Human migration

Human migration is the movement of

people from one place to another with
intentions of settling, permanently or
temporarily, at a new location (geographic
region).[1]

Venezuelan migrants being processed in Ecuador in

2018
 Migrants and the monitoring Slovenian army at the
border of Gornja Radgona, Styria, Slovenia, in 2015

The movement often occurs over long

distances and from one country to another
(external migration), but internal migration
(within a single country) is the dominant
form of human migration globally.[2]

Migration is often associated with better

human capital at both individual and
household level, and with better access to
migration networks, facilitating a possible
second move.[3] It has a high potential to
improve human development, and some
studies confirm that migration is the most
direct route out of poverty.[4]

Age is also important for both work and

non-work migration.[5]

People may migrate as individuals, in

family units or in large groups.[6] There are
four major forms of migration: invasion,
conquest, colonization and
emigration/immigration.[7]

People moving from their home due to

forced displacement (such as a natural
disaster or civil disturbance) may be
described as displaced persons or, if
remaining in the home country, internally-
displaced persons.

People who flee to a different country due

to political, religious, or other types of
persecution in their home country can
formally request shelter in the host
country. These people are commonly
referred to as an asylum seekers. If the
application is approved, their legal
classification changes to that of
refugees.[8]
Definition

Migrants on a truck between Niamey

and Kouré in Niger (2007)

Depending on the goal and reason for

relocation, migrants can be divided into
three categories: migrants, refugees, and
asylum seekers. Each category is defined
broadly as the combination of
circumstances that motivate a person to
change their location.

As such, migrants are traditionally

described as persons who change the
country of residence for general reasons.
These purposes may include better job
opportunities or healthcare needs. This
term is the most widely understood, as
anyone changing their geographical
location permanently is a migrant.[9]

In contrast, refugees are defined and

described as persons who do not willingly
relocate. The reasons for the refugees'
migration usually involve war actions
within the country or other forms of
oppression, coming either from the
government or non-governmental sources.
Refugees are usually associated with
people who must unwillingly relocate as
fast as possible; hence, such migrants will
likely relocate undocumented.[9]

Asylum seekers are associated with

persons who also leave their country
unwillingly, yet, who also do not do so
under oppressing circumstances such as
war or death threats. The motivation to
leave the country for asylum seekers
might involve an unstable economic or
political situation or high rates of crime.
Thus, asylum seekers relocate
predominantly to escape the degradation
of the quality of their lives.[9]
Nomadic movements usually are not
regarded as migrations, as the movement
is generally seasonal, there is no intention
to settle in the new place, and only a few
people have retained this form of lifestyle
in modern times. Temporary movement for
travel, tourism, pilgrimages, or the
commute is also not regarded as
migration, in the absence of an intention to
live and settle in the visited places.[10]
Migration patterns and
related numbers

The number of migrants in the world, 1960–2015[11]

Annual Net Migration Rate 2015–2020. Prediction by UN in

2019.

There exist many statistical estimates of

worldwide migration patterns.
The World Bank has published three
editions of its Migration and Remittances
Factbook, beginning in 2008, with a second
edition appearing in 2011 and a third in
2016.[12] The International Organisation for
Migration (IOM) has published ten editions
of the World Migration Report since
1999.[13][14] The United Nations Statistics
Division also keeps a database on
worldwide migration.[15] Recent advances
in research on migration via the Internet
promise better understanding of migration
patterns and migration motives.[16][17]

Structurally, there is substantial South–

South and North–North migration; in 2013,
38% of all migrants had migrated from
developing countries to other developing
countries, while 23% had migrated from
high-income OECD countries to other high-
income countries.[18] The United Nations
Population Fund says that "while the North
has experienced a higher absolute
increase in the migrant stock since 2000
(32 million) compared to the South (25
million), the South recorded a higher
growth rate. Between 2000 and 2013, the
average annual rate of change of the
migrant population in developing regions
(2.3%) slightly exceeded that of the
developed regions (2.1%)."[19]
Substantial internal migration can also
take place within a country, either
seasonal human migration (mainly related
to agriculture and tourism to urban
places), or shifts of the population into
cities (urbanisation) or out of cities
(suburbanisation). However, studies of
worldwide migration patterns tend to limit
their scope to international migration.
International migrants, 1970–2015[20]
Migrants as a %
Year Number of migrants
of the world's population

1970 84,460,125 2.3%

1975 90,368,010 2.2%

1980 101,983,149 2.3%

1985 113,206,691 2.3%

1990 152,563,212 2.9%

1995 160,801,752 2.8%

2000 172,703,309 2.8%

2005 191,269,100 2.9%

2010 221,714,243 3.2%

2015 243,700,236 3.3%

Almost half of these migrants are women,

one of the most significant migrant-
pattern changes in the last half-century.[19]
Women migrate alone or with their family
members and community. Even though
female migration is largely viewed as an
association rather than independent
migration, emerging studies argue
complex and manifold reasons for this.[21]

As of 2019, the top ten immigration

destinations were:[22]

United States
Germany
Saudi Arabia
Russian Federation
United Kingdom
United Arab Emirates
France
Canada
Australia
Italy
In the same year, the top countries of
origin were:[22]

India
Mexico
China
Russian Federation
Syrian Arab Republic
Bangladesh
Pakistan
Philippines
Afghanistan
Indonesia

Besides these rankings, according to

absolute numbers of migrants, the
Migration and Remittances Factbook also
gives statistics for top immigration
destination countries and top emigration
origin countries according to percentage
of the population; the countries that
appear at the top of those rankings are
entirely different from the ones in the
above rankings and tend to be much
smaller countries.[23]: 2, 4
 Typical grocery store on 8th Avenue in one of the
Brooklyn Chinatowns ( 布鲁克林華埠 ) on Long
Island, New York. New York City's multiple
法拉盛華埠
Chinatowns in Queens ( ), Manhattan (紐
約華埠), and Brooklyn are thriving as traditionally
urban enclaves, as large-scale Chinese immigration
continues into New York,[24][25][26][27] with the largest
metropolitan Chinese population outside Asia,[28]
The New York metropolitan area contains the
largest ethnic Chinese population outside of Asia,
comprising an estimated 893,697 uniracial
individuals as of 2017.[29]

As of 2013, the top 15 migration corridors

(accounting for at least 2 million migrants
each) were:[23]: 5

1. Mexico–United States
2. Russian Federation–Ukraine
3. Bangladesh–India
4. Ukraine–Russian Federation
 5. Kazakhstan–Russian Federation
6. China–United States
7. Russian Federation–Kazakhstan
8. Afghanistan–Pakistan
9. Afghanistan–Iran
10. China–Hong Kong
11. India–United Arab Emirates
12. West Bank and Gaza–Jordan
13. India–United States
14. India–Saudi Arabia
15. Philippines–United States
Economic impacts

World economy

Dorothea Lange, Drought

refugees from Oklahoma
camping by the roadside,
Blythe, California, 1936

The impacts of human migration on the

world economy have been largely positive.
In 2015, migrants, who constituted 3.3% of
the world population, contributed 9.4% of
global GDP.[30][31]
At a microeconomic level, the value of a
human mobility is largely recognized by
firms. A 2021 survey by the Boston
Consulting Group found that 72% of 850+
executives across several countries and
industries believed that migration
benefited their countries, and 45%
considered globally diverse employees a
strategic advantage.[32]

According to the Centre for Global

Development, opening all borders could
add $78 trillion to the world GDP.[33][34]
Remittances

Remittances (funds transferred by migrant

workers to their home country) form a
substantial part of the economy of some
countries. The top ten remittance
recipients in 2018.

