Alcohol, any of a class of organic compounds characterized by one or more hydroxyl (−OH) groups

attached to a carbon atom of an alkyl group (hydrocarbon chain). Alcohols may be considered as
organic derivatives of water (H2O) in which one of the hydrogen atoms has been replaced by an alkyl
group, typically represented by R in organic structures. For example, in ethanol (or ethyl alcohol) the
alkyl group is the ethyl group, −CH2CH3.

Alcohols are among the most common organic compounds. They are used as sweeteners and in
making perfumes, are valuable intermediates in the synthesis of other compounds, and are among
the most abundantly produced organic chemicals in industry. Perhaps the two best-known alcohols
are ethanol and methanol (or methyl alcohol). Ethanol is used in toiletries, pharmaceuticals, and
fuels, and it is used to sterilize hospital instruments. It is, moreover, the alcohol in alcoholic
beverages. The anesthetic ether is also made from ethanol. Methanol is used as a solvent, as a raw
material for the manufacture of formaldehyde and special resins, in special fuels, in antifreeze, and
for cleaning metals.

Alcohols may be classified as primary, secondary, or tertiary, according to which carbon of the alkyl
group is bonded to the hydroxyl group. Most alcohols are colourless liquids or solids at room
temperature. Alcohols of low molecular weight are highly soluble in water; with increasing molecular
weight, they become less soluble in water, and their boiling points, vapour pressures, densities, and
viscosities increase.

This article covers the structure and classification, physical properties, commercial importance,
sources, and reactions of alcohols. For more information about closely related compounds, see
chemical compound, phenol, and ether.

Structure and classification of alcohols

Similar to water, an alcohol can be pictured as having an sp3 hybridized tetrahedral oxygen atom
with nonbonding pairs of electrons occupying two of the four sp3 hybrid orbitals. (See chemical
bonding for a discussion of hybrid orbitals.) Alkyl groups are generally bulkier than hydrogen atoms,
however, so the R−O−H bond angle in alcohols is generally larger than the 104.5° H−O−H bond angle
in water. For example, the 108.9° bond angle in methanol shows the effect of the methyl group,
which is larger than the hydrogen atom of water.
One way of classifying alcohols is based on which carbon atom is bonded to the hydroxyl group. If
this carbon is primary (1°, bonded to only one other carbon atom), the compound is a primary
alcohol. A secondary alcohol has the hydroxyl group on a secondary (2°) carbon atom, which is
bonded to two other carbon atoms. Similarly, a tertiary alcohol has the hydroxyl group on a tertiary
(3°) carbon atom, which is bonded to three other carbons. Alcohols are referred to as allylic or
benzylic if the hydroxyl group is bonded to an allylic carbon atom (adjacent to a C=C double bond) or
a benzylic carbon atom (next to a benzene ring), respectively.

Nomenclature

As with other types of organic compounds, alcohols are named by both formal and common
systems. The most generally applicable system is that adopted at a meeting of the International
Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC) in Paris in 1957. Using the IUPAC system, the name for
an alcohol uses the -ol suffix with the name of the parent alkane, together with a number to give the
location of the hydroxyl group. The rules are summarized in a three-step procedure:

Name the longest carbon chain that contains the carbon atom bearing the −OH group. Drop the final
-e from the alkane name, and add the suffix -ol.

Number the longest carbon chain starting at the end nearest the −OH group, and use the
appropriate number, if necessary, to indicate the position of the −OH group.

Name the substituents, and give their numbers as for an alkane or alkene.
The first example below has a longest chain of six carbon atoms, so the root name is hexanol. The
−OH group is on the third carbon atom, which is indicated by the name 3-hexanol. There is a methyl
group on carbon 3 and a chlorine atom on carbon 2. The complete IUPAC name is 2-chloro-3-methyl-
3-hexanol. The prefix cyclo- is used for alcohols with cyclic alkyl groups. The hydroxyl group is
assumed to be on carbon 1, and the ring is numbered in the direction to give the lowest possible
numbers to the other substituents, as in, for example, 2,2-dimethylcyclopentanol.

