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Pollutants and Water Management
Pollutants and Water Management
Resources, Strategies and Scarcity
Edited by
Pardeep Singh
PGDAV College, University of Delhi
New Delhi
India
Rishikesh Singh
Banaras Hindu University
Varanasi, Uttar Pradesh
India
Vipin Kumar Singh

Banaras Hindu University
Varanasi, Uttar Pradesh
India
Rahul Bhadouria
University of Delhi
New Delhi
India
This edition first published 2021
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v
Contents
List of Contributors vii
Part I Water Pollution and Its Security 1
1 Water Security and Human Health in Relation to Climate Change: An Indian

Perspective 3
Ravishankar Kumar, Prafulla Kumar Sahoo, and Sunil Mittal
2 Assessment of Anthropogenic Pressure and Population Attitude for the Conservation

of Kanwar Wetland, Begusarai, India: A Case Study 22
Ajeet Kumar Singh, M. Sathya, Satyam Verma, Agam Kumar, and S. Jayakumar
3 Grossly Polluting Industries and Their Effect on Water Resources in India 47

Zeenat Arif, Naresh Kumar Sethy, Swati, Pradeep Kumar Mishra, and Bhawna Verma
Part II Phytoremediation of Water Pollution 67
4 Phytoremediation: Status and Outlook 69

Kajal Patel, Indu Tripathi, Meenakshi Chaurasia, and K.S. Rao
5 Phytoremediation of Heavy Metals from the Biosphere Perspective and

Solutions 95
Indica Mohan, Kajol Goria, Sunil Dhar, Richa Kothari, B.S. Bhau, and
Deepak Pathania
6 Phytoremediation for Heavy Metal Removal: Technological Advancements 128

Monika Yadav, Gurudatta Singh, and R.N. Jadeja
Part III Microbial Remediation of Water Pollution 151
7 Advances in Biological Techniques for Remediation of Heavy Metals Leached

from a Fly Ash Contaminated Ecosphere 153
Krishna Rawat and Amit Kumar Yadav
vi Contents
8 Microbial Degradation of Organic Contaminants in Water Bodies: Technological

Advancements 172
Deepak Yadav, Sukhendra Singh, and Rupika Sinha
9 The Fate of Organic Pollutants and Their Microbial Degradation

in Water Bodies 210
Gurudatta Singh, Anubhuti Singh, Priyanka Singh, Reetika Shukla,
Shashank Tripathi, and Virendra Kumar Mishra
Part IV Removal of Water Pollutants by Nanotechnology 241
10 Detection and Removal of Heavy Metals from Wastewater Using

Nanomaterials 243
Swati Chaudhary, Mohan Kumar, Saami Ahmed, and Mahima Kaushik
11 Spinel Ferrite Magnetic Nanoparticles: An Alternative for Wastewater

Treatment 273
Sanjeet Kumar Paswan, Pawan Kumar, Ram Kishore Singh,
Sushil Kumar Shukla, and Lawrence Kumar
12 Biocompatible Cellulose-Based Sorbents for Potential Application

in Heavy Metal Ion Removal from Wastewater 306
Shashikant Shivaji Vhatkar, Kavita Kumari, and Ramesh Oraon
Part V Advances in Remediation of Water Pollution 327
13 Advances in Membrane Technology Used in the Wastewater

Treatment Process 329
Naresh K. Sethy, Zeenat Arif, K.S. Sista, P.K. Mishra, Pradeep Kumar,
and Avinash K. Kushwaha
14 Occurrence, Fate, and Remediation of Arsenic 349

Gurudatta Singh, Anubhuti Singh, Reetika Shukla, Jayant Karwadiya,
Ankita Gupta, Anam Naheed, and Virendra Kumar Mishra
15 Physical and Chemical Methods for Heavy Metal Removal 377

Monika Yadav, Gurudatta Singh, and R.N. Jadeja
Part VI Policy Dimensions on Water Security 399
16 The Role of Government and the Public in Water Resource

Management in India 401
Jitesh Narottam Vyas and Supriya Nath
Index 416
vii
List of Contributors
Saami Ahmed Ankita Gupta

Department of Chemistry, Zakir Husain Institute of Environment and Sustainable
Delhi College, University of Delhi, New Development, Banaras Hindu University,
Delhi, India Varanasi, Uttar Pradesh, India
Zeenat Arif R.N. Jadejaa

Department of Chemical Engineering and Department of Environmental Studies,
Technology, IIT (BHU), Varanasi, Uttar Faculty of Science, The Maharaja
Pradesh, India Sayajirao University of Baroda, Vadodara,
Gujarat, India
B.S. Bhau
Department of Botany, Central University S. Jayakumar
of Jammu, Samba, Jammu and Environmental Informatics and Spatial
Kashmir, India Modelling Lab (EISML), Department of
Ecology and Environmental Sciences,
Swati Chaudhary School of Life Sciences, Pondicherry
Department of Applied Sciences, M.S.I.T., University, Pondicherry, Puducherry, India
GGSIP University, New Delhi, India
Jayant Karwadiya
Meenakshi Chaurasia Institute of Environment and Sustainable
Department of Botany, University of Delhi, Development, Banaras Hindu University,
New Delhi, India Varanasi, Uttar Pradesh, India
Sunil Dhar Mahima Kaushik

Department of Environmental Sciences, Nano-bioconjugate Chemistry Lab, Cluster
Central University of Jammu, Samba, Innovation Centre, University of Delhi,
Jammu and Kashmir, India New Delhi, India
Kajol Goria Richa Kothari

Department of Environmental Sciences, Department of Environmental Sciences,
Central University of Jammu, Samba, Central University of Jammu, Samba,
Jammu and Kashmir, India Jammu and Kashmir, India
viii List of Contributors
Agam Kumar Virendra Kumar Mishra

Environmental Informatics and Spatial Institute of Environment and Sustainable
Modelling Lab (EISML), Department Development, Banaras Hindu University,
of Ecology and Environmental Varanasi, Uttar Pradesh, India
Sciences, School of Life Sciences,
Pondicherry University, Pondicherry, Sunil Mittal
Puducherry, India Department of Environmental Science and
Technology, Central University of Punjab,
Lawrence Kumar Bathinda, Punjab, India
Department of Nanoscience and Indica Mohan
Technology, Central University of Department of Environmental Sciences,
Jharkhand, Ranchi, Jharkhand, India Central University of Jammu, Samba,
Jammu and Kashmir, India
Mohan Kumar
Department of Chemistry, Shri Varshney Anam Naheed
College, Aligarh, Uttar Pradesh, India Institute of Environment and Sustainable
Development, Banaras Hindu University,
Pawan Kumar Varanasi, Uttar Pradesh, India
Department of Physics, Mahatma Gandhi
Central University, Motihari, Bihar, India Supriya Nath
Central Water and Power Research Station,
Pradeep Kumar Pune, Maharashtra, India
Department of Chemical Engineering and
Ramesh Oraon
Technology, IIT (BHU), Varanasi, Uttar
Department of Nanoscience and
Pradesh, India
Technology, Central University of
Jharkhand, Ranchi, Jharkhand, India
Ravishankar Kumar
Department of Environmental Science and Kajal Patel
Technology, Central University of Punjab, Department of Botany, University of Delhi,
Bathinda, Punjab, India New Delhi, India
Kavita Kumari Sanjeet Kumar Paswan

Department of Nanoscience and Department of Nanoscience and
Technology, Central University of Technology, Central University of
Jharkhand, Ranchi, Jharkhand, India Jharkhand, Ranchi, Jharkhand, India
Avinash K. Kushwaha Deepak Pathania

Department of Botany, BHU, Varanasi, Department of Environmental Sciences,
Uttar Pradesh, India Central University of Jammu, Samba,
Jammu and Kashmir, India
P.K. Mishra
Department of Chemical Engineering and K.S. Rao
Technology, IIT (BHU), Varanasi, Uttar Department of Botany, University of Delhi,
Pradesh, India New Delhi, India
List of Contributors ix
Krishna Rawat Anubhuti Singh

School of Environment and Sustainable Institute of Environment and Sustainable
Development, Central University of Development, Banaras Hindu University,
Gujarat, Gandhinagar, Gujarat, India Varanasi, Uttar Pradesh, India
Prafulla Kumar Sahoo Gurudatta Singh

Department of Environmental Science and Institute of Environment and
Technology, Central University of Punjab, Sustainable Development, Banaras
Bathinda, Punjab, India Hindu University, Varanasi, Uttar
Pradesh, India
M. Sathya
Environmental Informatics and Spatial Priyanka Singh
Modelling Lab (EISML), Department of Institute of Environment and
Ecology and Environmental Sciences, Sustainable Development, Banaras
School of Life Sciences, Pondicherry Hindu University, Varanasi, Uttar
University, Pondicherry, Puducherry, India Pradesh, India
Naresh K. Sethy Ram Kishore Singh

Department of Chemical Engineering and Department of Nanoscience and
Technology, IIT (BHU), Varanasi, Uttar Technology, Central University of
Pradesh, India Jharkhand, Ranchi, Jharkhand, India
Vhatkar Shashikant Shivaji Sukhendra Singh

Department of Nanoscience and School of Biochemical Engineering,
Technology, Central University of IIT (BHU) Varanasi, Varanasi, Uttar
Jharkhand, Ranchi, Jharkhand, India Pradesh, India
Reetika Shukla Rupika Sinha

Institute of Environment and Sustainable Department of Biotechnology, MNNIT,
Development, Banaras Hindu University, Prayagraj, Uttar Pradesh, India
Varanasi, Uttar Pradesh, India
K.S. Sista
Sushil Kumar Shukla Research and Development, Tata Steel,
Department of Transport Science and Jamshedpur, CIndia
Technology, Central University of
Jharkhand, Ranchi, Jharkhand, India Swati
Department of Botany, BHU, Varanasi,
Ajeet Kumar Singh Uttar Pradesh, India
Environmental Informatics and Spatial
Modelling Lab (EISML), Department Indu Tripathi
of Ecology and Environmental Department of Botany, University of Delhi,
Sciences, School of Life Sciences, New Delhi, India
Pondicherry University, Pondicherry, Department of Environmental Studies,
Puducherry, India University of Delhi, New Delhi, India
x List of Contributors
Shashank Tripathi Jitesh Narottam Vyas

Institute of Environment and Central Water and Power Research Station,
Sustainable Development, Banaras Pune, Maharashtra, India
Hindu University, Varanasi, Uttar
Pradesh, India Amit Kumar Yadav
School of Environment and Sustainable
B. Verma Development, Central University of
Department of Chemical Engineering and Gujarat, Gandhinagar, Gujarat, India
Technology, IIT (BHU), Varanasi, Uttar
Pradesh, India Deepak Yadav
Chemical Engineering Department,
Satyam Verma Harcourt Butler Technical University,
Environmental Informatics and Spatial Kanpur, Uttar Pradesh, India
Modelling Lab (EISML), Department
of Ecology and Environmental Monika Yadav
Sciences, School of Life Sciences, Department of Environmental Studies,
Pondicherry University, Pondicherry, Faculty of Science, The Maharaja Sayajirao
Puducherry, India University of Baroda, Vadodara, Gujarat, India
1
Part I
Water Pollution and Its Security

3
Water Security and Human Health in Relation to Climate Change

An Indian Perspective
Ravishankar Kumar, Prafulla Kumar Sahoo, and Sunil Mittal
Department of Environmental Science and Technology, Central University of Punjab, Bathinda, Punjab, India
1.1 Introduction
The capacity of a population to maintain sustainable access to sufficient quantities of accept-

able quality water to ensure human well-being, livelihood, socio-economic development,
protection against water-borne and water-related disasters, and to preserve ecosystems is
termed as water security (UN Water 2013). Water demand is increasing with time due to the
booming population, rapid industrialization, rampant urbanization, and extensive agricul-
tural practices. In the world, nearly 785 million people lack a safe drinking water service,
including 144 million people dependent on surface water (WHO 2019). Nearly, 1.8 billion peo-
ple use feces contaminated drinking water sources and have a high risk of contracting cholera,
dysentery, typhoid, and polio (WHO 2019). It has been estimated that the world population will
be around 9 billion by 2050 and water availability will be less than the current availability (UN
WWDR 2015). As per a World Health Organization (WHO) estimation, by 2025, 50% of the
global population will be living in water scarcity areas (WHO 2019). By 2050, the global water
demand is expected to increase by 20–30% as compared with the current scenario, due to grow-
ing demand in the domestic and industrial sectors (UN WWDR 2019). The estimation of the
United Nations World Water Development Report (2016) indicated that more than 40% of the
global population could be living in severe water stress areas by 2050.
Presently, the world’s two most populous countries, India and China, are facing severe
water security problems. However, the conditions are more critical in India both in terms of
quantity and quality due to a lack of required infrastructure, health services, and manage-
ment. India has only 4% of the world’s freshwater but accounts for 16% of the global popula-
tion. India ranked 120th out of 122 nations in water quality index and 133rd among 180
nations in water availability (NITI Aayog 2018). Approximately 21% of diseases are related to
water among all diseases of the country (Snyder 2020). As per UNICEF and WHO (2012)
estimates, approximately 97 million Indians do not have access to safe water. Further, the
Pollutants and Water Management: Resources, Strategies and Scarcity, First Edition. Edited by Pardeep Singh,
Rishikesh Singh, Vipin Kumar Singh, and Rahul Bhadouria.
© 2021 John Wiley & Sons Ltd. Published 2021 by John Wiley & Sons Ltd.
4 Part I Water Pollution and Its Security
findings of the 2011 census revealed that 138 million rural households had access to safe
drinking water, whereas 685–690 million people lacked access to safe drinking water. An ironic
fact is that more than 41% of the rural population (out of 833 million people) of India own
mobile phones but have no access to potable water which is a basic need. Only 18% of the
rural population have access to treated water (Unitus Seed Fund 2014; Forbes India, 2015).
The NITI Aayog report (2018) also said that India is facing its worst water crisis in
history, which is only expected to become worse as the country’s water demand is projected
to be twice the available supply by 2030. The report said that 600 million currently face high
to extreme water shortage, with around two lakh people dying every year due to inadequate
access to potable water. The increasing water shortage will also affect the gross domestic
product (GDP) of the nation, with the country suffering a loss of up to 6% of GDP in 2030
(NITI Aayog 2018).
The quality of both river and groundwater is deteriorating at a rapid pace, making water
scarcity more severe. Even toxic heavy metals like uranium, lead, cadmium, selenium, and
so on are also reported in groundwater samples from various states (Chowdhury et al. 2016;
Kumar et al. 2018, 2020; Sharma et al. 2020). This may lead to severe consequences for
water resources. According to the IDSA report (2010), it has been reported that India is
expected to become “water-stressed” by 2025 and “water-scarce” by 2050.
Further, climate change is also affecting the water security of India as rising temperature
affects the Himalayan glaciers as well as altering the monsoon pattern. The combination of
these two factors affects the level of river water due to the melting of glaciers and intense
rainfall. Further, groundwater resources are also affected directly and indirectly by the
alteration of these factors. High water temperature, changes in timing, intensity, and dura-
tion of precipitation are the significant consequences of climate change which can further
affect the water quality. The alternate pattern of precipitation leads to floods and droughts,
which play an important role in the degradation of water quality by adding a quantum of
concentrated pollutants. As per the World Bank report (2018), climate change can affect 6%
GDP of some regions due to water security, resulting in migration and conflict. As per the
United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD), by 2030, due to climate
change impacts on water scarcity, 24–700 million people may be displaced from some arid
and semi-arid places.
The achievement of water security in the future will be a very challenging task. This
chapter describes in detail the current situation and future challenges regarding water
security along with prospective health changes. Further, the impact of climate change on
water security and health has been analyzed. The available opportunities are also discussed
to manage future challenges related to water security.
1.2 Quantity of Available Water Resources in India

