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AN INTRODUCTION TO
MATHEMATICAL COGNITION
The last decade has seen a rapid growth in our understanding of the cognitive systems
that underlie mathematical learning and performance, and an increased recognition of
the importance of this topic. This book showcases international research on the most
important cognitive issues that affect mathematical performance across a wide age range,
from early childhood to adulthood. The book considers the foundational competencies
of nonsymbolic and symbolic number processing before discussing arithmetic, conceptual
understanding, individual differences and dyscalculia, algebra, number systems, reasoning
and higher-level mathematics such as formal proof. Drawing on diverse methodology
from behavioural experiments to brain imaging, each chapter discusses key theories and
empirical findings and introduces key tasks used by researchers. The final chapter discusses
challenges facing the future development of the field of mathematical cognition and reviews
a set of open questions that mathematical cognition researchers should address to move
the field forward. This book is ideal for undergraduate or graduate students of psychology,
education, cognitive sciences, cognitive neuroscience and other academic and clinical
audiences including mathematics educators and educational psychologists.
Camilla Gilmore is a Reader in Mathematical Cognition in the Mathematics Education

Centre at Loughborough University. Her research explores the development of numerical
skills in children and adults.
Silke M. Göbel is a Senior Lecturer in Psychology at the University of York. She teaches
courses on Numerical Cognition, Dyscalculia, Mathematics Anxiety and Neuroscience
of Numbers and Arithmetic. Her current research focuses on predictors of mathematical
development.
Matthew Inglis is a Reader in Mathematical Cognition in the Mathematics Education

Centre at Loughborough University. He is interested in understanding the processes
involved in numerical and mathematical reasoning, and how these can be promoted through
education.
International Texts in Developmental Psychology
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Child Development: Theories and Critical Perspectives, 2nd edition
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An Introduction to Mathematical Cognition
By Camilla Gilmore, Silke M. Göbel, and Matthew Inglis
AN INTRODUCTION
TO MATHEMATICAL
COGNITION
Camilla Gilmore, Silke M. Göbel and

Matthew Inglis
First published 2018
by Routledge
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c 2018 Camilla Gilmore, Silke M. Göbel, and Matthew Inglis
The right of Camilla Gilmore, Silke M. Göbel, and Matthew Inglis to be identified
as authors of this work has been asserted by them in accordance with sections 77 and 78
of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988.
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British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data
A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Names: Gilmore, Camilla, author. | Göbel, Silke M., author. | Inglis, Matthew, author.
Title: An introduction to mathematical cognition / Camilla Gilmore, Silke M. Göbel,
Matthew Inglis. Description: Abingdon, Oxon ; New York, NY : Routledge, 2018. |
Series: International texts in developmental psychology |
Includes bibliographical references and index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2017056370 | ISBN 9781138923942 (hbk : alk. paper) |
ISBN 9781138923959 (pbk : alk. paper) | ISBN 9781315684758 (ebk)
Subjects: LCSH: Mathematical ability in children. | Mathematics–Psychological aspects. |
Cognition in children. | Cognition.
Classification: LCC BF456.N7 G55 2018 | DDC 153.9–dc23
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2017056370
ISBN: 978-1-138-92394-2 (hbk)
ISBN: 978-1-138-92395-9 (pbk)
ISBN: 978-1-315-68475-8 (ebk)
Typeset in Bembo
by Out of House Publishing
CONTENTS
List of figures, tables and boxes x

Acknowledgements xiv
1 Introduction 1
1.1 What is mathematical cognition? 1
1.2 The development of mathematical skills 3
2 Nonsymbolic number 6
2.1 Introduction 7
2.2 Small exact system 7
2.2.1 The development of subitizing 7
2.2.2 Individual differences in subitizing ability and its
relationship with mathematics 8
2.2.3 Theoretical models of subitizing 9
2.2.4 Subitizing in groups: ‘groupitizing’ 11
2.2.5 Summary: subitizing 12
2.3 Large approximate system 12
2.3.1 The Approximate Number System (ANS) 14
2.3.2 Brain bases of ANS: numerons and genes 16
2.3.3 The ANS in infants 18
2.3.4 The development of the ANS 19
2.3.5 The ANS and arithmetic 19
2.3.6 Influence of mathematics education on the ANS 21
2.3.7 ANS training 21
2.3.8 The ANS and space 23
2.3.9 Difficulties in studying the ANS 23
2.3.10 Is there really an ANS? 25
vi Contents
2.3.11 Summary: estimation and the Approximate