Common names

The common name of an alcohol combines the name of the alkyl group with the word alcohol. If the
alkyl group is complex, the common name becomes awkward and the IUPAC name should be used.
Common names often incorporate obsolete terms in the naming of the alkyl group; for example,
amyl is frequently used instead of pentyl for a five-carbon chain.

Physical properties of alcohols

Most of the common alcohols are colourless liquids at room temperature. Methyl alcohol, ethyl
alcohol, and isopropyl alcohol are free-flowing liquids with fruity odours. The higher alcohols—those
containing 4 to 10 carbon atoms—are somewhat viscous, or oily, and they have heavier fruity
odours. Some of the highly branched alcohols and many alcohols containing more than 12 carbon
atoms are solids at room temperature.

Physical properties of selected alcohols

IUPAC name common name formula mp (°C)

methanol methyl alcohol CH3OH −97

ethanol ethyl alcohol CH3CH2OH −114

1-propanol n-propyl alcohol CH3CH2CH2OH −126

2-propanol isopropyl alcohol (CH3)2CHOH −89

1-butanol n-butyl alcohol CH3(CH2)3OH −90

2-butanol sec-butyl alcohol (CH3)CH(OH)CH2CH3 −114

2-methyl-1-propanol isobutyl alcohol (CH3)2CHCH2OH −108

2-methyl-2-propanol t-butyl alcohol (CH3)3COH 25

1-pentanol n-pentyl alcohol CH3(CH2)4OH −79

3-methyl-1-butanol isopentyl alcohol (CH3)2CHCH2CH2OH −117

2,2-dimethyl-1-propanol neopentyl alcohol (CH3)3CCH2OH 52

cyclopentanol cyclopentyl alcohol cyclo-C5H9OH −19

1-hexanol n-hexanol CH3(CH2)5OH −52

cyclohexanol cyclohexyl alcohol cyclo-C6H11OH 25

1-heptanol n-heptyl alcohol CH3(CH2)6OH −34

1-octanol n-octyl alcohol CH3(CH2)7OH −16

1-nonanol n-nonyl alcohol CH3(CH2)8OH −6

1-decanol n-decyl alcohol CH3(CH2)9OH 6

2-propen-1-ol allyl alcohol H2C=CH−CH2OH −129

phenylmethanol benzyl alcohol Ph−CH2OH* −15

diphenylmethanol diphenylcarbinol Ph2CHOH* 69

triphenylmethanol triphenylcarbinol Ph3COH* 162

IUPAC name bp (°C) density (grams per millilitre) solubility in water

methanol 65 0.79 miscible

ethanol 78 0.79 miscible

1-propanol 97 0.80 miscible

2-propanol 82 0.79 miscible

1-butanol 118 0.81 9.1%

2-butanol 100 0.81 7.7%

2-methyl-1-propanol 108 0.80 10.0%

2-methyl-2-propanol 83 0.79 miscible

1-pentanol 138 0.82 2.7%

3-methyl-1-butanol 132 0.81 2.0%

2,2-dimethyl-1-propanol 113 0.81 3.5%

cyclopentanol 141 0.95

1-hexanol 156 0.82 0.6%

cyclohexanol 162 0.96 3.6%

1-heptanol 176 0.82 0.1%

1-octanol 194 0.83

1-nonanol 214 0.83

1-decanol 233 0.83

2-propen-1-ol 97 0.86

phenylmethanol 205 1.05

 diphenylmethanol 298

triphenylmethanol 380 1.20

*Ph represents the phenyl group, C6H5—.

The boiling points of alcohols are much higher than those of alkanes with similar molecular weights.
For example, ethanol, with a molecular weight (MW) of 46, has a boiling point of 78 °C (173 °F),
whereas propane (MW 44) has a boiling point of −42 °C (−44 °F). Such a large difference in boiling
points indicates that molecules of ethanol are attracted to one another much more strongly than are
propane molecules. Most of this difference results from the ability of ethanol and other alcohols to
form intermolecular hydrogen bonds. (See chemical bonding: Intermolecular forces for a discussion
of hydrogen bonding.)

