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Series Editors
Vincent Hendricks
University of Copenhagen
Copenhagen, Denmark
Duncan Pritchard
University of Edinburgh
Edinburgh, UK
Palgrave Innovations in Philosophy is a new series of monographs. Each
book in the series will constitute the ‘new wave’ of philosophy, both in
terms of its topic and the research profile of the author. The books will be
concerned with exciting new research topics of particular contemporary
interest, and will include topics at the intersection of Philosophy and
other research areas. They will be written by up-and-coming young phi-
losophers who have already established a strong research profile and who
are clearly going to be leading researchers of the future. Each monograph
in this series will provide an overview of the research area in question
while at the same time significantly advancing the debate on this topic
and giving the reader a sense of where this debate might be heading next.
The books in the series would be of interest to researchers and advanced
students within philosophy and its neighboring scientific environments.
Pluralisms in Truth
and Logic
Editors
Jeremy Wyatt Nikolaj J. L. L. Pedersen
Underwood International College Underwood International College
Yonsei University Yonsei University
Incheon, South Korea Incheon, South Korea
Nathan Kellen
University of Connecticut,
Storrs, CT, USA
This Palgrave Macmillan imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature Switzerland AG
The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland
Preface
Patrick Greenough, Sungil Han, Jinho Kang, Jiwon Kim, Junyeol Kim,
Seahwa Kim, Teresa Kouri Kissel, Kris McDaniel, Graham Priest, Agustín
Rayo, Greg Restall, Jisoo Seo, Stewart Shapiro, Gila Sher, Paul Simard
Smith, Erik Stei, Elena Tassoni, Pilar Terrés, Cory D. Wright, Crispin
Wright, Andy D. Yu, Luca Zanetti, and Elia Zardini. Special thanks go to
Filippo Ferrari, Michael P. Lynch, Sebastiano Moruzzi, and Joe Ulatowski.
Introduction 3
Nikolaj J. L. L. Pedersen, Jeremy Wyatt, and Nathan Kellen
vii
viii Contents
Logical Particularism277
Gillman Payette and Nicole Wyatt
Logical Nihilism301
Aaron J. Cotnoir
Index473
Notes on Contributors
xi
xii Notes on Contributors
2014) and The Metaphysics of Truth (OUP, 2018) and the editor of Truth: A
Contemporary Reader (Bloomsbury, under contract). His articles have appeared
in a number of journals, including the Journal of Philosophy, Australasian Journal
of Philosophy, and Pacific Philosophical Quarterly, amongst others.
Filippo Ferrari is Postdoctoral Research Fellow at the Institute of Philosophy,
University of Bonn. His research focuses primarily on two clusters of topics: the
normative aspects of enquiry and the debate about the nature of truth. He has
published his work in journals such as Mind, Synthese, Analysis, and Philosophical
Quarterly.
Rosanna Keefe is Professor of Philosophy and Head, Department of
Philosophy, University of Sheffield. Keefe specializes in philosophy of logic, phi-
losophy of language, and metaphysics. She is the author of Theories of Vagueness
(Cambridge, 2000) and numerous articles in journals such as Mind, Analysis,
Philosophical Studies, Australasian Journal of Philosophy, and Synthese.
Nathan Kellen works at the Department of Philosophy, University of
Connecticut. Kellen’s work is on truth, the philosophy of logic, philosophy of
mathematics, and ethics. Currently his main research project is an investigation
of truth pluralism and logical pluralism. He explores both of these views indi-
vidually but likewise examines how they might be connected.
Seahwa Kim is Professor of Philosophy and Dean, Scranton College, Ewha
Womans University. Kim specializes in metaphysics and the philosophy of
mathematics. Her articles have appeared in journals such as Australasian Journal
of Philosophy, Philosophical Studies, and Erkenntnis.
Teresa Kouri Kissel is Assistant Professor, Department of Philosophy, Old
Dominion University. Kouri Kissel specializes in philosophy of logic, philoso-
phy of mathematics, and mathematical and philosophical logic. Her dissertation
develops a new, neoCarnapian form of logical pluralism. Her articles have
appeared in Philosophia Mathematica, Erkenntnis, and Topoi.
Michael P. Lynch is Professor of Philosophy and Director, Humanities
Institute, University of Connecticut. Lynch’s work focuses on questions in meta-
physics, the philosophy of language, epistemology, and metaethics. He is author
of Truth in Context (MIT, 1998), True to Life (MIT, 2004), and Truth as One
and Many (OUP, 2009), as well as two books for popular audiences and a num-
ber of different articles in journals such as Philosophical Quarterly, Australasian
Journal of Philosophy, and Philosophical Studies.
Notes on Contributors xiii
a number of books, including The Taming of the True (OUP, 2002) and Changes
of Mind: An Essay on Rational Belief Revision (OUP, 2012). His articles have
appeared in many journals, including Mind, Philosophia Mathematica, Review of
Symbolic Logic, and Noûs.