Number System (ANS) 26
2.4 Summary 27
3 Symbolic number 29
3.1 Introduction 30
3.2 Number words 30
3.2.1 Number word acquisition 30
3.2.2 Theories of children’s acquisition of exact
number concepts 33
3.2.3 Number words influence place-value understanding
and exact calculation 34
3.2.4 Spontaneous Focusing on Numerosity (SFON) 36
3.2.5 Summary: number words 36
3.3 Arabic digits 37
3.3.1 Single digits 37
3.3.2 Multi-digit number processing 42
3.3.3 Summary: Arabic digits 44
3.4 The number line task 44
3.5 Transcoding: from number words to Arabic digits 45
3.5.1 Theories of number transcoding 46
3.5.2 Linguistic influences on transcoding 47
3.5.3 Summary: transcoding 47
3.6 The relationship between symbolic and nonsymbolic
numerical systems 47
3.7 The relationship between symbolic number processing
and mathematical performance 49
3.8 Summary 49
4 The development of arithmetic skills 51

4.1 Early arithmetic skills 51
4.1.1 Arithmetic in infancy? 51
4.1.2 Nonverbal arithmetic in preschoolers 53
4.2 Symbolic arithmetic 54
4.2.1 Effects of problem representation 55
4.2.2 Arithmetic word problems 56
4.3 Arithmetic strategies 59
4.3.1 Strategies to solve arithmetic problems 59
4.3.2 Strategy choice 64
4.4 Domain-general influences on arithmetic development 67
4.4.1 Working memory 68
4.4.2 Inhibition and shifting 69
4.4.3 Language skills 70
4.5 Summary 71
Contents vii
5 Understanding arithmetic concepts 73

5.1 Key concepts in arithmetic understanding 74
5.1.1 Additive composition 74
5.1.2 Commutativity and associativity 76
5.1.3 Inversion 77
5.1.4 Multiplicative reasoning 78
5.1.5 Summary 80
5.2 The relationship between conceptual and procedural
knowledge 82
5.2.1 Defining conceptual and procedural knowledge 82
5.2.2 The development of conceptual and procedural
knowledge 84
5.2.3 Individual differences in the development of
conceptual and procedural knowledge 87
5.3 Summary 90
6 Individual differences and mathematical difficulties 93

6.1 Introduction 93
6.2 Mathematical difficulties 94
6.2.1 Diagnostic criteria 95
6.2.2 Severity 97
6.2.3 Genetic risk 97
6.2.4 Difficulties of children with developmental
dyscalculia or mathematical learning disorder 98
6.2.5 Neural correlates of developmental dyscalculia 102
6.2.6 Current theories of developmental dyscalculia 104
6.2.7 Subtypes of developmental dyscalculia 107
6.2.8 Comorbidity with other developmental learning
disorders 108
6.2.9 Summary: mathematical difficulties 109
6.3 Mathematics anxiety 109
6.3.1 How is mathematics anxiety measured? 110
6.3.2 The relationship between mathematics anxiety
and mathematics achievement 112
6.3.3 Mathematics anxiety and working memory 113
6.3.4 Risk factors 115
6.3.5 Alleviating mathematics anxiety 115
6.3.6 Summary: mathematics anxiety 116
6.4 Attitudes towards mathematics 116
6.5 Summary 118
7 Number Systems 120

7.1 Going beyond the natural numbers 120
7.2 The theory of conceptual change 122
viii Contents
7.3 Zero: a special number? 123

7.4 Negative numbers 125
7.5 The transition to rational numbers 125
7.5.1 Density 126
7.5.2 Size 126
7.5.3 Operations 127
7.5.4 The developmental trajectory of the natural
number bias 127
7.6 Teaching and the natural number bias 130
7.7 Rational number arithmetic 131
7.8 Real numbers and cardinal numbers 133
7.9 Summary 136
8 Algebra and equivalence 138