The oxygen atom of the strongly polarized O−H bond of an alcohol pulls electron density away from
the hydrogen atom. This polarized hydrogen, which bears a partial positive charge, can form a
hydrogen bond with a pair of nonbonding electrons on another oxygen atom. Hydrogen bonds, with
a strength of about 5 kilocalories (21 kilojoules) per mole, are much weaker than normal covalent
bonds, with bond energies of about 70 to 110 kilocalories per mole. (The amount of energy per mole
that is required to break a given bond is called its bond energy.)

Water and alcohols have similar properties because water molecules contain hydroxyl groups that
can form hydrogen bonds with other water molecules and with alcohol molecules, and likewise
alcohol molecules can form hydrogen bonds with other alcohol molecules as well as with water.
Because alcohols form hydrogen bonds with water, they tend to be relatively soluble in water. The
hydroxyl group is referred to as a hydrophilic (“water-loving”) group, because it forms hydrogen
bonds with water and enhances the solubility of an alcohol in water. Methanol, ethanol, n-propyl
alcohol, isopropyl alcohol, and t-butyl alcohol are all miscible with water. Alcohols with higher
molecular weights tend to be less water-soluble, because the hydrocarbon part of the molecule,
which is hydrophobic (“water-hating”), is larger with increased molecular weight. Because they are
strongly polar, alcohols are better solvents than hydrocarbons for ionic compounds and other polar
substances.
Commercially important alcohols

Methanol

Methanol (methyl alcohol) was originally produced by heating wood chips in the absence of air.
Some of the carbohydrates in the wood are broken down to form methanol, and the methanol
vapour is then condensed. This process led to the name wood alcohol as another common name for
methanol. Methanol is synthesized commercially by a catalytic reaction of carbon monoxide (CO)
with hydrogen gas (H2) under high temperature and pressure.

The mixture of carbon monoxide and hydrogen needed to make methanol can be generated by the
partial burning of coal in the presence of water. By carefully regulating the amount of water added,
the correct ratio of carbon monoxide to hydrogen can be obtained.

Methanol has excellent properties as a polar organic solvent and is widely used as an industrial
solvent. It is more toxic than ethanol, however, and may cause blindness or death if large amounts
are inhaled or ingested.

Methanol has a high octane rating and a low emission of pollutants—characteristics that make it a
valuable fuel for automobile engines. From the late 1960s until 2006, the cars at the Indianapolis
500, the automobile race held annually at the Indianapolis Motor Speedway, were powered by
methanol-burning engines. Methanol was once under consideration as a commercial motor fuel
because it is cheaper than ethanol and can be made from natural gas and coal resources. However,
increasing interest in ethanol-based fuels and difficulties involving the solvent properties of
methanol, which cause problems with fuel systems—especially in fuel-injected cars—have resulted
in diminished commercial interest in methanol fuels. Methanol tends to dissolve the plastic and
rubber components employed in modern fuel systems, and different materials must be used that
can survive exposure to methanol over long periods of time without dissolving or cracking.
Ethanol

alcoholJ
ason Reed—Reuters/LandovEthanol (ethyl alcohol) has been produced since prehistoric times,
mostly through the fermentation of fruit juices. The fermented juice could be stored in a sealed
container, and this primitive wine remained safe to drink throughout the winter. Many different
sources can provide the sugars and starches that are broken down to simpler compounds during
fermentation. Ethanol is called grain alcohol because it is often made from grains, such as corn
(maize), wheat, rye, and barley. The grain is first boiled in water to produce the mash, which is
incubated with malt (sprouted barley) to yield the wort. Malt provides an enzyme (diastase) that
converts starches in the grain to the sugar maltose. The wort is incubated with brewer’s yeast, which
secretes the enzyme maltase to convert maltose to glucose and the enzyme zymase to convert
glucose to ethanol. Two of the six carbon atoms in glucose are oxidized to carbon dioxide (CO2); this
oxidation provides energy to the yeast cells.

Fermentation yields a solution that is only about 12–15 percent alcohol because higher
concentrations are toxic to the yeast cells. This solution can be distilled, however, to raise the
ethanol content to as high as 95 percent.
Fermentation is a relatively expensive method of making ethanol. Industrial ethanol is more
commonly synthesized by the high-temperature catalytic addition of water to ethylene (C2H4).

