Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Christobal Velez
Professor McCall
Introduction
Historically, union strikes have worked as a symbol of workers' collective action and
empowerment. Throughout the decades, union striking has been a crucial tool used by labor
organizations to negotiate aspects of their work-life, from working conditions to wages and
benefits, union striking has been an integral aspect of the workforce. The history of striking is
complex, with various intersectional avenues affecting the kinds of workers that striked and the
This research paper will focus on the historical precedents of union striking by examining
some of the earliest striking manifestations, their efficiency, and participants and ultimately
understanding their impact, and whether or not union striking is a viable union strategy in the
modern era.
Striking Definition
of an organization to reach an agreement with their employer regarding any demands they might
have (Cornell Law School LII, 2021). Within this general concept of a strike, there is what is
known as a lawful, sometimes referred to as an official strike, and an unlawful strike. A lawful
strike is often defined as being conducted by union members and endorsed by a union
organization (Chappelow, 2021). This strike holds the purpose of disrupting or stopping work
done by employees to have grievances or demands met. Generally, a lawful union strike follows
a set of “legal requirements” and is voted upon by union members (Chappelow, 2021). It is also
important to recognize that “the lawfulness of a strike may depend on the object, or purpose, of
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the strike”, but also be contingent “on its timing, or [the] conduct of the strikers” (National Labor
It is also important to note that a strike, by definition, will be different from a boycott or a
protest, despite some similarities that they may share. For example, a boycott and a strike both
share the function of disrupting the flow of operations of any corporation or agency. Participants
in a boycott, however, do not have to be workers of an organization or agency (Yasiejko, 2020).
Additionally, although strikes might involve some form of protest, a protest in itself is not the
same as a strike since non-employees of a company can protest, and protests do not inherently
One of the earliest recordings of striking comesfrom before unions were legally codified.
The earliest strike in the United States took place in New York in 1768 before unionization
became a right for workers. During the late 1760s in New York, tailors were in demand as the
post-World War II era created a market for unique and eccentric fashion styles (Rzigalinsky,
2018). It was also during this time that rumors of potential wage reductions for tailors in New
York spread leading to a group of journeymen tailors orchestrating what is generally considered
the first strike in American history (Onion et al., 2020). Ultimately, business owners decided to
comply with tailors' demands as their skills were in high demand and protests were disrupting
their business.
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Despite union strikes being traced back to the mid-1700s, it wasn’t until 1794 that the
first union was formed by shoemakers and bootmakers. By the end of the 1700s, the footwear
industry was booming with new industry developments leading to craftsmen expanding their
businesses and hiring workers to mass produce shoes and boots. Mass production of footwear led
to the creation of a “standardized line” and wholesale exports to neighboring cities. The mass
production of footwear products created a demand for a “cheaper line of footwear” and
employers wanted to reduce the cost of production by reducing the wages of journeymen or
Shoemakers in Philadelphia were considered the first to form the first labor union in the
United States. The Federal Society of Journeymen Cordwainers was formed to prevent the
decrease in wages for cordwainers but also to protect the overall interest of footwear employees
(Swartz, 2004). Over the following decade, the union engaged and endorsed what were called
“turn-outs” which can be considered some of the earliest forms of union striking. During this
time, as workers striked for fair wages, there was a section of employees who took it as an
opportunity to either gain employment at the lowered wage or continue working despite the
strikes (Swartz, 2004). These journeymen became known as “Scabs”, a term that is still used in
modern-day striking.
The unionization of Cordwainers, however, did not last long without pushback from
employers. In 1806, members of the Federal Society of Journeymen Cordwainers were brought
to trial for suspicions of criminal activity and what many characterized as “conspiring” to keep
wages high (Swartz, 2004). During the trials, some witnesses claimed to have been explicitly
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threatened if they did not join the union or the strikes the union endorsed. There were also claims
of destruction of property which was the breaking of a single window with a potato. Employers
were also known to have paid the prosecution lawyer higher wages than the one the union
received (Swartz, 2004). Not only does this trial mark one of the first instances of preferential
treatment for employers by the government but it is also one of the first cases of union busting in
American courts.