8.1 Moving from arithmetic to algebra 139
8.2 The concept of a variable 140
8.3 Early algebra 143
8.4 Equivalence 144
8.4.1 The development of equivalence understanding 145
8.4.2 Influences on children’s equivalence understanding 148
8.4.3 Interventions to support equivalence
understanding 150
8.5 Summary 152
9 Mathematical argumentation and proof 154

9.1 What is a mathematical proof? 155
9.2 What difficulties do students have with proof? 157
9.2.1 Proof construction 157
9.2.2 Proof validation 158
9.2.3 Proof comprehension 159
9.3 Why do students have these difficulties? 161
9.3.1 Epistemic cognition and mathematical proof 161
9.3.2 Strategic failure 164
9.3.3 Logical problems 165
9.4 Summary 165
10 Logic, conditional reasoning and mathematics 167

10.1 Logic in proofs 167
10.2 Conditional reasoning 170
10.2.1 The Wason selection task 170
10.2.2 Evans’s conditional inference task 172
10.3 The relationship between reasoning and mathematics 177
10.4 Summary 180
Contents ix
11 Where next for mathematical cognition? 182

11.1 Mathematical cognition as an interdisciplinary field? 183
11.2 Methodological developments 185
11.2.1 The replication crisis in psychology 185
11.2.2 A replication crisis in mathematical cognition? 189
11.3 Future research directions 191
References 195
Index 238
FIGURES, TABLES AND BOXES
Figures
1.1 The number of abstracts per year identified via a search of Web of
Science with the search term ‘mathematical cognition’ OR
‘numerical cognition’. Prior to 1992 there were 6 items in total 3
2.1 Subitizing. The graph shows the average response times for
enumerating a display with 1–8 dots for primary school children
(aged 6–10 years) 8
2.2 How many dots are there in this image? 13
2.3 Schematic representations of mental representations of numbers
1–10 following (A) a linear model or (B) a logarithmic model 15
2.4 Schematic representations of the overlap of mental representations
in the linear model of (A) numbers 4 and 10 (far distance, less
overlap) and (B) numbers 8 and 10 (close distance, more overlap) 16
2.5 Schematic representations of individual differences in the acuity of
mental number representations in a linear model. Mental
representations for numbers 5,6,8,9 for a participant with a Weber
fraction of 0.125 (A) and 0.200 (B). Panel C shows the
performance patterns (percentage correct) for these two
participants depending on the ratio of the two nonsymbolic
quantities that are being compared 17
2.6 An example of an approximate arithmetic task (addition).
Participants first see dots moving into the pot (A), then another set
of dots is added to the pot (B), finally they have to decide where
the larger number of dots is, in the pot or outside the pot (C) 22
Figures, tables and boxes xi
3.1 Examples of mirrored written digits from 5- to 6-year-old children.

They were given number words and asked to write them down in
Arabic digit format from memory. The corresponding number
words were: (A) ‘seven’, (B) ‘fifteen’, (C) ‘ninety-one’, (D) ‘thirty’ 38
3.2 Two types of numerical distance effects. In the priming distance
effect (dark grey line) response times increase with numerical
distance between the prime and the target. In contrast, in the
comparison distance effect (light grey line, the classic distance
effect), response times for comparing numbers decrease with larger
numerical distance between the two numbers to be compared 39
3.3 Stimuli used to investigate the numerical Stroop or size congruity effect 40
3.4 Example of a number line task trial. Participants are asked to mark
where the number 23 appears on the line 44
3.5 Examples of multi-digit transcoding errors: (A) shows a child’s
attempt to write 1300; (B) shows 348; and (C) shows 2150 46
4.1 Models of strategy development. Left: the staircase model. Right:
the overlapping waves model, Siegler (1999) 65
5.1 Mean correct answers (out of 3) for inverse (a + b − b) and control
(a + b − c) problems presented using concrete items, as word
problems, or with Arabic digits 78
5.2 Iterative model for the development of conceptual and procedural
knowledge of fractions 87
5.3 Accuracy (standardised scores) on inversion and control problems
for children who fall into three distinct clusters 89
6.1 Different ways of defining ‘substantially below’ the average.
Percentage of children scoring in the lowest (A) 25%, (B) 10%, or
(C) 5% on a standardised mathematical achievement test 97
6.2 Response times for a dot counting task for mathematical learning
disorder (MLD: grey line) and control children (black line) 99
6.3 Neural correlates of mathematical difficulties: an overview of brain
regions where differences in brain structure, function or
connectivity have been found between individuals with
developmental dyscalculia (DD) and typical peers 103
7.1 The strength of natural number bias observed by Van Hoof,
Verschaffel, and Van Dooren (2015) on (i) all types of items
(density, size and operations), (ii) density items, (iii) size items, and
(iv) operations items. The y axis shows the odds ratio, with higher
figures representing a stronger bias and 1 representing no bias 129
8.1 Example of a variable number line used to introduce children to
early algebra 144
8.2 Typical exercises used to help children understand the equal sign in
Chinese textbooks 150
xii Figures, tables and boxes
8.3 Children’s performance on three measures of equivalence