The annual precipitation (rainfall+snowfall) is estimated as 4000 billion cubic meters
(BCM). Out of total annual precipitation, 3000 BCM falls during the monsoon season (Jun
to September) (Central Water Commission 2014). Around 53.3% of total annual precipita-
tion is lost due to evapotranspiration, which leaves a balance of 1986.5 BCM. The total
annual utilizable water resources of India are 1123 BCM, which consists of 690 BCM surface
1 Water Security and Human Health 5
water and 433 BCM of groundwater (Central Water Commission 2014). The National
Commission on Integrated Water Resources Development (NCIWRD) projected that total
water demand to expect 973 (low demand scenario) to 1180 BCM (high demand scenario).
The water used for agriculture is the highest projected demand (70%), followed by house-
holds (23%) and industries (7%) (NCIWRD 1999). The per capita average water availability
in India in the year 2001 was 1816 m3, and it is expected to reduce to 1140 m3 in 2050
(MoWR 2015). The people of the Indian state of Andhra Pradesh have the highest access to
safe treated water, i.e., 36%, and it is lowest for Bihar (2%) (Forbes India 2015). The annual
surface water availability of India has decreased since the year 1950 (Table 1.1).
Rivers are the primary sources of surface water in India and are considered as the lifeline
of Indian cities. There are 15 large, 45 medium, and 120 minor rivers in India (Raj 2010).
The rivers are either rainfed and/or based on the Himalayan glacier. The annual water
potential in the major river basins of India is 1869.35 BCM, but the utilizable potential is
690 BCM. The Ganga basin has the highest utilizable potential, i.e., 250 BCM. The detailed
account of surface water potential of Indian rivers is depicted in Table 1.2.
Table 1.1 Annual surface water availability of India.
Annual surface water availability

S. no Year (m3/capita/year)
1 1951 5177
2 1991 2209
3 2001 1820
4 2025 1341
5 2050 1140
Source: Govt. of India (2009).
Table 1.2 Overview of surface water potential of Indian rivers.
Catchment Average water resources Utilizable surface

S. no River basin area (sq km) potential (BCM) water resources (BCM)
1 Indus (up to border) 321 289 73.31 46

2 (a) Ganga 861 452 525.02 250
(b) Brahmaputra 194 413 537.24 24
(c) Barak and others 41 723 48.36
3 Godavari 312 812 110.54 76.3
4 Krishna 268 948 78.12 58
5 Cauvery 81 155 21.36 19
6 Subarnarekha 29 196 12.37 6.8
7 Brahmani and Baitarani 51 822 28.48 18.3
(Continued)
Table 1.2 (Continued)
Catchment Average water resources Utilizable surface

S. no River basin area (sq km) potential (BCM) water resources (BCM)
8 Mahanadi 141 589 66.88 50

9 Pennar 55 213 6.32 6.9
10 Mahi 34 842 11.02 3.1
11 Sabarmati 21 674 3.81 1.9
12 Narmada 98 796 45.64 34.5
13 Tapi 65 145 14.88 14.5
14 West flowing rivers from 55 940 87.41 11.9
Tapi to Tadri
15 West flowing rivers from 56 177 113.53 24.3
Tadri to Kanyakumari
16 East flowing rivers between 86 643 22.52 13.1
Mahanadi and Pennar
17 East flowing rivers between 100 139 16.46 16.5
Pennar and Kanyakumari
18 West flowing rivers of 321 851 15.1 15
Kutch and Saurashtra
including Luni
19 Area of inland drainage of 36 202 0 NA
Rajasthan
20 Minor river basins draining 31 NA
into Myanmar and
Bangladesh
Total 1869.35 690
Source: Central Water Commission, http://cwc.gov.in/water-info.
India is the largest and fastest consumer of groundwater, which fulfills the demands
of nearly 80 and 50% of the rural and urban population, respectively (Shankar
et al. 2011). The groundwater resources of the country are estimated to be 433 BCM,
which is 39% of the total water resources of India (CGWB 2017). The net groundwater
availability is 396 BCM, while the available for potential use is 245 BCM. The stage of
groundwater development is 61% (CGWB 2017). The Indian state Uttar Pradesh has the
highest net annual groundwater availability (~72 BCM) and Delhi has the least (0.29
BCM) (CGWB 2014). Around 85% of the rural population uses groundwater for drink-
ing purposes. The volume of groundwater is inadequate to fulfill the demand of the
large population, agricultural practices, rampant industrialization, and urbanization.
The overall account of groundwater resources assessment 2004–2017 is presented in
Table 1.3.
The per capita average water availability in India is continuously decreasing. India has a
huge potential in river and precipitation water (rainfall+snowfall), but currently, not even
Table 1.3 Groundwater resources assessment from 2004–2017.
Annual replenishable Net annual Annual groundwater draft Stage of

groundwater groundwater for irrigation, domestic, groundwater
Year resources (BCM) availability (BCM) and industrial uses (BCM) development
2004 433 399 231 58%

2009 431 396 243 61%
2011 433 398 245 62%
2013 447 411 253 62%
2017 432 393 249 63%
Source: CGWB (2017).
50% of the potential is being used. Due to the lack of use of the water potential of river and
precipitation, groundwater resources are under tremendous pressure and the water table is
continuously increasing in most parts of the country over time.
1.3 Quality of Available Water Resources in India
Water quality of both available surface and groundwater resources does not satisfy the crite-
ria for potable water in most parts of the country. The Ministry of Jal Shakti report revealed
that 70% of water resources in India are polluted by untreated sewage and industrial efflu-
ents. The monitoring report of the Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB 2011), based on
biological oxygen demand (BOD) and coliform bacteria count, indicated that organic pollu-
tion is predominant in aquatic bodies. The groundwater of around 600 districts (i.e. almost
one-third of India) is nonpotable. On the other hand, the Central Groundwater Water Board
(CGWB) has reported the presence of contaminants like fluoride, nitrate, arsenic, iron, and
other heavy metals in the groundwater of many regions (Table 1.4). As and F− contamina-
tion of groundwater is a significant public health risk concern for Indian people. As and F−
contamination of groundwater is a health threat for approximately 100 and 66 million
Indian people, respectively (Bindal and Singh 2019; Kadam et al. 2020). Other major ground-
water contaminants like U, NO3−, Fe, HCO3−, etc. have also been reported in several parts of
India. High nitrate content in water is another grave concern in many states (Ministry of
Water Resources 2014; Kaur et al. 2019). Apart from governmental organizations, various
studies/reports on groundwater and surface water quality have confirmed the presence of
other contaminants like uranium, cadmium, lead, copper, sulfate, pesticides, and organic
pollutant in the water resources of India (Bacquart et al. 2012; Mittal et al. 2014; Chowdhury
et al. 2016; Kumar et al. 2016; Bajwa et al. 2017).
Both the groundwater and surface water quality are not qualifying criteria for potable water
in most parts of the country. Surface water is continuously facing quality issues due to the
discharge of sewage and industrial and agricultural wastes. Groundwater in India is affected
by heavy metals (As, Fe, Pb, U) and anions (F−, NO3−, SO42−) in different parts of the country.
Table 1.4 Number of states and districts affected by geogenic contamination in groundwater.
Contaminants No of affected states No of affected districts
Arsenic (As) 10 68
Fluoride (F−) 20 276
Nitrate (NO3−) 21 387
Iron (Fe) 24 297
Source: CGWB (2019).
1.4 The Impact of Climate Change on the Quantity

of Water Resources
Climate change affects water resources through warming of the atmosphere, alterations in
the hydrologic cycle, glacier melting, rising sea levels, and changes in precipitation patterns
(amount, timing, and intensity). In the Indian scenario, due to the alteration of monsoon
patterns, rainfall becomes more intense and cumbersome, and it is concentrated on fewer
rainy days. Climate change influences the quantity of water resources of India through the
impact on glaciers, groundwater, and flood events. The probable climate change impacts
on water resources of India are depicted through the flow diagram in Figure 1.1.
1.4.1 Rainfall
Using decade-wise average rainfall annual data of 116 years of data (1901–2019), no signifi-
cant trend was observed for annual rainfall on a national basis (Figure 1.2). However, a
decreasing trend in annual rainfall was observed across India since the year 2000. This data
set is based on more than 2000 rain gauge data spread over the country.
Climate change has affected the rainfall pattern of India in the form of fewer rainy days,
but more extreme rainfall events. This is resulting in an increased amount of rainfall in
each event, leading to significant flooding. Most of the global models suggest that Indian
summer monsoons will intensify. The timing of seasonal variation may also shift, causing
a drying during the late summer growing season. There has been a significant change in
precipitation and temperature pattern in India from 2000 to 2015. This could indicate a
signature of climate change in India (Goyal and Surampalli 2018).
1.4.2 Glaciers
Around 9040 glaciers have been reported in India, covering nearly 18 528 km2 in the Indus,
Ganges, and Brahmaputra basins (Sangewar et al. 2009; Sharma et al. 2013). Any changes
in a glacier can affect river run-off and the water availability in the Himalayan rivers (Indus,
Ganges, and Brahmaputra) and agricultural practices in India. The annual rate of glacial
shrinkage is reported to be nearly 0.2–0.7% in the Indian Himalayan region for 11 river
basins during the period 1960–2004 with a mean extent of 0.32–1.40 km2 (Kulkarni
Probable climate change impact on water resources in Indian Scenario
Alter Hydrological
Glaciers melt rapidly Alter Monsoon Cycle
Himalayan rivers Intense rain fall for fewer days

affected and no water
throughout year
Combination Groundwater recharge affected
Flood like situation
Figure 1.1 Impact of climate change on water resources.
1300
1250
1200
Rainfall (mm)
1150
1100
1050
1000
10
0
0
6
92
93
94
95
96
97
98
99
00
01
01
19
–1
–1
–1
–1
–1
–1
–1
–1
–2
–2
–2
–
01
11
21
31
41
51
61
71
81
91
01
11
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
20
20
Time Period
Figure 1.2 Decade-wise average rainfall annual data of India. (Source: Envi Stats India 2018;
https://data.gov.in/keywords/annual-rainfall.)
et al. 2011; Bolch et al. 2012). Ramanathan (2011) reported the mass balance of Chhota
Shigri glacier (15.7 km2), located in the Chandra River basin of Himachal Pradesh, showed
a net loss of about 1000 m from 2002–2009. The flow diagram demonstrating the impact of
climate change on glaciers is depicted in Figure 1.3.
In India, climate change is expected to affect Himalayan rivers (Ganges and Brahmaputra)
due to the faster rate of melting of Himalayan glaciers. Himalayan glaciers are known as
the “Water Tower of Asia,” a major source of water in all major Asian rivers (Shiva 2009).
Climate Change
Influence
Snowfall Temperature
Equilibrium-line altitude (ELA) change
Influence to Glacier Mass Balance
Glacier Response
Thicken Glacier Thins Glacier

(Positive Mass Balance) (Negative Mass Balance)
Length change/Recede/modifications of Glacier
Figure 1.3 The flow diagram of the impact of climate change on glaciers. (Source: Pandey and
Venkataraman 2012.)
As per the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), these glaciers are receding
faster than any other part of the world (IPCC 2007). The Gangotri glacier (source of the
river Ganga), receded 20–23 miles/year, whereas other glaciers can retreat more than
30 miles/year as a result of rising temperatures (Shiva 2009). If the conditions continue,
glaciers will melt quicker and no glaciers will be left to supply water for the entire year,
then rivers like Brahmaputra and Ganges will become seasonal rivers. In the monsoon
season, the combination of the heavy melting of glaciers and intense heavy rainfall for
fewer days may create a flash flood-like situation. On the other hand, reduced rainfall in
the rest of the year may lead to drought in some regions. Chevaturi et al. (2016) illustrated
the climate change impact on the northern region of Ladakh. The Ladakh area is unique
due to its location in high altitude, dry desert with cold temperatures, and water flows to
the mountains. Research showed a warming trend with reduced seasonal precipitation,
making it highly sensitive to temperature changes.
1.4.3 Sea Level