Ultimately, the government sided with business owners on the notion that they had
conspired to regulate the price of their labor. Fundamentally, the court decided that workers
could not judge their economic value. But perhaps the most important aspect that resulted from
Commonwealth v. Hunt, was that unions were affirmed in their right to strike as a legal entity
Racism has existed in the United States since it was founded, these sentiments have been
passed down by the racial majority and affected every aspect of American life, including the
One of the earliest documentation of African American striking efforts takes place in
Washington, DC. in 1835. During this time both freed and enslaved African Americans
participated in what was known as the “caulking trade” (Sharp, n.d.). This trade industry was
specifically important for shipbuilding as ships would not be considered fit for use commercially
if they were not caulked, which prevented water leakage (Sharp, n.d.). In 1835, a strike by
African American shipyard workers took place in the Washington Navy Yard, the strike
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supported the establishment of a 10-hour workday and fair wages (Sharp, n.d.). African
American workers also made up roughly 10 percent of the caulk trade in the Washington Navy
Yard (Sharp, n.d.). The growing population of freed African slaves raised concerns for racist
white workers and was ultimately the catalyst for what became known as the “Snow Riots” in
which white Americans attacked various freed African Americans and their businesses (Sharp,
n.d.). This ultimately led to the strike being unsuccessful as the strikers' demands were not met
Not all hope was lost, in 1838, African American ship workers in Baltimore founded
what is often considered one of the earliest African-American trade unions in the United States
known as the Caulkers Association (American Public Workers Association, 2019). However, the
fight for inclusivity by African American workers continued as various national union
organizations did not allow African Americans to join their unions or even support their striking
efforts (American Public Workers Association, 2019). One such example of this was the National
Labor Union. In 1869 during a National Labor Union convention, African American union
delegates, such as Isaac Myers, were invited to speak and state their plea for being included in
the National Labor Union (African American Registry, 2015). They were ultimately rejected as
racial tensions were still rampant between white and African American workers. This ultimately
led to the creation of the Colored National Labor Union in 1869 (African American Registry,
2015).
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During the late 1800s and early 1900s, women's suffrage was making waves in the
United States. In the late 1800s, Anthony and Elizabeth Cady Stanton created the National
Woman Suffrage Association, in that same time frame the American Woman Suffrage
Association was also founded (Library of Congress, 2022). Both of these organizations were
founded to generate social reforms as well as economic and political equality (Library of
Congress, 2022). However, women’s political activity can be traced back to the early 1800s.
In the early 1800s textile work was a significant industry in the US market, and young
women were a significant portion of its workforce. The work was not easy and the pay that “mill
girls” received was low (Library of Congress, 2022). The work conditions that mill girls operated
in were also less than ideal with strict restrictions that forbade them from even talking with one
In addition, the work hours were long and significantly dangerous with reports of
women's hands being injured in machinery and their hair getting stuck in looms leading to
scalping (Library of Congress, 2022). It was also the case that women in the mill were paid
significantly less than their male counterparts. This eventually led them to enact what is largely
considered one of the first women's strikes with nearly 600 mill girls walking out of the mill
factories and protesting in the streets (Library of Congress, 2022). Following the strike, the mill
girls released their grievances asking for fair or equal pay and better working conditions. In their
“We view this attempt to reduce our wages as part of a general plan of the proprietors of
the different manufacturing establishments to reduce the females in their employ to that
state of dependence on them in which they openly, as they do now secretly, abuse and
Despite their best efforts, the strike ended shortly as their employers began advertising
for new workers to fill in the positions of the workers that were striking, this ultimately led to
protests ending within a month and workers returning to work at the same pay and working
conditions (Library of Congress, 2022).
Modern Day Striking
Striking is and has been a significant part of labor relations in the United States, with
various union strikes taking place every year. In 2023, the number of union members increased
by almost 200,000 from 2022 (Poydock & Sherer, 2024). One example of a strike that took place
in 2023 was the United Auto Workers union strike. Auto workers from 3 major vehicle
corporations went on what they called a “stand up” strike to advocate for better wages and
The union strategized their strike to occur among 3 top automobile companies with only a
portion of their members striking and the rest waiting ready to “stand up.” After two months, the
union and the 3 automobile companies reached an agreement to increase wages by 33% and
re-open a manufacturing plant (Poydock & Sherer, 2024). The effects of the new agreement also
trickled down to companies such as Toyota, Honda, Hyundai, and Tesla with increases in their
base pay despite their workers not being unionized (Poydock & Sherer, 2024).
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Another example of a strike in 2023 was the Kaiser Permanente healthcare workers'
strike in October. Over 75 thousand workers comprised of nurses, medical technicians, and
support staff led a 3-day strike in various Kaiser facilities in different states (Poydock & Sherer,
2024). Different union coalitions endorsed the Kaiser health workers’ strike which was notably
the largest healthcare strike in United States history (Poydock & Sherer, 2024).