understanding after 12 weeks of instruction with either a standard
or modified workbook 151
10.1 A diagram illustrating the material conditional ‘if p then q’ (left)
and the biconditional ‘p if and only if q’ (right) 173
11.1 A mapping of spatially relevant research in education, psychology,
neuroscience and mathematics journals. The cluster to the top
right represents education journals, the cluster to the bottom right
represents mathematics journals. The large cluster to the bottom
left represents neuroscience and psychology journals. Links
between nodes represent the extent to which the journals cite
each other 184
Tables
3.1 Number-knower levels 32
4.1 Classification of word problems 57
4.2 Summary of strategies used to solve simple addition problems 60
5.1 The relationship between procedural and conceptual group
membership 89
7.1 Example problems used by Van Hoof, Verschaffel, and Van Dooren
(2015) 128
8.1 Example responses to the question ‘David is 10 cm taller than Con.
Con is h cm tall. What can you write for David’s height?’ and the
frequency with which they were given before and after algebra
instruction 142
10.1 The truth table for the material conditional 169
10.2 The truth table for the material, biconditional and defective
interpretations of ‘if p then q’ 174
10.3 The four inferences (MP, DA, AC and MT) with and without
negated premises (Prem) and conclusions (Con) 175
Boxes
2.1 A generalised magnitude system? 26
2.2 Open questions for future research 27
3.1 No words for numbers? 35
4.1 Arithmetic skill or skills? 59
4.2 Neuroscience and arithmetic 66
5.1 Measuring conceptual and procedural knowledge 81
6.1 ICD 10 (World Health Organization, 2016) 95
Figures, tables and boxes xiii
6.2 DSM V (American Psychiatric Association, 2013) 96

6.3 Proposed subtypes of mathematical disorder 107
6.4 Mathematics anxiety questionnaires 111
6.5 Mathematical self-efficacy, self-concept and confidence 117
7.1 Is zero necessary for a place-value numeral system? 124
7.2 Are there more rational numbers or natural numbers? 134
7.3 Are there more real numbers or natural numbers? 135
8.1 Approaches to algebra education 140
8.2 Measuring equivalence understanding 147
11.1 Challenges in mathematical cognition 192
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors wish to thank the following for permission to reprint copyright
material in this book:
• Figure 2.3 is adapted with permission of the authors and used under their CC
BY from Dietrich, J. F., Huber, S., & Nuerk, H. C. (2015). Methodological
aspects to be considered when measuring the Approximate Number System
(ANS) – a research review. Frontiers in Psychology, 6, 295, Figure 1.1.
• Figure 2.4 is adapted with permission of the authors and used under their CC
BY from Dietrich, J. F., Huber, S., & Nuerk, H. C. (2015). Methodological
aspects to be considered when measuring the Approximate Number System
(ANS) – A research review. Frontiers in Psychology, 6, 295, Figure 2.2.
• Figure 2.5 is reproduced with permission from Justin Halberda from ‘What is
a Weber Fraction?’ (www.panamath.org).
• Figure 6.3 is reprinted from Cohen Kadosh, R., & Dowker, A. (eds) The
Oxford Handbook of Numerical Cognition, p.735, Figure 40.1, Oxford: OUP
with kind permission from OUP.
• The figure in Box 6.4 on page 111 is reprinted with authors’ permission from
Wu, S., & Menon, V. (2012) Scale for Early Mathematics Anxiety (SEMA) in
Young Children. Available at: www.scsnl.stanford.edu
We are grateful to our editor Lucy Kennedy who has been extremely helpful and
efficient at every stage of this project, from developing the book proposal to getting
us to submit the final version.
We would like to thank the members of the Mathematical Cognition Group
at Loughborough University and the members of the Numerical Cognition Lab
Group at the Department of Psychology, University of York, for stimulating
conversations and challenging discussions over the years.
Acknowledgements xv
Several chapters in this book are based on a third-year undergraduate module