Rank Country Remittance (in billions of US dollars) Percent of GDP

1 India 80 2.80

2 China 67 0.50

3 Philippines 34 9.14

4 Mexico 34 1.54

5 France 25 0.96

6 Nigeria 22 5.84

7 Egypt 20 8.43

8 Pakistan 20 6.57

9 Bangladesh 18 5.73

10 Vietnam 14 6.35

In addition to economic impacts, migrants

also make substantial contributions in
sociocultural and civic-political life.
Sociocultural contributions occur in the
following areas of societies: food/cuisine,
sport, music, art/culture, ideas and beliefs;
civic-political contributions relate to
participation in civic duties in the context
of accepted authority of the State.[35] It is
in recognition of the importance of these
remittances that the United Nations
Sustainable Development Goal 10 targets
to substantially reduce the transaction
costs of migrants remittances to less than
3% by 2030.[36]
Voluntary and forced
migration

Migration is usually divided into voluntary

migration and forced migration.

The distinction between involuntary

(fleeing political conflict or natural
disaster) and voluntary migration
(economic or labour migration) is difficult
to make and partially subjective, as the
motivators for migration are often
correlated. The World Bank estimated that,
as of 2010, 16.3 million or 7.6% of
migrants qualified as refugees.[37] This
number grew to 19.5 million by 2014
(comprising approximately 7.9% of the
total number of migrants, based on the
figure recorded in 2013).[38] At levels of
roughly 3 percent the share of migrants
among the world population has remained
remarkably constant over the last 5
decades.[39]

Voluntary migration

Voluntary migration is based on the

initiative and the free will of the person
and is influenced by a combination of
factors: economic, political and social:
either in the migrants` country of origin
(determinant factors or "push factors") or
in the country of destination (attraction
factors or "pull factors").

"Push-pull factors" are the reasons that

push or attract people to a particular
place. "Push" factors are the negative
aspects(for example wars) of the country
of origin, often decisive in people's choice
to emigrate. The "pull" factors are the
positive aspects of a different country that
encourages people to emigrate to seek a
better life. For example, the government of
Armenia periodically gives incentives to
people who will migrate to live in villages
close to the border with Azerbaijan. This is
an implementation of a push strategy, and
the reason people do not want to live near
the border is security concerns given
tensions and hostility because of
Azerbaijan.[40]

Although the push-pull factors are

opposed, both are sides of the same coin,
being equally important. Although specific
to forced migration, any other harmful
factor can be considered a "push factor" or
determinant/trigger factor, such examples
being: poor quality of life, lack of jobs,
excessive pollution, hunger, drought or
natural disasters. Such conditions
represent decisive reasons for voluntary
migration, the population preferring to
migrate in order to prevent financially
unfavorable situations or even emotional
and physical suffering.[41]

Forced migration

There exist contested definitions of forced

migration. However, the editors of a
leading scientific journal on the subject,
the Forced Migration Review, offer the
following definition: Forced migration
refers to the movements of refugees and
internally displaced people (displaced by
conflict) as well as people displaced by
natural or environmental disasters,
chemical or nuclear disasters, famine, or
development projects.[42] These different
causes of migration leave people with one
choice, to move to a new environment.
Immigrants leave their beloved homes to
seek a life in camps, spontaneous
settlement, and countries of asylum.[43]

By the end of 2018, there were an

estimated 67.2 million forced migrants
globally – 25.9 million refugees displaced
from their countries, and 41.3 million
internally displaced persons that had been
displaced within their countries for
different reasons.[14]
In 2022, 6 million Ukrainian people fled
their country meanwhile 3 million Syrian
people fled in 3 years.

Transit migration

Transit migration is a highly debated term

with no official definition. The common
understanding is that it describes
immigrants who are in the process of
moving to an end goal country. The term
was first coined by the UN in 1990 to
describe immigrants who were traveling
through countries surrounding Europe to
end up in a European Union state.[44]
Another example of transit migrants is
Central Americans who travel through
Mexico in order to live in the United
States.[45]

The term "transit migration" has generated

a lot of debate among migration scholars
and immigration institutions. Some
criticize it as a Eurocentric term that was
coined to place responsibility of migrants
on states outside the European Union; and
also to pressure those states to prevent
migration onward to the European
Union.[44] Scholars note that EU countries
also have identical migrant flows and
therefore it is not clear (illogical or biased)
why it is only migrants in non-EU countries
that are labeled as transit migrants.[46] It is
also argued that the term "transit" glosses
over the complexity and difficulty of
migrant journeys: migrants face many
types of violence while in transit; migrants
often have no set end destination and
must adjust their plan as they move
(migrant journeys can take years and go
through several stages).
Contemporary labor
migration theories

Overview

Numerous causes impel migrants to move

to another country. For instance,
globalization has increased the demand
for workers in order to sustain national
economies. Thus one category of
economic migrants – generally from
impoverished developing countries –
migrates to obtain sufficient income for
survival.[47][48]
Such migrants often send some of their
income homes to family members in the
form of economic remittances, which have
become an economic staple in a number
of developing countries.[49] People may
also move or are forced to move as a
result of conflict, of human-rights
violations, of violence, or to escape
persecution. In 2013 it was estimated that
around 51.2 million people fell into this
category.[47] Other reasons people may
move include to gain access to
opportunities and services or to escape
extreme weather. This type of movement,
usually from rural to urban areas, may be
classed as internal migration.[47]
Sociology-cultural and ego-historical
factors also play a major role. In North
Africa, for example, emigrating to Europe
counts as a sign of social prestige.
Moreover, many countries were former
colonies. This means that many have
relatives who live legally in the (former)
colonial metro pole and who often provide
important help for immigrants arriving in
that metropole.[50]

Relatives may help with job research and

with accommodation.[51] The geographical
proximity of Africa to Europe and the long
historical ties between Northern and
Southern Mediterranean countries also
prompt many to migrate.[52]

Whether a person decides to move to

another country depends on the relative
skill premier of the source and host
countries. One is speaking of positive
selection when the host country shows a
higher skill premium than the source
country. On the other hand, negative
selection occurs when the source country
displays a lower skill premium. The relative
skill premia define migrants selectivity.
Age heaping techniques display one
method to measure the relative skill
premium of a country.[53]
A number of theories attempt to explain
the international flow of capital and people
from one country to another.[54]

Research contributions

Recent academic output on migration

comprises mainly journal articles. The
long-term trend shows a gradual increase
in academic publishing on migration,
which is likely to be related to the general
expansion of academic literature
production, and the increased prominence
of migration research.[55] Migration and its
research have further changed with the
revolution in information and
communication technologies.[56][57][58]

Neoclassical economic theory

This migration theory states that the main

reason for labour migration is wage
difference between two geographic
locations. These wage differences are
usually linked to geographic labour
demand and supply. It can be said that
areas with a shortage of labour but an
excess of capital have a high relative wage
while areas with a high labour supply and
a dearth of capital have a low relative
wage. Labour tends to flow from low-wage
areas to high-wage areas. Often, with this
flow of labour comes changes in the
sending and the receiving country.
Neoclassical economic theory best
describes transnational migration because
it is not confined by international
immigration laws and similar
governmental regulations.[54]

Dual labor market theory

Dual labour market theory states that pull

factors in more developed countries
mainly cause migration. This theory
assumes that the labour markets in these
developed countries consist of two
segments: the primary market, which
requires high-skilled labour, and the
secondary market, which is very labour-
intensive, requiring low-skilled workers.
This theory assumes that migration from
less developed countries into more
developed countries results from a pull
created by a need for labour in the
developed countries in their secondary
market. Migrant workers are needed to fill
the lowest rung of the labour market
because the native labourers do not want
to do these jobs as they present a lack of
mobility. This creates a need for migrant
workers. Furthermore, the initial dearth in
available labour pushes wages up, making
migration even more enticing.[54]