The 3-day strike focused on unions' grievances and focused specifically on the “lagging
pay” of health workers and low staffing levels (Poydock & Sherer, 2024). After the strike,
workers reached an agreement with healthcare employers to raise wages by 21% “across the
board” (Poydock & Sherer, 2024). The new agreement also cited “additional bonus and
performance sharing pay; and new training, education, and hiring initiatives to increase staffing
In June 2023 another strike took over social media with the center of attention being
Starbucks. Baristas conducted a mass strike in dozens of Starbucks locations after various rumors
spread regarding Starbucks managers removing “rainbow flags and decorations [meant to
support] LGBTQ+ Pride month.” Dozens of workers took to the streets and formed picket lines
outside locations in New York. Union members were seen discouraging people from entering the
Starbucks locations.
Starbucks representatives responded to the allegations of managers taking down flags and
decorations by stating that the company supports the queer community and has not changed its
policy regarding decorations. Despite the attention that the strike generated, little action came
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from it. With virtually no actionable demands made by strikers, the matter lost traction and
Another significant strike that took place last year was the hotel workers' strike in July
2023. Hotel workers in Southern California walked off their jobs demanding better wages and
benefits (Dovarganes, 2023). Thousands of workers ranging from front desk employees and
room attendants to servers and dishwashers gathered outside numerous hotels (Dovarganes,
2023). The strike was endorsed by the Unite Here Local 11 union with 96% of their members
As of March of this year, workers reached a new agreement with 34 hotels in South
California (Antczak, 2024). The agreement met all 3 of the union demands by increasing
workers' wages, pension contributions, and fairer workload. Non-tipped workers were also set to
receive a 40% to 50% increase in wages and tipped workers would receive better wages and
benefits such as double overtime for holidays, and vacation and sick days (Antczak, 2024).
In 2023, there were close to 400 strikes in the United States with over 500 thousand
workers participating in various forms of strike activity (Malinsky, 2023). Union strikes
increased significantly in 2023 with more workers actively participating in each strike since
2013. Striking sentiments have also been growing over the decades. In 2009, 25% of Americans
wanted unions to hold more influence in the American workforce, today roughly 43% of
Americans want unions to hold more influence (Saad, 2023). It is also the case that union activity
has also made significant advances in 2023. A Bloomberg Law analysis found that in the first
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quarter of 2023, union workers had a roughly 7% increase in pay within the first year of their
Union activity and strikes have also been shown to have significantly more impact on
minority groups in the United States. In the past decade, women have been exponentially joining
the workforce like never before (Nast, 2023). They have also been at the forefront of union
organization and activity. Striking and union activity has impacted women's wages and benefits,
one such example can be seen in the leisure and hospitality industry. Women make up half of the
workforce in this sector and directly benefit from union strike wins (Nast, 2023). Studies have
shown that unions have a significant impact on the reduction of the wage gap, this is even more
evident for black and Latina women (Robbins, 2023). Studies have also shown that black and
Latino men receive higher “union wage premiums” than their non-unionized counterparts
(Washington Center, 2023). They also tend to have “higher median levels of wealth thus
reducing the economic inequality gap experienced by minorities (Washington Center, 2023).
Conclusion
Historically, union striking has been a significant tool utilized by unions to generate
changes in labor relations within the United States. From some of the earliest strikes in the
tailor's industry to more recent healthcare and leisure workers' strikes, union activity has helped
secure fair wages, benefits, and working conditions. In the modern world, strikes continue to be
an effective tool. Marginalized groups, including women and racial minority groups, tend to see
significant benefits through unionization. With growing support for unions, it is clear that as a
strategy, union striking has and will continue to be an effective bargaining tool.
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References
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American Public Workers Association. (2019, May 28).Isaac Myers: Pioneer of the
African-American Trade Union Movement. American Postal Workers Union.
https://apwu.org/news/isaac-myers-pioneer-african-american-trade-union-movement
Antczak, J. (2024, March 25).Hospitality workers ratify new contract with 34 Southern
California hotels, press 30 others to sign. AP News.
https://apnews.com/article/california-hotel-strike-contract-ratification-cce82d9fe9b0d2c3
137929cc60f4b2f1
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Onion, A., Sullivan, M., & Mullen, M. (2020, March 31).Labor Movement. History.com; A&E
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