MAE204Q Study Guide - TL501

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CONTENTS
Page
Study unit 1: Background1
1.1 INTRODUCTION1
1.2 TEACHING-LEARNING THEORIES AND MULTIMEDIA 3
1.3 THE CURRICULUM AND MULTIMEDIA 5
1.4 GLOBALISATION AND MATHEMATICS EDUCATION 6
1.5 SCOPE8
1.6 PURPOSE8
1.7 PRESCRIBED TEXTBOOK 8
Study unit 2: Electronic and digital media9
2.1 DIGITAL MEDIA ENHANCES MATHEMATICS
LEARNING10
2.2 DIGITAL MEDIA SUPPORT EFFECTIVE
MATHEMATICS TEACHING 11
2.3 TECHNOLOGY INFLUENCES AND AFFECTS WHAT
IS TAUGHT IN MATHEMATICS 11
2.4 CALCULATORS IN THE MATHEMATICS CLASSROOM 12
2.5 CALCULATOR ACTIVITIES 14
2.5.1 Estimation14
2.6 THE COMPUTER AS A TOOL IN MATHEMATICS 15
2.6.1 GeoGebra in teaching and learning mathematics 15
2.7 ELECTRONIC MANIPULATIVES FOR NUMERATION 19
Study unit 3: The calculator as a checking device22
3.1 INTRODUCTION22
3.1.1 Checking pencil-and-paper calculations 22
3.1.2 Predict and check 23
3.2 ACTIVITIES23
3.3 PLACE VALUE 26
3.4 THE CALCULATOR TO IDENTIFY NUMBER PATTERNS 27
3.4.1 Number patterns 29
3.4.2 Recurring decimals 29
3.4.3 Multiplying by 10 30
3.4.4 Trigonometric identities 30
3.4.5 Logarithmic identities 31
3.4.6 Algebraic identities 31
3.5 REMARKS31
3.6 DEVELOPMENT OF SOME ALGORITHMS 32
3.7 ESTIMATION35
3.8 THE CONCEPT OF A FUNCTION 35
3.9 LIMITATIONS OF USING A CALCULATOR 37
3.10 PLACE-VALUE DEVELOPMENT 38
3.11 THE CALCULATOR AS A BLACK BOX 40
3.12 THE GRAPHICS CALCULATOR 40
3.13 WHAT ARE THE USES OF THE GRAPHICS
CALCULATOR?41
3.14 WHAT CAN THE GRAPHICS CALCULATOR DO? 41
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CONTENTS
Study unit 4: Developing resources for teaching and

learning mathematics43
4.1 TEACHING AND LEARNING RESOURCES 43
4.2 TEACHING AIDS 43
4.2.1 Guidelines on choosing a teaching resource 43
4.2.2 Requirements for the effective use of a teaching resource 43
4.2.3 What type of teaching resources are suitable for the teaching
of mathematics? 44
4.3 THE CHALKBOARD, THE FLANNEL BOARD, THE
OVERHEAD PROJECTOR AND THE TEXTBOOK 44
4.3.1 The chalkboard 44
4.3.2 The flannel board 47
4.3.3 The overhead projector 48
4.3.4 The textbook 48
4.4 LEARNING AIDS 49
4.4.1 What should the properties of learning aids be? 49
4.4.2 What types of learning aids can be used by learners in the
intermediate phase? 49
4.4.3 What is the value of a learning aid? 49
4.5 USING MODELS IN THE TEACHING AND
LEARNING OF MATHEMATICS 50
4.5.1 Two-dimensional models 50
4.5.2 Three-dimensional models 50
4.5.3 Paper folding 51
4.6 DEVELOPING TEACHING AIDS FROM CHEAP AND
EASILY AVAILABLE MATERIALS 51
4.7 RESOURCES AVAILABLE TO THE MATHEMATICS
TEACHER 51
4.7.1 A number line 52
4.7.2 A 360° protractor 53
4.7.3 Draw a ‘‘perfect circle’’ without a compass 54
4.7.4 Integers dice 54
4.7.5 Geoboards55
4.8 TANGRAMS56
4.9 USING NATURAL RESOURCES 57
4.10 USING OUR SURROUNDINGS – THE
MATHEMATICAL WORLD WE LIVE IN 57
4.11 USING OUR BODIES 57
4.12 THE HOME LABORATORY 58
4.13 BASIC EQUIPMENT 58
4.14 CONTAINERS58
4.15 MATERIALS58
4.16 USEFUL ITEMS 58
REFERENCES59
(iv)
1 STUDY UNIT 1
1 Background
SPECIFIC OUTCOMES OF THE STUDY UNIT

After studying this unit, you should be able to understand:
• Technology and media in the teaching and learning of Mathematics.
• The essence of technology and media in mathematics education.
• Teaching theories and multimedia.
• The curriculum and multimedia.
1.1 INTRODUCTION
Technology and media supported mathematical problem solving in the context of
school mathematics means that:
• Content learning develops intuitively and authentically as students work towards
finding the solution.
• Mathematical problem solving can be approached from diverse perspectives.
• Mathematical problem-solving process become student centered, that is, students
are actively involved in the problem-solving process.
• Teachers make available multimedia to ensure learning support.
• Teachers arrange for a conducive environment to ensure active learning.
Driscoll in Newby et al., (2011) defined learning as permanent change in an individual’s

behaviour based on the person’s experience. According to Newby et al. learning
occurs through:
(1) direct experience (touching and handling manipulatives);
(2) vicarious experience (watching someone go through the experience of
touching); and
(3) instructional presentation (learning through a presentation) and
(4) a combination of all the mentioned ways.
Learning experience can also be enhanced through various ways, for example through:
(1) quality of the text information;
(2) how the questions are asked in the classroom discussion;
(3) use of attention getting devices to focus the learners’ attention; and
(4) meaningful integration of diverse technologies (Newby et al.).
This study guide focuses on teaching that enhances the learning experience through
the use of diverse technology tools and media. It is essential that teachers know how
learning takes place in order for them to purposefully identify, select, implement,
and evaluate multimedia for learning support.
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*Important terminology:
• Teaching and learning resources
• Technology
• Media
• Multimedia
NB the terms teaching resources, teaching aids and teaching material refer
to media.
What is technology?
Depending on the context, the term technology has many representations.
Egbert (2009) presented the diverse representations of technology as follows:
• Mechanism of distributing messages, including postal systems, radio and television
broadcasting, telephone, satellite and computer networks.
• Electronic media (such as video, computer) used as tools to create, learn, explain,
document, analyzes or present.
• The application of knowledge to meet the goals, goods, and services desired by
people.
• The set of tools, both hardware (physical) and software, that help us act and
think better. Technology includes all objects from pencil and paper to the latest
electronic gadgets. Electronic and computer technology help us share information
and knowledge quickly and efficiently.
• The application of scientific or other organised knowledge – including any tool,
technique, product, process, method, organization or system to practical tasks.
Newby et al. (2011) elaborated as follows on the meaningful integration of technology:

• Knowing when, why and how specific tools should be used to facilitate overall
learning.
• The use of technology allows for an experience that otherwise would not have
been fully experienced. It allows for something to be seen that otherwise wouldn’t
have been seen.
Technology in this study guide refers to the usage of multimedia in teaching and
learning. It includes using audio material, visual material, audio-visual resources,
text material and electronic or digital resources.
Media (singular medium) are a means of transferring or delivering messages. Resources

are called teaching media when they transfer the message for the purpose of teaching
(LiLing Kuo, 1991). These resources include visual, audio, audio-visual, text and
electronic or digital media.
Multimedia refers to the use of a variety of media formats, for example, text, visuals,
audio, audio-visual, and digital resources (Newby, Stepich, Lehman, Russel &
Ottenbreich-Leftwhich, 2011).
2
STUDY UNIT 1: Background
ACTIVITY 1.1
(1) Do your own search of meaning for the term’s technology, multimedia, media
and educational technology.
(2) Based on your own meaning of the terms how do the three terms apply in
mathematics teaching based on your context. Give examples in your own
mathematics classroom setting.
What is the main objective of applying technology and media in teaching

and learning?
The application of technology and media in the teaching and learning of mathematics
should enable students to attain learning experience through:
• Making informed decisions when accessing, capturing and analyzing data, as well
as when manipulating, interpreting and processing information.
• Applying problem-solving skills, using critical and creating thinking, within the
context of business information, communication and technology.
• Acquiring basic knowledge and skills to improve his or her competency in
interacting with different computer applications, such as word processing,
spreadsheets, databases and presentations.
• Applying knowledge and skills, as well as understanding environmental and
global issues that are linked to the subject.
• Communicating effectively across a broad spectrum of environments by using
the appropriate software and communication-related tools.
• Acquiring and applying end-user computer application knowledge and skills
ethically and responsibly.
• Demonstrating an understanding of the effective management of information by
organizing his or her daily activities responsibly and effectively within different
contexts.
• Revealing natural talents and enthusiasm, thereby contributing to excellence and
achievement.
• Developing marketable skills, thereby improving his or her capabilities and job
satisfaction.
• Engaging in lifelong learning, be effective in the performance of his or her job
and have job satisfaction.
1.2 TEACHING-LEARNING THEORIES AND MULTIMEDIA

A learning theory is an organised set of principles explaining how individuals learn
or how individuals acquire new knowledge (Newby et al. 2011). Furthermore, the
authors motivated that theory informs practice, that is, theory offers consistent
principles that teachers may use to create solutions to a variety of classroom challenges.
In addition, knowing theories of teaching can enable teachers to select the tools
and techniques that will work best with specific students and learning goals. Only
three theoretical perspectives are presented in this study guide which are behavioral
perspective, information processing and constructivist perspectives.
A brief description of three perspectives is outlined in (figure 1). Knowing and

understanding the theoretical perspectives will assist you as a teacher to know:
(1) what learning is;
(2) how it occurs;
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(3) how to facilitate learning; and

(4) what role can technology and media play in teaching and learning
(Newby et al.). In addition Newby et al., recommended that the three
perspectives apply at any teaching and learning environment, each perspective
can contribute something to good teaching and learning; some theoretical
perspectives fit some learning situations better than others and it is possible
to combine the theoretical perspectives in one teaching and learning situation.
Behavioral Information Constructivist

perspective processing perspective
perspective
What is learning? A change in the A change in A change in meaning
probability of a knowledge stored in constructed from
behaviour occurring. memory. experience.
What is the Antecedent, a Attention, followed Continuous process
learning process or change of behaviour by encoding of experience and
how does learning followed by then retrieval of reflection often done
occur? consequence. information from in a group.
memory.
What is the Arrange external Arrange conditions Model and guide.
teacher’s primary contingencies. to support memory
role? processes.
What can the State Objectives, Organise new Provide opportunity
teacher do to carry guide student information, link to solve realistic and
out that load? behaviour with cues, new information to meaningful problems
arrange reinforcing existing knowledge, and to reflect on
to immediately follow use a variety of experiences, provide
students’ behaviour. attention, encoding group learning
and retrieval cues. activities, model and
guide the process
of constructing
knowledge in the
context of mutual
problem solving.
What role can Organise different Help students Facilitate collaborative
technology and kinds of material Organise new communication
media play? (text, audio, visual information, link among students,
and digital) and it to their existing instructors and other
exercises into a knowledge, and expects, provide a
teaching and learning encode it into variety of complex,
programme. memory. realistic, and safe
problem-solving
environments.
What is the Respond to cues. Actively synthesize Explore like

learner’s primary information. scientists.
responsibility?
FIGURE 1: Theoretical perspective of teaching and learning