Chase B. Wrenn is Professor of Philosophy, Department of Philosophy,
University of Alabama. Wrenn’s research focuses on truth, epistemology, and the
philosophy of mind and cognitive science. He is the author of Truth (Polity,
2014) and has had articles appear in journals including Australasian Journal of
Philosophy, Erkenntnis, Synthese, and The Philosophical Quarterly.
Jeremy Wyatt is Assistant Professor of Philosophy, Underwood International
College, Yonsei University. Wyatt’s main research interests are the philosophy of
language, metaphysics, and truth. His articles have appeared in Philosophical
Studies, Philosophical Quarterly, American Philosophical Quarterly, and Inquiry.
Andy D. Yu is JD student, University of Toronto. Yu completed a D.Phil. the-
sis (Fragmented Truth) at the University of Oxford. He works on philosophical
logic, the philosophy of language, metaphysics, and epistemology. He has pub-
lished in the Journal of Philosophy, Philosophical Quarterly, and Thought.
Elia Zardini is MidCareer FCT Fellow, LanCog Research Group, University of
Lisbon. Zardini specializes in logic and epistemology and has had articles appear
in many journals, including The Review of Symbolic Logic, Philosophical Studies,
Analysis, and Journal of Philosophical Logic. He is also the editor or coeditor of
Scepticism and Perceptual Justification (OUP, 2014), Substructural Approaches to
Paradox (special issue of Synthese, forthcoming), The Sorites Paradox (CUP, forth-
coming), and The A Priori: Its Significance, Grounds, and Extent (OUP,
forthcoming).
List of Figures
xv
Part I
Truth
Introduction
Nikolaj J. L. L. Pedersen, Jeremy Wyatt,
and Nathan Kellen
1 Pluralisms
The history of philosophy displays little consensus or convergence when
it comes to the nature of truth. Radically different views have been pro-
posed and developed. Some have taken truth to be correspondence with
reality, while others have taken it to be coherence with a maximally coher-
ent set of beliefs. Yet others have taken truth to be what it is useful to
believe, or what would be believed at the end of enquiry.1 While these
views differ very significantly in terms of their specific philosophical com-
mitments, they all share two fundamental assumptions: monism and sub-
stantivism. The views all assume that truth is to be accounted for in the
N. J. L. L. Pedersen (*)
Underwood International College, Yonsei University, Incheon, South Korea
e-mail: nikolaj@yonsei.ac.kr
J. Wyatt
Underwood International College, Yonsei University, Incheon, South Korea
N. Kellen
University of Connecticut, Storrs, CT, USA
same way across the full range of truth-apt discourse (monism) and that
truth is a substantive property or relation (substantivism).
The deflationist reaction to the traditional debate is to reject substantiv-
ism and, in some cases, to endorse monism. Truth, if it has a nature at all,
has a uniform nature across all truth-apt discourse, but there is not much
to say about it. The traditional debate went off-track exactly because
truth theorists thought that there was a whole lot to say about truth—
that somehow it had a deep or underlying nature that could be uncovered
through philosophical theorizing. Instead, according to many deflation-
ists, the (non-paradoxical) instances of the disquotational schema (“p” is
true if and only p) or the equivalence schema (it is true that p if and only
if p) exhaust what there is to say about truth.2
The pluralist reaction to the traditional debate is to reject monism and
endorse substantivism. Truth pluralists, encouraged by the seminal work
of Crispin Wright and Michael Lynch, appeal to more than one property
in their account of truth. Propositions from different domains of dis-
course are true in different ways. The truth of propositions concerning
the empirical world (e.g., 〈There are mountains〉) might be accounted
for in terms of correspondence, while the truth of legal propositions (e.g.,
〈Speeding is illegal〉) might be accounted for in terms of coherence with
the body of law.3 This amounts to a rejection of monism. By contrast,
truth pluralists have traditionally endorsed substantivism. They have
appealed to properties or relations that are substantive in nature (where
this means, at least, that they directly explain certain facts entirely in
virtue of characteristics pertaining to their natures).4
The history of logic, like the history of truth, displays little consensus.
Advocates of classical logic, intuitionistic logic, and relevant logic, for
instance, have argued back and forth about the merits and demerits of their
preferred systems. Again, as in the case of truth, this seems to suggest a shared
underlying assumption of monism: there is a uniquely correct logic, and
advocates of different systems are disagreeing about which one it is. The plu-
ralist reaction—notably advocated by Jc Beall and Greg Restall (2006)—is
to reject monism and maintain that there are several equally correct logics.