Ethanol is an excellent motor fuel with a high octane rating and low emissions; however, it should be
used in a fuel system designed to withstand the alcohol’s tendency to dissolve plastic parts.
Solutions of 10 percent ethanol in gasoline (gasohol) can be used in most cars without any
adjustments. Today, ethanol fuels are typically made from natural products, such as corn or sugar.

Isopropyl alcohol

Isopropyl alcohol (2-propanol) is made by indirect hydration of propylene (CH2CHCH3). Isopropyl

alcohol is commonly used as an industrial solvent and as a rubbing alcohol applied to the skin.
Although isopropyl alcohol is more toxic than ethanol, it has less of a drying effect on the skin, and it
is not regulated and taxed by the U.S. government as is ethanol.

Ethylene glycol

The name ethylene glycol refers literally to “the glycol made from ethylene.” Its systematic name is
ethane-1,2-diol. Ethylene glycol is commonly used as automotive antifreeze and as an ingredient in
hydraulic fluids, printing inks, and paint solvents. It is also used as a reagent in making polyesters,
explosives, alkyd resins, and synthetic waxes.

Glycerol

Glycerol (also called glycerine) is a sweet syrupy substance with three alcohol hydroxyl groups. Its
systematic name is propane-1,2,3-triol. Glycerol was first obtained as a by-product of soap
manufacture, through the saponification (hydrolysis in base) of fats. About 25 kg (60 pounds) of
glycerol is obtained with each ton of soap. It can also be obtained by fermentation from molasses
and sugar. During World War II, large quantities of glycerol were needed for the production of
glyceryl trinitrate (nitroglycerin); this need was met by synthetic glycerol made from propylene,
CH2=CH−CH3.

A large amount of glycerol is still used for making nitroglycerin, which is the primary explosive in
dynamite and blasting gelatin. Nitroglycerin is also used as a coronary vasodilator (a drug that
relaxes and expands blood vessels) for symptomatic relief of chest pain caused by poor circulation to
the heart. Glycerol is also used as a solvent, moisturizing agent, plasticizer, antifreeze, and water-
soluble lubricant. It is found in a wide variety of products, including foods, soaps, cosmetics, printing
inks, hydraulic fluids, and pharmaceuticals.

Sources of alcohols

Natural products

alcoholEncyclopædia Britannica, Inc.The common sources of

methanol, ethanol, and isopropyl alcohol have been discussed above. Larger, more complicated
alcohols are often isolated from volatile oils of plants by the process of steam distillation. The plant
material is boiled in water, and the volatile oils are carried over by the steam, condensed, and
separated from the water. Substances such as cholesterol, found in most animal tissues (and
abundant in egg yolks), and retinol (vitamin A alcohol), extracted from fish liver oils, are examples of
naturally occurring sources of alcohols.
Long-chain alcohols can be obtained from fats and waxes by hydrolysis in base, called saponification,
followed by reduction.
Reduction of carbonyl compounds

The addition of two hydrogen atoms to a carbonyl group produces an alcohol. This is an example of a
reduction. Ketones, aldehydes, and carboxylic acids are reduced by the catalytic addition of gaseous
hydrogen (H2) or by a wide variety of specific reducing agents, such as lithium aluminum hydride
(LiAlH4) and sodium borohydride (NaBH4).

Hydration of alkenes

The addition of water (hydration) across the double bond of an alkene yields an alcohol. Alkenes are
available as products of coal tar and petroleum refining, and a variety of catalytic conditions can
support the addition of water across the double bond. In most cases, water adds in the direction
that places the new hydroxyl group on the more highly substituted end of the double bond
according to the Markovnikov rule, as in acid-catalyzed hydrations. (The more highly substituted end
of the double bond is the one that is bonded to more carbon atoms.)

Hydroboration-oxidation is also useful for adding water across the double bond of an alkene;
however, hydroboration-oxidation gives an anti-Markovnikov orientation of the addition product,
with the hydroxyl group adding to the less-substituted end of the double bond.