Rising sea levels and flooding are the biggest threats of climate change. As temperature
rises, ice melts and water level rises. This threatens to engulf coastal areas and cause mass
displacement and loss of life. Initial predictions expected a sea-level rise of over 59 cm by
2100, but current rates will likely exceed this by a wide margin. According to Pandve (2010),
a sea-level rise of 1 m would inundate up to 5763 km of India, as many cities lie only a few
feet above sea level, making severe coastal floods.
1.4.4 Groundwater
Groundwater resources are affected due to an inadequate amount of water percolating
down to aquifers due to reduced rainfall. The increased atmospheric temperature also
increases the rate of evapotranspiration, which leads to a reduction in the actual amount of
groundwater available for human use. India extracts 1000 km3 of groundwater annually,
which is 25% of groundwater at a global level (Mukherji 2019).
Climate change affects Indian water resources through warming of the atmosphere,
alterations in the hydrologic cycle, melting of glaciers, rising sea levels, and changes in
precipitation patterns (amount, timing, and intensity). The alteration of monsoon patterns
decreases rainy days but increases the amount of rainfall. Himalayan glaciers are receding
faster than any other part of the world. Further, the combined impacts of changes in pre-
cipitation patterns, glaciers melting, and sea-level rise has caused flood-like situations in
different parts of the country. One noticeable thing, if the conditions continue, glaciers will
melt quicker and no glaciers will be left to supply water for the entire year, then rivers like
Brahmaputra and Ganges will become seasonal rivers.
1.5 Impact of Climate Change on the Quality

of Water Resources
The impact of climate change on water quality has not gained much concern as an emerg-
ing topic in water research to date. However, possible effects are discussed with the associa-
tion of health as depicted in Figure 1.4. Floods and droughts also affect the surface water
qualitatively (in terms of pollutant concentration) and quantitatively. Whenever drought
condition persists, the groundwater resources are depleted and the concentration of the
pollutants are elevated in the residual water (IPCC 2007). Changes in precipitation or
hydrological pattern and increased run-off can result in the rise of pathogens and contami-
nants in water bodies. Increased frequency and intensity of rainfall may cause more water
pollution due to run-off water. The decrease in dissolved oxygen in water due to the increase
in the temperature of the water is the direct consequence of climate change on water qual-
ity. Further, the concentration of dissolved carbon, phosphates, nitrates, and micropollut-
ants are also directly altered as a consequence of climate change and they produce an
adverse impact on health (Delpla et al. 2009).
Climate change is not only expected to influence the quantity of groundwater but also to
influence the quality of groundwater (Dragoni and Sukhija 2008). Water recharges during
an arid period contain a high concentration of salts and increases total dissolved solids
(TDS). However, in a wet period, the reverse phenomena can occur. Climate change
increases sea surface temperatures and results in rising sea levels. Further, rising sea levels
may lead to saltwater intrusion into coastal aquifers, which influences groundwater quality
and contaminates drinking water sources whenever salty water percolates into the fresh-
water system. It is very difficult to reverse the process. Climate change influences the
Climate change impact on water quality and its association with health risk
Alter Hydrological
Temperature increase
Drought
Increase runoff
Alter properties of Dissolve
Oxygen, Nitrate, Dissolve Increase
Carbon, Phosphate Pollutants pollutants and
concentrated pathogens
Adverse Health effects of

human and aquatic life
Increasing frequency of water borne
(cholera, diarrhea) and vector borne
(Malaria and dengue)
Figure 1.4 Impact of climate change on water quality and its association with health.
amount or pattern of precipitation, resulting in a flood-like situation and affects groundwa-

ter quality through the release of agrochemicals/industrial wastes from soil to groundwater.
Climate change affects water quality through the decrease of dissolved oxygen due to the
rise of temperature, while alternations to the hydrological cycle increase pathogens and
contaminants in surface water. Groundwater quality has been indirectly affected by climate
change due to increases in TDS, salts, and other contaminants. Further, rising sea levels
may lead to saltwater percolation in coastal aquifers, which influences groundwater quality.
1.6 The Health Perspective in Association with Water

Security and Climate Change
As per the WHO (2018), in the period between 2030 and 2050, climate change could be the
reason for approximately 250 000 additional deaths per year by malnutrition, malaria, diar-
rhea, and heat stress. The additional health costs by 2030 are estimated to project USD
2–4 billion/year. Climate change affects health through polluted air, unsafe drinking water,
insufficient food, and shelter safety. Extreme high air temperatures directly affect cardio-
vascular and respiratory systems, particularly to older adults. In Europe, more than 70 000
deaths were recorded under the influence of a summer heatwave during 2003 (Robine
et al. 2008). High temperature also increases ozone levels and other pollutants in the air,
leading to cardiovascular and respiratory diseases. The levels of pollen and other aerial
allergens are high in extreme temperature/heat. This can trigger asthma, which affects
nearly 300 million people in the world (WHO 2018). Apart from this, climate change has a
high impact on water-related diseases. The nonuniform rainfall patterns are likely to affect
freshwater and make it unsafe for humans. This water can compromise hygiene and
increase the risk of diarrheal disease, which kills over 500 000 children aged under five
years, every year (IPCC 2014).
India is one of the major countries that suffers from water-related diseases. The security
of drinking water ensures the prevention and control of water-borne diseases. As per the
WHO assessment, around 37.7 million people in India are affected by water-borne diseases
every year, and among them, 75% are children (Khurana and Sen 2009). The World Bank
has also estimated that 21% of communicable diseases in India are related to unsafe water.
The impact of climate change increases the risks of water-borne diseases like cholera,
malaria, and dengue by warming of the climate and intense rainfall. A UN report stated
that more than one lakh people die annually from water-borne diseases and 73 working
days are lost due to water-borne diseases. Another report stated that 1.5 million children
die annually from diarrhea (Khurana and Sen 2009). Apart from water-borne diseases,
cancer, cardiovascular diseases, mental disorders, and other diseases are reported due to
probable contaminants found in water (Kaur et al. 2019). A resulting economic burden of
$600 million has been estimated per year due to water-borne diseases. Further, climate
change makes the situation more critical. Rising temperatures often bring negative impacts
to human health and life. The incidences of water-borne diseases like cholera, diarrhea,
and so on,. become more prevalent in warmer climates (Figure 1.4). Vector-borne diseases
like malaria can thrive when the temperature increases as a result of global warming. It is
also estimated that up to 2050, the malaria vector will shift away from central regions
towards southwestern and northern states due to the variation of rainfall (Kiszewski
et al. 2004). Malaria kills over 400 000 people every year on the global level.
Vector-borne diseases like dengue also increase in warm and rainy climate due to the
increasing mosquito population. The Aedes mosquito vector of dengue is also highly sensi-
tive to climate conditions, and studies suggest that climate change is likely to increase expo-
sure to dengue. Apart from the risks caused by increased temperature, intense rainfall could
result in floods and waterlogging in several places. Waterlogged areas will then become the
potential grounds for mosquitoes breeding. In India, especially in the Ganges basin, poor
habitats have no choice for drinking and cooking other than using the polluted water of riv-
ers. This results in numerous diseases. Among these diseases, stomach infections like diar-
rhea and dysentery are common. People living in rural areas and urban slums will be more
vulnerable to diseases and infections because they do not have access to piped water and
cannot afford to buy clean water. Water shortages have an enormously devastating impact
on human health, including malnutrition, pathogen or chemical loading, and infectious
diseases from water contamination. In the future, this cycle of diseases will place an enor-
mous burden on the government, who will have to scramble to provide health care for all
those affected and have to take preventive measures to control the situation from worsening.
Climate change affects health through polluted air, unsafe drinking water, insufficient
food, and shelter safety. The nonuniform rainfall patterns are likely to affect freshwater in
India and make it unsafe for humans. This water can compromise hygiene and increase the
risk of diarrheal disease, in these cases, children are the main sufferers. Further, the impact
of climate change also increases the risks of water and vector-borne diseases like cholera,
malaria, and dengue by warming of the climate and intense rainfall.
1.7 Major Challenges to Water Security
1.7.1 Water Demand for the Future

There are several reports published by national and international agencies on the current
and future demand of water (Tables 1.1 and 1.5) for India. Based on these reports, it can be
analyzed that meeting the water supply-demand of India will be a serious challenge. The
most serious concern is the growing population, which is likely to increase to 1.4 billion by
2050. To meet food security, the agricultural sector also needs a huge amount of water.
1.7.2 Overexploitation of Groundwater

The water table in India is depleting at a rate of 0.4–0.6 m per year. Out of the total assess-
ment units (blocks/taluks/mandals/districts/firkas/valleys), nearly 17.5, 4.5, 14, and 64%
units have been categorized as overexploited, critical, semi-critical, and safe, respectively
(CGWB 2017). So, preventing the overexploitation of groundwater will be another
challenge.
1.7.3 Management of Water Resources

●● Water availability: The water resources of India have a large gap between potential and
availability. The potential of water resources has been estimated at 1869 BCM and annual
precipitation is 4000 BCM. Out of a total potential 1869 BCM, India uses 1123 BCM of
water. The topographical and large temporal variability and regional mismatch between
water availability and demands are the major reasons for the difference between poten-
tial and availability (Jain 2019).
●● Flood management: The large variability of rainfall in space and time in India causes
flooding in different parts of the country. Indian rivers carry more than 70% of their
annual flow in four months during the monsoon period. There is an essential need to
Table 1.5 International reports on current and future demands of water of India.
World Bank Report 1999
Year Expected demand Year Per capita water availability
1997 552 BCM 1947 5000 m3 per year

2025 1050 BCM 1997 2000 m3 per year
2025 1500 m3 per year
The Mckinsey Report 2009

3
2009 740 billion m
2030 1.5 trillion m3
Source: IDSA (2010).

conserve flood water and flows for the growing demands of water in the country. Flood
management can also play a key role in groundwater recharge and drought management.
Nearly 500 BCM of water has been estimated through flood flows in Indian rivers
(Jain 2019). In the current scenario, the management of storage flood water is not suffi-
cient. The management of storage flood water can be used to meet growing demands
throughout the year. It will also help in water-related disasters like floods and droughts.
●● Water transfer between water enriched and water-stressed regions: India has
large temporal and geographical variability about water availability. The transfer of water
between water surplus regions to deficit regions could be a very effective approach in
meeting the demand of the entire country.
●● Recycle and reuse: In the current scenario, less of the urban water supply is recycled
and reused, and a large quantity of water is wasted. Around 40% of the water in some
cities in India is wasted due to leakage or theft. For instance, the Arab states treat 55% of
wastewater, and 15% is reused, which is used in farm irrigation, environmental protec-
tion, and industrial cooling (Jain 2019).
●● Impact of climate change: Warming of the lower atmosphere affects rainfall, snowfall,
and glaciers, and raises sea levels, which all interfere with the quantity of water resources.
Rising sea levels increase flooding in coastal areas and the intrusion of seawater alters
water quality in rivers, lakes, and groundwater.
●● Maintain water quality of resources and provide safe drinking water for rural areas.
●● Hydro-diplomacy with neighboring countries to solve water conflicts.
1.7.4 Health Prospective

The prevention and control of water- and vector-borne diseases can be a difficult task due
to the association with poor water quality and warming of the climate. Apart from that, the
presence of arsenic, uranium, lead, cadmium, etc. leads to an increase in health problems
due to their probable correlation with cancer and cardiovascular, neurological, and skin
diseases.
Projected water demand is continuously increasing day by day due to the rising demand
for water by agriculture, industry, and households, as well as the growing population.
Groundwater resources are under tremendous pressure and the water table in India is
depleting at the rate of 0.4–0.6 m per year. India is not using the full potential of river water,
precipitation, and floodwater.
1.8 Government Initiatives to Ensure Water Security
Recently, the Indian government formed the Ministry of Jal Shakti in May 2019 by merging
two ministries: the Ministry of Water Resources, River Development, and Ganga
Rejuvenation and the Ministry of Drinking Water and Sanitation. The Government of
India had also established the National Water Mission, which is one of the eight National
Missions under the National Action Plan on Climate Change 2008. Now, National Water
Mission is operating under the Ministry of Jal Shakti and the main objective is “conserva-
tion of water, minimizing wastage and ensuring its more equitable distribution both across
and within States through integrated water resources development and management.”
The National Water Mission is working towards five goals as follows:
a) Building a comprehensive water database in the public domain and an assessment of
the impact of climate change on water resources
b) Promotion of citizen and state actions for water conservation, augmentation, and
preservation
c) Focused attention to vulnerable areas including overexploited areas
d) Increasing water use efficiency by 20%
e) Promotion of basin level integrated water resource management
In the 12th five-year plan (2012–2017) of India, more emphasis has been given on aquifer
mapping, watershed development, and the involvement of nongovernmental organiza-
tions (NGOs) in developing irrigation capacity. Previously, the National Democratic
Alliance (NDA) government established a separate ministry on “River Development and
Ganga Rejuvenation” to accelerate the development of rivers and approved a 20 000 crores
budget to the Namami Ganges scheme for the historical river Ganga. Further, the NDA
government made it mandatory that 50% of work under the Mahatma Gandhi National
Rural Employment Guarantee Act (MGNREGA) 2005 should be for the improvement of
water conservation work like the construction of check dams and de-silting of water bod-
ies. Recently, in the union budget 2016–2017, 60 000 crore rupees for a groundwater
recharge project, 259.6 crore rupees for river basin management, and 660.27 crore rupees
for water resources management were allocated and particular emphasis was given to the
National Rural Drinking Water Program. Several water-related projects such as rainwater
harvesting, artificial groundwater recharge, watershed management, etc. are already being
run by central and state governments. Further, a substantial amount has been allocated for
groundwater recharge projects in drought-hit areas to combat the challenges of climate
change. The national adaptation fund was established to analyze climate change threats.
The government also paid specific attention to arsenic-affected areas and constructed spe-
cially designed new wells for the mitigation of arsenic pollution in groundwater.
The Indian government formed the Ministry of Jal Shakti in May 2019 as the main regu-
lating body of water resources in the country. For improved water quality and quantity of
water resources, the Indian government launched several schemes, namely, Namami
Ganges, the National Rural Drinking Water Program, the national adaptation fund (for
climate change threats), the National Water Mission, etc.
1.9 Managing Water Resources Under Climate Change
India has the potential to transform the increasing number of challenges in water security
into opportunities. Based on the available potential of the water sector, it can be concluded
that India is not a water-deficit country. In India, 90% of water resources are suitable for
growing crops. Some of the reasons against water security in the Indian context are water
resource mismanagement, inadequate use of water potential, lack of required government
attention, and lack of the willingness to adopt the latest technologies. Hence, fulfilling
these lacunae can combat current and future water security problems. India has the
opportunity to establish, as a nation, water security for a vast population. Some of the
efforts required are as follows:
●● Government priories: The success of any project or mission is largely dependent on