Speaking more generally, pluralist views are becoming increasingly
prominent in different areas of philosophy. Pluralism about truth has been
extensively developed, defended, and critically discussed. The same goes
Introduction 5
for pluralism about logic.5 Pluralism has also made inroads into ontology
where the idea that there are several ways of being has been defended, sup-
ported, and articulated in various ways. The work of Kris McDaniel is a
particularly rich source.6 In epistemology, a variety of pluralist theses can
likewise be found in the literature. The idea that there are several epistemi-
cally good-making features of belief can be found in different guises, as
pluralism about epistemic justification, warrant, desiderata, and value.
Prominent epistemologists such as Alvin Goldman, Tyler Burge, William
Alston, and Crispin Wright all endorse one of these forms of pluralism.7
These pluralist trends are philosophically significant. They go against a
one-size-fits-all conception of their relevant areas and invite a reconsid-
eration of the nature and character of some of the most fundamental
notions in core areas of philosophy—including truth, validity, being, and
justification. This volume takes as its focus two of kinds of pluralism:
pluralism about truth and pluralism about logic. It brings together 18
original, state-of-the-art essays. The essays are divided into three parts.
Part I is dedicated to truth pluralism, Part II to logical pluralism, and Part
III to the question as to what connections might exist between these two
kinds of pluralism.
Background
(mix-atom) π is beautiful.
The inference from 〈If Mt. Everest is extended in space, then Bob’s
drunk driving is illegal〉 and 〈Mr. Everest is extended in space〉 to 〈Bob’s
drunk driving is illegal〉 is a mixed inference. It is also a valid inference—
that is, necessarily, if the premises are true, then so is the conclusion. In
order to account for the validity of the inference, it would seem that there
must be some truth-relevant property that the premises and conclusion
all share which ensures that truth is preserved from premises to conclu-
sion. However, the pluralist seems to be unable to point to a property
that satisfies this constraint. For, as before, we can suppose that corre-
spondence to reality is the truth-relevant property for 〈Mr. Everest is
extended in space〉 and coherence with the body of law for 〈Bob’s drunk
driving is illegal〉. This means that one of the premises and the conclu-
sion have different truth-relevant properties. The problem of mixed infer-
ences challenges the pluralist to tell a story about the validity of mixed
inferences.10
Another fundamental problem confronting pluralists is what is some-
times called the “double-counting objection.” In essence, the objection is
that pluralists count two differences where only one is needed. They
endorse significant metaphysical differences regarding the nature of vari-
ous subject matters and, in addition, they endorse differences in the
nature of truth. However, in order to accommodate wide-ranging truth-
aptitude, differences need only be countenanced at one level—at the level
of the things themselves (numbers, trees, moral properties, laws, etc.) or
at the level of the content associated with different domains (expressivist
content vs. representational content). Drawing distinctions at the level of
truth, the objection goes, is superfluous.11
The Contributions
(SD) There are real differences in kind between the contents of our
beliefs and indicative statements.
Background
According to Beall and Restall, logic is plural in the sense that there are
several equally legitimate instances of what they call Generalized Tarski’s
Thesis (GTT):
Introduction 13
Beall and Restall argue that there are at least three equally legitimate ways
to construe casex in GTT: cases as (consistent and complete) possible
worlds, cases as (possibly incomplete) constructions, and cases as (possibly
inconsistent) situations. These three notions of case deliver different log-
ics—respectively classical logic, intuitionistic logic, and relevant logic.
To shed further light on the nature of Beall and Restall’s logical plural-
ism, let us highlight a number of key features of their view: legitimacy,
logical functionalism, logical generalism, logical relativism, meaning con-
stancy, and structural rules and properties.
legitimate only when restricted to certain domains or when used for certain
purposes. Rather, their view is that classical logic, intuitionistic logic, and
relevant logic are equally legitimate across the board. This idea can be
regarded as a form of logical generalism. The legitimacy of the logics admit-
ted by (GTT) and the three constraints is meant to be completely general.
Meaning Constancy Beall and Restall are pluralists about validity and
logical consequence. However, they maintain that the meaning of the
logical connectives is constant across the various logics that qualify as
legitimate. This view contrasts with a view often attributed to Carnap—
namely, that different logics have different connectives.17 According to
the latter view, the meaning of “and”, “not”, “or”, etc. changes from one
logic to another. By contrast, on Beall and Restall’s view, logical expres-
sions share the same—but incomplete—meaning across logics. However,
clauses that govern the connectives in different logics capture different
aspects of that shared meaning.
(Reflexivity) ϕ⊨ϕ
(Monotonicity) If Γ ⊨ ϕ, then Γ, Δ ⊨ ϕ
Introduction 15
(Contraction) If Γ, ϕ, ϕ ⊨ ψ, then Γ, ϕ ⊨ ψ
(Commutativity) If Γ, ϕ, ψ, Δ ⊨ χ, then Γ, ψ, ϕ, Δ ⊨ χ
The Contributions
meaning across logics. She argues that this cannot be the case for intu-
itionistic negation and relevant negation. Thus, contrary to their own
claims, Beall and Restall’s logical pluralism ends up having a Carnapian
flavor.