Sourced from Newby, Stepich, Lehman, Russel & Ottenbreich-Leftwhich (2011)
4
ACTIVITY 1.2
Read page 50 in the textbook Elementary and Middle School Mathematics
(2016 – Ninth edition by Van de Walle et al.) Read about how students learn
mathematics. Answer the following questions:
(1) What is your perspective of how people learn mathematics?
(2) How does your personal perspective affect how you incorporate technology
and media to support learning in mathematics?
1.3 THE CURRICULUM AND MULTIMEDIA

Curriculum refers to the lessons and academic content taught in a school or in a
specific course or programme. Curriculum covers the aim of the course and the
knowledge and skills the students have to learn. Further, the mathematics school
curriculum includes: content areas (numbers, operations and relationships; patterns,
functions and algebra; space and shape also known as geometry; measurement and
data handling); teaching and learning support material; teaching methods; assessment
and academic requirements for promotion and progression such as the subjects that
the learner has to take to be promoted or progressed and the number of credits that
students must complete.
Curriculum is a foundational element of effective teaching and learning. Therefore,

it is often subjected to reform in order to either standardise the curriculum or for
consistency across all schools, grade levels and courses. An attempt to improve the
results in a country may also influence curriculum reform. Curriculum reform may
target for example the following areas in order to leverage school improvement
and to increase effectiveness in teaching and learning: standard requirements;
assessment requirements; curriculum alignment; curriculum resources; curriculum
standardization and other areas.
The aim of this study guide is to provide guidance on technology and media usage
in teaching and learning of school mathematics. Therefore, the curriculum area
that is of focus is the curriculum resources. The resources that schools provide to
teachers can also have a significant effect on curriculum. For example, if a district
or school purchases a certain set of textbooks and requires teachers to use them,
those textbooks will inevitably influence what gets taught and how teachers teach.
Technology purchases are another example of resources that have the potential to
influence curriculum. If all students are given laptops and all classrooms are outfitted
with interactive whiteboards, for example, teachers can make significant changes in
what they teach and how they teach to take advantage of these new technologies.
In most cases, however, new curriculum resources require schools to invest in
professional development that helps teachers use the new resources effectively,
given that simply providing new resources without investing in teacher education
and training may fail to bring about desired improvements. In addition, the type of
professional development provided to teachers can also have a major influence on
curriculum development and design. In a rapidly changing world, it is of the utmost
importance that learners are continually retrained to keep up with new knowledge
and technologies.
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Curriculum resources play a very important role in achieving other areas of the
curriculum. For example, it is through the application of relevant resources that the
South African National Curriculum Statement Grades R-12 (DBE, 2011) can achieve
its aims which are to produce learners that are able to:
• identify and solve problems and make decisions using critical and creative thinking;
• work effectively as individuals and with others as members of a team;
• organise and manage themselves and their activities responsibly and effectively;
• collect, analyze, Organise and critically evaluate information;
• communicate effectively using visual, symbolic and/or language skills in various
modes;
• use science and technology effectively and critically showing responsibility towards
the environment and the health of others; and
• demonstrate an understanding of the world as a set of related systems by recognising
that problem solving contexts do not exist in isolation.
Multimedia are necessary to enable students to seek knowledge widely in order to
enable students to think creatively and critically, and further to collect analyze,
Organise and critically evaluate information, as well as to communicate and network
effectively with their counterparts using visual, audio, audio-visual, text and digital
modes of communication.
1.4 GLOBALISATION AND MATHEMATICS EDUCATION

Globalisation refers to the process of developing international influence or starting
to operate on an international scale. Education has been affected by globalisation
extensively as the curriculum of specific countries needs to produce graduates that
are competent globally. It is stipulated in the South African school curriculum that
the curriculum promotes knowledge in local contexts, while being sensitive to global
imperatives; and this is done through the National Curriculum Statement Grades
R-12 which gives expression to the knowledge, skills and values worth learning in
South African schools. This curriculum aims to ensure that learners acquire and apply
knowledge and skills in ways that are meaningful to their own lives (DBE, 2011).
Further, the South African National Curriculum Statement Grades R-12 is based on a
number of principles and one of the principles is outlined as “Credibility, quality and
efficiency: providing an education that is comparable in quality, breadth and depth
to those of other countries” (DBE, 2011). This is clear that there is an attempt of
interaction and integration based on education in South Africa and other countries.
Globalisation is mostly aided by media for it to be viable. Nonetheless, there is a
low usage of technology and media in mathematics classrooms. In order for South
African learners to acquire and apply knowledge in ways that are meaningful to their
lives, and acquire knowledge that is embraced in quality, breadth and depth to that
of other countries technology and media should be encouraged.
Learners should broaden their knowledge and understanding of the local and
global mathematics context through multimedia, that is, through television,
internet, computers, cellphones, text like reading. It is important to equip classrooms
with multimedia in order to promote knowledge in local context and knowledge that
is sensitive to global imperatives. Seeing that globalisation of mathematics education
is imperative, the effect of globalisation will be discussed under the following:
• The impact of globalisation on the mathematics content, teaching approaches
and teaching resources.
6
TABLE 1
Globalisation and Globalisation and Globalisation and the

the mathematics teaching approaches teaching resources
content
*The mathematics *For learners’ global *Globalisation affects

curriculum must competency in teaching resources in a
reflect the global mathematics, the sense that the textbook
context. teaching approaches must be augmented by other
must shift from teacher resources like computers,
*The selection
centred approaches hand-held devices like
of mathematics
to student centred tablets, cell phones and
knowledge for the
approaches where many other technology
curriculum must not
students can acquire tools.
only be confined to
local facts and must knowledge through *Augmenting a textbook
contribute to learners’ active and critical with other resources can
high knowledge, learning. enable learners communicate
high skills and social *Globalisation affects effectively using visual,
transformation. the teaching approaches symbolic and/or language
in a sense that teaching skills in various modes.
approaches must Resources can enable
encourage an active learners communicate
and critical approach to effectively using visual,
learning, rather than rote symbolic and/or language
and uncritical learning of skills in various modes.
reality.
ACTIVITY 1.3
Use all search engines to find information and answer the following questions:
(1) From your own perspectives, what is globalisation in mathematics education?
(2) Specify the impact of globalisation in mathematics education. Elaborate on:
• Globalisation and the mathematics content.
• Globalisation and mathematics teaching approaches.
• Globalisation and teaching and learning resources.
(3) Looking at the South African mathematics curriculum, explain how globalisation
is being addressed in terms of teaching and learning resources.
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1.5 SCOPE
Technology and media in mathematics module is aimed at encouraging a teaching
and learning milieu that recognises that the learners in South African schools have a
variety of learning styles and culturally diverse perspectives. With the presentation of
theoretical perspectives in this study guide, students are afforded a chance to know
and understand different approaches of teaching to include the diverse culture of
learning during teaching. Further, understanding globalisation will assist students to
adapt to the 21st century teaching in order to accommodate the 21st century demands
in learning posed by globalisation. This module will further orientate students to
classes of media which are electronic or digital; calculator as a checking devise and
how to develop resources for teaching and learning mathematics. It is envisaged that
the module will assist teachers to:
(1) acquire sound understanding of technology and media in teaching and learning;
(2) design learning environments and experiences supported by technology and
media;
(3) use technology and media to enhance productivity and professional practice
(National Technology Standards for Teachers in Egbert, 2009).
It is also the aim of this module to assist students to be able to augment text resources
with other media in order to foster active and critical learning in their classrooms.
1.6 PURPOSE
The purpose of this course is to examine technology and media in the teaching of
mathematics in a general way so that you will be able to make informed judgements
about the use of technology and media in your classrooms.
1.7 PRESCRIBED TEXTBOOK

The prescribed textbook for this course is the following:
Van de Walle, JA., Karp, KS. & Bay-Williams, JM. 2016. Elementary and Middle School
Mathematics: Teaching Developmentally. 9th edition. England: Pearson Education.
8
2 STUDY UNIT 2
2 Electronic and Digital media

After studying this unit, you should be able to understand:
• The principle that underlies the use of electronic and digital media.
• The effect of digital media on learning.
• How electronic and digital media supports effective teaching.
Electronic and digital media have a great influence in the 21st century teaching and
learning of mathematics. The media also have a great impact towards globalisation.
The NCTM (2014) in Van de Walle (2016) outlined that an excellent mathematics
programme integrates the use of mathematical tools and technology as essential
resources to help students learn and make sense of mathematical ideas, reason
mathematically, and communicate their mathematical thinking. The term mathematical
technologies apply, and it refers to digital content accessed through electronic and
digital resources.
Electronic and digital resources/media/tools are: calculators; laptops; hand held

devices like cell phones and table devices, computer systems and software such as
Geogebra programmes and sketchpad; spreadsheets; interactive presentation devices
such as smartboard and smartboard programmes; and internet in order to operate
the digital media.
Mathematics Virtual manipulatives can be retrieved from digital media and from
other resources. Virtual manipulatives can provide students with opportunities
for guided discovery which can help them to build a better understanding of
mathematical concepts. Typically used virtual manipulatives in mathematics are blocks,
base 10 blocks, Cuisenaire rods, geometric planes, solid figures and tangrams.
ACTIVITY 2.1
Read pages 158–164 of the prescribed book.
(1) How can you use digital media appropriately and strategically in your own
context to achieve the following?
• Concept instruction
• Problem solving
• Drill and reinforcement
(2) Elaborate on the following referring to your own context:
• Guidelines for selecting digital media
• Guidelines for using digital media
(3) Draw your own self checklist to control the following:
• Selecting the appropriate digital content
• Evaluating mathematics resources found on the internet.
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According to Van de Walle (2016) digital tools, pedagogy (that is, the methods of
teaching) and content can be brought together (as in table 7.1 page 152) to engage
students in strategic and meaningful uses of technology and to model processes and
practices that deepen students’ understanding. Refer to figure 7-1, on page 152 of
Van de Walle et al., (2016). The figure shows the relation of technology, pedagogy
and content knowledge. Van de Walle outlined pedagogical content knowledge
(PCK) as the representation of specific strategies and approaches that teachers use
to deliver mathematical content effectively to students. Once technology becomes
infused into the PCK mix, the product becomes technological, pedagogical and
content knowledge (TPACK). Van de Walle et al., suggests that teachers must
consider technology as a conscious component of each lesson and a regular strategy
for enhancing student learning.
ACTIVITY 2.2
(1) Read more about TPACK from other sources. Show how TPACK applies in
your own context and in your own classroom.
(2) Study table 7.1, page 152 about the technology supported learning activities.
Choose a topic from any of the content areas. Design an activity and show
how the digital media, pedagogy and content can be brought together to
engage students in your own context. In your design outline the digital tools,
the pedagogy and the content that will apply.
2.1 DIGITAL MEDIA ENHANCES MATHEMATICS LEARNING