government policies and attention. Hence, water security should be the primary agenda
of the government.
●● Strict actions as well as rules and regulations: Stringent regulation is needed and
strict action should be taken against those causing water pollution and wastage.
●● Potential to use surface water: The surface water used is 690 BCM (55.6%) out of a
potential of 1869 BCM (Central Water Commission 2014). The use of the rest of the water
is restricted due to a high level of pollution. The Ganges-Brahmaputra-Meghna (GBM)
and Indus river systems have an average annual potential of water of 1110.62 BCM and
207.7 BCM, respectively (Central Water Commission: Indus Water Commission). These
two river systems have two-thirds of the water potential of India. The need of the hour is
to use the potential of surface water.
●● Investments in worthwhile water projects: The current need is to accelerate and
extend successful water projects to the entire country and make success stories like rain-
water harvesting, watershed management, groundwater mapping, and other govern-
ment initiatives. To accelerate government projects, monitoring should be carried out by
officials from civil societies, NGOs, and others. Specialized grievance cells should be
established.
●● Management of water: It is estimated that 40–50% of the supplied water is lost due to
leakage of pipes and connections. Hence, technology is required to instantly detect leak-
age. Recently, Danish technology was used in some municipalities, which is capable of
detecting even minor leakages that are invisible to the eye. This type of technology is
needed to be spread to the entire country.
●● Use of the potential of seawater: India has 7516.6 km of coastal area and a huge
potential for fulfilling the growing water demand. The use of desalination of seawater
would be another excellent approach for fulfilling the demand for future needs.
●● Management of rainfall: Only 18% of rainwater is used effectively, whereas 48% enters
into rivers and the rest percolates in the ocean (Hegde 2012). Thus, enormous potential
exists to use rainwater to fulfill future demand.
●● Use of wastewater in agriculture and other sectors: These practices are ongoing
but more is needed from sewage treatment, desalination, and other innovative tech-
nologies due to the huge amount of water released from domestic and industrial
activities.
●● Flood management: In every monsoon, certain parts of India are affected by floods and
a huge amount of water flows is wasted. Therefore, there is a need to turn this into an
opportunity by managing this huge amount of water.
●● Hydro-diplomacy: Many river water conflicts are ongoing between India and its adja-
cent countries like Nepal, Bhutan, Pakistan, China, and Bangladesh. There is a need for
extreme hydro-diplomacy to solve conflicts with these countries.
●● Deficit irrigation: In this strategy, less water is supplied to crops. No significant reduc-
tion of growth yield is estimated by the systematic use of this method. A study carried out
on a North China plain on winter wheat saved 25% water with no significant loss of yield
(UN WWDR 2015). In India, a study carried out using this strategy in the vegetative
phase for groundnut gave positive results. More research is required regarding deficit
irrigation on Indian crops for water conservation strategies.
●● Good groundwater governance: A Netherlands funded APFAMGS (Andhra Pradesh
Farmer Managed Groundwater Systems) project is an excellent example of the govern-
ance of groundwater resources. This project has been applied in 638 groundwater over-
exploited villages of Andhra Pradesh. The officials of this project adapted appropriate
cropping systems based on available groundwater resources. The governance acted as
pressure to adapt suitable water saving and harvesting projects. Low investment organic
agriculture was promoted, and the rules were formulated to ensure the sustainability of
groundwater resources.
India is becoming a water-deficient country and climate change is making the situation
more critical. The use of the maximum potential of river water, seawater, precipitation,
wastewater, and good water governance can minimize the impact of climate change on
water resources.
1.10 Conclusion and Recommendations
Water security has been a grave issue in India due to a lack of proper management, the slow
rate of establishing water projects, inadequate water monitoring, and a lack of appropriate
preventive measures. The degradation of water quality results in increased water-borne
and vector-borne diseases. Apart from this, contaminants such as arsenic, fluoride,
uranium, nitrate, cadmium, and lead found in water are also responsible for various serious
diseases like cancer, cardiovascular, mental disorders, and others. The effects of climate
change, including the increase of temperature, changes in regional precipitation patterns,
floods, droughts events, etc., make the situation more critical in respect of water quantity,
water quality, and water-related diseases. India has the potential to resolve future challenges
by the use of surface water to accelerate the establishment of water projects, adopting new
technologies, hydro-diplomacy with adjacent countries, and making stringent rules and
regulations.
Some recommendations are given as follows:
●● Use of the maximum potential of surface water, seawater, and rainfall
●● Turning flooding incidents to opportunities by managing huge amounts of water
●● Promotion of water-efficient irrigation systems like drip irrigation, sprinkler systems, etc.
●● Hydro-diplomacy and solving conflicts with neighboring countries
●● Applying strict regulations and taking action against those causing water pollution
and wastage
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22
Assessment of Anthropogenic Pressure and Population

Attitude for the Conservation of Kanwar Wetland,
Begusarai, India
A Case Study
Ajeet Kumar Singh, M. Sathya, Satyam Verma, Agam Kumar, and S. Jayakumar
Environmental Informatics and Spatial Modelling Lab (EISML), Department of Ecology and Environmental Sciences,
School of Life Sciences, Pondicherry University, Pondicherry, Puducherry, India
2.1 Introduction
Wetlands are a ubiquitous ecosystem, found in all regions and climatic conditions across the
globe. But they have long been a misunderstood ecosystem due to the misconception that
they are “wastelands, disease-infested, dark and dirty swamps,” and therefore, considered
worthless and large numbers of them have been converted for the other land-use activities
(Shah 2012). Later, the advancement of wetland research made the importance of these
ecosystems clear, as they interlink land and aquatic ecosystems, and therefore, understand-
ing developed from the conversion to the conservation of wetlands (Shah 2012). They are
considered as the “transitional zone between terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems,” where
the water table is usually at or near the surface or the land is covered by shallow water
(Mitsch and Gosselink 1986). These are the most productive and biologically diverse eco-
systems, but they are also very fragile in nature (Mitsch and Gosselink 2000). They were
defined for the first time during the world convention on wetlands at Ramsar city, Iran, on
2 February 1971 as:
Wetlands are area[s] of marsh, fen, peatland or water, whether natural or artificial,
permanent or temporary, with water that is static or flowing, fresh, brackish or salt,
including areas of marine water, the depth of which at low tide does not exceed
six meters.
The wetlands contribute approximately 40–45% of the total global estimate of natural
productivity and ecosystem services, as reported in the various wetland ecosystem assess-
ment reports.
Pollutants and Water Management: Resources, Strategies and Scarcity, First Edition. Edited by Pardeep Singh,
Rishikesh Singh, Vipin Kumar Singh, and Rahul Bhadouria.
© 2021 John Wiley & Sons Ltd. Published 2021 by John Wiley & Sons Ltd.
2 Conservation of Kanwar Wetland, Begusarai 23
2.1.1 Distribution of Wetlands

2.1.1.1 Global Distribution
Wetlands cover a small proportion (only 2–6% area) of the Earth’s land surface. They are
distributed in every continent and country except Antarctica (Tiner 2009). The total esti-
mated area of wetlands over the globe was recorded in a range of 747–885 million hectares
(Finlayson et al. 2001). Approximately, half of the global wetland area occurs between
50°N and 70°N latitude, one-third between 20°N and 30°S latitude, and the remaining in
the temperate zones (Tiner 2009). A total of 2386 wetlands are identified as Ramsar sites in
171 countries, which cover 253 771 669 ha area.
2.1.1.2 Distribution of Wetlands in India

The total estimated area of wetland over the Asian continent was recorded in a range of
211–224 million hectares (Watkins and Parish 1999). In India, it is estimated as 15 260 572 ha
(NWIA 2011; Panigrahy et al. 2012), which is about 4.63% of the total geographical area of
the country (NWIA 2011). Most of the natural wetlands in India are found at high altitudes
in the Himalayas, followed by wetlands of major rivers in their flood plains and coastal
wetlands (Prasad et al. 2002). These are distributed from the cold arid trans-Himalayan
zone to wet Terai regions of the Himalayan foothills, including the floodplains of the rivers
Ganga and Brahmaputra. In the Deccan peninsula, the river floodplains of Cauvery,
Krishna, Godavari, and Tapti contribute to different wetlands. The vast Indian coastline of
7500 km, contributes different types of wetlands in the state of West Bengal, Orissa, Andhra
Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Kerala, Karnataka, Gujrat, Lakshadweep, and Andaman and Nicobar
states (Figure 2.1). In addition, a large number of artificial wetlands also contribute to the
total estimated wetland area (Panigrahy et al. 2012).
A total of 115 wetlands were identified in different states of India, as “wetlands of
national importance” for conservation under the National Wetland Conservation Program
in 2009. Wetlands in India have been classified under different categories as shown in
Table 2.1 (NWIA 2011).
Currently, there are 37 wetlands of international importance in India that are designated
as Ramsar sites, covering 1 067 939 ha.
2.1.1.3 Distribution of Wetlands in Bihar

In Bihar, the total estimated area of wetlands is 403 209 ha (NWIA 2011), which is approxi-
mately 2.64% of the total wetland area of India. Wetlands in Bihar are locally called Chaur,
Maun, Taal, Jheel, and Pats. The natural inland wetlands dominate in Bihar, which com-
prises about 92% of the total estimated area of the wetlands of Bihar, while the artificial
area accounts for 3.5% and the small wetlands area of 1–2.5 ha accounts for 4.5%
(NWIA 2011).
As Bihar is a land-locked state from all sides in the Gangetic flood plain, limited catego-
ries of wetlands exist here (Figure 2.2). The district-wise wetland area in Bihar is shown in
Figure 2.3 (NWIA 2011).
The major rivers which contribute to different wetlands in Bihar are Ganga, Kosi,
Gandak, Bagmati, Mahananda, and Kamla-Balan (Ghosh et al. 2004). The three important
wetlands of Bihar, i.e. Kanwar, Barilla, and Kusheshwar Asthan were included in the list of
NWCP (2009).
Lakes/Ponds
Ox-bow lakes/ Cut-off meanders Lagoons
High altitude wetlands Creeks
Riverine wetlands Sand/Beach
Waterlogged Intertidal mud flats
River/Stream Salt marsh
Mangroves
Reservoirs/Barrages Coral reefs
Tanks/Ponds
Waterlogged Salt pans
Salt pans Aquaculture ponds
0 75 150 300 450 600

Kilometers
Figure 2.1 A map showing different types of wetlands in India. (Source: National Wetland
Atlas 2011, Space Application Centre, Indian Space Research Organization.)
Table 2.1 Category wise distribution of wetlands in India.
S. no Wetland category Total wetland area (ha) Wetland area (%)
1 Lake/pond 729 532 4.78

2 Oxbow lake 104 124 0.68
3 High altitude wetland 124 253 0.81
4 Riverine wetland 91 682 0.6
5 Waterlogged (natural) 315 091 2.06
6 River/stream 5 258 385 34.46
7 Reservoir/barrage 2 481 987 16.26
(Continued)
Table 2.1 (Continued)
S. no Wetland category Total wetland area (ha) Wetland area (%)
8 Tank/pond 1 310 443 8.59

9 Waterlogged (artificial) 135 704 0.89
10 Salt pan (inland) 13 698 0.09
11 Lagoon 246 044 1.61
12 Creek 206 698 1.35
13 Sand/beach 63 033 0.41
14 Intertidal mudflat 2 413 642 15.82
15 Salt Marsh 161 144 1.06
16 Mangrove 471 407 3.09
17 Coral reef 142 003 0.93
18 Salt pan (coastal) 148 913 0.98
19 Aquaculture pond 287 232 1.88
20 Wetlands (<2.25 ha) 555 557 3.64
Total 15 260 572 100
Source: National Wetland Atlas (2011), Space Application Centre (ISRO), Ahmedabad.
5%
2% 1% 4%
1%
4%
Lake/Pond
9%
Ox-bow lake
Riverine wetland
Water logged (Natural)
River/Stream
Reservoir/Barrage
Tank/Pond
74%
Wetlands (<2.25 ha)
Figure 2.2 Percentage of wetlands area under different categories in Bihar.
2.1.2 Significance of Wetlands

Wetlands are a highly productive ecosystem, providing many important benefits, which
can be described as “Goods and Services.”
Wetland Area (ha)
Figure 2.3
0
5000
10000
15000
20000
25000
30000
35000
Pashchim Champaran
Purbai Champaran
Sheohar
Sitamarhi
Madhubani
Supaul
Araria
Kishanganj
Purnia
Katihar
Madhepura
Saharsa
Darbhanga
Muzaffarpur
Gopalganj
Siwan
Saran
Vaishali
Samastipur
Begusarai
Khagaria
Districts of Bihar
Bhagalpur
Banka
Munger
Lakhisarai
Sheikhpura
Nalanda
Patna
Bhojpur
Buxar
Kaimur
Rohtas
Jehanabad
Aurangabad
Gaya
Nawada
Jamui
District-wise wetland area in Bihar. (Source: National Wetland Atlas 2011, Ministry of Environment and Forest, Government of India.)
2.1.2.1 Ecological Significance