Elia Zardini’s contribution “Generalised Tarski’s Thesis Hits
Substructure” offers an extended argument to the effect that Beall and
Restall’s logical pluralism is overly restrictive. He shows that (GTT)
implies that logical consequence has the structural features mentioned
above, that is, reflexivity, monotonicity, transitivity, contraction, and
commutativity. For instance, in every casex in which ϕ is true, ϕ is true—
thus (GTT) implies reflexivity. By the lights of Beall-Restall logical plu-
ralism, then, any system that fails to satisfy reflexivity cannot qualify as
logic properly so-called. Similarly, for any system that fails to satisfy
monotonicity, transitivity, contraction, or commutativity. In general,
Beall-Restall logical pluralism disqualifies any substructural logic from
qualifying as logic proper. Zardini argues that there are philosophical rea-
sons to doubt each of reflexivity, monotonicity, transitivity, contraction,
and commutativity. For instance, one might wish to abandon transitivity
in order to give an account of vagueness, and one might wish to abandon
contraction in order to address the semantic paradoxes. In light of these
considerations, Zardini deems Beall-Restall pluralism unacceptably
restrictive.
Gillman Payette and Nicole Wyatt’s contribution “Logical
Particularism” introduces and spells out a particularist view on logic.
According to logical particularism, there are no completely general
principles concerning validity. Rather, validity is a property of particu-
lar arguments or inferences. Since Payette and Wyatt think that differ-
ent, specific arguments call for different treatments vis-à-vis validity,
their logical particularism goes hand in hand with a particularist ver-
sion of logical pluralism. This particularist pluralism is at odds with the
kind of logical pluralism endorsed by Beall and Restall—which, as seen
above, involves a commitment to logical generalism. Logics on the
Beall-Restall view are all-purpose logics, which means that their rules
are completely general principles concerning validity. Payette and
Wyatt’s particularist pluralism is also at odds with domain-based forms
Introduction 17
Background
(TD) TD(ϕ) → ϕ
(TA) ϕ → TA(ϕ)
The combination of (TD) and (TA) looks superficially like the T-schema,
but it is not. The subscripts make all the difference in the world. They
indicate that the two conditionals involve different concepts—the con-
cepts that, on Scharp’s view, should replace the inconsistent, ordinary
concept of truth. Hence, the two conditionals cannot be combined into
a biconditional to yield the T-schema. Rather, according to Scharp, truth
theorists should rest content with (TD) and (TA) and the concepts of
descending and ascending truth that they respectively concern. It is in
this sense that Scharp puts forward a pluralistic account of truth—
whereas we might have thought that we could get along with a single
truth concept, Scharp’s contention is that we actually need a pair of
replacement concepts to adequately resolve the semantic paradoxes.
Insofar as Scharp’s views are motivated by the semantic paradoxes, they
represent yet another path into pluralist territory.27
The Contributions
she observes that the view clashes with the widely held view that logic is
topic neutral. Second, like others, she observes that (mod)—a natural candi-
date for addressing the issue of mixed inferences—threatens to undermine
domain-based logical pluralism. Third, building on the two first points,
Keefe offers the following collapse argument: mixed inferences can cut across
all domains. By (mod), the logic of this inference would be the intersection
of all logics that hold for some domain. However, since this logic is topic
neutral, this is what logic proper is—and hence, logical monism is correct.
Fourth, Keefe questions an implicit assumption behind domain-based logi-
cal pluralism, viz. that domain membership suffices to fix the logic of infer-
ences. She points to vagueness as a phenomenon that tells against this
assumption, as this phenomenon that cuts across domains and has tradition-
ally been thought to be of relevance to logic. Lastly, Keefe presents a positive
proposal: validity is assessed relative to context. This allows for logical plural-
ism because the rules or assumptions justified in different contexts may vali-
date different arguments. Keefe observes that (1) her context-based
framework can accommodate domain-based logical pluralism in the sense
that different context-domain pairs may validate different inferences, and (2)
the context-based approach allows for logical pluralism with respect to a
single domain since different contexts may validate different inferences per-
taining to the same domain. Furthermore, Keefe suggests that the context-
based approach is also better suited to deal with vagueness.
Kevin Scharp’s contribution “Aletheic and Logical Pluralism” explores
what he calls coordinated pluralism and compares it to his own replace-
ment theory. Coordinated pluralism is the combination of context-based
truth pluralism and context-based logical pluralism. Coordinated plural-
ism is motivated by considerations related to the semantic paradoxes. As
observed earlier, if truth is characterized by the unrestricted T-schema
and classical logic or certain other logics hold, you end up with paradox.