New economics of labor migration

This theory states that migration flows

and patterns cannot be explained solely at
the level of individual workers and their
economic incentives but that wider social
entities must also be considered. One
such social entity is the household.
Migration can be viewed as a result of risk
aversion from a household that has
insufficient income. In this case, the
household needs extra capital that can be
achieved through remittances sent back
by family members who participate in
migrant labour abroad. These remittances
can also have a broader effect on the
economy of the sending country as a
whole as they bring in capital.[54] Recent
research has examined a decline in US
interstate migration from 1991 to 2011,
theorising that the reduced interstate
migration is due to a decline in the
geographic specificity of occupations and
an increase in workers' ability to learn
about other locations before moving there,
through both information technology and
inexpensive travel.[59] Other researchers
find that the location-specific nature of
housing is more important than moving
costs in determining labour
reallocation.[60]

Relative deprivation theory

Relative deprivation theory states that

awareness of the income difference
between neighbours or other households
in the migrant-sending community is
essential in migration. The incentive to
migrate is a lot higher in areas with a high
level of economic inequality. In the short
run, remittances may increase inequality,
but in the long run, they may decrease it.
There are two stages of migration for
workers: first, they invest in human capital
formation, and then they try to capitalise
on their investments. In this way,
successful migrants may use their new
capital to provide better schooling for their
children and better homes for their
families. Successful high-skilled emigrants
may serve as an example for neighbours
and potential migrants who hope to
achieve that level of success.[54]

World systems theory

World-systems theory looks at migration

from a global perspective. It explains that
interaction between different societies can
be an important factor in social change.
Trade with one country, which causes an
economic decline in another, may create
incentive to migrate to a country with a
more vibrant economy. It can be argued
that even after decolonisation, the
economic dependence of former colonies
remains on mother countries. However,
this view of international trade is
controversial, and some argue that free
trade can reduce migration between
developing and developed countries. It can
be argued that the developed countries
import labour-intensive goods, which
causes an increase in the employment of
unskilled workers in the less developed
countries, decreasing the outflow of
migrant workers. Exporting capital-
intensive goods from rich countries to
developing countries also equalises
income and employment conditions, thus
slowing migration. In either direction, this
theory can be used to explain migration
between countries that are geographically
far apart.[54]

Osmosis theory

Based on the history of human

migration[61] osmosis theory studies the
evolution of its natural determinants. In
this theory migration is divided into two
main types: simple and complicated. The
simple migration is divided, in its turn, into
diffusion, stabilisation and concentration
periods. During these periods, water
availability, adequate climate, security and
population density represent the natural
determinants of human migration. The
complicated migration is characterised by
the speedy evolution and the emergence
of new sub-determinants, notably earning,
unemployment, networks, and migration
policies. Osmosis theory[62] explains
analogically human migration by the
biophysical phenomenon of osmosis. In
this respect, the countries are represented
by animal cells, the borders by the
semipermeable membranes and the
humans by ions of water. According to the
theory, according to the osmosis
phenomenon, humans migrate from
countries with less migration pressure to
countries with high migration pressure. To
measure the latter, the natural
determinants of human migration replace
the variables of the second principle of
thermodynamics used to measure the
osmotic pressure.
Social-scientific theories

Sociology

A number of social scientists have

examined immigration from a sociological
perspective, paying particular attention to
how immigration affects and is affected
by, matters of race and ethnicity, as well as
social structure. They have produced three
main sociological perspectives:

symbolic interactionism, which aims to

understand migration via face-to-face
interactions on a micro-level
 social conflict theory, which examines
migration through the prism of
competition for power and resources
structural functionalism (based on the
ideas of Émile Durkheim), which
examines the role of migration in
fulfilling certain functions within each
society, such as the decrease of despair
and aimlessness and the consolidation
of social networks

More recently, as attention has shifted

away from countries of destination,
sociologists have attempted to
understand how transnationalism allows
us to understand the interplay between
migrants, their countries of destination,
and their countries of origins.[63] In this
framework, work on social remittances by
Peggy Levitt and others has led to a
stronger conceptualisation of how
migrants affect socio-political processes
in their countries of origin.[64]

Much work also takes place in the field of

integration of migrants into destination-
societies.[65]

Political science

Political scientists have put forth a number

of theoretical frameworks relating to
migration, offering different perspectives
on processes of security,[66][67]
citizenship,[68] and international
relations.[69] The political importance of
diasporas has also become a growing field
of interest, as scholars examine questions
of diaspora activism,[70] state-diaspora
relations,[71] out-of-country voting
processes,[72] and states' soft power
strategies.[73] In this field, the majority of
work has focused on immigration politics,
viewing migration from the perspective of
the country of destination.[74] With regard
to emigration processes, political
scientists have expanded on Albert
Hirschman's framework on '"voice" vs.
"exit" to discuss how emigration affects
the politics within countries of origin.[75][76]

Historical theories

Ravenstein

Certain laws of social science have been

proposed to describe human migration.
The following was a standard list after
Ernst Georg Ravenstein's proposal in the
1880s:

1. every migration flow generates a

return or counter migration.
2. the majority of migrants move a short
distance.
3. migrants who move longer distances
tend to choose big-city destinations.
4. urban residents are often less
migratory than inhabitants of rural
areas.
5. families are less likely to make
international moves than young
adults.
6. most migrants are adults.
7. large towns grow by migration rather
than natural increase.
8. migration stage by stage (step
migration).
9. urban, rural difference.
 10. migration and technology.
11. economic condition.

Push and Pull

Demographer Everett S. Lee's model

divides factors causing migrations into
two groups of factors: push and pull. Push
factors are things that are unfavourable
about the home area that one lives in, and
pull factors are things that attract one to
another host area.[77][78]

Push factors:

Not enough jobs

Few opportunities
 Conscription (draft young men into army)
Famine or drought
Political fear of persecution
Poor medical care
Loss of wealth
Natural disasters
Death threats
Desire for more political or religious freedom
Pollution
Poor housing
Discrimination
Poor chances of marrying
War or threat of invasion
Disease

Pull factors:
Job opportunities
Better living conditions
The feeling of having more political or
religious freedom
Enjoyment
Education
Better medical care
Attractive climates
Security
Family links
Industry
Better chances of marrying
Climate cycles

The modern field of climate history

suggests that the successive waves of
Eurasian nomadic movement throughout
history have had their origins in climatic
cycles, which have expanded or contracted
pastureland in Central Asia, especially
Mongolia and to its west the Altai. People
were displaced from their home ground by
other tribes trying to find land that
essential flocks could graze, each group
pushing the next further to the south and
west, into the highlands of Anatolia, the
Pannonian Plain, into Mesopotamia, or
southwards, into the rich pastures of
China. Bogumil Terminski uses the term
"migratory domino effect" to describe this
process in the context of Sea People
invasion.[79]

Food, sex, security

The theory is that migration occurs

because individuals search for food, sex
and security outside their usual habitation;
Idyorough (2008) believes that towns and
cities are a creation of the human struggle
to obtain food, sex and security.[80] To
produce food, security and reproduction,
human beings must, out of necessity,
move out of their usual habitation and
enter into indispensable social
relationships that are cooperative or
antagonistic. Human beings also develop
the tools and equipment to interact with
nature to produce the desired food and
security. The improved relationship
(cooperative relationships) among human
beings and improved technology further
conditioned by the push and pull factors
all interact together to cause or bring
about migration and higher concentration
of individuals into towns and cities. The
higher the technology of production of
food and security and the higher the
cooperative relationship among human
beings in the production of food and
security and the reproduction of the
human species, the higher would be the
push and pull factors in the migration and
concentration of human beings in towns
and cities. Countryside, towns and cities
do not just exist, but they do so to meet
the basic human needs of food, security
and the reproduction of the human
species. Therefore, migration occurs
because individuals search for food, sex
and security outside their usual habitation.
Social services in the towns and cities are
provided to meet these basic needs for
human survival and pleasure.
Other models