(Numerical Cognition) for Psychology students at the University of York. The
content of this module has been shaped and improved by several generations of
students at the Department of Psychology. Thanks to those students for their
curiosity, input and feedback, special thanks to the cohorts 2016/17 and 2017/18
for reading drafts of our textbook chapters and giving feedback.
And last but not least, thanks to our friends and family for their support, in
particular to David, Adam, Freddie and Sam Gilmore, Bill Kirkup, Helen Lake,
Jelena Mirković, and Danijela Trenkic.
1
INTRODUCTION
1.1 What is mathematical cognition?

Mathematical cognition is a relatively new field of research that seeks to
understand the processes by which individuals come to understand mathematical
ideas. Mathematical cognition researchers are interested in how mathematical
understanding and performance develops from infancy to adulthood, the factors
that explain individual differences in mathematical performance and why some
individuals find mathematics so difficult. It is an interdisciplinary field, drawing on
psychology, education, and neuroscience, and cannot be reduced simply to one of
these disciplines. To fully answer questions about mathematical understanding and
processes involves an awareness of underlying brain processes, cognitive systems and
their development, and the formal and informal activities that individuals engage
in when learning mathematics. As would be expected for an interdisciplinary
field, research in mathematical cognition employs a diverse range of methodologies
including (but not limited to) experimental cognitive, neuroimaging, intervention
and individual differences research.
Part of the motivation for this area of research comes from an increasing aware-
ness that many individuals struggle with mathematics. In the UK, for example, it
is estimated that 24% of adults have numeracy levels below that needed to function
in everyday life, for example, to understand food pricing or pay household bills
(Department for Business, Innovation and Skills, 2011). This pattern is replicated
across many countries; the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and
Development’s (OECD) survey of 24 countries found that overall almost 20% of
adults have low levels of numeracy and are unable to accurately deal with two-step
calculations, or understand common decimals, percentages and fractions (OECD,
2013). These difficulties begin to arise early in schooling, for example the US
National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP) in 2015 found that only 33%
2 1 Introduction
of 10-year-olds had reached the expected level of proficiency in mathematics (Kena