The Illuminations website states that electronic and digital media can help learners
to learn mathematics. For example, with calculators and computers students can
examine more examples or representational forms that are feasible without such
technology, so they can make and explore conjectures more easily. The graphic
power of digital technologies tools affords access to powerful visual models that
many learners are unable or unwilling to generate independently. The computational
capacity of technological tools extends the range of problems available to learners
and enables them to execute routine procedures quickly and accurately, thus allowing
more time for conceptualising and modelling.
Learners’ understanding of abstract mathematical ideas can be supported concretely

through digital media. Digital media enriches the range and quality of investigations
possible by providing a means of viewing mathematical ideas from multiple perspectives.
The feedback learners can be given by new digital technologies can be invaluable.
For example, a learner may drag a node in a dynamic geometry environment, and
the shape on the screen changes; change the defining rules for a spreadsheet, and the
dependent values are modified. Digital technologies also provide a focus as learners
discuss with one another and their teacher the objects on the screen and the effects
of the various dynamic transformations that technology allows. Electronic media
offers teachers options for adapting instruction to meet the needs of special learners.
Learners who are easily distracted may focus more intently on computer tasks, and
those who have organisational difficulties may benefit from the constraints imposed
by a computer environment. Learners who have trouble with basic procedures can
develop and demonstrate other mathematical understandings, which in turn may
eventually help them learn the required procedures. The possibilities for engaging
10
STUDY UNIT 2: Electronic and digital media
learners with physical challenges in mathematics are dramatically increased with the
use of special digital technologies.
2.2 DIGITAL MEDIA SUPPORT EFFECTIVE MATHEMATICS

TEACHING
The Illuminations website states that the effective use of technology in the mathematics
classroom depends on the teacher. Electronic and digital is not a panacea for all
ills. As with any teaching tool, it can be used well or ineffectually. Teachers should
use technology to enhance their learners’ learning opportunities by selecting or
creating mathematical tasks that take advantage of what digital technology can offer.
For example, teachers can use simulations to allow learners to experience problem
situations that are difficult to create without electronic technology, or they can use
data and resources from the Internet and the World Wide Web to help them design
learner tasks. Spreadsheets, dynamic geometry software, and computer micro-worlds
are also useful tools to use creating worthwhile problems.
Electronic and digital media does not replace the mathematics teacher. When learners
are using digital technological tools, they may often seem to work independently of
the teacher, but this impression is misleading. The teacher plays several important
roles in a technologyrich classroom and must make decisions that affect learners’
learning in important ways.
Initially, the teacher must decide if, when and how digital technology will be used.
When learners use calculators or computers in the classroom, the teacher has an
opportunity to observe them and to focus on their thinking. As they work with
digital technology, learners may show ways of thinking about mathematics that are
otherwise difficult to observe. In this way digital technology aids in assessment.
It allows teachers to examine the processes learners use in their mathematical
investigations as well as the results they come up with and gives teachers useful
information to use in making instructional decisions.
2.3 TECHNOLOGY INFLUENCES AND AFFECTS WHAT IS

TAUGHT IN MATHEMATICS
Technology not only influences how mathematics is taught and learned but also affects
what is taught and when a topic should appear in the curriculum (Illuminations
website). With digital technology at hand, young children can explore and solve
problems involving large numbers, or they can investigate characteristics of shapes
using dynamic geometry software. Elementary school learners can Organise and
analyze large sets of data. Middlegrade learners can study linear relationships and the
ideas of slope and uniform change with computer representations and by performing
physical experiments with a calculator. Secondary school learners can use simulations
to study sample distributions, and they can work with computer algebra systems that
efficiently perform most of the symbolic manipulation that was the focus of traditional
secondary school mathematics programmes. The study of algebra need not be limited
to simple situations in which symbolic manipulation is relatively straightforward.
Using digital technological tools, learners can reason about more general issues, such
as parameter changes, and they can model and solve complex problems that were
previously inaccessible to them. Digital technology also blurs some of the artificial
separations between certain areas in algebra, geometry and data analysis by allowing
learners to use ideas from one area of mathematics better to understand another.
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Technology can help teachers connect the development of skills and procedures to the
more general development of mathematical understanding. As some skills that were
once considered essential are rendered less necessary by digital technological tools,
learners can be asked to work at higher levels of generalisation or abstraction. Work
with computer simulations or logo can allow young children to extend their physical
experiences. Similarly, graphing utilities facilitate the exploration of characteristics of
classes of functions. By using digital technology, many areas in discrete mathematics
take on new importance in the contemporary mathematics classroom.
What does all of this mean to the South African teacher? According to research
the use of electronic and digital media is neglected in the vast majority of South
African schools. Perhaps the major constraint is finance since digital technologies
are often expensive. Given the backlogs in South African education, where there
is a shortage of basic resources such as textbooks in some classrooms. It may be
argued that we first should supply the basics before we try out ‘‘fancy’’ technology.
However, the very opposite argument may also be valid. Precisely because of the
backlogs in education and a lack of money, South Africa should speed up introducing
digital technology in all schools. There is evidence of digital technology in some
schools where interactive whiteboards are provided; laptops are provided to both
teachers and learners and where computer laboratories are erected. However, only
few schools have digital technologies and technologies like audio and audiovisual
material. Most of the schools are still stuck with only text material. Instead of being
prohibitively expensive, technology may actually be a cost-saving measure, which
may open up more educational opportunities. For example, one teacher may be
linked up via computer to hundreds of learners across the nation.
2.4 CALCULATORS IN THE MATHEMATICS CLASSROOM

According to Dessart et al. (1986:83–99), calculators are an essential technological
device in our society. Schools have the duty to provide instruction in the
appropriate and effective use of calculators. Most teachers agree that after learners
have mastered computational skills, they may use calculators to help them check
their computations and to facilitate problem solving. Dessart cites research that
indicates that calculators should be an integral part of mathematics instruction,
covering, amongst other things, the development of concepts and computational skills.
Hembree and Dessart et al. (1986:83–99) reported the findings of an analysis of

the effects of pre-college calculator use. These results from 88 studies focused on
learners’ achievements and attitudes. Each study involved one group of students
who used calculators and a control group who had no access to calculators. From
their analysis, Hembree and Dessart concluded that the calculator did not hinder
the learners’ acquisition of conceptual knowledge and that it significantly improved
their attitude towards and mathematics and their self-concept.
Smith (2003:57–67) conducted an analysis that extended the results of Hembree

and Dessart. Smith analyzed 24 research studies conducted from 1984 to 1995,
asking questions about attitude and achievement as a result of the learners’ use of
calculators. As in the Hembree and Dessart study, the test results of learners who
used calculators were compared to those of students who had not used calculators.
Smith’s study showed that the calculator had a positive effect on increasing conceptual
knowledge. This effect was evident in all grades and statistically significant in the
case of learners in the third grade, in the seventh grade through to the tenth grade,
and in the twelfth grade. Smith found that calculator usage had a positive effect on
12
learners’ problem-solving and computation skills. Smith concluded that the calculator
improved mathematical computation and did not hinder the development of pencil-
and-paper skills.
According to Dessart et al., a recent large, long-term study of calculators in primary

mathematics, funded by the Australian Research Council, Deakin University and the
University of Melbourne, involved primary and elementary school learners exploring
and developing number sense using calculators before they were taught standard
algorithms. It involved one thousand students and eighty teachers over a three-year
period. The performance of learners in the project was compared with that of a
control group from the same schools using a written test, a calculator test and an
interview. The results showed that in the project, learners performed better overall
on a wide range of items including place value, decimals, negative numbers and
mental computation. There did not appear to be any detrimental effects from using
calculators. In conclusion, Dessart recommend that schools strongly encourage the
use of calculators in all aspects of mathematical instruction including the development
of mathematical concepts and the acquisition of computational skills. He believes
that schools must educate learners on how to use calculators in a society where
calculators are in common, daily use.
The National Council of Teachers of Mathematics (NCTM in the USA) issued

a document in July 1998 which was reformulated in October 2002 to state their
position on calculators and the education of youth. The NCTM recommended
the integration of calculators into the school mathematics programme at all grade
levels. According to the NCTM, research and experience support the potential for
appropriate calculator use in improving the learning and teaching of mathematics.
Calculator use has been shown to enhance cognitive gains in areas such as number
sense, conceptual development and visualisation. Such gains will empower and
motivate all teachers and learners to engage in richer problem-solving activities.
Appropriate instruction that includes calculators can extend learners’ understanding

of mathematics and allow all learners access to rich problem-solving experiences.
Such instruction must develop the learners’ ability to know how and when to use
a calculator. Skill in estimation, both numerical and graphical, and the ability to
determine whether a solution is reasonable are essential elements of the effective
use of calculators.
Assessment and evaluation must be aligned with classroom use of calculators.

Instruments designed to assess learners’ mathematical understanding and application
must acknowledge learners’ access to and use of calculators. The NCTM made the
following recommendations:
• All learners should have access to calculators to explore mathematical ideas and
experiences, to develop and reinforce skills, to support problem-solving activities
and to perform calculations and manipulations.
• Mathematics teachers at all levels should promote the appropriate use of calculators
to enhance instruction by modelling calculator applications, by using calculators in
instructional settings, by integrating calculator use in assessment and evaluation,
by staying up to date with state-of-the art calculator technology, and by considering
new applications of calculators to enhance the study and learning of mathematics.
• Teacher education institutions should develop and provide pre-service and in-
service programmes that use a variety of calculator technology.
• Those responsible for the selection of curriculum materials should keep abreast
of how technology, and in particular, calculators, affect the curriculum.
MAE204Q/50113

• Authors, publishers and writers of assessment, evaluation and mathematics competition

instruments should integrate calculator applications into their published work.
• Mathematics educators should inform learners, parents, administrators, school
boards and others of research results that document the advantages of including
the calculator as one of several tools for learning and teaching mathematics.
Van de Walle et al. (2016:155) discusses four benefits of using calculators. Study
their findings critically.
Myths and fears about using calculators are also express. The opposition to calculators
is largely based on misinformation. Misconceptions about learners not learning
because of using calculators still persist, even in the face of evidence to the contrary.
Here are some myths about using calculators:

• If learners use calculators, they won’t learn the “basics”. Calculators make
learners lazy.
• Learners should learn the “real way” before using calculators.
• Learners will become overly dependent on calculators.
2.5 CALCULATOR ACTIVITIES

Estimation strategies involve using specific algorithms to produce appropriate rather
than exact results. Mental computation and computational estimation are strongly
related yet quite different skills. In order to arrive at an estimate, the learner makes
a mental computation with numbers that are easier to work with than the actual
numbers involved.
Therefore, estimation depends on learners’ mental computational skills.
2.5.1 Estimation
The calculator is not only a good source of estimation activities but also one of the
reasons estimations is so important. We frequently hit a wrong key, leave off a digit
or a decimal, or simply enter numbers incorrectly. An estimate of the expected result
alerts us to these errors. The calculator as an estimation teaching tool is fun to use,
without exposing learners to the fear of embarrassment.
ACTIVITY 2.3
Discuss how you can facilitate the usage of a calculator in problem solving. Choose
a specific topic (e.g. number patterns) and illustrate how you would teach the topic
encouraging the use of a calculator.
(1) Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of using a calculator during
instruction.
(2) Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of a calculator in learning.
14
2.6 THE COMPUTER AS A TOOL IN MATHEMATICS
Tool software is a generic term for software that performs a function that makes
doing something easier. The most common tool software is the word processor.
Other popular tools include GeoGebra, Mathematica, spreadsheets, data-bases and
presentation software such as PowerPoint. A number of powerful tools have been
created for use in the mathematics classroom. They come in two formats: programs
that can be purchased from software publishers and Internet-based applications or
applets (for ‘‘little applications’’) accessible via Web browsers such as Google Chrome
or Microsoft Internet Explorer. Applets are always much smaller, more targeted
programs than those available as commercial software. A significant advantage is
that they are freely available on the Internet. Many can be downloaded, so learners
do not require an Internet connection to use them. You are strongly urged to browse
through and use these applets. Some of these can be downloaded free of charge.
A mathematical software tool is somewhat like a physical manipulative, in other

words it does not teach on its own. However, utilising a well-designed tool software
package will help you and your learners explore mathematical ideas.
2.6.1 GeoGebra in teaching and learning mathematics