The double-barreled pluralism that coordinated pluralism offers is meant
to block paradox by letting the nature of truth and the nature of logic
vary across contexts in such a way that there is no context in which truth
and logic have natures that generate paradox. This is meant to happen in
virtue of their natures being coordinated in any given context. If, in a
given context, truth is strong, logic is weak and vice versa. This coordi-
nated pluralism seems like a promising approach to paradox. Might it be
Introduction 25
Notes
1. David 1994; Devitt 1984; Newman 2007; Rasmussen 2014; Russell
1912; Vision 2004; and Wittgenstein 1921 all endorse versions of the
correspondence theory. Coherence theorists include Blanshard 1939;
Joachim 1906; and Young 2001. (Neo-)pragmatists include James 1907,
1909; Peirce 1878; and Putnam 1981.
2. Deflationists of various stripes include Field 1986, 1994a, b; Grover
1992; Horwich 1998; Quine 1970; Ramsey 1927; Strawson 1950. For a
systematic treatment of deflationary metaphysics of truth, see Wyatt
2016.
3. We use angle brackets to represent propositions.
4. See Wright 1992, 2001; Lynch 2001, 2004b, 2009.
5. Works on pluralism about truth include Asay 2018; Beall 2000, 2013;
Cook 2011; Cotnoir 2009, 2013a, b; Edwards 2008, 2009, 2011,
2012a, b, 2013a, b, 2018; Engel 2013; David 2013; Dodd 2013; Kölbel
2008, 2013; Lynch 2000, 2001, 2004a, b, 2005a, b, 2006, 2008, 2009,
2013; Newhard 2013, 2017; Pedersen 2006, 2010, 2012a, b, 2014;
Pedersen and Edwards 2011; Pedersen and Wright 2010, 2012, 2013a,
b; Shapiro 2011; Sher 1998, 2005, 2013, 2016; Stewart-Wallace 2016;
Tappolet 1997, 2000, 2010; Williamson 1994; (C.D.) Wright 2005,
2010, 2012; Wright 1992, 1996a, b, 1998, 2001, 2013; Wyatt 2013;
Wyatt and Lynch 2016; and Yu 2017a, b. Works on logical pluralism
include Beall 2014; Beall and Restall 2000, 2001, 2006; Bueno and
Shalkowski 2009; Carnielli and Coniglio 2016; Ciprotti and Moretti
2009; Cook 2010, 2014; Eklund 2012; Field 2009; Goddu 2002;
Hjortland 2013; Humberstone 2009; Keefe 2014; Kouri 2016; Kouri
26 N. J. L. L. Pedersen et al.
and Shapiro forthcoming; Payette and Wyatt 2018; Priest 2001, 2008,
2014; Read 2006a, b; Restall 2001, 2002, 2012, 2014; Russell 2008,
2014; Shapiro 2014; Sher forthcoming; Terrés forthcoming; van
Benthem 2008; Varzi 2002; and Wyatt 2004.
6. MacDaniel’s work on ontological pluralism spans about a decade. His
book The Fragmentation of Being (2017) brings together much of his
earlier work on the topic. See also. Turner 2010, 2012; Eklund 2009.
7. Alston 2005; Burge 2003; Goldman 1988; Wright 2004. Pedersen 2017
formulates and defends pluralism about fundamental or non-derivative
epistemic goods.
8. This slogan is the title of Lynch 2009. Having advocated moderate plu-
ralism for nearly two decades in a wide range of works, Lynch is the most
prominent advocate of the view. The distinction between these two
forms of pluralism is due to Pedersen 2006.
9. We will use small caps to denote concepts.
10. Sher 2005 raises the problem of mixed atomics. For the problems of
mixed compounds and inferences, see respectively Tappolet 2000 and
Tappolet 1997.
11. Versions of the double-counting objection have been presented by Asay
2018; Blackburn 1998, 2013; Dodd 2013, Horwich 1996; Pettit 1996;
Quine 1960; and Sainsbury 1996.
12. Wright 1998. See also Wright 1992 (Chap. 1, II) and Lynch 2004b: 386.
13. Beall and Restall 2006.
14. Field 2009.
15. In attributing a logical relativist view to Beall and Restall, we follow
Shapiro 2014.
16. It may seem odd to attribute both logical generalism and logical relativ-
ism to Beall and Restall. For, isn’t the idea that logic is general in tension
with the idea that it is relative? No. Logical generalism, as we have char-
acterized it, concerns whether a given logic legitimately issues (in)valid-
ity verdicts across the board (in the technical sense of legitimacy tied to
Generalized Tarski’s Thesis and the constraints of necessity, formality,
and normativity). For logics that are general in this sense, there is a fur-
ther issue as to the semantic status of their (in)validity verdicts—in par-
ticular, whether those verdicts have absolute or relativized truth-values.
17. Carnap 1937, 1950.
18. For a comprehensive introduction to substructural logics, see Restall
2000.