et al., 2016). This is important because research has shown that poor mathematics
skills in childhood have a negative impact on later health, wealth and quality of life
(Hudson, Price, & Gross, 2009; OECD, 2013; Parsons & Bynner, 2005; Reyna,
Nelson, Han, & Dieckmann, 2009). Mathematical cognition researchers believe
that a better understanding of underlying mathematical processes can help us to
identify why so many individuals struggle with mathematics, and consequently
how to improve mathematical performance.
Having a positive impact on mathematics education and performance is one
important motivation for studying mathematical cognition, but not the only one.
Understanding the processes of mathematical performance is an ideal test case to
explore deeper psychological questions. As we will show throughout this book,
mathematical performance involves integrating formal, uniquely human, systems
of symbolic representation with more basic, intuitive (and some suggest innate)
systems for representing mathematical ideas. This pattern is repeated across many
years of mathematics education during which students must integrate formal rep-
resentations of mathematical concepts with pre-existing informal ideas developed
from everyday life. The study of mathematical cognition therefore provides a
window into deeper questions of how our cognitive systems draw on and are influ-
enced by multiple sources of information. These questions go beyond the domain
of mathematics and help us to understand the nature of our cognitive systems
themselves.
Finally, the study of mathematical cognition also raises philosophical questions
about the nature of mathematics itself. For instance, what actually is a number?
Do numbers exist as abstract objects independently of humans (as so-called
platonists would argue)? Or are they logical objects constructed within a given
axiomatic system (as formalists would suggest)? Recent work on mathematical
cognition opens up other possibilities that have not yet fully been considered
by philosophers. For instance, perhaps numbers are simply tags for Approximate
Number System representations (see Chapter 2). Considerations such as these
have led some philosophers of mathematics to pay a great deal of attention to
the mathematical cognition literature (De Cruz, 2016; Gaber & Schlimm, 2015;
Giaquinto, 2007).
The field of mathematical cognition has grown rapidly over the past decade.
For example, a citation search for the terms ‘mathematical cognition’ or ‘numerical
cognition’ in Web of Science identified a marked increase in the number of items
published since 2007 (see Figure 1.1). Developments such as a new journal, Journal
of Numerical Cognition, launched in 2015 and a new society, The Mathematical
Cognition and Learning Society, founded in 2016, demonstrate that the field has
become established and is set to grow further. As the number of academics working
in the field of mathematical cognition grows, it is likely that this is a topic that will
increasingly appear in undergraduate and postgraduate psychology, neuroscience
and education courses and therefore introduce a new generation of researchers
120
100
Number of abstracts
80
60
40
20
0
1992
1993
1994
1995
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2012
2013
2014
2015
2016
2011
Year
FIGURE 1.1 The number of abstracts per year identified via a search of Web of Science
with the search term ‘mathematical cognition’ OR ‘numerical cognition’. Prior to
1992 there were 6 items in total.
to the field. We hope that this book will help in this endeavour by providing an
accessible introduction to key theories, notable findings and ongoing debates in
the field.
1.2 The development of mathematical skills

As we describe in the following chapters, mathematical cognition research has
made substantial advances in uncovering the processes involved in understanding
mathematical ideas. To a large extent this work has focused on numeracy and
arithmetic, rather than mathematical topics more broadly, and some major theories
have been proposed about the nature of basic numerical representations. Less work
has focused on higher levels of mathematics, although this is beginning to change.
Research with infants has explored the nature of numerical representations
and questioned whether infants and young children are capable of processing
numerical information before they have learnt symbolic representations (i.e. ‘three’
or ‘3’). Prominent theories have been proposed to suggest that, even without
these symbolic representations, humans (and other animals) are able to represent
approximate nonsymbolic quantity information. Studies have explored whether
this ability is present from birth, whether it involves truly numerical processing,
and if it is related to later, formal, mathematical skills.
4 1 Introduction
The first recognisably mathematical activity that young children engage in is to

learn the count list and understand what these numbers mean. Research has shown
that this seemingly simple activity is in fact very complex and involves a protracted
period of development before number words and symbols become grounded in
meaning. The question of what gives symbols their meaning is yet to be fully
established by researchers, although this is a topic of much current interest. Once
children have learnt these number symbols they begin to use them in arithmetic
operations. Research has shown that children draw on informal or intuitive
understanding of arithmetic and attempt to integrate this with formal instruction
and symbolic representations. True competency with arithmetic does not only
involve the ability to carry out arithmetic operations, it requires knowledge of
basic number facts, conceptual understanding of the operations and how they are
related and the skill to choose appropriate strategies. Studies have shown that each
of these aspects of arithmetic are important for overall performance, and that they
all draw on basic symbolic number skills, as well as domain-general cognitive skills
such as working memory and attention.
As children progress through school they are introduced to new and increasingly
complex mathematical ideas and processes. Rational numbers require children
to move beyond the count list as a basis for number representation and prove
challenging for many. Algebra also serves as a particular stumbling block for many
children. These new topics require children to become familiar with new forms
of symbolic representation as well as important conceptual advances. Research
has begun to identify several ways in which these new topics are difficult for
children, for example where new topics directly challenge previously acquired
meanings and intuitions, as well as proposing mechanisms to help improve
children’s understanding. Finally, some individuals go on to study mathematics at
higher levels, where again new systems of representations, ways of processing and
conceptual ideas must be understood.
The following chapters of this book cover these areas in roughly develop-
mental order. Individual chapters can be read alone to focus on specific topics,
however, reading the chapters in order of development reveals key themes that
cut across these individual topics. The challenge of acquiring new symbolic
representations and grasping the meaning they encapsulate is a recurrent theme,
which is as relevant for young children learning to count as it is for advanced
students studying proof. The interplay between procedural skill (‘knowing
how-to’) and conceptual understanding (‘knowing why’) can be seen at all levels
of mathematical performance. The nature of expertise, i.e. the behaviours or
skills that differentiate those who are proficient from those who struggle, is a
relevant issue for expert mathematicians as well as children learning arithmetic.
Finally, across many topics we see that earlier understanding can interfere
with the later acquisition of ideas. As well as focusing on the patterns of
performance and development of skills that are common to most learners, the
following chapters also consider atypical development, and the reasons why a small
proportion of individuals have particular difficulty with mathematical ideas and