GeoGebra is a software for teaching and learning mathematics. It offers a great
support in linking mathematical concepts by offering geometry, algebra and calculus
tools in one environment. GeoGebra is a free and an open-code software. Download
the GeoGebra software at https://www.geogebra.org/download.
Explore GeoGebra as a teaching tool. Consider the content area Space, shape and
measurement and the topic Reflection in Transformation geometry. Follow the steps
presented below to plot points and to reflect points and polygons.
Plotting and reflecting points using GeoGebra

(a) The home page contains a Cartesian plane with function toolbar.
MAE204Q/115
(b) Click graphics on the toolbar.
(c) Click show or hide the grid in order to show the grid.
A
(d) Plot the point A (1, 3) by clicking ● on the tool bar and then click the
point of intersection of A (1, 3). The point will appear.
16
(e) Reflect the point A(1, 3) about the x-axis as follows:

• Click and then the point A (1, 3) on the Cartesian plane followed
by clicking the x lline, that is, the x-axis.
• The mirror image or the reflection of A (1, 3) will be reflected as A՛ (1, -3).
(f) Plotting and reflecting polygons:

• Click ; construct on the Cartesian plane a square with the following
points: B (6, 4); C (8, 4); D (8, 2); E (6, 2).
• Click the point B (6, 4); drag the mouse horizontally along the grid from B
to point C (8, 4); hover the mouse vertically down to point D (8, 2); hover
the mouse horizontally to the right from point D to E (6, 2) and lastly hover
the mouse vertically up from point E to A. Finally, you had constructed
the square BCDE.
MAE204Q/1 17
(g) To reflect thee square about the x-axis, click ; and then click the square
BCDE on the Cartesian plane followed by clicking the x line or the x-axis.
The square BCDE will be reflected about the x-axis in the fourth quadrant
as B’ C’ D’ E’ with points: B’ (6, 4); C’ (8,–4).
(h) Explore with GeoGebra and try to reproduce the figures below.
18
ACTIVITY 2.4
Design a lesson that you can facilitate using GeoGebra as a computer software.
Discuss the software (GeoGebra); the relevance of the software and how you will
administer the software or programme in your classroom. Choose a specific topic
(for example functions) and illustrate how you can teach the topic using a computer.
2.7 ELECTRONIC MANIPULATIVES FOR NUMERATION

These programs offer learners screen versions of popular manipulative models with
which to work freely without the computer posing any problems, evaluating results
or telling them what to do.
There are some Web-based tools or applets that are designed so that students may
manipulate them without constraint. For example, the Base Ten Block Applet
(www.arcytech.org/java/b10blocks/b10blocks.html) allows learners to collect as
many flats, rods and units as they wish, gluing them together in groups of ten, or
breaking a flat into ten rods or a rod into ten units.
Van de Walle et al., believe that before one selects a digital resource, there should
always be some clear advantage of using it. On page 160, they discuss the guidelines
you can keep in mind when you select of digital content. However, not every program
offers all of these features.
Duminy (2003:31–32) explains that the computer is an electronic machine with

immense storage capacity, specially designed for the manipulation of coded
information.
In the field of teaching and learning, the computer essentially serves as a sophisticated
teaching machine and may therefore be regarded as an extension and further
development of programmed instruction. The complexity of computers varies a
great deal, but in general they all consist of the following four basic elements:
• Input
• The processor
• Storage facilities
• Output
When a computer is utilised as a teaching machine, that is, for instructional purposes,
the input element is usually represented by a keyboard terminal or console. Information
is fed from the input terminal to the processing unit where learner responses are accepted
and compared, and where programmed information and other data are held in storage.
The request fed into the computer by way of the input terminal is then processed
and the response of the computer, called the output, is printed by a line printer, or is
displayed on a screen similar to that of a television set. Computers vary tremendously
in size. For the sake of convenience, we may classify them, from large to small, into
the following four main groups:
• Mainframe computers
• Minicomputers
• Microcomputers
• Mini-micro computers
MAE204Q/119

Computers in the first two groups are large computers, and for instructional purposes
are used on a time-sharing basis, that is, a variety of terminals are linked to a central
processor or frame. The smaller computers, such as desktops, are usually used
independently. A mainframe computer generally takes up a whole room, while a
mini- microcomputer is often small enough to be carried in a pocket. Of course
there is also a tremendous difference in price and capacity.
The equipment which makes up the computer itself is known as hardware,

while computer programs are referred to as software. As in the case of programmed
instruction, computer programs are developed by specialists called programmers.
Programmers work in conjunction with subject specialists to devise computer
programs, which are stored on disks. The use of a computer as an instructional device
is referred to as computer-assisted instruction (CAI) or computer-based education
(CBE) (Duminy, 2003:33). CAI can take many forms. At the most basic level of
operation, the instructional material is presented on a display unit, usually either via
a keyboard terminal or a monitor. The computer tele-types specific learning material;
and then poses questions on the material. The learner answers either by pressing
a button or by typing in an answer. The computer evaluates each answer in terms
of its stored information. It can then either request the learner to proceed, or can
supply written, visual and sometimes even auditory feedback before the question is
repeated or repeated in an augmented form.
One of the most ambitious CAI projects, started in the USA, is the so-called PLATO
project. (PLATO is the acronym for Programmed Logic for Automatic Teaching
Operation.) PLATO, a time-sharing computer- based education system that utilises
a mainframe computer, has also ‘‘emigrated’’ to South Africa. This may mean that
eventually thousands of students will simultaneously have access to CAI terminals,
spread all over the country, but connected up to a single large computer. Ordinary
telephone lines are used for linking up terminals in separate locations with the
central computer.
According to Pierce and Lorber (1977:137) there are four principal types of CAI
programs. We discuss them below.
Drill and practice programs. These are quite common and are usually of the branching
variety, which means that if learners have problems at a certain level, the program
automatically moves to a simpler level. Once the learner has become more proficient,
the program moves back to the more complex level. Programs in mathematics,
science and languages are often of this type.
Tutorial programs. These differ from the drill and practice programs in that new
information is supplied by the program. Based on the learner’s responses, further
information is then supplied which often becomes more and more abstract.
Simulation and gaming programs. The computer creates realistic situations to which
a learner can react.
Problem-solving or free interaction programs. Here the learner makes use of

the computing properties of the computer and of the computer’s ability to create
new and unfamiliar situations. In mathematics, for example, learners can experiment
with instant solutions to complex mathematical problems without the hours of work
necessary in the case of conventional calculations.
20
Duminy (2003:34) mentions the following qualities which make computers unique
in an instructional setting:
• The computer never gets tired, angry, temperamental or frustrated.
• It operates at an incredible speed.
• It has a perfect memory.
• Because of its memory and storage facilities, it can assess individual progress and
also initiate and monitor remedial work.
• Through its terminals, one mainframe computer can accommodate a great variety
of learners who all receive individual attention at the same time. Such terminals
can be separated by hundreds of kilometres.
• A computer can teach some parts of a learner’s study programme with less error
and more speed than a human teacher.
• The computer may have the potential to solve some of our urgent educational
problems. These include the shortage of teachers, overloaded syllabuses,
overcrowded classrooms, the lack of effective individualisation, the restricted
choice of subjects, the swift obsolescence of learning content and the heavy load
of administrative work at schools.
Duminy (2003:35) remarks that the most important disadvantage of computers is

the fact that they are very expensive, and although CAI is efficient in certain areas
of instruction, its high cost means that it is unlikely to become common in South
African schools in the near future.
Despite the above, CAI can be expected to play a major role in transforming education
in the long term, mainly because of its outstanding ability to cater for the individual
needs of learners, a central requirement in the field of education.
ACTIVITY 2.5
(1) Describe in a few sentences what you understand by the principle
of educational media.
(2) Should you take it for granted that all the learners in your class can clearly
see what is written on the chalkboard? What can you do to make sure that
this is the case?
(3) You have an interesting but small picture to show to your class.
What apparatus would you need?
MAE204Q/121

3 STUDY UNIT 3
3 THE CALCULATOR AS A CHECKING DEVICE

After studying this unit, you should be able to:
• Check pencil-and-paper calculations.
• Predict and check answers.
• Use the calculator as a generator.
• Describe number patterns.
• Develop some algorithms.
• Know some of the restrictions to using the calculator.
• Use the calculator as a black box.
• Know the uses of the graphics calculator.
3.1 INTRODUCTION
Read pages 154–158 of Elementary and middle school mathematics by Van de Walle
et al., 2016.
According to Moursond (1977:3.14), we can distinguish between the following

different forms of calculations:
Exact mental arithmetic: examples include place values and extensions thereof:
70 × 8,38 + 27; 1,4.
Estimations: An example of this would be:

Estimate 123 + 78 or 19 by calculating 120 + 80 and 20
28 30
Pencil-and-paper calculations:
eg 12,37 × 114,3
Calculations using aids: Calculations using other aids include those using the abacus,
fingers, the number line, tables, calculators or the computer.
It is of utmost importance to utilise the calculator to check calculations or estimated

values. In this unit we will discuss ways to employ the calculator as checking device.
3.1.1 Checking pencil-and-paper calculations

Learners can utilise the calculator to check their pencil-and-paper calculations.
According to Olivier (1987:57), if the pencil-and-paper answer is different to that of
the calculator, it is simple to pick up the mistake by first repeating the calculations
using the calculator. If there is still a difference in the answers, the learners should
check the calculations they have done without using the calculator.
The calculator is a very efficient checking device since it provides quick, neutral
feedback. Learners soon learn to compete against the calculator, striving to beat it.
22
STUDY UNIT 3: The calculator as a checking device
3.1.2 Predict and check

A second way of using the calculator as a checking device is to predict a calculation
and check it afterwards using the calculator (Bell et al., 1978:38).
In the following basic exercises learners can enter in their answers and then check
them using the calculator.
3.2 ACTIVITIES
ACTIVITY 3.1
PREDICTION  OR O CORRECTION
8 -3
7 -5
7 -6
4 -8
6 -9
8 -7
5 -9
6 -4
ACTIVITY 3.2
8÷4
18 ÷ 4
32 ÷ 4
5÷8
7 ÷ 16
7 ÷ 28
9÷7
38 ÷ 8
59 ÷ 8
MAE204Q/123

ACTIVITY 3.3
In this exercise for place values learners must calculate each of the following
without using a pencil and paper. They must then write down their answers in
the prediction column. Finally, they must check their answers using a calculator.
543 − 100
257 − 100
1 033 − 100
3 567 − 100
432 − 100
2 465 − 100
543 + 100
257 + 100
1 033 + 100
3 567 + 100
432 + 100
2 465 + 100
ACTIVITY 3.4
This exercise follows on activity 3.3.
200 + 30 + 6
100 + 100 + 10 + 4
30 + 1 000 + 200
200 + 60 + 1 000
2000 + 30 + 100
24
ACTIVITY 3.5
Olivier (1987:64) provides the following estimation exercises:
(1) Estimate in each case the result and circle the answer nearest to your
estimate. Now determine the difference between the calculator result and
the circled answer.
ESTIMATE CALCULATOR DIFFERENCE
21 × 18 100 200 400 500
42 × 31 600 800 1 000 1 300
33 × 44 1 000 1 100 1 200 1 400
58 × 47 2 400 2 500 2 600 2 700
26 × 417 700 800 1 000 1 200
ESTIMATE CALCULATOR DIFFERENCE
125 10 11 12 13
171 11 12 13 14
257 14 15 16 17
1111 25 30 35 40
7600 70 80 90 100
Olivier (1987:67) gives the following variation that utilises the calculator as a
checking device:
Determine the prime factors of an integer. The procedures and rules are as follows:
• There are two players with one calculator.

