the rectangle.)
Each part is one-sixth of my whole.
So six-sixths make one whole.
My whole is a pentagon.
My whole is divided into five equal parts.
(Now the learner has to show how the five equal parts fit into the pentagon.)
Each part is one-fifth of my whole.
So five-fifths make one whole.
• two-thirds
• three-fifths, etc.
When teaching fraction concepts, the teacher should refrain from using the symbolic
form of a fraction, such as 1 , 1 , etc. Learners should learn the correct pronunciation
3 5
of the fraction in WORDS, and not by saying “one over three” or “one over five”.
The role of the numerator and denominator must only be taught after the learners
understand the concept of a fraction.
In Grade 4, learners mainly deal with unit fractions (i.e. where the numerator is 1).
OPM1501/1 169
The activity can be extended to show equivalent fractions.
2 1
6 = 3
2 4
5 = 10
4 2×2 2 2
10 = 2 × 5 = 1 × 5 = 5
170
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