Zipf's inverse distance law (1956)

Gravity model of migration and the
friction of distance
Radiation law for human mobility
Buffer theory
Stouffer's theory of intervening
opportunities (1940)
Zelinsky's Mobility Transition Model
(1971)
Bauder's regulation of labour markets
(2006): "suggests that the international
migration of workers is necessary for
the survival of industrialised
 economies...[It] turns the conventional
view of international migration on its
head: it investigates how migration
regulates labour markets, rather than
labour markets shaping migration
flows."[81]

Migration governance

By their very nature, international migration

and displacement are transnational issues
concerning the origin and destination
States and States through which migrants
may travel (often referred to as "transit"
States) or in which they are hosted
following displacement across national
borders. And yet, somewhat paradoxically,
the majority of migration governance has
historically remained with individual
states. Their policies and regulations on
migration are typically made at the
national level.[82] For the most part,
migration governance has been closely
associated with State sovereignty. States
retain the power of deciding on the entry
and stay of non-nationals because
migration directly affects some of the
defining elements of a State.[83]
Comparative surveys reveal varying
degrees of openness to migrants across
countries, considering policies such as
visa availability, employment prerequisites,
and paths to residency.[84]

Bilateral and multilateral arrangements are

features of migration governance at an
international level. There are several global
arrangements in the form of international
treaties in which States have reached an
agreement on the application of human
rights and the related responsibilities of
States in specific areas. The 1966
International Covenant on Civil and
Political Rights and the 1951 Convention
Relating to the Status of Refugees
(Refugee Convention) are two significant
examples notable for being widely ratified.
Other migration conventions have not
been so broadly accepted, such as the
International Convention on the Protection
of the Rights of All Migrant Workers and
Members of Their Families, which still has
no traditional countries of destination
among its States parties. Beyond this,
there have been numerous multilateral and
global initiatives, dialogues and processes
on migration over several decades. The
Global Compact for Safe, Orderly and
Regular Migration (Global Compact for
Migration) is another milestone, as the
first internationally negotiated statement
of objectives for migration governance
striking a balance between migrants'
rights and the principle of States'
sovereignty over their territory. Although it
is not legally binding, the Global Compact
for Migration was adopted by consensus
in December 2018 at a United Nations
conference in which more than 150 United
Nations Member States participated and,
later that same month, in the United
Nations General Assembly (UNGA), by a
vote among the Member States of 152 to
5 (with 12 abstentions).[85]

See also

Colonization
Demographics of the world
Early human migrations
El Inmigrante – 2005 film
Environmental migrant
Existential migration
Expatriate
Feminisation of migration
Genographic Project
Humanitarian crisis
International migration
Illegal immigration
Linguistic Diversity in Space and Time
Immigration to Europe
List of diasporas
Jewish diaspora
Migrant literature
Migration in China
Most recent common ancestor
Offshoring
Political demography
Queer migration
Refugee roulette
Religion and human migration
Replacement migration
Return migration
Separation barrier
Settler colonialism
Snowbird (person)
 Space colonization
Timeline of maritime migration and
exploration