performance.
Throughout the book we have aimed to highlight key findings and theories
within each topic and give a flavour of the methods and approaches used to
investigate these. We also highlight some of the key unanswered questions within
each topic that require the attention of researchers in this rapidly growing field.
Nonsymbolic Number
Anobile, G. , Cicchini, G. M. , & Burr, D. C. (2016). Number as a primary perceptual attribute: a
review. Perception, 45 (1–2), 5–31.
Nieder, A. , & Dehaene, S. (2009). Representation of number in the brain. Annual Review of
Neuroscience, 32 , 185–208.
Piazza, M. (2010). Neurocognitive start-up tools for symbolic number representations. Trends in
Cognitive Sciences, 14 (12), 542–551.
Schneider, M. , Beeres, K. , Coban, L. , Merz, S. , Susan Schmidt, S. , Stricker, J. , & De Smedt,
B. (2016). Associations of non-symbolic and symbolic numerical magnitude processing with
mathematical competence: a meta-analysis. Developmental Science, 20 (3), e12372.
Symbolic Number
Holloway, I. D. , & Ansari, D. (2015). Numerical symbols: an overview of their cognitive and
neural underpinnings. In R. Cohen Kadosh & A. Dowker (eds.), The Oxford Handbook of
Numerical Cognition (pp. 531–551). Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Merkley, R. , & Ansari, D. (2016). Why numerical symbols count in the development of
mathematical skills: evidence from brain and behavior. Current Opinion in Behavioral Sciences,
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AN INTRODUCTION TO

Camilla Gilmore is a Reader in Mathematical Cognition in the Mathematics Education

Matthew Inglis is a Reader in Mathematical Cognition in the Mathematics Education

This volume is one of a rapidly developing series in International Texts in

Camilla Gilmore, Silke M. Göbel and

List of figures, tables and boxes x

2.3.11 Summary: estimation and the Approximate

4 The development of arithmetic skills 51

5 Understanding arithmetic concepts 73

6 Individual differences and mathematical difficulties 93

7 Number Systems 120

7.3 Zero: a special number? 123

8 Algebra and equivalence 138

9 Mathematical argumentation and proof 154

10 Logic, conditional reasoning and mathematics 167

11 Where next for mathematical cognition? 182

3.1 Examples of mirrored written digits from 5- to 6-year-old children.

8.3 Children’s performance on three measures of equivalence

6.2 DSM V (American Psychiatric Association, 2013) 96

Several chapters in this book are based on a third-year undergraduate module

1.1 What is mathematical cognition?

of 10-year-olds had reached the expected level of proficiency in mathematics (Kena

1.2 The development of mathematical skills

The first recognisably mathematical activity that young children engage in is to

proportion of individuals have particular difficulty with mathematical ideas and

The Development of Arithmetic Skills

Understanding Arithmetic Concepts

Algebra and Equivalence

Mathematical Argumentation and Proof

Logic, Conditional Reasoning and Mathematics

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