19. Lynch 2009, Pedersen 2014. The version of logical pluralism presented
in Shapiro 2014 can also be regarded as a kind of domain-based logical
Introduction 27
pluralism, although the various domains that Shapiro considers are all
mathematical.
20. The realism/anti-realism debate is, of course, one of the major themes in
Dummett’s corpus of work. See e.g., the essays in Dummett 1978.
21. See Lynch 2009 for details. The set of intuitionistic validities is a proper
subset of the set of classical validities, and hence, (mod) delivers the ver-
dict that the logic of any mixed compound or inference is intuitionistic
logic. In cases where there is overlap between two logics but no subset
relation, the intersection is identical to neither of the domain-specific
logics. This applies in the case of intuitionistic logic and relevant logic.
22. Smith forthcoming supports logical pluralism via logical contextualism.
While Beall and Restall never themselves present their logical pluralism
as a form of logical contextualism, Caret 2017 offers a contextualist read-
ing of their view and argues that it can be used to block a certain funda-
mental objection.
23. Barnard and Ulatowski 2013, Ulatowski 2017. See Kölbel 2008, 2013
for another empirically-based form of truth pluralism.
24. For details concerning MacFarlane’s assessment-sensitive relativism, see
MacFarlane 2014. Wyatt and Lynch 2016 suggest that MacFarlane is
committed to the kind of truth pluralism described.
25. Scharp 2013.
26. We’re blurring the line between use and mention here, but we trust that
the idea is clear.
27. See Wyatt and Lynch 2016 for further discussion of the relations between
truth pluralism and Scharp’s replacement theory. See also Beall 2013 and
Cotnoir 2013b for paradox-based motivations for truth pluralism.
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Baron looked at his watch twice as he climbed the stairs. Yes, the
family had had time to return from church; but they had not done so.
Mrs. Shepard was busy in the dining-room, but otherwise the house
was unoccupied. Silence reigned in the upper regions.
Thomason, the houseman, was looking impatiently down from the
upper landing; but Thomason didn’t count. He was probably hungry.
Baron realized that he, too, was hungry.
He went into the cheerful sitting-room and looked down upon the
street, and instantly his attitude changed.
There they came! And something was wrong. Oh, plainly, something
was wrong.
Mrs. Baron’s head was held high; she was pale; her lips were
compressed. There was nothing gracious in her carriage. She was
marching.
By her side walked Flora, keeping step with difficulty. She appeared
to be fighting off all realization of her mother’s state.
Mrs. Shepard was no longer present to lend her support to Bonnie
May. The faithful servitor had come home immediately after Sunday-
school to look after the dinner, and the child walked alone, behind
her silent elders. Her whole being radiated defiance. She was
apparently taking in every aspect of the street, but her casual
bearing was obviously studied; the determined effort she was
making was not to be concealed.
Baron hurried down-stairs so that he might meet them in the hall,
and engineer a temporary dispersement. He was affecting a calm
and leisurely demeanor when the door opened and Mrs. Baron,
followed by the others, entered.
There was an ominous silence. Bonnie May caught sight of Baron
and approached him with only a partial concealment of eagerness
and hurry.
Mrs. Baron and Flora ascended the stairs: the former leading the
way sternly; the latter moving upward with wan cheeks and bowed
head.
Baron led the way into the sitting-room, Bonnie May following. He
pretended not to see or to apprehend anything unusual. “Well, what
do you think of Sunday-school?” he began gayly.
“I think it’s fierce!” This took the form of an explosion. “It wouldn’t do
even for one-night stands!”
Baron felt the need of an admonitory attitude. “Bonnie May,” he said,
“you should have discovered that it wasn’t a play. It was something
real. It’s a place where people go to help each other.”
“They certainly need help all right enough.” This with a quite unlovely
jeering laugh.
“I wonder what you mean by that?”
“I suppose I meant the same thing you meant yourself.”
Baron paused, frowning. “I meant,” he explained patiently, “that they
are people who want to be as good as they can, and who want to
give one another encouragement.”
The child was conscious of his wish to be conciliatory. She tried to
restrain herself. “Well,” she asked, “if they want to be good, why
don’t they just be good? What’s the use of worrying about it?”
“I’m afraid it isn’t quite so simple a matter as all that.”
Bonnie May’s wrath arose in spite of herself. She was recalling
certain indignities. “I don’t see anything in it but a bum performance.
Do you know what I think they go there for?”
“That’s what I’m trying to find out.”
“I think they go there to watch each other—to find out something bad
about each other.”
“Bonnie May!”
“I do! And I’ve had pretty near enough, too. You asked me and I told
you. You’re all asking me to do things, and asking me questions; and
then if I don’t agree with you in every way I’m wrong. That may look
all right to you, but it doesn’t to me. If I’ve got to take everything, I
mean to be on my way.”
Baron remained silent a full minute. When he spoke again his voice
was persuasive, gentle. “I’m anxious to understand your difficulties,”
he said. “I’m anxious to have you understand ours. I’m sorry I
criticised you. I’m sure you mean to be fair.”