The ecological importance of various wetlands toward biodiversity contribution is well
documented by different agencies. These areas provide suitable habitats for fish, micro-
and macro-flora and fauna, and act as a wintering ground for a variety of migratory and
residential birds (Gilver and Mclnnes 1994; Gopal and Chauhan 2006; Alongi 2009). In
addition, wetlands trap a large amount of carbon, silts, and various pollutants, and main-
tain the quality of water (Manson et al. 2005).
2.1.2.2 Hydrologic and Climatic Significance

Wetlands play an effective role in flood control by reducing sediment load, recharging aqui-
fers, and carbon sequestration (Carter 1986; Ford and Bedford 1987; Bullock 1992;
Hilman 1998). These areas also have a significant role in deciding local weather and topo-
graphic, edaphic, and hydrological variations (Kusler and Riexinger 1986; Bullock and
Acreman 2003).
2.1.2.3 Socio-Economic Significance

Apart from providing various ecosystem services, the wetland ecosystem is vital for socio-
economic development, as the majority of the human population is dependent on these
ecosystems for their livelihood. Wetlands are the sources of highly valued commercial prod-
ucts and fisheries, and they are the wintering grounds for a large number of avifauna and
some other wildlife species. In addition, different wetlands have significant historical and
cultural importance, which attracts visitors and provides revenue through eco-tourism.
2.1.3 Background of the Current Study

Wetlands have been the center-stage of research since 1971, after the first international
convention on wetlands, popularly called the Ramsar Convention. Different studies have
revealed that wetlands have a significant contribution to biodiversity, microbial biogeo-
chemistry, nutrient cycling, greenhouse gas emission, and safeguarding natural and
anthropogenic hazards (Dobermann et al. 1996; Craft and Casey 2000; Mathew et al. 2002;
Chandra et al. 2009; Tiner 2009; Prusty et al. 2010; Nasir and Harikumar 2011; Niraula 2012;
Mohan et al. 2013; Giri and Singh 2014; Singh and Jayakumar 2015).
Several studies have been conducted on the Kanwar wetland since it was notified as a
protected area in 1986 and the status of water quality, aquatic flora and fauna, and the
socio-economy of the dependent population were documented (Singh and
Roy 1989, 1990a, b, 1991a, b; Rakshi and Sanghi 1996). Later, the land use land cover
(LULC) dynamics, resource inventory and socio-economy, contamination status of water,
soil/sediments, and vegetation were estimated in different research studies (Ghosh
et al. 2004; Ambastha et al. 2007a, b; Roy et al. 2008; Shardendu et al. 2012; Anand and
Joshi 2013; Kumar 2013a; Singh and Jayakumar 2015, 2016, 2017; Singh et al. 2018). All
these studies were conducted to meet their specific objectives and indicated the degrading
status of the wetland. The total avifauna population visiting the site was reported to have
decreased by 56.63%, including 69.49% of migratory birds and 53.27% of residential birds in
2011, as compared with 2002. Approximately, 3961 ha (62.8%) of the notified land area of
the wildlife sanctuary is under dispute between the administration and the local popula-
tion. Only 2350 ha (37.2%) of the sanctuary area is undisputed as per the forest range officer
of Begusarai district. The wetland area supports the livelihoods of a large population, and
the increasing human population around this wetland and their encroachments have posed
serious challenges for both ecological diversity and quality of resources. These studies
have also indicated the degradation of wetland status and suggested an inclusive research
approach for the conservation and management of this wetland. In the past one and half
decades, the wetland has been under severe threat of degradation due to heavy siltation,
water shortage, invasive weeds, and anthropogenic encroachments including illegal land
acquisition, agriculture, bird trapping, cattle grazing, tree harvesting, waste dumping, and
the establishment of small-scale industries like a brick kiln in and around the sanctuary.
As it is one of the more remotely located wetlands of national importance, not only does
it support huge natural biodiversity, it also influences local hydrology, weather, and the
socio-economy of the inhabiting population. However, this wetland still only has a limited
number of scientific studies, which is an indication that it has not been given much atten-
tion by the scientific community for its proper monitoring and conservation. Therefore,
this work was conducted to identify the key factors that adversely affect the wetland, as
well as human health and the societal status of this area. This study is also aimed to find
solutions for the identified factors.
2.2 Materials and Method
2.2.1 Study Area

The study was carried out in Kanwar wetland (Figure 2.4), one of the largest inland
freshwater lakes in the Indo-Gangetic biogeographic zone. It was formed naturally by the
meandering of the Burhi Gandak River in the geologic past (Rodger and Panwar 1988a, b).
(a) (c)
SK 1
SK 2
SK 3
SK 5
SK 4
(b) SK 6
SK 7
SK 8
SK 9
SK 11 SK 10
SK 13
SK 12
SK 14
Figure 2.4 A map of (a) India, (b) Bihar, and (c) study area with sampling locations.
It was declared as a Wildlife Sanctuary in 1989 by the Ministry of Environment and

Forest, Government of India. Geographically, it is located between (25°35′00″ – 25°40′00″
N and 86°05′00″ – 86°10′00″ E) and covering an area of 6311 ha. It is classified as wet-
land type 19, because of the type of wetland habitat present, i.e. paddies (Scott 1989). It
is a flat terrain with an average elevation of 44 m above mean sea level. This area is
found in the tropical wet zone of India (Sarthi and Singh 2013), and temperature varies
in a range of 7–38 °C. It mainly experiences four distinct seasons of winter (December–
February), summer (March–May), monsoon (June–August), and post-monsoon
(September–November). The average annual rainfall is 1100 mm mainly received from
the southwest monsoon between July to September. It often gets recharged either from
rainwater or excess water from the river Burhi Gandak during the monsoon period. It
was identified as a lake of national importance and included in the National Wetland
Conservation Programme by the Ministry of Environment and Forest, Government of
India in 2009.
The wetland supports a large variety of micro- and macro-flora and fauna in and around
its boundary. The vegetation around the wetland area is characterized by tropical dry mixed
forest, tropical seasonal swamp forests, and wooded grasslands (Champion and Seth 1968).
The major tree species Peepal (Ficus religiosa), Indian Banyan (Ficus benghalensis), Cluster
fig (Ficus racemosa), White fig (Ficus infectoria), Babool (Acacia nilotica), Sissoo (Dalbergia
sissoo), Arjuna (Terminalia arjuna), and so on support the shoreline and raised mounds or
rahies. Common reed (Phragmites karka), water hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes), lotus
(Nelumbo nucifera), Hydrilla (Hydrilla verticillata), and Sesbania species are the most
prominent aquatic species of this wetland (Rakshi and Sanghi 1996).
The wetland is an important waterfowl habitat of different residential (107 species) and
migratory (59 species) birds (Ramakrishna et al. 2002). The white-rumped vulture (Gyps
bengalensis), the Indian vulture (Gyps indicus), the greater spotted eagle (Aquila clanga),
and the Sarus crane (Grus antigone) are the most threatened bird species in this lake
(Collar 2005). Different wild animals like blue bulls (Boselaphus tragocamelus), bats
(Chiroptera), squirrels (Sciuridae), and jackals are often visible in the late monsoon seasons
(Rakshi and Sanghi 1996).
More than 16 hamlets are situated around the wetland. These hamlets were less popu-
lated and mainly dominated by the local community during the late 1980s. They were com-
pletely dependent on the lake for fishing, bird capture, fuelwood, livestock grazing, and
wetland paddy cultivation for their livelihoods (Rodger and Panwar 1988a; Rakshi and
Sanghi 1996). Nowadays, the population has drastically increased because of the move-
ment of other communities. During the late monsoon season, when the water recedes, the
people cultivate different crops on the open areas of the wetland. The four crop seasons
are Kharif (August–November), Rabi (November–February), Aghani, and Garma (March–
May). Major crops such as paddy, sugarcane, wheat, maize, pulses, and different vegeta-
bles are commonly cultivated. In addition, a practice of double cropping pattern is
also common.
2.2.2 Data Collection

First, secondary data including toposheets from the Survey of India (SOI), Patna branch,
population data of 2001 and 2011 from the census report, the Government of India website,
and rainfall and temperature data from the European Centre for Medium-Range Weather
Forecasts were collected for this area.
The LULC change dynamics were estimated by using Landsat imageries and geographic
information system (GIS) software. The samples of water and soil/sediments were col-
lected from 14 different locations (Figure 2.4). The samples of aquatic species of flora and
fauna, and the cultivated vegetation species, especially crops, were also collected and esti-
mated for the general parameters and the content of specific contaminants, i.e. heavy met-
als, by following APHA procedures (APHA 2005). Further, the water quality index (WQI)
and the health risk index (HRI) was calculated by adopting standard procedures. For WQI,
the modified weighted arithmetic mean procedures were used (Shah and Joshi 2017; Singh
et al. 2020). The HRI was calculated by using the formula given by Khan et al. (2010).
Daily intake of metal DIM

Health risk index HRI
Oral referrence dose
Where,
C metal * Dfood intake

Daily intake of metal DIM
Average body weight
Further, with the help of toposheets, ten villages were identified in close vicinity of the
wetland, which were also documented in the Gazette of Bihar, while this wetland was
declared as a wildlife sanctuary. These villages are Manjhaul, Jaimangalpur, Jaimangalgarh,
Ekamba, Parora, Narayanpiper, Sakra, Rajaur, Kanausi, and Manikpur. A rapid survey was
conducted among these villages from June 2013 to August 2013 to understand the overall
wetland resource use pattern and its dynamics, to identify different resource user groups
(RUGs) and their dependency and socio-economic status, and the attitude for the conserva-
tion of this wetland. The objective-oriented questionnaire was prepared after the rapid sur-
vey, with a total of 47 key questions, which were open-ended (with options), closed-ended
(yes/no), and suggestive types. Later, an intensive survey was conducted through a specific
questionnaire among the identified RUGs in these villages from July 2015 to July 2017. A
total of 147 households were interviewed to gather information on various aspects. In addi-
tion, the local representatives of government agencies, leaders, social workers, and regular
visitors were also interviewed.
2.3 Results
2.3.1 Climatic Variation

The monthly average rainfall and temperature over the study area are shown in Figures 2.5
and 2.6, respectively. The average monthly rainfall was 107.25 mm in 2012, 128.44 mm in
2013, 92.61 mm in 2014, 102.16 mm in 2015, and 101.24 mm in 2016, while the average
monthly temperatures for the years 2013, 2014, 2015, and 2016 were 20.1, 20, 20.1, 20.6, and
20.94 °C, respectively.
2012 2013 2014 2015 2016
450
400
350
300
Rainfall (mm)
250
200
150
100
50
0
Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov
Winter Summer Moonsoon Post-mosoon
Figure 2.5 Monthly rainfall (mm) variations.
2012 2013 2014 2015 2016

30
25
20
Temperature
15
10
0
Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov
Winter Summer Moonsoon Post-mosoon
Figure 2.6 Monthly temperature variations.
2.3.2 Hydrological Variation

The hydrological regime of the wetland is highly variable throughout the year. Therefore, a
contour line map of water availability in different months, i.e. October, December, March,
Water Availability
Wetland Boundary
June
March
December
October
N
0 0.5 1 2 Kilometers
Figure 2.7 Contours lines based on water availability in different months in the Kanwar wetland
by using Landsat 8 data from 2014 to 2017 for October, December, March, and June.
and June during the study period was prepared and depicted in Figure 2.7. The average
water spread was recorded to the maximum extent in October. Later, it started decreasing
in December, followed by June, and the minimum water spread was in March. This is an
indication of un-uniform water availability and a pattern of siltation across the wetland. It
also clarifies that in the lower stretch of this wetland, the pattern of siltation is more fre-
quent, followed by the upper and middle stretches. The most frequent pattern of silt depo-
sition in the lower stretch could be due to its existence toward the outlet channel of the
wetland, which is not appropriately managed, and the runoffs from the whole catchment
are drained to this part.
2.3.3 Land Use Land Cover Change

The natural land cover in the wetland area was identified into four classes, i.e. waterlogged,
open/scrub, agriculture, and settlements. In this study, the change in the LULC pattern
under the classes was analyzed for the years 1988 and 2016, which is depicted in Figure 2.8.
In 1988, the maximum area (59.58%) of this wetland was covered with water, followed by
scrub/open (39.79%), agriculture (0.39%), and settlement (0.25%), but in 2016, waterlogged
and scrub/open area were reduced to 35.84 and 29%, respectively. The average rate of the
LULC pattern is shown in Table 2.2.
1500 1399.95
1988 2016
1200
934.94
Area (ha)
900
600
300
0 9.14
5.81
Water
Scrub/Open
Agriculture
Settelment
LULC class
Figure 2.8 Area under four land use land cover change class in 1988 and 2016.
Table 2.2 Land use land cover change analysis in the Kanwar wetland between 1988 and 2016.
LU/LC class Feb. 1988 Feb. 2016 Change % Change Yearly change (ha/year)
Water (ha) 1399.95 842.29 −557.66 −39.83 −19.92

Scrub/Open (ha) 934.94 681.67 −253.27 −27.09 −9.05
Agriculture (ha) 9.14 653.02 643.88 7044.64 22.99
Settlement (ha) 5.81 172.89 167.08 2875.73 5.97
Total area (ha) 2349.84 2349.87 – – –
2.3.4 Water Quality

The water samples were analyzed for 17 parameters and compared with standard permis-
sible limits. Some of the parameters with the previously reported values for the same wet-
land in this study are shown in Table 2.3.
Further, an overall WQI was calculated by adopting standard procedures proposed in
various studies (Tiwari and Mishra 1985; Dwivedi et al. 1997; Trivedi 2010; Shah and
Joshi 2017) and is shown in Figure 2.9. The overall WQI was recorded in the medium
Table 2.3 Water quality parameters of the Kanwar wetland.
Permissible
Parameters Current study limits Year 2002a
Year 2014 2015 2016 Average ± SD IS:2296b
pH 7.89 8.41 8.25 8.18 ± 0.26 6.5–8.5 7.83