References

1. Society, National Geographic (2010-12-14).

"Introduction to Human Migration" (http://w
ww.nationalgeographic.org/activity/introdu
ction-human-migration/) . National
Geographic Society. Retrieved 2023-08-12.
2. World Migration Report 2020 (https://www.i
om.int/wmr/) . International Organization
for Migration, 2019. "The great majority of
people in the world do not migrate across
borders; much larger numbers migrate
within countries (an estimated 740 million
internal migrants in 2009)" (p. 19). "In 2019,
there were an estimated 272 million
international migrants globally (3.5% of the
world’s population) .... it is evident that the
vast majority of people continue to live in
the countries in which they were born" (p.
21).
3. Razum, Oliver; Samkange-Zeeb, Florence
(2017). "Populations at Special Health Risk:
Migrants" (https://www.sciencedirect.com/
science/article/pii/B978012803678500345
3) . In Quah, Stella R. (ed.). International
Encyclopedia of Public Health (2nd ed.).
Oxford: Academic Press. pp. 591–598.
doi:10.1016/B978-0-12-803678-5.00345-3
(https://doi.org/10.1016%2FB978-0-12-803
678-5.00345-3) . ISBN 978-0128037089.
Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/202
21014084425/https://www.sciencedirect.c
om/science/article/pii/B978012803678500
3453) from the original on October 14,
2022. Retrieved October 11, 2022.
4. Kumar, Shailendra; Choudhury, Sanghamitra
(2021-01-01). "Migrant workers and human
rights: A critical study on India's COVID-19
lockdown policy" (https://doi.org/10.1016%
2Fj.ssaho.2021.100130) . Social Sciences
& Humanities Open. 3 (1): 100130.
doi:10.1016/j.ssaho.2021.100130 (https://d
oi.org/10.1016%2Fj.ssaho.2021.100130) .
ISSN 2590-2911 (https://www.worldcat.or
g/issn/2590-2911) . S2CID 234161193 (htt
ps://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:234
161193) .
5. Coxhead, Ian; Cuong, Nguyen Viet; Vu, Linh
Hoang (2015). "Migration in Vietnam: New
Evidence from Recent Surveys" (https://mpr
a.ub.uni-muenchen.de/70217/1/MPRA_pap
er_70217.pdf) (PDF). SSRN Electronic
Journal. doi:10.2139/ssrn.2752834 (http
s://doi.org/10.2139%2Fssrn.2752834) .
S2CID 34975118 (https://api.semanticscho
lar.org/CorpusID:34975118) .
6. "Migrations country wise" (https://web.archi
ve.org/web/20160211025416/http://migrat
ionsmap.net/#/USA/arrivals) . Archived
from the original (http://migrationsmap.ne
t/#/USA/arrivals) on 2016-02-11. Retrieved
7 June 2014.
 7. Caves, R. W. (2004). Encyclopedia of the
City (https://archive.org/details/encycloped
iacity00cave) . Routledge. pp. 461 (https://
archive.org/details/encyclopediacity00cav
e/page/n501) . ISBN 978-0415252256.
8. "What is a refugee?" (https://www.unhcr.or
g/what-refugee) . UNHCR. Retrieved
2023-08-12.
9. "Migration vs. Immigration: Differences and
Similarities" (https://thewordpoint.com/blo
g/migration-vs-immigration) .
thewordpoint.com. 27 August 2020.
Retrieved 2020-10-22.
10. "Migration vs. Immigration: Differences and
Similarities" (https://thewordpoint.com/blo
g/migration-vs-immigration) . 27 August
2020.
11. "International migrant stock, total" (https://
data.worldbank.org/indicator/SM.POP.TOT
L) . The World Bank Data. Retrieved
2017-09-29.
12. "Open Knowledge Repository: Migration
and Remittances Factbook (https://openkn
owledge.worldbank.org/discover?scope=%
2F&query=Migration+and+Remittances+Fa
ctbook&submit=) ". World Bank Group.
Retrieved 2019-08-11; Migrations and
Remittances Factbook 2016, p. xiii:
"Factbook 2016 builds on the two previous
editions of Factbooks".
13. World Migration Report (https://www.iom.in
t/wmr/)
14. "World Migration Report 2020" (https://publi
cations.iom.int/books/world-migration-repo
rt-2020) . 2019-01-02. ISSN 1561-5502 (htt
ps://www.worldcat.org/issn/1561-5502) .
{{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires
|journal= (help)
15. "United Nations Population Division |
Department of Economic and Social
Affairs" (http://esa.un.org/unmigration/wall
chart2013.htm) .
16. Oiarzabal, P. J.; Reips, U.-D. (2012).
"Migration and diaspora in the age of
information and communication
technologies" (https://zenodo.org/record/8
97706) . Journal of Ethnic and Migration
Studies. 38 (9): 1333–1338.
doi:10.1080/1369183X.2012.698202 (http
s://doi.org/10.1080%2F1369183X.2012.69
8202) . S2CID 144246309 (https://api.sem
anticscholar.org/CorpusID:144246309) .
17. Reips, U.-D., & Buffardi, L. (2012). "Studying
migrants with the help of the Internet:
Methods from psychology" (http://www.uni-
konstanz.de/iscience/reips/pubs/papers/2
012ReipsBuffardi_JEMS.pdf) , Journal of
Ethnic and Migration Studies, 38(9), 1405–
1424. doi:10.1080/1369183X.2012.698208
(https://doi.org/10.1080%2F1369183X.201
2.698208)
18. Migration and Remittances Factbook 2016,
p. 11 (reflecting figures from 2013).
19. "International Migration 2013 (wall chart)"
(http://www.unfpa.org/resources/internatio
nal-migration-2013-wall-chart) . UNFPA.
2013.
20. "World Migration Report 2018" (https://publi
cations.iom.int/system/files/pdf/wmr_201
8_en.pdf) (PDF). International Organization
for Migration. p. 15. Retrieved 26 November
2019.
21. Thapan, M. (2008). "Series Introduction". In
Palriwala; Uberoi (eds.). Women and
Migration in Asia. New Delhi: Sage
Publications. p. 359. ISBN 978-
0761936756.
22. IOM. "Migration and migrants: A global
overview (https://www.iom.int/wmr/2020/c
hapter/02) Archived (https://web.archive.o
rg/web/20210118155722/https://www.io
m.int/wmr/2020/chapter/02) 2021-01-18
at the Wayback Machine." Ch. 2 in World
Migration Report 2020.
23. Migration and Remittances Factbook 2016
24. "Yearbook of Immigration Statistics: 2013
Supplemental Table 2" (https://www.dhs.go
v/sites/default/files/publications/immigrati
on-statistics/yearbook/2013/LPR/immsupt
able2d.xls) . U.S. Department of Homeland
Security. Retrieved 14 April 2016.
25. "Yearbook of Immigration Statistics: 2012
Supplemental Table 2" (https://web.archive.
org/web/20141222152450/http://www.dh
s.gov/sites/default/files/publications/immi
gration-statistics/yearbook/2012/LPR/imm
suptable2d.xls) . U.S. Department of
Homeland Security. Archived from the
original (https://www.dhs.gov/sites/defaul
t/files/publications/immigration-statistics/y
earbook/2012/LPR/immsuptable2d.xls)
on 22 December 2014. Retrieved 14 April
2016.
26. "Yearbook of Immigration Statistics: 2011
Supplemental Table 2" (https://www.dhs.go
v/xlibrary/assets/statistics/yearbook/201
1/immsuptable2d.xls) . U.S. Department of
Homeland Security. Retrieved 14 April
2016.
27. John Marzulli (9 May 2011). "Malaysian
man smuggled illegal Chinese immigrants
into Brooklyn using Queen Mary 2:
authorities" (http://www.nydailynews.com/
news/world/malaysian-man-smuggled-illeg
al-chinese-immigrants-brooklyn-queen-mar
y-2-authorities-article-1.143516) . Daily
News. New York. Retrieved 14 April 2016.
28. "Chinese New Year 2012 in Flushing" (htt
p://www.queensbuzz.com/flushing-neighbo
rhood-corona-neighborhood-cms-302) .
QueensBuzz.com. 25 January 2012.
Retrieved 14 April 2016.
29. "SELECTED POPULATION PROFILE IN THE
UNITED STATES 2017 American
Community Survey 1-Year Estimates New
York-Newark, NY-NJ-CT-PA CSA Chinese
alone" (https://archive.today/20200214002
005/https://factfinder.census.gov/bkmk/ta
ble/1.0/en/ACS/17_1YR/S0201/330M400U
S408/popgroup~016) . United States
Census Bureau. Archived from the original
(https://factfinder.census.gov/bkmk/table/
1.0/en/ACS/17_1YR/S0201/330M400US40
8/popgroup~016) on 14 February 2020.
Retrieved 27 January 2019.
30. People on the Move: Global Migration's
Impact and Opportunity (https://www.mcki
nsey.com/featured-insights/employment-a
nd-growth/global-migrations-impact-and-op
portunity) . McKinsey Global Institute.
2016.
31. Bove, Vincenzo; Elia, Leandro (2017).
"Migration, Diversity, and Economic Growth"
(https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.worlddev.201
6.08.012) . World Development. 89: 227–
239. doi:10.1016/j.worlddev.2016.08.012 (h