• The first player enters any positive integer into the calculator.
• The second player predicts a prime factor of the number on display.
• He or she then divides the number on display by his or her predicted answer
to check whether he or she is correct. If the answer is a whole number, he or
she earns one point; if not, he or she loses one point and the initial number is
entered once again.
MAE204Q/125

• The players take turns and continue with the game until 1 appears on the
display. The player with the most points wins.
3.3 PLACE VALUE
ACTIVITY 3.6
(1) Fill in the missing numbers and check your answers using your calculator.
1234 +  = 1254
1234 − 1034 =
1234 + 1434 =
1234 −  = 1204
1234 +  = 2234
(2) Balance the following equations by adding or subtracting a number from

the one on the left-hand side.
Example 623 ±  = 603

Answer 623 - 20 = 603
1534 ±  = 1504
1534 ±  = 1034
1534 ±  = 1530
1534 ±  = 534
1534 ±  = 1644
1534 ±  = 1635
26
(3) Construct each of the following numbers with the aid of the calculator
using only the numbers 1 000, 100, 10 and 1 together with the
operators + and −.
Example 23: 10 + 10 + 1 + 1 + 1 = 23
1234
1243
1324
When learners are uncertain about concepts and facts, they need positive feedback,
and the calculator is an excellent device to foster self-confidence. However,
according to Olivier (1987:73), it is not a good idea to force learners to use the
calculator as a checking device if they already know their answers are correct.
3.4 THE CALCULATOR TO IDENTIFY NUMBER PATTERNS

Olivier (1987:87) illustrates how to use the calculator with the aid of two examples.
The first example deals with a problem related to number theory which can be used
to motivate symbolising and manipulation in grade 9. The second example deals
with the distributive law covered in grade 7.
Example 1
(1) Calculate the following using your calculator when necessary. What patterns
can you identify?
2 × 3 × 4 + 3 =
3 × 4 × 5 + 4 =
5 × 6 × 7 + 6 =
7 × 8 × 9 + 8 =
12 × 13 × 14 + 13 =
 
 
 
MAE204Q/127

(2) Now predict the result of each of the following and check your answers using
your calculator.
9 × 10 × 11 + 10 =
19 × 20 × 21 + 20 =
(3) Formulate your observations in words and in symbols.
(4) Can you explain the pattern, or proof that it always holds.
Example 2
(1) Calculate the following using your calculator when necessary.
8 × 24 =
8 × 20 + 8 × 4 =
8 × 19 + 8 × 5 =
8 × 18 + 8 × 16 =
8 × 17 + 8 × 7 =
8 × 16 + 8 × 8 =
8 × 15 + 8 × 9 =
8 × 14 + 8 × 10 =
(2) Describe any patterns in words.

(3) Can you explain the pattern?
(4) Which of the above examples can you do without the aid of the calculator?
(5) Calculate the following without using your calculator. Now check your answers
using your calculator.
8 × 13 + 8 × 11
23 × 14 + 23 × 6
16 × 32
According to Olivier (1987:88), the above two examples typically encourage the
inductive development of learners. They start with a particular statement and conclude
with a general statement. Cooney (1975:144) describes the mathematical abstraction
and generalisation as follows:
A student makes an abstraction when he or she realises properties common to a set
of exemplars. In short, the student sees the commonality among the differences.
Generalising occurs when a student predicts that a relationship that holds for a
particular sample will also be true for a more inclusive sample.
28
ACTIVITY 3.7
The following exercises in Olivier (1987:95) foster the inductive development of
statements.
3.4.1 Number patterns

(1) Calculate the following using your calculator:
999 × 23
999 × 34
999 × 45
999 × 56
(2) Describe any patterns that you observe.

(3) Now predict the results of the following and check your answers using your
calculator:
999 × 78
999 × 89
(4) Can you explain the pattern?
ACTIVITY 3.8
3.4.2 Recurring decimals

(1) Calculate the following using your calculator and describe any patterns that
you observe:
(2) Now write down the following as decimals and check your answers using
your calculator:
7 17 173
9 ; 99 ; 999
MAE204Q/129

ACTIVITY 3.9
3.4.3 Multiplying by 10
(1) Calculate each of the following using your calculator:
3 × 10 13 × 10 63 × 10
7 × 10 19 × 10 67 × 10
8 × 10 18 × 10 68 × 10
(2) Describe any patterns you observe.

(3) Now calculate the following without using your calculator.
9 × 10 27 × 10 15 × 10
49 × 10 38 × 10 84 × 10
(4) What are the answers to the following?

9 × 100 6 × 100 4 × 100
ACTIVITY 3.10
3.4.4 Trigonometric identities

(1) Complete the following table:
x 0 10° 20° 30° 40° 50° 60° 70° 80° 90°

sin x
cos x
sin x
cos x
tan �
(2) Describe all patterns you observe.

(3) Can you explain these patterns?
x sin2 x + cos2 x
10°
23°
35°
127°
212°
317°

(6) Can you explain the patterns?
30

ACTIVITY 3.11
3.4.5 Logarithmic identities

a b log ab log a + log b

3 2
17 4
108 27

ACTIVITY 3.12
3.4.6 Algebraic identities

(1) Complete the following and formulate any patterns:
0×1×2×3+1=
1×2×3×4+1=
2×3×4×5+1=
3×4×5×6+1=
4×5×6×7+1=
(2) Check whether the pattern holds for the following cases:
13 × 14 × 15 × 16 + 1
20 × 21 × 22 × 23 + 1
25 × 26 × 27 × 28 + 1
3.5 REMARKS
Olivier (1987:97) remarks that besides the fact that an inductive approach like
recognising patterns can foster generalisation, it can also motivate proofs and
manipulation. For example, to explain or prove the algebraic identities in (6) to hold
in general, it is necessary for learners to use symbols:
n (n + 1) (n + 2) (n + 3) + 1 = [(n + 1)² + n]²
Now the symbols get meaning as numerical variables.
MAE204Q/50131

An inductive approach frequently leads to surprising results that require an explanation,

like sin2 x + cos2 x. If the learners can’t find an explanation they will be more than
willing to examine any theory which will confirm the result.
Olivier (1987:98–100) illustrates the dynamic use of the calculator to examine the
behaviour of a function where x varies over the defined domain of the function.
The behaviour of the tan-function nearer to of x = 90° can be explored by choosing
x-values close to 90°:
tan 89° = 57,289962

tan 89,9° = 572,95721
tan 89,99° = 5729,5779
tan 89,999° = 57295,78
tan 90° = Undefined
tan 90,001° = - 57295,78
The power of the calculator makes it possible to examine the rate of change of the
tanfunction which was difficult to investigate in the past. The question ‘‘why is tan
90, 0018 suddenly negative?’’ arises. The learner can investigate the concept of a
limit by finding function values for the function y = x1 for big values of x or for x
values very close to 0 with the aid of the calculator.
3.6 DEVELOPMENT OF SOME ALGORITHMS

Read pages 306–307 of Elementary and middle school mathematics by John A Van
de Walle.
In the first example we consider the development of a rule for the position of the
decimal comma in the product of decimal numbers. Olivier (1987:123) considers
the traditional approach to converting decimal fractions to ordinary fractions, then
to multiplying the ordinary fractions, and afterwards to converting the result to
decimal notation.
Example
0.3 x 0.4 = 3 x 4 x 12 = 0.12

10 10 10
According to Olivier (1987:23), the disadvantage of this method lies in the fact that
this development is indirect and is initiated by the teacher. Most learners do not
really understand what the aim of the teacher is. The approach suggested by Olivier
utilising the calculator is direct. The learners derive the rule on their own, and the
explanation of the rule in terms of ordinary fractions follows at a later stage of their
development.
32
ACTIVITY 3.13
(1) Calculate the following products using your calculator. Try to find the rule
used by your calculator to determine the position of the decimal comma in
the result.
121 × 32 1,21 × 32
12,1 × 32 1,21 × 3,2
121 × 3,2 0,121 × 0,32
12,1 × 3,2
(2) Fill in the calculator’s rule:

decimal × decimal Rule
(3) Can you explain why the calculator uses this rule?
(4) Calculate the following using your calculator. Is the above mentioned-rule
still in use? Explain.
0, 2 × 0, 5 0, 20 × 0, 50
1, 5 × 0, 4 1, 50 × 0, 40
The aim of question 5 is to show that the rule still holds true when the calculator
omits the zeros at the end and gives the answer of 0, 20, 5 × as 0,1 as even if
some of the learners expect two decimal places.
Read pages 271–296 of Elementary and middle school mathematics by John A

Van de Walle.
Olivier (1987:124–127) gives a second example on developing a rule for the

subtraction of integers. He suggests the following activities could be used to
develop the concept of subtraction of negative numbers.
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ACTIVITY 3.14
(1) Examine the calculations carefully. Can you determine which rule the
calculator uses to find the answers to the above problems?
Example
-
6 - -6 (use the ± on your calculator)
Keys: 6 ± - 6 ± =
Answer: 0
-
6 - -6 -
5 - -5
-
6 - -5 -
6 - -3
-
6 - -2 -
5 - -4
-
5 - -6 -
5 - -7
-
4 - -7 -
4 - -8
(2) Hence use the above rule to predict the answers to the following problems.
Check your answers by using your calculator.
-
7 - -3 -
12 - -8
-
10 - -10 -
3 - -8
-
8 - -3 -
9 - -6
-
6 - -9 -
10 - -4 - -3
-
12 - -6 - -6 -
5 - -6 - -4
(3) Can you explain the rule? Why does it work? Discuss.
(4) Can you apply the rule to the following problems? Check your answers
using your calculator.
(5) If different to 1, formulate the calculator’s rule. Does this rule also apply to
question 1?
(6) Do the following using the rule. Check your answer using your calculator.
6 - -1 6 - -4
-
6 - -4 -
4 - -6
0 - -3 -
3 - -3
3 - -3 3 - -5
-
3 - -5 0 - -7
(7) Can you explain the rule? Why does the rule work?
34
3.7 ESTIMATION
According to Olivier (1987:136–143), the calculator encourages a new approach to
estimation. This method differs from the traditional analytical methods and involves
simple techniques known to be numerical methods.
Example
Solve for x: 32x = 180,8
Younger learners can solve a simple equation like 3x = 27 by making use of tables.
The process boils down to an estimate-and-check method (trial-and-error method):
3 × 7 = 21 (too small)
3 × 8 = 24 (still too small)
3 × 9 = 27 (which is correct)
Although the above example is too complex to be solved in a similar way, using a
calculator makes it easy to solve this problem.
The solution should look like this:

32 × 10 = 320 (almost twice the value 180) Try x = 5.
x 32 x REASONING
5 160 160 < 180, therefore x > 5
6 192 192 > 180, therefore 5 < x < 6
5,5 176 176 < 180, therefore 5,5 < x < 6
5,7 182,4 182,4 >180, therefore 5,5 < x < 5,7
5,6 179,2 179,2 < 180, therefore 5,6 < x < 5,7
5,65 180,8 Correct
3.8 THE CONCEPT OF A FUNCTION

de Walle.
According to Meissner (Olivier, 1987:144), it is essential to understand what is meant

by the domain and the range of a function, as well as the relationship between the
x and the y values of the function. This gives rise to the following three kinds of
problems:
MAE204Q/135