EC (μS/cm) 126.32 290.93 323.93 247.06 ± 105.86 1000–2250 204.24
(Continued)
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back all these years—but, for a certain reason, it pleases me that you should
know now. To begin at the beginning: At the age of eighteen I was legally
and properly married, in the presence of relatives and friends, to Armand
Douste, an engineer in the French navy. Shortly after the wedding he was
sent on a voyage from Marseilles to Hong-Kong, where he stayed two
months. The boat on which he returned—the ill-fated Marie Antoinette—
went down off Aden with all hands on board. There were five survivors,
according to the newspapers, but Armand’s name was not amongst them;
and after many futile inquiries, I naturally concluded that my husband had
perished with the rest. The sudden bereavement was, of course, a great
shock; but I could not afford to allow sentiment to affect my appetite, and I
made as light of it as I possibly could. I stayed in Marseilles a few months
longer; but meanwhile my mother died; and my father having lost heavily
on the turf, I was obliged to consider some means of earning a livelihood.
Armand had left me with only his current salary to live upon, intending to
be back before the next quarter came due. I went to Paris, and adopted the
profession in which you found me. My good looks and my talents were my
sole stock-in-trade, so I was obliged to use them to the best of my ability.
Then I met you; and although I had loved Armand devotedly, I rather
admired your handsome face, and your quiet English ways. I was tired, too,
of my mode of living at that time, and, wishing for a change, accepted your
proposal of marriage. What happened then, you know. You were called
home on the day of the wedding; I was left in Paris to await your return.
Scarcely an hour after your departure, however, I was told that a gentleman
wished to see me. I went into the salon, and to my astonished
bewilderment, there stood my husband, Armand Douste! He seemed to me
like one risen from the dead; and indeed he looked nearer death than life.
He had been picked up by an English vessel bound for Singapore; where,
having landed, he lay too ill to be moved for nearly eight months. As soon
as he recovered, he worked his way back to Marseilles, and not being able
to discover me there, eventually traced me to Paris. There, by dint of
arduous perseverance, he found me, just married to another man!”
She paused to sip a fluid out of what looked like a medicine-glass. The
talking seemed to tire her, and frequently she put her hand to her side as if
in pain. Her interlocutor sat like one immovable. If what she were saying
were true, he was free—free! Oh the joy of that thought! But he could not
believe it—yet.
“Why did you not inform me immediately of what had occurred?” he
managed to articulate as she placed the glass on the table again, and
prepared to continue her story.
“Because, if I had done that, I should have had no further claim on you,”
she replied promptly. “And knowing that you were in prosperous
circumstances, I was obliged to make use of that knowledge. Armand had
scarcely a sou in the world; I had very little more. Money we were forced to
secure from somewhere, and you were our only hope.”
“But can’t you realize how cruel it was to have kept me in ignorance all
these years?” he pursued reproachfully. “I would willingly have done my
best for you and—your husband, if I had known the true facts of the case.”
“Ah, that is what you say now,” she rejoined dubiously. “I doubt if you
would have said so then. Well, to continue my story, Armand, never having
properly recovered from his illness, gradually grew weaker and died,
leaving me in very low water for a time. Then, luckily for me, I came across
an English lady, a Mrs. Hall. She was only a chance acquaintance, for I met
her in a circulating library where I happened to find a pocket-book she had
lost, but she took a liking to me at first sight. After having visited her
constantly, I went to stay with her for a time, and eventually she introduced
me to her friend, Lady Elstree, of Portland Place, London, who was in need
of a companion. Lady Elstree was one of those shrinking kind of women
who always seek refuge behind a stronger mind, and want even the most
trivial matters decided for them. Before I had been with her a month, I was
able to rule her whole household as though I were its legitimate mistress.
Her husband, Sir Richard, although not a doctor, dabbled in therapeutics
and hygiene, and spent most of his time in his laboratory, never troubling
much about how his wife amused herself. He paid her bills with automatic
regularity, and fortunately failed to notice that they almost doubled
themselves during my régime. Being so pleasantly situated, my old love for
the turf revived; and taking my advice, Lady Elstree backed certain horses
that I happened to fancy. Sometimes they won, more often they lost; but
when they did win, I retained five per cent. commission. Very soon I
became familiar with London life and the ways of English society.
Wherever I went, I was always introduced as Lady Elstree’s ‘friend,’ never
as her companion. One day I happened to pick up a society paper
containing an account of a reception I had attended. My name was included
in the list of guests, and I was described as the ‘beautiful and brilliant
Mdme. Douste.’ This fired my ambition, and I determined to become a
society leader—a second Corinne, or Mdme. Pompadour. Then Dr. Neville
Williams appeared upon the scene——”
“It is a wonder you did not seek some one in a higher position than a
mere body-healer,” interposed Herbert, with a touch of satire.
“Yes, I might have done so, it is true; but I was rather struck with Neville
Williams, although his disposition was the direct opposite of mine. He was
then at the zenith of his fame, too, having managed to cure a royal princess
by a special treatment of his own when all the highest physicians in the land
had failed. He could have been knighted for that, had he wished. I saw a
good deal of him, for he was a great friend of Sir Richard Elstree’s, and
came often to Portland Place. We were married at St. George’s, Hanover
Square—oh, you need not look sceptical; it was a bonâ fide marriage.
Percival’s brother-in-law, the Rev. J. W. Milnes, officiated, assisted by the
clergy of St. George’s.”
“And was your ambition realized?”
“Partially. Society was inclined to look askance at me first of all, but it
was not able to withstand me for long. I was a woman, I had a tongue, I
could talk. I had the knack of finding out whatever I wanted to know about
certain people too. They discovered by experience that it was unwise to
offend me. They called me a dangerous woman behind my back, but
conciliated me to my face. The only drawback to my happiness was that
Percival was comparatively poor, and although I managed to get long credit,
I was continually pressed for ready money.”
“I had often heard of Mrs. Neville Williams from the Milnes’ family,”
said the artist, musingly, “but of course I never dreamt of connecting her
with you. Geoffrey Milnes used to say—pardon my telling you—that her
extravagance, or rather yours, was the ruin of his uncle.”
She shrugged her shoulders. “It may have been so, but he should not
have married if he could not afford to keep me in proper style. He left me
almost penniless when he died, and the house in Harley Street was
mortgaged right up to its full value.”
“And how did you get on then?”
“Oh, the Duke of Wallingcourt—one of my greatest admirers—paid off
the mortgage and set me on my feet again. Then there was the property in
Surrey, which Percival had settled on me at the time of our marriage; that
fetched nearly fifteen hundred pounds. Afterwards I became engaged to the
duke, who, as you know, died a fortnight before the wedding was to have
taken place. That was hard luck, for as Duchess of Wallingcourt I should
have society at my feet.”
“Did it never occur to you to re-marry me after the death of either of
your husbands?” asked Karne, still inclined to be satirical; “or was I
altogether out of the running, as you would say?”
“I did think of it,” she answered equably. “But you lived in the country,
which was a disadvantage, for I could not possibly exist for any length of
time out of London or Paris. I heard also that you were very friendly with
Percival’s people, the Milnes; and I feared that if you were as straitlaced as
themselves, you would be too prim for me.”
Herbert could not resist a smile, but his countenance quickly resumed its
gravity. He rose from his seat and glanced out of the window. The fog had
almost melted away.
“So that is your story!” he said meditatively. “How am I to know that it
is true?”
“Do you doubt my word?” she asked with pique.
“Well, not exactly,” he replied hesitatingly. “But you must admit that
when I knew you, you did occasionally deviate from the truth.”
“Which means, in vulgar parlance, that I told lies,” she rejoined evenly.
“Thank you for the compliment. As it happens, however, I have told you the
exact truth. My reason for telling you was that I wish to settle up all my
affairs. I am shortly going away—a little further than my beloved Paris. In
plain words, Herbert, I am dying.”
The last statement was made so calmly that Karne thought he could not
have heard aright. He glanced at her in astonishment, almost dumbfounded
by the news.
Mrs. Neville Williams, with a swift movement, extinguished the lamp,
and pulling up the window-blinds allowed the daylight to flood the room.
Then she called the artist to her side.
“Now,” she exclaimed, turning her face towards him, “look at me!”
He looked, then gave an exclamation of horror. Could it be possible that
this was the handsome and brilliant woman of yesternight? Her cheeks were
haggard and drawn, the cheek-bones protruding with undue prominence;
her eyes were sunken, her complexion yellow. Already the hand of death
seemed to have set its seal upon her face. Yet only last night she had
appeared before him, magnificent and splendid. What had happened in one
short night to change her thus?
He turned aside, not knowing what to say. She sank on to a chair with a
mirthless laugh.
“A clever woman, am I not?” she said, with feigned cheerfulness.
“Clever to the last. You saw me last night, so you know how I looked. I
shall look just as well when I am dressed for dinner this evening; I have a
treasure of a maid, thank heaven. Any other woman afflicted with my
disease would allow herself to be treated as an invalid, would eschew
society, and go to bed. I have more pluck than that. And yet before the year
is out, I shall probably be dead. A truly cheerful prospect, is it not?”
Herbert felt himself grow cold. That she spoke the truth now, he could
not doubt; but it was positively gruesome to hear her talk like that.
“How long have you been so ill?” he asked, in a subdued voice. “Is there
no cure?”
“None,” she answered resignedly. “It is over two years since I first
contracted the complaint; but since last month I have rapidly grown worse.
My husband’s consulting physician, Sir Dighton Forbes, has made me
consent to undergo an operation on the 1st of December, although I do not
at all like the idea of being butchered to satisfy the doctors.”
“Perhaps it may cure you,” suggested Karne, optimistically. “You must
not lose hope.”
But Mrs. Neville Williams shook her head; she was convinced that she
was doomed.
“Why do you bother yourself about society—now?” he asked, after a
moment’s silence. “What is the use? If you really believe that your last days
have come, why not spend the time that remains to you in peace and
quietness?”
She gave a gesture of dissent.
“What you call peace and quietness would be misery to me. It would
give me too much time to think. I should go mad with thinking. Besides, I
am loth to leave the good things of this world. To wear magnificent jewels,
to be the best-dressed woman in the room, the cynosure of all eyes—it’s the
breath of life to me—the breath of life! When I can no longer shine in
society, I’ll die. I am not one of those devil-sick-was-he-devil-a-monk-
would-be kind of persons. I’ll die ‘game.’ But do not let us talk about it any
more; it is an unpleasant subject.”
Herbert rose and buttoned his overcoat. “I must be going,” he said. “But
there is one thing I wanted to say. Did it never occur to you, in all the years
of your silence, that I, too, might have my hopes and ambitions?”
“I wondered what you were doing,” she answered evasively. “If I had
met you sooner, I would have told you before. I have all but met you so
many times since Celia Franks made her début. By-the-by, Karne, take my
advice; look after your sister well. She has a lovely face—a face that will
turn men’s heads. If you want her to be happy—quietly happy in your own
way—take her off the boards.”
He looked at her in approval. “You are right,” he said, half surprised at
such counsel coming from her. “Celia only went on the stage in deference
to Guy Haviland’s wishes. She has promised me that, however great her
success, she will accept no further theatrical engagements. Do you feel ill?”
he added suddenly, as she pressed her hands against her forehead. “I am
afraid I have tired you with so much talking.”
“It is the pain,” she explained, when the spasm had passed. “It comes
and goes. Last night I thought I should have had to leave the theatre. I shall
lie down this afternoon. You will come and see me again?”
“I am going back to Durlston at the end of the week,” he replied, holding
out his hand. “But I will try to come again before I go.”
Then, after an expression of sympathy, he left; and, taking his place in
the elevator, descended into the damp atmosphere of the streets once more.
The fog had lifted; and it seemed to Herbert that a weight had been lifted
off his heart at the same time. He felt happier than he had done for months,
although as yet he could barely digest and realize all that he had heard. Of
one thing he was certain, however, that he was free—free to marry his
beloved. This thought superseded all the rest.
He was free!
CHAPTER XVI
THE DARKNESS DEEPENS AROUND NINETTE
The first thing Herbert Karne did, when he had thought over matters
calmly, was to go to St. George’s Church, and with the assistance of the
verger, look over the marriage register; where, to his satisfaction, he found
the names of Percival Arthur Neville Williams, bachelor, and Marie Douste,
widow, correctly inscribed. It was not exactly that he doubted Ninette’s
word—she would always be “Ninette” to him—but he wished to settle the
question of his freedom beyond the shadow of a doubt before informing
Lady Marjorie Stonor of what had occurred. He also wrote to Harry
Barnard, the friend who had been in his secret from the first, asking him, as
he happened to be in Paris, to scour the cemeteries at Montmartre and Père
Lachaise for the grave of Armand Douste. The same post also carried a
letter to the curé of the church of S. Vincent de Paul, Marseilles, where
Herbert was under the impression the marriage of Douste and Ninette had
taken place; but not knowing the priest’s name or address, he had not much
hope of eliciting a reply to this epistle.
Celia noticed the change in her brother’s manner at once, for it was
strikingly evident in the brightness of his eyes, the briskness in his voice,
the alertness of his step. He seemed like a man suddenly endowed with a
new aim in life; his depression had vanished as at the touch of a magic
wand.
She asked him the reason, but he did not see fit to tell her just then,