ttps://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.worlddev.2016.
08.012) . hdl:11566/263676 (https://hdl.ha
ndle.net/11566%2F263676) .
32. "When Innovation Has No Borders, Culture
Is Key" (https://www.bcg.com/publications/
2022/innovation-without-borders) . BCG
Global. 2022-06-06. Retrieved 2022-06-20.
33. "A world of free movement would be $78
trillion richer" (https://www.economist.co
m/the-world-if/2017/07/13/a-world-of-free-
movement-would-be-78-trillion-richer) . The
Economist. 2017-07-13. ISSN 0013-0613 (h
ttps://www.worldcat.org/issn/0013-0613) .
Retrieved 2019-02-10.
34. Clemens, Michael A. (September 2011).
"Economics and Emigration: Trillion-Dollar
Bills on the Sidewalk?" (http://www.aeaweb.
org/articles.php?doi=10.1257/jep.25.3.8
3) . Journal of Economic Perspectives. 25
(3): 83–106. doi:10.1257/jep.25.3.83 (http
s://doi.org/10.1257%2Fjep.25.3.83) .
ISSN 0895-3309 (https://www.worldcat.or
g/issn/0895-3309) . S2CID 59507836 (http
s://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:5950
7836) .
35. McAuliffe, Kitimbo & Khadria, 2019,
'Reflections on migrations' contributions in
an era of increasing disruption and
disinformation', World Migration Report
2020, IOM: Geneva.
36. "Goal ten targets" (https://web.archive.org/
web/20201127140337/https://www.undp.o
rg/content/undp/en/home/sustainable-dev
elopment-goals/goal-10-reduced-inequalitie
s/targets.html) . UNDP. Archived from the
original (https://www.undp.org/content/und
p/en/home/sustainable-development-goal
s/goal-10-reduced-inequalities/targets.htm
l) on 2020-11-27. Retrieved 2020-09-23.
37. "Migration and Remittances Factbook
2011" (https://siteresources.worldbank.or
g/INTLAC/Resources/Factbook2011-Eboo
k.pdf) (PDF) (2nd ed.). Washington, D.C.:
World Bank. p. 18. Retrieved 25 March
2019.
38. "Migration and Remittances Factbook
2016" (https://openknowledge.worldbank.o
rg/bitstream/handle/10986/23743/978146
4803192.pdf?sequence=3&isAllowed=y)
(PDF) (3rd ed.). Washington, D.C.: World
Bank. pp. 19–20. Retrieved 25 March 2019.
As noted on p. xiii, the report presents
migrant stocks for 2013, refugee numbers
for 2014, remittance outflows for 2014, and
remittance inflows for 2015.
39. Czaika, Mathias; Haas, Hein de (2014). "The
Globalization of Migration: Has the World
Become More Migratory?". International
Migration Review. 48 (2): 283–323.
doi:10.1111/imre.12095 (https://doi.org/1
0.1111%2Fimre.12095) . S2CID 144759565
(https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:
144759565) .
40. Badalian, Susan (16 February 2021). "More
Armenian Border Villages Eligible For Tax
Breaks, Subsidies" (https://www.azatutyun.
am/a/31106046.html) . «Ազատ
Եվրոպա/Ազատություն» ռադիոկայան
(in Armenian). Retrieved 2021-05-01.
41. Tataru, Georgiana (2020-01-14). "Migration
– an Overview on Terminology, Causes and
Effects" (https://www.researchgate.net/pub
lication/338590488) . Logos Universality
Mentality Education Novelty: Law. 7 (2):
10–29. doi:10.18662/lumenlaw/24 (https://
doi.org/10.18662%2Flumenlaw%2F24) .
42. "Welcome | Forced Migration Review" (http
s://www.fmreview.org/) .
www.fmreview.org. Retrieved 2022-11-16.
43. Colson, Elizabeth, "Forced Migration and
the Anthropological Response" (http://web.
mnstate.edu/robertsb/308/forced%20migr
ation%20and%20the%20anthropological%2
0response.pdf) . Journal of Refugee
Studies. Vol. 16, No. 1, 2003, pp. 1–19
44. Basok, Tanya (26 July 2018). "The
Discourse of "Transit Migration" in Mexico
and its "Blind Spot": Changing Realities and
New Vocabularies" (https://link.springer.co
m/chapter/10.1007/978-3-319-89384-6_
4) . New Migration Patterns in the
Americas. pp. 85–107. doi:10.1007/978-3-
319-89384-6_4 (https://doi.org/10.1007%2
F978-3-319-89384-6_4) . ISBN 978-3-319-
89383-9. S2CID 158975397 (https://api.se
manticscholar.org/CorpusID:158975397)
– via SpringerLink.
45. Cantalapiedra, Eduardo Torre; Nava, Dulce
María Mariscal (2020-04-22). "Batallando
con fronteras: estrategias migratorias en
tránsito de participantes en caravanas de
migrantes" (https://ref.uabc.mx/ojs/index.p
hp/ref/article/view/854) . Estudios
Fronterizos (in Spanish). 21.
doi:10.21670/ref.2005047 (https://doi.org/
10.21670%2Fref.2005047) . ISSN 2395-
9134 (https://www.worldcat.org/issn/2395-
9134) . S2CID 219100760 (https://api.sem
anticscholar.org/CorpusID:219100760) .
46. Düvell, Frank (26 October 2010). "Transit
migration: A blurred and politicised
concept" (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/do
i/abs/10.1002/psp.631) . Population Space
and Place. 18 (4): 415–427.
doi:10.1002/psp.631 (https://doi.org/10.10
02%2Fpsp.631) – via Wiley Online Library.
47. "Migration" (https://www.unfpa.org/migrati
on) . United Nations Population Fund.
48. Yeoh, Brenda S. A.; Huang, Shirlena; Lam,
Theodora (2018). "Transnational family
dynamics in Asia" (https://books.google.co
m/books?id=S1RMDwAAQBAJ) . In
Triandafyllidou, Anna (ed.). Handbook of
Migration and Globalisation. Handbooks on
Globalisation Series. Cheltenham, UK:
Edward Elgar Publishing. p. 416. ISBN 978-
1785367519. Retrieved 2018-10-29 – via
Google Books. "[...]families may assume
transnational morphologies with the
strategic intent of ensuring economic
survival or maximising social mobility."
49. Jason de Parle, "A Good Provider Leaves",
New York Times, 22 Apr 2007.
50. For example, Moroccans in France, Filipinos
in the United States of America, Koreans in
Japan or Samoans in New Zealand.
51. Geschiere, Peter (2020). " "The African
family is large, very large" mobility and the
flexibility of kinship – examples from
Cameroon" (https://doi.org/10.1177%2F146
6138120938076) . Ethnography. 21 (3):
335–354. doi:10.1177/1466138120938076
(https://doi.org/10.1177%2F146613812093
8076) . hdl:11245.1/2cabfab4-2255-41ec-
8133-4a2498454ae7 (https://hdl.handle.ne
t/11245.1%2F2cabfab4-2255-41ec-8133-4a
2498454ae7) . S2CID 221039801 (https://a
pi.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:22103980
1) .
52. Fanack. "The Key Drivers of North African
Illegal Migration to Europe" (https://web.arc
hive.org/web/20150714172715/https://chr
onicle.fanack.com/specials/international-af
fairs/north-african-illegal-migration-to-euro
pe/) . Fanack.com. Archived from the
original (https://chronicle.fanack.com/spec
ials/international-affairs/north-african-illeg
al-migration-to-europe/) on 14 July 2015.
Retrieved 14 Jul 2015. "The proximity of
North Africa to southern Europe, the liberal
mobility policies of most European
countries, and the historical links between
northern and southern Mediterranean
countries are all key factors encouraging
people to migrate to Europe."
53. Baten, Jörg; Stolz, Yvonne Stolz (2012).
"Brain drain, numeracy and skill premia
during the era of mass migration:
reassessing the Roy-Borjas model".
Explorations in Economic History. 49: 205–
220.
54. Jennissen, R. 2007. "Causality Chains in the
International Migration Systems Approach."
Population Research and Policy Review
26(4):411–436.
55. IOM. 'Chapter 4: Migration research and
analysis: Growth, reach and recent
contributions.' World Migration Report
2020. p.127.
https://www.iom.int/wmr/2020/chapter/0
4
56. Oiarzabal, P. J., & Reips, U.-D. (2012).
Migration and diaspora in the age of
information and communication
technologies. Journal of Ethnic and
Migration Studies, 38(9), 1333–1338.
doi:10.1080/1369183X.2012.698202 (http
s://doi.org/10.1080%2F1369183X.2012.69
8202)
57. Oiarzabal, P. J., & Reips, U.-D. (eds.) (2012).
Migration and the Internet: Social
networking and diasporas [Special issue].
Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies,
38(9).
58. Reips, U.-D., and L. Buffardi. 2012. "Studying
migrants with the help of the Internet:
Methods from psychology." Journal of
Ethnic and Migration Studies 38(9):1405–
1424. doi:10.1080/1369183X.2012.698208
(https://doi.org/10.1080%2F1369183X.201
2.698208)
59. Kaplan, Greg; Schulhofer-Wohl, Sam (April
2012). "Understanding the Long-Run
Decline in Interstate Migration" (http://www.