(1) Given x and f, determine y (calculating the function values)
x function ?
(2) Given f and y, determine x (solving equations)
x function ?
(3) Given x and y, determine the relationship
x relationship y
ACTIVITY 3.15
(1) Complete the following tables:
y = 4 + 1,5x
x y
0
-
2
y= 5 ×˗3
2
x y
-
1
36
y=˗2˗x
x y
-
4
-
2
-
1
(2) Solve for x in the following cases:
y = 3x + 2 and y = 5x - 4
y = 1 - 2x and y =x-7
y = -8 - x and y
2
=6- 5 x…y = 4 x
1
and y = 9 - 5x
To determine the relationship between x and y, one has to solve a set of equations
simultaneously.
3.9 LIMITATIONS OF USING A CALCULATOR

Truncation and rounding-off errors often occur when calculating with a calculator.
Calculations such as the following are rendered incorrect when done on a calculator.
Most calculators simply truncate the numbers after the eighth digit.
For example:
11111 + 0,2345 becomes 11111,234
11111111 + 0,2 becomes 11111111
(12345678 + 12345679) ÷ 2 becomes 12345678
1,2345678 ÷ 10000 becomes 0,0001234
1 ÷ 3 × 3 = 0,9999999
0,0000001 ÷ 2 = 0
It is important that learners be aware of the kind of limitations some calculators have.
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ACTIVITY 3.16
Calculate the following calculations using a calculator:
(1) (0, 00086 ÷ 1162) × 438

(2) (0, 00086 × 438) ÷ 1162
(3) (438 ÷ 1162) × 0,00086
8.6 × 10 - 4 × 4.34 × 10²
(4)
1.162 × 10²
3.10 PLACE-VALUE DEVELOPMENT

de Walle.
According to Van de Walle (2014:204), the ‘‘Big Ideas’’ of whole- number place value
are the following (Compare with “Big Ideas’’ on page 247 of Van de Walle et al., 2016):
(1) Sets of ten (and tens of tens) can be perceived as single entities.
These sets can then be counted and used as a means of describing quantities.
For example, three sets of ten and two singles is a base- ten method for
describing 32 single objects. This is the underlying principle of base-ten
numeration.
(2) The positions of the digits in numbers determines what they represent –
which size group they count. This is the underlying principle of place-value
numeration.
(3) There are patterns in the way that numbers are formed. For example, each
decade has a symbolic pattern reflective of the 1-to-9 sequence.
(4) The groupings of ones, tens and hundreds can be taken apart in different ways.
For example, 256 can be 1 hundred, 14 tens, and 16 ones. Taking numbers
apart and recombining them in flexible ways is a significant computational skill.
(5) Really big numbers are best understood in terms of familiar real-world referents.
It is difficult to conceptualise quantities as large as 1000 or more. The base-ten
place-value system is the way that we communicate and represent anything
that we do with whole numbers and later with decimals.
Olivier (1987:214–215) suggests the following calculator activities to encourage a

deeper understanding of the place-value concept.
ACTIVITY 3.17
(1) Predict the answer to each of the following. Hence use your calculator to
check your answer. Watch the numbers on display every time you press
the button.
1 + 1 + 1 + 1 + 10 + 100 + 100
100 + 100 + 10 + 1 + 1 + 1 + 1
100 + 100 + 100 + 10 + 10 + 1 + 1 + 1
38
(2) Predict the answer to each of the following. Hence do the calculation using
your calculator.
2 thousands + 3 hundreds + 4 tens + 5 ones
2 000 + 300 + 40 + 5
3 000 + 200 + 5
(3) Create the following numbers on your calculator screen by using only the
numbers 1000; 100; 10; and 1, as well as the key buttons: + and -
• 2314
• 3241
• 2134
• 5243
(4) Use your calculator and key in the number on the left-hand side. Hence use
only the following buttons to get the number on the right-hand side:
+ , - , = , 1, 10 and 100
Example 2364 → 2105
Example
2364 2105
Solution
2364 - 100 - 100 - 10 - 10 - 10 - 10 - 10 - 10 + 1 = 2105
• 1534 → 1234
• 1534 → 1504
• 1534 → 1975
• 1534 → 1718
(5) Use your calculator and read in the number that appears on the left-hand
side. Hence find the number on the right-hand side by adding or subtracting
a single number.
Example
2345 2305
Solution
2345 - 40 = 2305
• 1534 → 1034
• 1534 → 534
• 1534 → 1004
• 1534 → 1030
• 1534 → 2034
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3.11 THE CALCULATOR AS A BLACK BOX

When using the calculator in black box mode, we use the calculator as a generator
to generate data pairs with the purpose of discovering how the calculator works
?
and in the process to develop mathematical concepts. The essence of a black box
approach is that learners should use the calculator-generated data inductively to
infer a mathematical model (algorithm) that simulates and explains the input-output
relationship. The black box mode may be characterised by the following flow diagram:
Example: The meaning of square root

Suppose learners do not yet know the meaning of square root. Instead of defining
and explaining, learners can discover the meaning for themselves in an activity like
the following:
ACTIVITY 3.18
Use your calculator to complete the following:
1 4 9 25
16
What is the calculator doing? Write down a rule for the calculator:
number → →
Now use the rule to predict the following, then check using your calculator.
144
121
81
3.12 THE GRAPHICS CALCULATOR

Read pages 156–158 of Elementary and middle school mathematics by Van de Walle
et al., 2016.
Mathematics is often regarded as a difficult subject. The problem is that mathematics

is very abstract. Learners understand what they can see. How can we as teachers
help our learners to see mathematics?
Educators who have been lucky enough to have been exposed to the graphics
calculator, feel that this instrument has the potential to revolutionise the teaching
and learning of mathematics because the graphics calculator makes abstract concepts
concrete.
40
Graphing technology facilitates all types of learning, and the graphing calculator
is a powerful tool for mathematics teachers of all levels. From beginners’ algebra
to intermediate algebra to trigonometry, the graphing calculator is a must for every
teacher who wants to make learning mathematics a visual and concrete experience.
By experiencing a mathematical concept on a concrete and visual level, all learners
will have a better chance of understanding the abstraction.
The graphics calculator is therefore a powerful tool of learning that opens up new
ways to approach mathematical problems, encouraging learners to experiment and
investigate. The graphics calculator has the potential to make mathematics a visual
experience – to allow learners to see the mathematics taking place.
Graphics calculators are not widely used in many South African classrooms. Even
though a graphics calculator is cost effective when we take into account the cost of
a computer that can perform similar functions, the price per calculator is unaffordable
to most schools and learners. Perhaps in the future, the graphics calculator will
become more affordable and readily available. We look forward to this as the graphics
calculator is a powerful piece of technology that has the potential to play a significant
role in mathematics teaching and learning.
3.13 WHAT ARE THE USES OF THE GRAPHICS CALCULATOR?

The graphics calculator:
• Can be used as a tool to assist in the teaching and learning of existing subject
matter can aid in the development of spatial visualisation skills.
• Can enhance the understanding of graphing concepts (i.E. Turning points,
intercepts, points of intersection).
• Allows learners to explore and discover mathematical concepts for themselves.
The graphics calculator is believed to be a tool which opens up new ways to approach
many problems and encourages learners to experiment and investigate, allowing a
shift in emphasis from algebraic manipulation and proof to graphical investigation.
Although the graphics calculator has the potential to enrich the teaching and learning
of mathematics in schools, it should be remembered that it is not a replacement for
pen- and paper techniques but rather a tool that provides an alternative to the way
in which graphing is presently taught.
3.14 WHAT CAN THE GRAPHICS CALCULATOR DO?

The graphics calculator has all the facilities of a scientific calculator and can be used
for data analysis, linear algebra, programming and the graphing of functions.
The graphic calculator is very useful in schools as it can be used to draw a number
of graphs on the same Cartesian plane. This allows learners to interpret, analyze
and compare the characteristics of functions with relative ease. For instance, you
could programme in the following linear equations:
y = x 1-; y = x 4; y- = x + 1 (By altering the ‘c’ in the equation: y = x + c, the
learner can discover how the ‘c’ affects the y-intercept of the graph.)
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Often teachers complain that the drawing of graphs by means of the table method
and plotting is very time-consuming. The calculator draws the graphs for you and
allows more time for analysing the results and formulating conclusions about the
properties of graphs.
By moving the graph around (using the cursor keys), the learners are able to locate
the coordinates of any point (e.g. the co-ordinates of the point of intersection and
of the intercepts with the axes) on the graph.
42
4 STUDY UNIT 4
4 DEVELOPING RESOURCES FOR TEACHING AND
LEARNING MATHEMATICS

After studying this unit, you should be able to:
• Develop teaching resources and teaching aids using materials such as string, drawing
pins, straws, newsreel, dice, counters, paper, sticks, pine cones, leaves and sweets.
• Design mathematical activities using art, sport, newspaper and magazine articles,
music, etc. as a basis.
4.1 TEACHING AND LEARNING RESOURCES

For a lesson to be effective and meaningful, the learners need to be actively and
enthusiastically involved. They should be required to use their sense of vision,
hearing and touch to learn. Teaching and learning aids are a great help to the
teacher in assisting learners to learn. Using models helps to extend the totality and
quality of sensations they experience. Because much of mathematics is concerned
with abstractions, there is a special need for models in mathematics teaching.
Mathematicians recognise this when they create new mathematics.
4.2 TEACHING AIDS
4.2.1 Guidelines on choosing a teaching resource

The following guidelines may prove useful:
• Select a teaching resource that is related to the world of the child. Young learners,
in particular, will feel secure if they are able to play or work with familiar objects.
• The teaching resource should be appropriate in the context of the specific lesson.
• Teaching resources should be used as an integral part of the lesson.
• Teaching resources should be used when and where they are needed.
• They are not there merely to amuse or entertain the learners.
• Do not overdo the use of teaching resources. Too many teaching resources will
only confuse the learners.
• Find out what teaching resources are available at the school or which ones learners
can bring from home.
• Instead of buying expensive teaching resources, you can often make similar ones
yourself.
4.2.2 Requirements for the effective use of a teaching resource

You should bear the following in mind:
• As a teacher, you must be able to use teaching resources effectively, planning the
use of the teaching resources well.
• Always have the resources ready before the lesson starts.
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• Make sure that all the teaching resources you are about to use are suitable for
the lesson.
• Use teaching resources with a specific purpose and not merely as displays.
• Make sure that everyone in the class can see them (i.e. writing, diagrams and
pictures used should be large enough to be clearly visible to all learners).
• Give learners the opportunity to handle the teaching resources where possible.
4.2.3 What type of teaching resources are suitable for the teaching
of mathematics?
It is not possible to list all the types of teaching resources suitable for the teaching
of mathematics. The following, however, are some of the most common ones:
• sundry items such as seeds or sticks, stones and tins
• pictures and drawings
• mathematical models
• mathematical apparatus, such as the abacus
• flannel boards
• chalkboards
• overhead projectors
• pin boards
• textbooks
• data projector
• white boards
• smart board
4.3 THE CHALKBOARD, THE FLANNEL BOARD, THE

OVERHEAD PROJECTOR AND THE TEXTBOOK
We shall now consider some of the teaching aids in some detail.
4.3.1 The chalkboard

The chalkboard is the most widely used teaching aid and for the teacher of mathematics
it is more than an old standby.
(a) The value of the chalkboard

The chalkboard is an invaluable aid in the teaching of mathematics for the
following reasons:
• Most classrooms have a chalkboard.
• It provides a large space on which to work.
• It is very versatile since it can be used for writing, drawing, etc.
• It is very effective for group work; when the teacher or a learner is working
on it, all the other learners’ eyes are fixed on the board.
• It can be used to illustrate the main points of the lesson, and whilst the
lesson is being developed the lesson outline can be written on the board.
• The chalkboard provides the teacher with a means of drawing up a final
summary of the work he or she has just covered to help the learners to
crystallise important facts and information.
• Homework and other assignments can be written on the chalkboard.
44
STUDY UNIT 4: Developing resources for teaching and learning mathematics
(b) How should the chalkboard be used effectively?