Alkenes may be converted to diols (dialcohols) by oxidizing agents such as potassium permanganate
(KMnO4).

These oxidations must be carried out carefully to avoid overoxidation and breaking of the double
bond.

Displacement of halides

A hydroxide ion can displace a halide ion from a primary alkyl halide (RCH2X, where X is a halogen)
to give an alcohol. This displacement reaction is not frequently used to synthesize alcohols, however,
because alkyl halides are more commonly synthesized from alcohols rather than vice versa.
Using Grignard and organolithium reagents

Grignard and organolithium reagents are powerful tools for organic synthesis, and the most
common products of their reactions are alcohols. A Grignard reagent is formed by reaction of an
alkyl halide (RX, where X is a halogen) with magnesium metal (Mg) in an ether solution. The product
is written as R−Mg−X, although Grignard reagents are known to be more complicated than this
simple structure suggests. Organolithium reagents (RLi) are formed in much the same way as
Grignard reagents, except that an ether solvent is not required. Most reactions of organolithium
reagents are similar to those of Grignard reagents; however, there are some important differences.

Grignard reagents add to carbonyl compounds (i.e., compounds containing the C=O functional
group) to produce magnesium alkoxides (ROMgX) that are hydrolyzed to alcohols. A wide variety of
alcohols can be synthesized by Grignard additions. A Grignard reagent adds to formaldehyde to give
a primary alcohol with one additional carbon atom, to an aldehyde to give a secondary alcohol, and
to a ketone to yield a tertiary alcohol.
Grignard reagents add twice to esters to give alcohols (upon hydrolysis). This technique is valuable
for making secondary and tertiary alcohols with two identical alkyl groups. They also add to
epoxides, yielding primary alcohols in which two additional carbon atoms have been added to the
chain of the Grignard reagent.

Reactions of alcohols

Because alcohols are easily synthesized and easily transformed into other compounds, they serve as
important intermediates in organic synthesis. A multistep synthesis may use Grignard-like reactions
to form an alcohol with the desired carbon structure, followed by reactions to convert the hydroxyl
group of the alcohol to the desired functionality. The most common reactions of alcohols can be
classified as oxidation, dehydration, substitution, esterification, and reactions of alkoxides.

Oxidation

alcohol: oxidation-reduction
relationshipsEncyclopædia Britannica, Inc.Alcohols may be oxidized to give ketones, aldehydes, and
carboxylic acids. These functional groups are useful for further reactions; for example, ketones and
aldehydes can be used in subsequent Grignard reactions, and carboxylic acids can be used for
esterification. Oxidation of organic compounds generally increases the number of bonds from
carbon to oxygen (or another electronegative element, such as a halogen), and it may decrease the
number of bonds to hydrogen.

Secondary alcohols are easily oxidized without breaking carbon-carbon bonds only as far as the
ketone stage. No further oxidation is seen except under very stringent conditions. Tertiary alcohols
cannot be oxidized at all without breaking carbon-carbon bonds, whereas primary alcohols can be
oxidized to aldehydes or further oxidized to carboxylic acids.

Chromic acid (H2CrO4, generated by mixing sodium dichromate, Na2Cr2O7, with sulfuric acid,
H2SO4) is an effective oxidizing agent for most alcohols. It is a strong oxidant, and it oxidizes the
alcohol as far as possible without breaking carbon-carbon bonds. Chromic acid oxidizes primary
alcohols to carboxylic acids, and it oxidizes secondary alcohols to ketones. Tertiary alcohols do not
react with chromic acid under mild conditions. With a higher temperature or a more concentrated
acid, carbon-carbon bonds may be oxidized; however, yields from such strong oxidations are usually
poor.
Oxidizing a primary alcohol only as far as the aldehyde stage is more difficult because of the ease
with which aldehydes are oxidized to acids. Special reagents have been developed to convert
primary alcohols to aldehydes. Pyridinium chlorochromate, often abbreviated PCC, is a milder
oxidant than chromic acid and oxidizes most primary alcohols to aldehydes. PCC is a complex of
chromium trioxide (CrO3) with pyridine (C5H5N) and hydrogen chloride (HCl), written as pyridine ∙
CrO3 ∙ HCl.
Biological oxidation