minneapolisfed.org/research/wp/wp697.pd
f) (PDF). Federal Reserve Bank of
Minneapolis: 58. Retrieved 18 May 2019.
60. Davis, Morris; Fisher, Jonas; Veracierto,
Marcelo (29 November 2010). "The Role of
Housing in Labour Reallocation" (http://ww
w.chicagofed.org/digital_assets/publicatio
ns/working_papers/2010/wp2010_18.pdf)
(PDF). Federal Reserve Bank of Chicago: 50.
Retrieved 18 May 2019.
61. Djelti S, "The Evolution of the Human
Migration Determinants" (https://www.rese
archgate.net/publication/320427737_The_
Evolution_of_the_Human_Migration_Determ
inants_1_Draft_paper) draft paper
presented in the international conference
on "Crossing Boundaries: Youth, Migration,
and Development", At Alakhawayn
University in Ifran, Morocco – March 2–4,
2017
62. Djelti S, "Osmosis: the Unifying Theory of
Human Migration" (https://www.researchga
te.net/publication/320427688_Osmosis_th
e_unifying_theory_of_human_migration) ,
Revue Algérienne d’Economie et du
Management Vol. 08, N°: 02 (2017)
63. Basch, Linda; Schiller, Nina Glick; Blanc,
Christina Szanton (2005). Nations
Unbound: Transnational Projects,
Postcolonial Predicaments, and
Deterritorialized Nation-States (https://book
s.google.com/books?id=sBJTOhDpauQC&q
=schiller+basch&pg=PT5) . Routledge.
ISBN 978-1135307035.
64. Levitt, Peggy (1998). "Social Remittances:
Migration Driven Local-Level Forms of
Cultural Diffusion". The International
Migration Review. 32 (4): 926–948.
doi:10.2307/2547666 (https://doi.org/10.2
307%2F2547666) . JSTOR 2547666 (http
s://www.jstor.org/stable/2547666) .
PMID 12294302 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.
nih.gov/12294302) .
65. For example: Hack-Polay, Dieu (2013).
Reframing Migrant Integration (https://book
s.google.com/books?id=fwEvDAAAQBAJ) .
Kibworth, Leicestershire: Book Guild
Publishing (published 2016). ISBN 978-
1911320319. Retrieved 12 January 2020.
66. Faist, Thomas (2006). "The Migration-
Security Nexus: International Migration and
Security Before and After 9/11" (https://pu
b.uni-bielefeld.de/record/2318503) .
Migration, Citizenship, Ethnos. Palgrave
Macmillan US. pp. 103–119.
doi:10.1057/9781403984678_6 (https://do
i.org/10.1057%2F9781403984678_6) .
hdl:2043/686 (https://hdl.handle.net/204
3%2F686) . ISBN 978-1349532650.
67. Adamson, Fiona B. (July 2006). "Crossing
Borders: International Migration and
National Security". International Security.
31 (1): 165–199.
doi:10.1162/isec.2006.31.1.165 (https://do
i.org/10.1162%2Fisec.2006.31.1.165) .
ISSN 0162-2889 (https://www.worldcat.or
g/issn/0162-2889) . S2CID 57567184 (http
s://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:5756
7184) .
68. Shachar, Ayelet; Bauboeck, Rainer;
Bloemraad, Irene; Vink, Maarten, eds.
(2017). The Oxford Handbook of
Citizenship (https://global.oup.com/acade
mic/product/the-oxford-handbook-of-citize
nship-9780198805854?cc=gb&lang=en&) .
Oxford Handbooks in Law. Oxford, New
York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-
0198805854.
69. Brettell, Caroline B.; Hollifield, James F.
(2014). Migration Theory: Talking across
Disciplines (https://books.google.com/boo
ks?id=wERHBAAAQBAJ&q=Oxford+handbo
ok+citizenship+migration&pg=PP1) .
Routledge. ISBN 978-1317805984 – via
Google Books.
70. Bauböck, Rainer (2006-02-23). "Towards a
Political Theory of Migrant
Transnationalism". International Migration
Review. 37 (3): 700–723.
doi:10.1111/j.1747-7379.2003.tb00155.x (h
ttps://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1747-7379.200
3.tb00155.x) . ISSN 0197-9183 (https://ww
w.worldcat.org/issn/0197-9183) .
S2CID 55880642 (https://api.semanticscho
lar.org/CorpusID:55880642) .
71. Délano, Alexandra; Gamlen, Alan (July
2014). "Comparing and theorizing state–
diaspora relations" (https://digital.library.ad
elaide.edu.au/dspace/bitstream/2440/102
448/3/hdl_102448.pdf) (PDF). Political
Geography. 41: 43–53.
doi:10.1016/j.polgeo.2014.05.005 (https://
doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.polgeo.2014.05.005) .
hdl:2440/102448 (https://hdl.handle.net/24
40%2F102448) . ISSN 0962-6298 (https://w
ww.worldcat.org/issn/0962-6298) .
72. Lafleur, Jean-Michel (2014). "The
enfranchisement of citizens abroad:
variations and explanations" (https://orbi.uli
ege.be/handle/2268/181007) .
Democratization. 22 (5): 840–860.
doi:10.1080/13510347.2014.979163 (http
s://doi.org/10.1080%2F13510347.2014.979
163) . hdl:2268/181007 (https://hdl.handle.
net/2268%2F181007) . S2CID 143524485
(https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:
143524485) .
73. Tsourapas, Gerasimos (2018).
"Authoritarian emigration states: Soft power
and cross-border mobility in the Middle
East" (http://pure-oai.bham.ac.uk/ws/files/
48708510/Tsourapas_Authoritarian_emigra
tion_states_IPSR_2018.pdf) (PDF).
International Political Science Review. 39
(3): 400–416.
doi:10.1177/0192512118759902 (https://d
oi.org/10.1177%2F0192512118759902) .
S2CID 158085638 (https://api.semanticsch
olar.org/CorpusID:158085638) .
74. Hollifield, James; Martin, Philip L.; Orrenius,
Pia (2014). Controlling Immigration: A
Global Perspective (https://books.google.c
om/books?id=oec_BAAAQBAJ&q=Oxford+h
andbook+citizenship+migration&pg=PR5)
(3rd ed.). Stanford University Press.
ISBN 978-0804787352 – via Google Books.
75. Hirschman, Albert O. (January 1993). "Exit,
Voice, and the Fate of the German
Democratic Republic: An Essay in
Conceptual History". World Politics. 45 (2):
173–202. doi:10.2307/2950657 (https://do
i.org/10.2307%2F2950657) . ISSN 1086-
3338 (https://www.worldcat.org/issn/1086-
3338) . JSTOR 2950657 (https://www.jstor.
org/stable/2950657) . S2CID 145574536 (h
ttps://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:14
5574536) .
76. Brubacker, Rogers (1990). "Frontier theses:
Exit, voice, and loyalty in East Germany" (htt
ps://web.archive.org/web/2013012410575
6/http://www.sscnet.ucla.edu/soc/faculty/
brubaker/Publications/27_frontier_theses.p
df) (PDF). Migration World. Archived from
the original (http://www.sscnet.ucla.edu/so
c/faculty/brubaker/Publications/27_frontier
_theses.pdf) (PDF) on January 24, 2013.
77. Lee, Everett S. (1966). "A Theory of
Migration" (https://doi.org/10.2307%2F206
0063) . Demography. 3 (1): 47–57.
doi:10.2307/2060063 (https://doi.org/10.2
307%2F2060063) . JSTOR 2060063 (http
s://www.jstor.org/stable/2060063) .
S2CID 46976641 (https://api.semanticscho
lar.org/CorpusID:46976641) .
78. Guido Dorigo, and Waldo Tobler, "Push-pull
migration laws." Annals of the Association
of American Geographers 73.1 (1983): 1-17
online (https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/docum
ent?repid=rep1&type=pdf&doi=9fc54ac2a2
b06286b10ebf873e6a227b4bf43953)
79. Terminski, Bogumil (2012).
Environmentally-Induced Displacement.
Theoretical Frameworks and Current
Challenges. CEDEM, Université de Liège.
80. Idyorough, 2008
81. Bauder, Harald (2006). Labour Movement:
How Migration Regulates Labour Markets.
Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-
0195180886.
82. McAuliffe, M. and A.M. Goossens. 2018.
"Regulating international migration in an era
of increasing interconnectedness". In:
Handbook of Migration and Globalisation
(A. Triandafyllidou, ed.). Edward Elgar
Publishing, Cheltenham/Northampton, pp.
86–104.
83. For example, a permanent population and a
defined territory, as per article 1 of the 1933
Montevideo Convention on the Rights and
Duties of States.
84. "The CEO Agenda for an Era of Innovation
Without Borders" (https://www.bcg.com/en-
us/publications/2022/innovation-without-b
orders-era-with-global-talent) . United
States – EN. 2022-02-05. Retrieved
2022-06-20.
85. IOM. 'Chapter 11: Recent developments in
the global governance of migration: An
update to the World Migration Report 2018.'
World Migration Report 2020. p. 291. (http
s://www.iom.int/wmr/2020/chapter/11)
Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/201
91221182355/https://www.iom.int/wmr/20
20/chapter/11) 2019-12-21 at the
Wayback Machine