promising she should know within a month. Her curiosity was whetted,
however, and although she did not usually endeavour to obtain information
that was not spontaneously vouchsafed, she was very anxious to know, in
this case, at once. So she set herself the task of cross-questioning him,
making fantastic guesses as to the cause of his jubilance.
“Perhaps it has something to do with Lady Marjorie?” she finally
suggested.
“Perhaps,” he returned laconically, with a face as inexpressive as a mask.
“I am surprised at your looking so happy about it, then,” the girl
continued, “considering that she is so ill.”
“Ill!” exclaimed Herbert blankly. “Who said she was ill?”
“Lord Bexley. He had a letter from her friend yesterday. Lady Marjorie
recently took it into her head to go slumming, and on one of her expeditions
managed to catch the malarial fever. Fortunately it is only a mild attack;
but, according to her friend’s account she is very poorly and depressed. I
should love to pay her a surprise visit, just for the sake of cheering her up.”
“Yes, so should I,” rejoined her brother fervently; and then on a sudden
impulse he told Celia his story.
It took a long time to tell, but he was glad, after all, that she should
know. It was a relief to be able to talk over his secret with a fellow-creature,
and Celia was intensely sympathetic. Her astonishment was unbounded
when she discovered that it was Mrs. Neville Williams of all persons who
had been, at one time, her brother’s pseudo-wife. She felt half inclined to
say hard things about her at first, but her resentment was soon abolished
when Herbert informed her of Mrs. Williams’ serious condition. It is
impossible to cherish harsh thoughts against the sick or dying.
Mrs. Neville Williams, however, looked neither sick nor dying when
they happened to meet her at a fashionable restaurant on the following
evening. The way she managed to get herself up was nothing less than
remarkable. Enveloped in a long and loose theatre-cloak of silk trimmed
with ermine, she carried herself more firmly erect than any other woman in
the room. Sparkling eyes, crimson lips, and a complexion like a rose; no
wonder she was able to vouch for the excellence of her French maid! It was,
as it happened, almost her last appearance in society. A week later she was
confined to her room; even her indomitable energy being powerless to resist
the oncoming of the dark and mighty foe.
Herbert Karne, in fulfilment of his promise, went to see her the day
before he returned to Durlston, but she was unable to receive him, and he
knew that he would in all probability never meet her again.
When he arrived back at St. John’s Wood, he found a letter awaiting him.
It was from Harry Barnard, stating that by consulting the books at the
cemetery of Père Lachaise, he had easily found the grave of Armand
Douste. There was no doubt, therefore, as to the authenticity of his death,
and the date of his decease. Herbert was relieved at the news, although,
under the circumstances, it scarcely mattered. Ninette was dying, so that in
either case he would soon have been loosed from his bond.
He wrote a long letter to Lady Marjorie, detailing all that had happened,
and asking her to come back to England as soon as she was well enough to
travel. At the same time, he sought out Lord Bexley, in order to inform him
of his matrimonial intentions, for Bexley was shortly going to join his sister
in Rome. This accomplished, he went back to Durlston to finish his
paintings, and to await the return of his bride.
Meanwhile, the “Voice of the Charmer” was playing to crowded houses
nightly, and it looked as if the piece would enjoy a long run. Celia secretly
hoped that such would not be the case, for the late hours and constant
excitement were already beginning to tell on her health. She was all right at
night, and braced herself up to do her best; but each morning she
experienced a dull feeling of weariness, accompanied by a most distressing
headache. The Havilands used all their powers of persuasion to induce her
to rest until midday; but she flatly refused to sleep away what she called
“the golden hours.” The stage, too, was beginning to lose that glamour with
which she had endowed it when her only point of vantage had been from
the stalls. She was glad that her brother had made her promise to confine
her abilities to the concert platform when her present engagement expired.
She felt that she would care very little if she were forbidden to ever enter a
theatre again.
One Wednesday morning, she attired herself in her prettiest outdoor
costume, and sallied forth to witness the marriage of David Salmon and
Dinah Friedberg. Although she ran the risk of being pointed out as the
bridegroom’s “cast-off” fiancée, Celia made a point of being present at the
ceremony, just to show her goodwill towards the happy pair. Her
appearance certainly excited considerable attention, almost detracting from
that due to the bride.
The synagogue presented a festive appearance, the space before the Ark
being adorned with palms and choice white chrysanthemums, which
contrasted prettily with the crimson velvet of the wedding-canopy. Dinah,
with her curly hair and bright eyes, made a very charming bride. She
appeared to be not a whit subdued by the solemnity of the occasion; and
when the Chief Rabbi uttered his excellent words of admonition and advice,
looked up at him as much as to say that she did not need to be instructed on
how best to tread the path of conjugal felicity.
Her lover, in marked contrast, was nervous in the extreme. He trod on
her train, almost dropped the ring, and performed the ceremonial breaking
of the glass in the clumsiest way possible. Then, to add insult to injury, he
had the audacity to declare—whilst the bride was signing the register—that
he would be able to manage it better next time!
Celia, leaving her seat after the ceremony was over, mingled with the
wedding-party, and joined in the general buzz of congratulation. Mrs.
Friedberg, all smiles, with a conspicuous lace handkerchief in readiness to
catch the tears of joy, kissed promiscuously all round—Celia receiving this
mark of affection in the neighbourhood of the left ear. The Brookes were
there, expressing their interest in the quaint Jewish ritual; and so was Mrs.
Leopold Cohen—now a widow—who, despite her avowed disappointment
at Celia’s secession from Judaism, greeted the girl with unaffected warmth,
and invited her home to early dinner. Celia was unable to accept the
invitation; but she appreciated it nevertheless, and readily promised to avail
herself of it one morning in the following week.
Then, having shaken hands with the Friedberg family and some of their
numerous friends, she took her departure, wondering if she would have
looked as happy as Dinah, had she—instead of her friend—stood beside
Salmon as his bride.
After lunch she went out again, this time to Kensington. She had
promised Herbert to go and see Ninette, but for some unaccountable reason
had hitherto shrunk from paying the visit. Now, however, her conscience
pricked her for having delayed so long; so, taking some music, and a bunch
of the brightest flowers obtainable, she went.
Mrs. Neville Williams was feeling a little better that afternoon; and, clad
in a loose wrapper, lay on the sofa in her pretty drawing-room. She was not
prepared to entertain, and on account of the haggardness of her natural
complexion, refused to see any one who called; but Celia Franks was an
exception, and she hailed her appearance with delight.
“How good of you to come,” she said effusively, inhaling the fragrant
perfume of the flowers. “I thought you had a Wednesday matinée. No?
Well, take off your things and make yourself cosy; but for heaven’s sake
don’t look at me, child. I am as yellow as a guinea to-day.”
Celia loosened her fur, and drew off her gloves. She could not help
looking, for the woman before her seemed to her a positive wreck. She
made no remark, however; and Mrs. Neville Williams plunged into a
conversation, chiefly society gossip, which showed that, however ill she
might be, the joie de vivre was not yet extinguished within her breast.
“So your brother is going to marry that little Stonor woman,” she
remarked, apropos of the mention of the artist’s name. “Bexley told me the
last time I saw him. I should scarcely have thought he would have chosen a
milk-and-watery creature like Lady Marjorie.”
“Why do you call her ‘milk-and-watery’?” said Celia reproachfully, “She
is quite one of the sweetest women I know.”
“Yes, of course; but that is what I complain of—she’s too sweet. She
looks as if she couldn’t say ‘bo!’ to a goose. And then her clothes, my dear!
Why, she actually wore the same frock two seasons in succession! Did you
ever hear of such a monstrous thing?”
“It was a crime, certainly,” the girl admitted with light satire; but the
incipient and frivolous vanity of the woman almost shocked her.
“Do you think Herbert would mind deferring his marriage until after I
have shuffled off this mortal coil?” went on Ninette complacently. “I don’t
like the idea of Lady Marjorie crowing over me on her wedding-day. She
never liked me, I know; and she will flatter herself that she has scored a
triumph over me. I would much rather be out of the way first, so that she
will be denied that satisfaction.”
Celia shivered. “Oh, Mrs. Williams, I don’t like to hear you talk like
that,” she said. “I am sure Lady Marjorie is too nice to do anything of the
sort. Besides, you may get better: I sincerely hope you will.”
“That is not likely,” rejoined Ninette, with a sigh, “although I am
certainly a little more hopeful to-day. My nephew is coming over from
Australia to assist at the operation, and I have great confidence in him.”
Celia pricked up her ears. “Dr. Milnes?” she queried, the colour rising to
her cheeks.
“Yes. Oh, you know him, of course: I had forgotten. I received a letter
from him this morning, in which he says he will arrive in England a week
after I receive it. You can read it, if you like.”
She stretched out her hand for the missive, and passed it over to the girl,
who devoured the contents with avidity.
“Dear Aunt” (it ran)—
“Sir Dighton Forbes has cabled me concerning your illness, the news of
which I was very sorry to receive. I hope to leave here next week if Miss
Thornton is able to travel at that time, and should arrive at Tilbury about a
week or ten days after this letter reaches you. My specialty is consumption,
not cancer, but of course I shall do my utmost for you. Hoping to find you
no worse than you are at present—
Sincerely yours,
G. H. Milnes.”
Miss Thornton again! Celia’s heart sank. She would not have confessed
it, but she had taken a positive dislike to the name. She handed the letter
back in silence, her face becoming thoughtful as she tried to imagine what
Miss Thornton would be like.
Mrs. Williams continued to gossip, scarcely waiting for the girl to reply;
but suddenly her mood changed as she received the well-known signal of
coming pain. She glanced at Celia, drinking in the freshness of the girl’s
striking beauty, and inwardly she raged. What would she not give to be
young again? To feel the warm blood coursing through her veins; to
experience that exuberance which is the natural attribute of youth; to be
fresh and healthy and strong; able to expend all the forces of activity
without fearing the dearth of a fresh supply! At that moment she could
almost have written an elegy on her dead-and-gone youth.
“Celia!” she burst out suddenly, “I envy you; I’m jealous of you, child.
You have all your life before you; you are only on the threshold as yet. Oh,
the joy, the power that is yours! For years to come you—in all probability—
will be living, and moving and speaking; eating, and drinking, and enjoying
yourself; playing your part in the comedy of life; bringing men to your feet
by the charm of your face and voice: whilst all the time I—who possess
such zest for life—shall lay cold and silent, crumbling away into dust. Oh,
what a horrible, hateful thing is death!”
Celia scarcely knew how to reply. With the tears springing to her eyes,
she knelt by the side of the couch, and gazed earnestly into Ninette’s drawn
and weary face.
“Why do you envy me my youth?” she said at length, in a suppressed
voice. “Have not you, too, been young? Oh, I know how hard it must be to
feel that before very long you must leave this bright world, and the sunshine
and the flowers; but, if only you had faith in the future life, you would give
no thought to your poor body crumbling in the dust: you would think only
of the deathless soul-world, so much fairer than this earth. Surely you
cannot have been so enamoured of the joys of what you call the comedy of
life as to wish to cling to them for ever? I enjoy life, too, and I am young;
but I already know that those joys are not to be depended upon; they are apt
to disclose their hollowness, and to cloy. Everything changes so. People
change, circumstances change, even we ourselves change; only God and
Nature and Love are immutable. It seems to me that we can only be truly
happy by allotting to our present, material joys, their due proportion—so
infinitesimally small—in the great scheme of the whole life eternal. Then
we shall no longer regret our past delights, and death will only be to us the
mere shedding of our mortal chrysalis. Oh, I wish I could explain more
clearly what I mean! I wish, with all my heart, that I could make you feel as
I do about these things!”
Mrs. Neville Williams patted the girl’s cheek almost tenderly, although
she could not quite make out what she meant.
“I am too prosaic and matter-of-fact,” she replied, with a sigh. “I am not
spirituelle, like you. You have your brother’s dreamy and philosophical
temperament, child. I wonder if you will hold the same opinions when you
arrive at my age. It is so easy to breathe defiance at death when one is
young and strong. But enough of this. I see you have brought some music.
Sing to me, Celia: something sweet and soothing to frighten the bogey
away.”
With ready obedience the girl rose, and, taking up her music-case,
unfastened it. She had brought three songs with her: the “Snake-song,” from
the “Voice of the Charmer,” a light French chanson of Massenet’s; and
Stephen Liddle’s beautiful setting of Lyte’s “Abide with me.” After a
moment’s thought she unfolded the latter; and opening the top of the piano,
placed it on the music-stand.
“This is really a contralto song,” she explained, settling herself on the
music-stool. “I have only heard one woman sing it to perfection, and that is
Madame Clara Butt. However, I’ll do my best.” And then, striking the
preliminary chords, so melodious and deep, she began.
With half-closed eyes Mrs. Neville Williams listened. The plaintive
sweetness of the melody pleased her, as did the particularly rich timbre of
Celia’s voice. What a splendid thing it was to be able to sing so perfectly,
she thought! Then, when the second verse was reached, she found herself
realizing the tenor of the words—
“Swift to its close ebbs out life’s little day,
Earth’s joys grow dim, its glories pass away;
Change and decay in all around I see—
Thou who changest not, abide with me.”
Here was more philosophy—or what she chose to term philosophy. She
tried to listen to the melody only, ignoring the words; but presently the
music increased its tempo, gaining in intensity; and Celia’s enunciation was
so clear that even against her will the words impressed themselves upon her
consciousness—
“I fear no foe with Thee at hand to bless,