The following guidelines should help you use your chalkboard effectively:
• The chalkboard must play an integral part in the lesson. As the lesson
develops, the main points should be written on the board.
• The use of the chalkboard should be planned as carefully as you plan
every other activity in the lesson. In other words, when preparing a lesson,
you should set down on paper exactly what you intend to write on the
chalkboard, and then try to practice on the board before the lesson. Also
plan and practice diagrams and graphs so that you can draw them quickly
and expertly.
• Mind your handwriting. Write clearly paying special attention to the writing
of numerals. A carelessly written numeral can easily be confused with
another numeral. Your writing should be large enough to be seen by all the
learners in the class, even those at the back of the classroom. Write evenly.
• The work on the chalkboard should be neat and tidy. Mistakes should be
erased, and not crossed out.
• Every sum on the chalkboard must be a perfect model. Every calculation
should be correct and set out neatly and logically. (Study examples in
textbooks of logical and neatly set out presentations.)
• Coloured chalk can be used to emphasise important facts and to accentuate
diagrams, but should not be overused. Also use coloured chalk to distinguish
overlapping figures from one another.
B
A
C D
ACD drawn in white and BCD is shaded
MAE204Q/145

• In order to make it easy to draw graphs and geometrical figures, a certain

section or even the whole chalkboard may be permanently divided into
square units. This can be done by painting, or, less permanently but very
easily and effectively, by dipping the piece of chalk in a solution of sugar
in water.
• Dotted lines can be drawn rapidly by sloping the chalk in the opposite
direction to the direction of your movement.
• Learn how to use the chalkboard as effectively as possible, that is, set out
the work systematically (avoid haphazard placing or scribbling).
• Start to fill up the chalkboard from as close to the top as possible.
• Write in columns (i.e. in sections separated from one another by straight,
vertical lines), from left to right.
• Start in the top left-hand corner and work down vertically, using a column
of approximately one metre in width. When you have completed the first
column begin the next one at the top and carry on in the same way. Keep
a special column for calculations and scribbling.
• Underline all headings neatly.
• The chalkboard is an effective instrument for framework guidance.
Example 1
Twice a number decreased by 3 is equal to 17.
2 × p ˗ 3 = 17
46
4.3.2 The flannel board

The flannel board is a very handy and versatile teaching aid. It has certain advantages
over the chalkboard, but also some drawbacks.
• The flannel board is portable, and cut-out pieces, diagrams, and so on can be
prepared beforehand.
• It is a time-saving device since you can place and remove the pieces from the
flannel board quickly.
• It is highly suitable for lower primary classes.
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However, the main drawback of the flannel board is its size. The surface is small
and only a few pieces can be displayed at the same time.
Requirements for effective use of the flannel board

You should bear in mind the following:
• Plan the use of the flannel board carefully and in detail.
• Practice placing the pieces on the flannel board before teaching the lesson.
• Make sure that the flannel board is clearly visible to all the learners.
• All the pieces should be ready and arranged in the correct order.
• All the pieces should be large enough to be clearly visible.
• Pieces should be of simple design. Avoid complex pictures and diagrams.
• Build up the display as the lesson proceeds.
• Use only those pieces required for each particular stage of the lesson.
• Avoid overcrowding on the flannel board.
If your chalkboard is made out of metal you can use in a similar way to a flannel
board. You can then use magnets or magnetic strips to stick up pieces. Alternatively,
you can use Prestik to stick pieces on the chalkboard.
4.3.3 The overhead projector

The overhead projector is a modern teaching aid that combines the advantages of
both the chalkboard and the flannel board.
The overhead projector has the following advantages:

• The teacher faces the class all the time while he or she is teaching.
• Considerable time is saved by using previously prepared transparencies of notes,
model sums, diagrams, pictures and graphs.
• You can use the overhead projector as a chalkboard by writing on transparencies
with a felt pen during the lesson.
The main drawback of the overhead projector is that the classroom must have
electricity. It is also an expensive teaching aid and should be handled with great care.
4.3.4 The textbook

A good textbook is an excellent teaching aid if used correctly. Every learner in the
class should have a copy of the textbook to be used.
The textbook is a valuable teaching aid because:

• It is comparatively cheap.
• It contains a wealth of pictures, diagrams and graphs.
• It contains a range of graded model sums showing all the steps in the operations.
• It contains series of graded exercises that are suitable for written or oral assignments.
• If it is based on the curriculum of the department, it will be a very good guide
for the teacher.
• If it is a good textbook, it will contain revision exercises that are designed to
revise all the work done during the year.
48
How should the textbook be used?

A textbook should be used as a teaching aid and not as a master plan to be followed
slavishly.
• Consult more than one textbook when preparing a lesson, since no single textbook
is perfect.
• Compare the textbook to be used with the curriculum to check whether it covers
the curriculum properly.
• Have a few copies of a different textbook available in the class for enrichment
exercises for the very bright learners.
• Where any exercises or part of an exercise can be done orally, do it that way to
save time.
• Select suitable problems for homework from the available material.
• Exercises are usually graded and include far more material than a learner can do
in one session.
• Compare the number of exercises in the textbook with the number of periods
available for assignments and combine exercises if necessary for these assignments.
4.4 LEARNING AIDS

Learning aids are aids that have been designed to help individual learners to develop
insight in the subject matter by getting actively engaged.
4.4.1 What should the properties of learning aids be?

The learning aid should:
• Be aimed at the developmental level of the learner.
• Be related to the background of the learner.
• Be interesting for the learner to work with.
• Be simple to handle.
• Be available to each learner.
4.4.2 What types of learning aids can be used by learners in the

intermediate phase?
The following are examples of learning aids suitable for the intermediate phase:
• Mathematical puzzles
• Mathematical building blocks.
• Colour cubes
• Cuisenaire rods
• Mathematical balances
• Textbooks
4.4.3 What is the value of a learning aid?

A learning aid is designed to help learners to:
• Discover
• Learn
• Develop insights by themselves
• Become actively involved in the learning process
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• Become stimulated and motivated

• Develop their critical thinking
• Think creatively
ACTIVITY 4.1
(1) Distinguish between a teaching aid and a learning aid and discuss different
types of teaching aids and learning aids suitable for teaching and learning
mathematics.
(2) What should you consider when selecting and using teaching aids?
(3) Compare the value of the chalkboard with:
• The flannel board.
• The overhead projector.
(4) How would you use a chalkboard when teaching a unit in mathematics?
Give a detailed explanation.
4.5 USING MODELS IN THE TEACHING AND LEARNING OF

MATHEMATICS
4.5.1 Two-dimensional models

Two-dimensional models, such as triangles and other polygons, can be cut out of
cardboard or, preferably, hardboard.
4.5.2 Three-dimensional models

Three-dimensional models are usually more difficult to make. However, they are
available in everyday life: tins are cylinders, boxes are prisms, ice-cream cones are
cones, etc. Much can also be done with children’s building blocks, Meccano and
similar toys.
A piece of hardboard can be used in trigonometry. Sticks, wool, string, rubber bands
and similar materials can be used.
To illustrate a three-dimensional model, cut out this shape and fold it along AB to
form a three-dimensional shape, like this:
50
4.5.3 Paper folding

Nets: Learners can cut open and lay flat, or fold up, boxes, cylinders, etc, made of
paper or other material to uncover the properties of nets.
Properties: Learners can discover and investigate certain properties of geometrical

figures by folding paper cut-outs.
4.6 DEVELOPING TEACHING AIDS FROM CHEAP AND EASILY

AVAILABLE MATERIALS
Mathematics can be an abstract subject. Learners often struggle to visualise abstract
concepts. Teachers are faced with a challenge of stimulating learners’ interest and
taking them on a journey into the world of visual mathematics, a world where
mathematics comes alive before their eyes.
To make mathematics visual, teaching aids and mathematical resources are essential.
We need to structure our lessons to accommodate materials that will make mathematics
a meaningful experience in an effective learning environment. In this section, we
shall explore what resources are available to us and examine how to use them to
design our own teaching aids.
Always keep your eyes open for resources you could use in your mathematics
classroom. Fill a mathematics resource file with suitable materials throughout the year.
Many South African schools have limited and under-developed resources. However,
resources and teaching aids need not always be bought. Teachers can create their
own teaching aids and teaching resources from cheap and easily available materials
as an alternative to purchased aids and resources.
4.7 RESOURCES AVAILABLE TO THE MATHEMATICS

TEACHER
The mathematics teacher can use the following resources:
• Man-made materials: string, drawing pins, straws, pipe cleaners, sweets,
toothpicks, gem clips, newsreel, paper, cardboard, paper plates, paper fasteners.
• Apparatus: dice, counters, geoboards, tangrams.
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Examples of tangrams
• Media: magazines, newspapers and worksheets.

• Natural materials: sticks, pine cones and leaves.
• Our environment: the mathematical world we live in – buildings, sport fields etc.
ACTIVITY 4.2
(1) Make a list of resources that are available to you that you will be able to
use in your classroom.
(2) Make a list of at least five objects that you can use to improvise if you do
not have the resources at your school.
(3) Describe an activity that you would use in the case of each resource.
(4) Distinguish between a teaching aid and a learning aid and discuss the
different teaching aids and learning aids which can be used in the teaching
and learning of mathematics.
(5) What should you consider when you have to select and use teaching aids?
(6) Compare the advantages of the following: the chalkboard the flannel board
the overhead projector.
(7) How would you use the chalkboard to teach certain mathematics units?
ACTIVITY 4.3
4.7.1 A number line
Materials: Paper/newsreel/coloured pens/ruler

Method: Every senior phase teacher needs a large number line (stretching from
about ˗15 to +15), which includes both negative and positive numbers, in their
classroom.
Make your own number line using paper or newsreel and display it somewhere in
your class where it will be visible to all the learners, such as above the chalkboard.
You can use a ruler to point to the numbers as you demonstrate how the number
line works.
52
ACTIVITY 4.4
4.7.2 A 360° protractor
Materials: Paper plate/paper/pin (paper fastener) coloured pens/ruler. Method:

(1) Draw a dot in the centre of the paper plate. Pierce a hole through the plate.
(2) Fill in 0° (360°); 90°; 180°; 270° in the correct positions around the paper
plate (use a ruler for accuracy).
90°
0° 180°
270°
(3) Fill in 45° halfway between 0° and 90°.