All substances are toxic if taken in large enough quantities, and alcohols are no exception. Although
ethanol is less toxic than methanol, it is nonetheless a poisonous substance, and many people die
each year from ethanol poisoning. When someone is suffering from mild ethanol poisoning, the
person is said to be intoxicated. Because animals often consume food that has fermented and
contains ethanol, their bodies have developed methods to remove or detoxify ethanol before it can
accumulate and poison the brain. One way the body detoxifies ethanol is to oxidize it, using an
enzyme produced by the liver, alcohol dehydrogenase, or ADH. Alcohol dehydrogenase catalyzes the
oxidation of ethanol to acetaldehyde, which is further oxidized to acetic acid (as the acetate ion), a
normal metabolite. The actual oxidizing agent is the oxidized form of nicotinamide adenine
dinucleotide, NAD+.
The body’s response to simple alcohols is to oxidize them. This strategy works well with ethanol,
because the product is acetate, a normal metabolite. When other alcohols are ingested, however,
oxidation may lead to other toxic products. For example, oxidation of methanol produces
formaldehyde and subsequently formic acid (as the formate ion); both of these products are more
toxic than methanol itself. Ethylene glycol (automotive antifreeze) is oxidized to oxalic acid (as the
oxalate ion), the toxic compound found in rhubarb leaves and many other plants. Ethylene glycol has
a sweet taste, and many dogs and cats are poisoned each year by drinking automotive antifreeze
that has been carelessly discarded.

One common treatment for methanol or ethylene glycol poisoning is to give the patient intravenous
infusions of diluted ethanol. The ADH enzyme is kept occupied by oxidizing ethanol to acetic acid,
giving the kidneys time to excrete most of the methanol or ethylene glycol before it is oxidized to
more toxic compounds. This is an example of competitive inhibition of an enzyme (see poison:
Nature of a toxic substance).

Dehydration to alkenes

Converting an alcohol to an alkene requires removal of the hydroxyl group and a hydrogen atom on
the neighbouring carbon atom. Because the elements of water are removed, this reaction is called a
dehydration. Dehydrations are most commonly carried out by warming the alcohol in the presence
of a strong dehydrating acid, such as concentrated sulfuric acid.

Most alcohol dehydrations take place by the mechanism shown below. Protonation of the hydroxyl
group allows it to leave as a water molecule. The species that remains has a carbon atom with only
three bonds and a positive charge and is called a carbocation. This intermediate species can be
stabilized by loss of a proton from a carbon atom adjacent to the positively charged carbon ion,
giving the alkene.

Because they involve carbocation intermediates, alcohol dehydrations go more quickly and easily if
they form relatively stable carbocations. More highly substituted carbocations are more stable (3° >
2° > 1°); therefore, more highly substituted alcohols undergo dehydration more readily than less
highly substituted alcohols (3° > 2° > 1°). Carbocations can undergo rearrangements in which an alkyl
group, aryl group, or hydrogen atom, along with its bonding electrons, shifts to the positively
charged carbon atom to form a more stable species. Rearrangements are thus a common nuisance
in alcohol dehydrations. If more than one alkene can be formed in a dehydration, the major product
is usually the product with the most highly substituted double bond (Saytzeff’s rule).

Dehydration to ethers

Under carefully controlled conditions, simple alcohols can undergo intermolecular dehydration to
give ethers. This reaction is effective only with methanol, ethanol, and other simple primary
alcohols, but it is the most economical method for making ethyl ether (also known as diethyl ether),
an important industrial solvent.
Substitution to form alkyl halides

Alkyl halides are often synthesized from alcohols, in effect substituting a halogen atom for the
hydroxyl group. Hydrochloric (HCl), hydrobromic (HBr), and hydroiodic (HI) acids are useful reagents
for this substitution, giving their best yields with tertiary alcohols. Thionyl chloride (SOCl2),
phosphorus tribromide (PBr3), and phosphorus triiodide (generated from phosphorus, P, and
molecular iodine, I2) are also useful for making alkyl chlorides, bromides, and iodides, respectively.