She looked at him with a light of gratitude in her eyes, a quiver of
emotion passing over her face. She had an intense desire to justify
herself—at least to him.
“Do you know what was the first thing they asked me?”
“Your name, probably.”
“No, Mrs. Shepard told them that. They asked me if I was a good
little girl!”
“But I don’t see any harm in that. Why shouldn’t they have asked
you?”
“You don’t! Do you suppose that I was going to tell them that I was—
or that I wasn’t? What nonsense! Are you ‘a good young man’? How
does a question like that sound?”
Baron pondered. “Well—” he suggested.
“Well, I wouldn’t stand it. I asked her if she was ‘a good old
woman’—and the frowzy old thing stared at me just as ugly! She
walked way down into the parquet without looking back. She’d been
grinning when she asked me. I’ll bet she won’t grin like that very
soon again.”
Baron walked to the window and looked out dully, to gain time.
How extraordinary the child’s attitude was! And yet.... He could
understand that she might have been the only child in the troupe with
which she travelled, and that her older companions, weary of
mimicry and make-believe when their work was done, might have
employed very frank, mature speech toward each other and their
young companion.
He turned away from the window with a sigh. “Won’t you take my
word for it, Bonnie May, that these people mean well, and that one
should speak of them with respect, even if one cannot speak of them
with affection?”
“But they don’t mean well. What’s the good of stalling?” She turned
until her back was toward him, and sat so, her cheek in her hand,
and her whole body eloquent of discouragement.
An instant later she turned toward him with the first evidence of
surrender she had shown. Her chin quivered and her eyes were filled
with misery. “Did you tell the man where I was, so they can come for
me if they want me?” she asked.
Here spoke the child, Baron thought. His resentment fled instantly.
“Truly I did,” he assured her. “I have been doing everything I could
think of to help. I want you to believe that.”
“Oh, I do; but you all put too much on me. I want to go back to where
things are real——”
“Real, child? The theatre, and plays, and make-believe every day?”
“It’s the only thing that’s real. You’d know that if you were an artist. It
means what’s true—that’s what it means. Do you mean to tell me
there’s anything real in all the putting on here in this house—the way
you hide what you mean and what you believe and what you want?
Here’s where the make-believe is: just a mean make-believe that
nothing comes of. The theatre has a make-believe that everybody
understands, and so it really isn’t a make-believe, and something
good and true comes of it.”
Her eyes were flashing. Her hands had been clasped while she
spoke until she came to the final clause. Then she thrust her arms
forward as if she would grasp the good and true thing which came of
the make-believe she had defended.
When Baron spoke again his words came slowly. “Bonnie May,” he
said, “I wish that you and I might try, like good friends, to understand
each other, and not to say or think anything bitter or unkind. Maybe
there will be things I can teach you. I’m sure there are things you can
teach me! And the others ... I honestly believe that when we all get
better acquainted we’ll love one another truly.”
She hung her head pensively a moment, and then, suddenly, she
laughed heartily, ecstatically.
“What is it?” he asked, vaguely troubled.
“I’m thinking it’s certainly a pretty kettle of fish I’ve got into. That’s
all.”
“You know I don’t quite understand that.”
“The Sunday-school, I mean, and your mother, and everything. They
put me in with a lot of children”—this somewhat scornfully—“and a
sort of leading lady asked us riddles—is that what you call them?
One of them was: ‘How long did it take to make the world?’”
“But that wasn’t a riddle.”
“Well, whatever it was; and they caught one Smart Alec. She said,
‘Forty days and forty nights,’ and they all laughed—so you could see
it was just a catch. As if anybody knew! That was the only fun I could
see to the whole performance, and it sounded like Rube fun at that.
One odious little creature looked at my dress a long time. Then she
said: ‘I’ve got a new dress.’ Another looked at me and sniffed, and
sniffed, and sniffed. She wrinkled her nose and lifted her lip every
time she sniffed. It was like a kind of signal. Then she said: ‘My papa
has got a big store, and we’ve got a horse and buggy.’ She sniffed
again and looked just as spiteful! I had to get back at that one. ‘Don’t
cry, little one,’ I said. ‘Wait until it’s a pretty day and I’ll come around
and take you out in my automobile.’”
“But you haven’t any automobile!”
“That,” with great emphasis, “doesn’t make any difference. There’s
no harm in stringing people of a certain kind.”
“Oh, Bonnie May!” cried Baron reproachfully, and with quickly
restored calm he added: “Surely one should tell the truth!”
“Yes, one should, if two would. But you can’t afford to show your
hand to every Bedelia that gets into your troupe. No, you can’t,” she
repeated defiantly, reading the pained look in his eyes.