(6) Fill in 315° halfway between 2708 and 360°.
(7) Make ‘‘clock hands’’. Using the thumb tack, attach the ‘‘clock hands’’ to the
centre of the plate⇨⇧
90°
0° 180°
270°
(8) Move the hands around. The space between the hands is the size of the
angle.
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ACTIVITY 4.5
4.7.3 Draw a ‘‘perfect circle’’ without a compass

This activity is to show learners how to draw a small circle in their workbooks.
Materials: Gem clip/sharp pencil/drawing pin.
Method:
(1) Hold the gem clip down on your page with either a sharp pencil or a drawing
pin.
(2) Hold another pencil in your right hand. Place the pencil at the edge of the
gem clip.
(3) Gently turn the gem clip around in a circular direction. You have drawn a
circle!
ACTIVITY 4.6
4.7.4 Integers dice
Materials: Net of a cube/scissors/pens. Method:

(1) Enlarge (or redraw) the net for a cube.
(2) Cut it out.
(3) Fill in numbers on each face of the cube. Use negative numbers.
You can play a variety of games with this dice. If you make two dice, learners can
throw the dice and add, subtract or multiply the numbers on the dice. You can
change the numbers on the dice to change the degree of difficulty of the games.
54
ACTIVITY 4.7
4.7.5 Geoboards
A geoboard is an instrument made from wood that is used to provide a visual
demonstration of geometrical concepts.
Materials: A piece of wood (approximately 20 cm x 20 cm), nails, hammer, spray

paint (optional), elastic bands.
Method: Decide what shape and size geoboard you need.
Triangular geometry Quadrilateral geometry Circle geometry
Triangle geometry board: Draw three parallel lines. On the top row, hammer two
nails on either side of the line. Place the middle nail in between the outer two
nails. Construct the third row in the same manner. For the middle row, place the
nails between the nails in the first row.
Use: To demonstrate the properties of different types of triangles (Isosceles,

Equilateral etc).
Quadrilateral geometry board: On a rectangular piece of wood, draw two rows.

Evenly space 5 nails at regular intervals in each row.
Use: To demonstrate the properties of different types of quadrilaterals (squares,

rectangles, rhombus, parallelogram, etc).
Circle geometry board: On a square piece of wood, draw a circle using a compass
that takes up the majority of the space on the piece of wood. Hammer a nail in
the centre of the circle. Hammer the nails at 0°, 90°, 180° and 270°. Fill in the
remaining nails at 45 apart.
MAE204Q/155

Uses: To demonstrate circle properties, that is, angles in the same segment are
equal; the angle at the centre of a circle is twice the angle at the circumference;
angles in a semi-circle are equal to 90°.
ACTIVITY 4.8
4.8 TANGRAMS
Materials: Paper, scissors.
Method: Use a square piece of paper of 20 cm by 20 cm. Use the information in

the diagram to make your own tangram. Cut out the pieces.
What can tangrams do? Tangrams allow learners to explore the relationships
between various shapes. The seven pieces you have in front of you can be
56
manipulated and moved around to form a square, a triangle, a rectangle, a rhombus

and numerous other shapes.
(1) Arrange the tangrams to form a square, a triangle and a parallelogram.
(2) Arrange the tangrams to form four of your own designs.
(3) Trace around the outline of the shapes that you have created.
Give the outline to someone else. He or she must use his or her tangrams to
construct the shapes that you created. (Remember, you must use each of the 7
pieces every time.)
4.9 USING NATURAL RESOURCES
ACTIVITY 4.9
Write down your suggestions.
(1) Think of some mathematics related activities in which you can use one of the
following natural resources in your teaching: sticks, pine cones and leaves.
How would you use these resources in your teaching?
(2) Record at least five other natural resources that a mathematics teacher might
be able to use in his or her teaching. Describe how you would use them.
4.10 USING OUR SURROUNDINGS – THE MATHEMATICAL

WORLD WE LIVE IN
The use of learners’ cultural background is often regarded as ethno-mathematics.
D’Ambrosio (1985) coined ethno-mathematics as a mathematics found in identifiable
cultural groups. In other words, every culture has unique way of mathematising. As a
result, it is important as a mathematics teacher to be able to utilise cultural artefacts
in the teaching and learning of mathematics. The traditional circular buildings,
tradition games such as Morabaraba could be used to teach various mathematics
concepts. Many learners have a keen interest in sports and play indegenous games.
A soccer field and an athletics track are fine examples of mathematical creations.
The dimensions of a house, a classroom are also expressions of mathematics. These
resources allow learners to explore concepts such as area, perimeter and volume,
using their real-life experiences.
4.11 USING OUR BODIES

Your body can be a valuable mathematical resource. How long do you think your
nail is? It is about 1 cm in length. Stretch out your one arm. A metre is about the
length from shoulder to fingertip. Take a large step. A metre is about the length of
a large step. These concepts are based on the ability to estimate – a very important
mathematical concept.
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4.12 THE HOME LABORATORY

Although mathematics requires some special technical equipment that learners have
to purchase, the majority of the mathematical experiments can be performed using
household (kitchen and toolbox) items and coloured paper and card. Some of these
things are discussed hereunder.
4.13 BASIC EQUIPMENT

These items, some of which you may already have, are used in many mathematical
experiments and in schoolwork. As a teacher, you need a ruler to draw and measure
lines, and a set square for making and checking right angles. A pair of compasses
will enable you to draw accurate circles, and it is useful for piercing or scoring. As
well as an ordinary protractor, you will need a circular one for measuring angles
greater than 180°. Squared paper is used for drawing grids and graphs.
You will often have to work out sums on a calculator. It should have percent (%) and
square root ( ) keys. You should also put together some other basic equipment,
including pens and pencils, a note pad for writing down numbers and sums, a pair
of scissors, a tape measure, and string or elastic bands for tying and securing objects.
4.14 CONTAINERS
You might find suitable items at home. Wash them thoroughly after use; if they have
held substances such as surgical spirit, you may not be able to use them for food
and drink afterwards. You will need some items for measuring: a glass is good for
unspecified amounts, and a measuring jug for more accurate work. Build up a supply
of empty containers, such as plastic bottles and empty toilet roll inner tubes, for
your mathematical experiments.
4.15 MATERIALS
Many mathematical experiments involve drawing or making things, so you will
need to buy artists’ materials from a stationer or art shop. Some of these, such as
masking tape and poly board, may be unfamiliar to you, but they are simple to use.
When buying glue, it is best to choose the type that comes as a stick, because it can
be applied easily with no wastage or mess.
4.16 USEFUL ITEMS

Look in your kitchen for food colouring, drinking straws, spoons, skewers and
mixing sticks for drinks. You may also find more specialised items there, such as a
cooking thermometer and weighing scales. Use a stopwatch that shows fractions of
a second; some digital wristwatches can double as stop watches. Choose an ordinary
thermometer that shows negative temperatures. Board games often contain dice and
counters, and you may have wooden balls, beads and marbles among your belongings.
To find wooden strips and doweling, look in the garage, cellar or garden shed, or
ask for spare pieces from someone doing some decorating. Ask an adult to find a
scalpel and help you to use it. Cotton reels may be found amongst sewing equipment.
58
REFERENCES
Bell, A et al. 1978. A calculator experiment in a primary school.

Nottingham: Shell Centre for Mathematical Education.
Cooney, TJ., Davis, EJ. & Henderson, KB. 1975. Dynamics of teaching secondary school
mathematics. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company.
Duminy, PA. et al. 2003. Teaching practice. Maskew Miller Longman.
Egbert, J. 2009. Supporting learning with technolog y: Essentials of Classroom Practice. New
Jersey: Pearson Education, Inc.
Moursund, DG. 1981. Calculators in the classroom. New York: John Wiley & Sons.
Murdock, J. et al. 2000. Discovering algebra: an investigative approach. Preliminary
edition, vol 1. Key Curriculum Press.
Newby, TJ., Stepich, DA., Lehman, JD., Russel, JD. & Ottenbreich-Leftwhich, A.
2011. Educational Technolog y for teaching and learning (Fourth Edition). Boston:
Pearson Education.
Olivier, AI. 1987. Die sakrekenaar as medium tot vernuwing van die wiskunde-kurrikulum
op skoolvlak. University of Stellenbosch: Eenheid vir Navorsing oor
Wiskunde-onderwys.
Pretorius, F. & Lemmer, E. 1998. South African education and training: transition in a
democratic era. Hodder & Stoughton.
University of South Africa. Faculty of Learning Area Didactics: teaching
mathematics, mathematical literacy and mathematical sciences. Pretoria.
Van de Walle, JA. 2004. Elementary and middle school mathematics: teaching
developmentally. 5th edition. Boston: Pearson. World Economic Forum. 1995.
World competitiveness report.
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Study unit 4: Developing resources for teaching and

SPECIFIC OUTCOMES OF THE STUDY UNIT

Driscoll in Newby et al., (2011) defined learning as permanent change in an individual’s

Newby et al. (2011) elaborated as follows on the meaningful integration of technology:

Media (singular medium) are a means of transferring or delivering messages. Resources

What is the main objective of applying technology and media in teaching

1.2 TEACHING-LEARNING THEORIES AND MULTIMEDIA

A brief description of three perspectives is outlined in (figure 1). Knowing and

(3) how to facilitate learning; and

Behavioral Information Constructivist

What is the Respond to cues. Actively synthesize Explore like

FIGURE 1: Theoretical perspective of teaching and learning

1.3 THE CURRICULUM AND MULTIMEDIA

Curriculum is a foundational element of effective teaching and learning. Therefore,

1.4 GLOBALISATION AND MATHEMATICS EDUCATION

Globalisation and Globalisation and Globalisation and the

*The mathematics *For learners’ global *Globalisation affects

1.7 PRESCRIBED TEXTBOOK

SPECIFIC OUTCOMES OF THE STUDY UNIT

Electronic and digital resources/media/tools are: calculators; laptops; hand held

2.1 DIGITAL MEDIA ENHANCES MATHEMATICS LEARNING

Learners’ understanding of abstract mathematical ideas can be supported concretely

2.2 DIGITAL MEDIA SUPPORT EFFECTIVE MATHEMATICS

2.3 TECHNOLOGY INFLUENCES AND AFFECTS WHAT IS

2.4 CALCULATORS IN THE MATHEMATICS CLASSROOM

Hembree and Dessart et al. (1986:83–99) reported the findings of an analysis of

Smith (2003:57–67) conducted an analysis that extended the results of Hembree

According to Dessart et al., a recent large, long-term study of calculators in primary

The National Council of Teachers of Mathematics (NCTM in the USA) issued

Appropriate instruction that includes calculators can extend learners’ understanding

Assessment and evaluation must be aligned with classroom use of calculators.

• Authors, publishers and writers of assessment, evaluation and mathematics competition

Here are some myths about using calculators:

2.5 CALCULATOR ACTIVITIES

Therefore, estimation depends on learners’ mental computational skills.

A mathematical software tool is somewhat like a physical manipulative, in other

2.6.1 GeoGebra in teaching and learning mathematics

Plotting and reflecting points using GeoGebra

(e) Reflect the point A(1, 3) about the x-axis as follows:

(f) Plotting and reflecting polygons:

2.7 ELECTRONIC MANIPULATIVES FOR NUMERATION

Duminy (2003:31–32) explains that the computer is an electronic machine with

The equipment which makes up the computer itself is known as hardware,

Problem-solving or free interaction programs. Here the learner makes use of

Duminy (2003:35) remarks that the most important disadvantage of computers is

SPECIFIC OUTCOMES OF THE STUDY UNIT

According to Moursond (1977:3.14), we can distinguish between the following

Estimations: An example of this would be:

It is of utmost importance to utilise the calculator to check calculations or estimated

3.1.1 Checking pencil-and-paper calculations

3.1.2 Predict and check

ESTIMATE CALCULATOR DIFFERENCE

21 × 18 100 200 400 500

42 × 31 600 800 1 000 1 300

33 × 44 1 000 1 100 1 200 1 400

58 × 47 2 400 2 500 2 600 2 700

26 × 417 700 800 1 000 1 200

ESTIMATE CALCULATOR DIFFERENCE

• There are two players with one calculator.

The mathematics For learners’ global *Globalisation affects