Sources and further reading

Anderson, Vivienne. and Johnson,

Henry. (eds) Migration, Education and
Translation: Cross-Disciplinary
Perspectives on Human Mobility and
Cultural Encounters in Education
Settings (https://www.routledge.com/Mi
gration-Education-and-Translation-Cross
-Disciplinary-Perspectives-on/Anderson-
Johnson/p/book/9780367260347) .
New York: Routledge, 2020.
Behdad, Ali. A Forgetful Nation: On
Immigration and Cultural Density in the
United States, Duke UP, 2005.
Brettell, Caroline B.; Hollifield, James F.
Migration Theory(Routledge, 2000)
[Migration Theory online]
Chaichian, Mohammad. Empires and
Walls: Globalisation, Migration, and
Colonial Control, Leiden: Brill, 2014.
Jared Diamond, Guns, germs and steel. A
short history of everybody for the last
13'000 years, 1997.
De La Torre, Miguel A., Trails of Terror:
Testimonies on the Current Immigration
Debate, Orbis Books, 2009.
Fell, Peter and Hayes, Debra. What are
they doing here? A critical guide to
asylum and immigration, Birmingham
(UK): Venture Press, 2007.
Hanlon, Bernadette and Vicino, Thomas
J. Global Migration: The Basics, New
York and London: Routledge, 2014.
de Haas, Hein. How Migration Really
Works, Penguin, 2023.
Harzig, Christiane, and Dirk Hoerder.
What is migration history? (John Wiley &
Sons, 2013) online (https://arbor.revista
s.csic.es/index.php/arbor/article/downl
oad/1226/1231/1228) .
Hoerder, Dirk. Cultures in Contact. World
Migrations in the Second Millennium,
Duke University Press, 2002.
Idyorough, Alamveabee E. "Sociological
Analysis of Social Change in
Contemporary Africa", Makurdi: Aboki
Publishers, 2015.
IOM World Migration Report, see World
Migration Report International
Organization for Migration (http://www.i
om.int/wmr/)
Kleiner-Liebau, Désirée. Migration and
the Construction of National Identity in
Spain, Madrid / Frankfurt,
Iberoamericana / Vervuert, Ediciones de
Iberoamericana, 2009. ISBN 978-
8484894766.
Knörr, Jacqueline. Women and Migration.
Anthropological Perspectives, Frankfurt &
New York: Campus Verlag & St. Martin's
Press, 2000.
Knörr, Jacqueline. Childhood and
Migration. From Experience to Agency,
Bielefeld: Transcript, 2005.
Manning, Patrick. Migration in World
History, New York and London:
Routledge, 2005.
Miller, Mark & Castles, Stephen (1993).
The Age of Migration: International
Population Movements in the Modern
World. Guilford Press.
Migration for Employment, Paris: OECD
Publications, 2004.
OECD International Migration Outlook
2007, Paris: OECD Publications, 2007.
Pécoud, Antoine and Paul de
Guchteneire (Eds): Migration without
Borders, Essays on the Free Movements
of People (Berghahn Books, 2007).
Purohit, A. K. (ed.) The Philosophy of
Evolution, Yash Publishing House,
Bikaner, 2010. ISBN 8186882359.
Abdelmalek Sayad. The Suffering of the
Immigrant, Preface by Pierre Bourdieu,
Polity Press, 2004.
Reich, David (2018). Who We Are And
How We Got Here – Ancient DNA and the
New Science of the Human Past.
Pantheon Books. ISBN 978-
1101870327.
Diamond, Jared (April 20, 2018). "A
Brand-New Version of Our Origin
Story" (https://www.nytimes.com/2
018/04/20/books/review/david-reic
 h-who-we-are-how-we-got-here.htm
l) . The New York Times. Retrieved
April 23, 2018.
Stalker, Peter. No-Nonsense Guide to
International Migration, New
Internationalist, 2nd ed., 2008.
White, Micheal (Ed.) (2016). International
Handbook of Migration and Population
Distribution. Springer.

Journals

International Migration Review

Migration Letters
International Migration (https://onlinelibra
ry.wiley.com/journal/14682435)
 ISSN 1468-2435 (https://www.worldcat.
org/search?fq=x0:jrnl&q=n2:1468-243
5)
Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies
Review of Economics of the Household

External links

Williams, Henry Smith Wikimedia

Commons
(1911). "Civilization" (h
has media
ttps://en.wikisource.or related to
Human
g/wiki/1911_Encyclo
migration.
p%C3%A6dia_Britannic
a/Civilization) . In Chisholm, Hugh (ed.).
Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 6
(11th ed.). Cambridge University Press.
pp. 403–410.
Gadow, Hans Friedrich (1911).
"Migration" (https://en.wikisource.org/w
iki/1911_Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannic
a/Migration) . In Chisholm, Hugh (ed.).
Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 18
(11th ed.). Cambridge University Press.
pp. 427–437.
International Organization for Migration's
World Migration Report 2020 (https://worl
dmigrationreport.iom.int/)
OECD International Migration Outlook
2007 (https://www.oecd.org/els/internati
onalmigrationoutlook2007.htm)
(subscription service)
Migration Policy Centre (https://migration
policycentre.eu/)
iom.int International Organisation for
Migration (https://www.iom.int/)
CIA World Factbook (https://web.archiv
e.org/web/20150905103734/https://ww
w.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-
factbook/fields/2112.html) , up-to-date
statistics on net immigration by country
Stalker's Guide to International
Migration (https://www.pstalker.com/?/
migration/) , a comprehensive
interactive guide to modern migration
issues, with maps and statistics
Peykovska, P. Bulgaria on the Move.
Migration, Refugees, Integration and
Urbanisation... Sofia, 2022 (https://www.
academia.edu/105625456/P_Peykovska
_BULGARIA_ON_THE_MOVE/)
Integration: Building Inclusive Societies
(IBIS) (https://web.archive.org/web/201
10322051627/http://www.unaoc.org/co
mmunities/migrationintegration/) , a UN
Alliance of Civilisations online
community on good practices of
integration of migrants across the world
The importance of migrants in the
modern world (https://web.archive.org/
web/20131129032557/http://www.acca
demiapulia.org/en/events/home-my-pla
ce-in-the-world---summer-exhibition-580.
html)
Mass migration as a travel business (htt
p://www.business-of-migration.com)
"Return migration between 1850 and
1950 (https://www.newseye.eu/case-stu
dies/case-study-1-migration/return-migr
ation-between-1850-and-1950) " by
Sarah Oberbichler, Newseye projet
(https://newseye.eu Archived (https://w
eb.archive.org/web/20230613121204/h
 ttps://www.newseye.eu/) 2023-06-13 at
the Wayback Machine)
Story of migration (https://mappingarou
nd.in/story-of-migration/)

Retrieved from
"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?
title=Human_migration&oldid=1195612761"

This page was last edited on 14 January 2024, at

15:37 (UTC). •
Content is available under CC BY-SA 4.0 unless
otherwise noted.