Baron knew that he should have expressed his disapproval of such a
vagrant philosophy as this; but before he had time to frame a tactful
response the child continued:
“Then the leading lady turned to me, thinking up another question. I
made up my mind to be on hand if I had to sleep in the wings. ‘Why
were Adam and Eve driven out of the garden?’ was mine. I said:
‘Because they couldn’t make good!’ She looked puzzled, and I
patted her on the knee. ‘You can’t put over anything on me,’ I said. I
think I shouted it. That stopped the whole show for a minute, and an
old character man up near the stage got up and said: ‘A little less
noise, please.’ Then your mother came back.” (Baron had
anticipated this detail.) “She had been taking the leading part in a
little sketch up in front.” (Teaching her class, Baron reflected, and
smiled wryly in spite of himself.) “She had got through with her
musical turn, and—well, I don’t want to talk about her. She told me I
must sit still and listen to what the others said. Why? I’d like to know.
I couldn’t agree with her at all. I told her I was a professional and
didn’t expect to pick up anything from a lot of amateurs. And then,”
she added dejectedly, “the trouble began.”
Baron groaned. He had hoped the worst had been told. What in the
world was there to follow?
“Your mother,” resumed Bonnie May, “spoke to the woman who had
been asking questions. She said—so that the children could hear
every word—‘She’s a poor little thing who’s had no bringing up.
She’ll have to learn how to behave.’”
She hung her head in shame at the recollection of this. For the
moment she seemed unwilling to proceed.
“And what happened then?” Baron asked persuasively.
“Oh—I was getting—rattled! She had no right to work in a line like
that.”
“But what did you do?”
“I told her.... You know I am sorry, don’t you?”
“Maybe you’d rather not tell me?”
“You’d better know. I told her that when it came to doing the nasty
stuff I had seen pupils from the dramatic schools that looked like
headliners compared with her.”
Baron stiffened. “Goodness! You couldn’t have said that!”
“Yes, I did. And I didn’t have to wait to hear from any prompter,
either. And she—you know she won’t take anything. The way she
looked! She said she was glad to say she didn’t have any idea what I
was talking about. Just a stall, you know. Oh, these good people!
She called Flora and said I was to be taken into a corner, and that I
was to sit there until we went home. And Flora led me into a corner
and the others looked back as if they were afraid of me. They all
sang after a while—a kind of ensemble affair. Flora held the music
over and invited me to sing. I told her musical turns were not in my
line. She just kept on holding the music for me—honestly, she’s the
dearest thing!—and singing herself. It was a crime, the noise she
made. Isn’t it awful when people try to sing and can’t? As if they had
to. Why do they do it? I felt like screaming to her to stop. But she
looked as if she might be dreaming, and I thought if anybody could
dream in that terrible place it would be a crime to wake them, even if
they did make a noise. They had an intermission, and then a man
down in front delivered a monologue.... Oh, me! Talk about the
moving-picture shows! Why, they’re artistic....”
What, Baron wondered, was one to say to a child who talked in such
a fashion?
Nothing—nothing at all. He groaned. Then, to his great relief, Flora
appeared.
“Dinner is ready,” she said, standing in the doorway. There was a
flush on her cheeks and an odd smile on her lips.
Baron took Bonnie May by the hand—he could not quite understand
the impulse which prompted him to do so—and led her into the
dining-room.
He saw that she bore her face aloft, with a painful effort at
unconcern. He was glad that she was given a place next to him, with
the elder Baron on her right, and Flora across the table from her.
He was dismayed to note that his mother was quite beside herself.
He had expected a certain amount of irritation, of chagrin, but not
this ominous, pallid silence. She avoided her son’s eyes, and this
meant, of course, that her wrath would sooner or later be visited
upon his head.
He sighed with discouragement. He realized sadly that his mother’s
heaviest crosses had always come to her from such trivial causes!
She was oddly childish—just as Bonnie May was strangely
unchildlike. Still, she had all the traditions of propriety, of a rule-made
demeanor, behind her. Strange that she could not have risen to the
difficulty that had confronted her, and emerged from a petty
predicament without so much of loss!
The meal progressed in a constrained silence. Bonnie May
concerned herself with her napkin; she admired the design on the
china; she appeared to appraise the dishes with the care of an
epicure. And at last, unfortunately, she spoke.
“Don’t you think, Mr. Baron”—to the master of the house—“that it is a
pretty custom to converse while at table?”
Mr. Baron coughed. He was keenly aware that something had gone
wrong; he was shrewd enough to surmise that Bonnie May had
offended. But he was in the position of the passenger below decks
who senses an abnormal atmosphere but who is unadvised as to the
nature of the storm.
“I’m afraid I’m not a very reliable hand at small talk,” he said
guardedly. “I think my idea is that you ought to talk when you have
something to say.”
“Very good!” agreed Bonnie May, nodding brightly. She patted her
lips daintily with the corner of her napkin. “Only it seems like