Ills have no weight, and tears no bitterness.
Where is death’s sting, where, Grave, thy victory?
I triumph still if Thou abide with me.”
Then, so softly that she almost held her breath to listen, came the last
verse—
“Hold Thou Thy cross before my closing eyes,

Shine through the gloom, and point me to the skies.
Heaven’s morning breaks, and earth’s vain shadows flee—
In life, in death, O Lord, abide with me!”
There was silence while Celia put the music away; and then Mrs. Neville
Williams spoke.
“That is a fine song, and you sing it well,” she remarked, feeling that she
was expected to say something. “But it seemed, somehow, to mock me. I
am out of sympathy with the words. Won’t you sing something catchy and
bright? I want cheering up, for I feel almost as heavy as lead.”
Celia glanced at her in pity; but without a word, sat down at the piano
again, and playing a short prelude, dashed off into a gay little drinking song
she had learnt in Paris. This was more to Ninette’s taste, and her eyes
brightened visibly as she rapped a tattoo on the chair in time to the vigorous
refrain. She had been of a frivolous disposition all her life; she considered
serious people and serious things a “bore;” her motto had ever been “vive la
bagatelle:” it was surely too late to change now.
“Come and see me again,” she said, when Celia prepared to take her
leave. “I know you don’t mind my looking like a scare-crow. You won’t tell
any of my friends of my wretched appearance, though, will you?”
Celia promised faithfully not to divulge, and then, as she fastened the
last button of her glove, she said wistfully—
“Wouldn’t you like to see a clergyman, Mrs. Williams?”
“No thank you, child, I would rather not. He could do me no good, and
would probably make me feel uncomfortable: say that my illness was a
judgment for my sins, or something equally horrid.”
“Oh, I don’t think he would,” the girl rejoined diffidently. “Besides, even
if he did make you feel uncomfortable at first, he would not leave you
without telling you the ‘comfortable words,’ and making you happy in the
knowledge of them, you know.”
But Mrs. Neville Williams would not be persuaded, and with a look of
seriousness on her expressive face, Celia left.
“Mrs. Williams seems better to-day, does she not?” she said to the maid
who was in attendance at the halldoor. “What did Sir Dighton Forbes say
when he called this morning?”
“He didn’t say nothing, miss, except that he is sending an ’orspital nurse
to-morrow, and she is to stay over the operation. But we haven’t much
hope, miss. The picture of the mistress that hangs in her bedroom tumbled
down and smashed last night; and that’s a bad sign as I know for a fact; for
when my young man’s mother took ill and died of the influenza—which
will be two years come Christmas—her photograph, as was a hornament to
the parlour, fell off the mantelshelf and——”
But the remaining words of the sentence were lost; for the elevator
arrived; and with a hurried apology, Celia descended.
CHAPTER XVII
BOTH SIDES OF THE CURTAIN
The orchestra had just struck up the overture to the “Voice of the Charmer,”
when two young men entered the auditorium and took their places in the
stalls. Their faces contrasted strongly with their immaculate shirt-fronts, for
they were bronzed, even weather-beaten; and their general appearance gave
one the impression that they had recently returned from some distant clime.
The one clean-shaven and square-shouldered, was Dr. Geoffrey Milnes; the
other—shorter and of slighter build—Dick Stannard, the squire’s son. These
two, although they had not seen much of each other when at home, had
become fast friends out in Australia. Stannard was rollicking and bright,
with a fresh breezy manner which acted as a kind of tonic on Geoffrey’s
more serious disposition. He had taken a fancy to Milnes, and their mutual
home-connections served to form a link between them. When the young
doctor had been utterly disheartened by the absolute failure of his research
in connection with tuberculosis, it was Stannard who saved him from
morbidly dwelling on his defeat, and insisted on his taking an active part in
the social life of Sydney. He took upon himself the part of mentor, and ruled
Geoffrey with a rod of iron; not, however, that the advice he gave was in
any way severe. His deep conviction was that it was the duty of every one
to endeavour to obtain the maximum of enjoyment with the minimum of
discomfort; and although he could not quite convert his friend to his way of
thinking, he did succeed in capturing his medical tomes and papers, thus
bringing his work to an abrupt standstill. Geoffrey scarcely appreciated his
attention, and on the voyage home had threatened to duck him more than
once, but he certainly felt more “fit” since he had been obliged to give his
brains a rest.
“I say, Milnes, I’m awfully curious to see her,” Dick said, when he had
devoured the contents of his programme. “The last recollection I have of
her was at our Christmas party in Durlston, when she had very long hair and
very short skirts, and stood on a hassock to recite ‘The Spider and the Fly.’ I
suppose she has altered a good deal since then. I wonder if it is true that she
is engaged to Lady Marjorie Stonor’s brother?”
“Can’t tell you, I’m sure,” Dr. Geoff rejoined with a frown; and then the
lights were lowered and the curtain rose.
They both had neither eyes nor ears for any one but Mallida. Before she
came on, the play lagged and filled them with impatience, but at her entry
all was changed. Geoffrey felt thrilled to the core, as, at the sound of her
well-remembered voice, he craned his head to catch the first glimpse of her
sweet face and snowy draperies. Then a strong feeling of indignation took
possession of him as he realized that, for the mere price of a seat, any
fellow could avail himself of the privilege of basking in the sunshine of her
smile, and drinking in the richness of her voice. And although he enjoyed
the play and admired Celia’s acting, he hated to see her upon the stage,
hated to think that for three hours every evening she belonged absolutely to
the public; that her smiles and tears were alike artificial, mechanically
assumed for their benefit. It seemed to him little less than desecration of the
gifts with which she had been so liberally endowed.
Dick Stannard was wildly enthusiastic, and at the end of the first act,
declared his intention of going behind. Geoffrey, for some inexplicable
reason of his own, refused to accompany him, so, having thought out a few
particularly flowery compliments to offer, he went alone. A few minutes
later, however, he returned with an obvious expression of disappointment
on his rugged face; and flinging himself on to the seat, uttered the inelegant
but forcible expression of “Rot!”
“My dear boy!” expostulated Geoffrey. “Have you forgotten that you are
in decent company for once?”
“No; but it is rot all the same,” returned Stannard, indignantly. “The
fellow, whoever he might be, absolutely refused to take in my card. Said
Miss Franks saw nobody at the theatre, not even her most intimate friends,
and that I might possibly be able to see her by appointment at Mr. and Mrs.
Haviland’s house in Acacia Road. I told him that I had just arrived from
Australia, and was going on to the North to-morrow morning, but it made
no difference. He said he had his orders which he was bound to obey, and as
he wasn’t the sort of man to take a tip, all I could do was to turn to the right
about and come away.”
“Which you did with a very bad grace, I am sure,” rejoined the doctor,
with a smile. “Moral, don’t attempt to pry where you are not wanted.”
“It’s utter rot!” reiterated Stannard, emphatically. “What would it hurt if
I just went and wished her good evening?”
But Geoffrey was secretly glad that the rules were so stringent, for they
must save Celia the annoyance of interviewing many an undesirable visitor,
he thought.
Meanwhile, behind the scenes, Celia was dressing for the second act.
She would not have been so calm and collected, perhaps, had she known
who was in the stalls. Her dresser was relating some of her humorous and
varied experiences as she dexterously braided the girl’s long hair: and Celia,
engaged in spoiling her complexion with grease-paint and powder, listened
with genuine amusement. Mrs. Jackson had been chief dresser to Mrs.
Potter Wemyss at one time, and was very proud of the fact. Many were the
tales she had to tell of the great actress’s kindly words and deeds. “Mrs.
Potter Wemyss used to say,” was her favourite mode of beginning a
sentence; and “just like Mrs. Potter Wemyss” her ideal of perfection. Had
Celia not known the lady in question, she would probably have grown tired
of her name, but being a personal friend, her interest never flagged.
“You are ready early to-night, miss,” she said, as she put the finishing
touches to Celia’s toilette. “It is a pity Mr. Haviland won’t let you see
anybody. It would help to pass away the time. There’s that little Mr.
Smiffkins always a-hanging round the stage door—the one who wears the
overcoat with the tremendous fur collar and cuffs. He offered me a
sovereign if I could get him an interview with you.”
“Did he really? What a waste of money!” was Celia’s comment.
“It’s rather a shame, though, miss, that Mr. Haviland is so strict. Why,
you could have this room crammed full of flowers every show if he would
let Jones take them in, not to mention boxes of chocolates and all manner of
nice things. I don’t think as it’s right to deny an actress her perks. I should
kick agen it if I was you, miss, that I would.”
“But how could I possibly accept presents from people I don’t even
know?” said the girl with wide-open eyes. “Surely Mrs. Potter Wemyss
never did!”
“Oh well, Mrs. Potter Wemyss is Mrs. Potter Wemyss. She’s got a great
strapping husband six foot one in his stocking-feet, and they do say as he
knows how to strike out with his fists. It wouldn’t do for young men to be
sending her flowers and billydoos. But you are quite another matter, miss,
you are ‘free and unfettered,’ as it says in the play.”
Celia smilingly shook her head, and rising, surveyed herself in the long
pier-glass. It was certainly a picturesque figure which met her gaze. Her
dress with its long train of bejewelled cloth, fell in stately folds around her
form, glittering and scintillating with every fresh ray of light. A silver belt
of cunningly chased design adorned her waist, whilst her peculiar head-
dress—a quaint kind of cap—set off to the best advantage the rich colouring
of her hair.
As she turned away, satisfied with the result of her dresser’s labours, she
heard a foot-fall in the stone passage. Then, without knocking, and in
evident agitation, Grace Haviland stumbled into the room. She was
breathless and excited, and dropped on to a chair with an air of exhaustion.
Clutched in her grasp were two of the evening papers and an unopened
telegram. Instantly Celia divined that something had happened.
“What is it, Grace?” she asked, with apprehension. “Is anything wrong?”
Miss Haviland nodded, but for the moment was unable to speak.
“This telegram came directly you were gone,” she panted, as soon as she
had recovered her breath. “I wouldn’t have troubled about it, only there was
something in the evening paper which told me it was of importance. I
thought you ought to know at once, so that’s why I’ve rushed here. I have
not seen Guy yet: I think he is with Mr. Calhoun at the wings. Perhaps they
will be angry when they know I’ve told you, but I thought it cruel not to let
you know.”
Celia took the telegram, and tore it open. Then she uttered a little cry.
“Mr. Karne met with a serious accident. Come at once.—Higgins.”
And then she caught sight of the head-line of the newspaper column,
“Attempted murder of Herbert Karne, R.A.;” and underneath, in smaller
type, “The assailant a raving madman.”
For the moment she thought she must surely be the victim of nightmare.
She rubbed her eyes, as though expecting her surroundings to float away
and to find herself in her bedroom at Acacia Road. But, unfortunately, it
was no nightmare; it was stern reality. There, unmistakably, was the
dressing-room with her stage-dresses hung upon the walls, and all her
stage-belongings strewn round the room. There also, was the dresser,
looking startled and bewildered as she stood with her arms akimbo, and
Grace Haviland, pale and agitated, hating to be the bearer of such bad news.
And worst of all, there were the horrible words staring her in the face:
Attempted murder.
Suddenly the electric bell announcing the ring-up of the curtain
resounded through the building. The sound recalled Celia to the present
exigence, and with a shudder she leant against the table.
“I can’t go on acting, now: it’s impossible,” she said, tremulously; “quite
impossible. Mrs. Jackson, go and find Miss Graham; she must be in the
theatre somewhere; tell her she must get ready at once to take my part. Tell
Mr. Calhoun and Mr. Haviland that I’ve had bad news, and have to go to
Durlston immediately; and ask them to drag out the stage business as much
as they can. We’ve about twenty minutes’ grace: oh, do be quick!”
The dresser flew to obey her behest, and with nervous haste Celia began
unbuckling her belt. But her fingers had suddenly lost their power, and she
fumbled at the clasp in vain. The hooks of her bodice, too, seemed as if they
were never intended to unfasten. Before she could succeed in getting out of
her costume, the stage-manager and Haviland appeared.
Ernest Calhoun was one of those men who are able to retain their
presence of mind under the most untoward circumstances; and while
Haviland stood excitedly haranguing his sister for having brought the bad
news in the midst of the performance, he himself remained serene and
unruffled to the last degree.
“It is most unfortunate,” he remarked calmly; “and I deeply sympathize
with you, Miss Franks; but I ask you candidly, what are we to do? If you
refuse to go on with your part, the performance will have to be stopped,
which, as you know, would entail a vast amount of inconvenience and
expense.”
“But where is the understudy?” put in Grace with eagerness.
“Miss Graham has the evening off to-night,” answered Haviland, crossly.
“I wish you would learn not to interfere with what does not concern you,
Grace. I shall not forget this upset for a long time to come.”
Calhoun waved his hand. “Hush!” he commanded. “We must not waste
time. Miss Franks, I appeal to you. Will you pull yourself together and try
to carry the thing through?”
The girl shrank back in despair. “Oh, I can’t—I can’t!” she said, in a
tense voice. “How can you expect it? My brother is seriously ill, perhaps

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Pollutants and Water Management :

Resources, Strategies and Scarcity 1st

Resources, Strategies and Scarcity

Vipin Kumar Singh

Limit of Liability/Disclaimer of Warranty

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data is applied for

Cover Design: Wiley

Set in 9.5/12.5pt STIXTwoText by SPi Global, Pondicherry, India

List of Contributors vii

Part I Water Pollution and Its Security 1

1 Water Security and Human Health in Relation to Climate Change: An Indian

2 Assessment of Anthropogenic Pressure and Population Attitude for the Conservation

3 Grossly Polluting Industries and Their Effect on Water Resources in India 47

Part II Phytoremediation of Water Pollution 67

4 Phytoremediation: Status and Outlook 69

5 Phytoremediation of Heavy Metals from the Biosphere Perspective and

6 Phytoremediation for Heavy Metal Removal: Technological Advancements 128

Part III Microbial Remediation of Water Pollution 151

7 Advances in Biological Techniques for Remediation of Heavy Metals Leached

8 Microbial Degradation of Organic Contaminants in Water Bodies: Technological

9 The Fate of Organic Pollutants and Their Microbial Degradation

Part IV Removal of Water Pollutants by Nanotechnology 241

10 Detection and Removal of Heavy Metals from Wastewater Using

11 Spinel Ferrite Magnetic Nanoparticles: An Alternative for Wastewater

12 Biocompatible Cellulose-Based Sorbents for Potential Application

Part V Advances in Remediation of Water Pollution 327

13 Advances in Membrane Technology Used in the Wastewater

14 Occurrence, Fate, and Remediation of Arsenic 349

15 Physical and Chemical Methods for Heavy Metal Removal 377

Part VI Policy Dimensions on Water Security 399

16 The Role of Government and the Public in Water Resource

Saami Ahmed Ankita Gupta

Zeenat Arif R.N. Jadejaa

Sunil Dhar Mahima Kaushik

Kajol Goria Richa Kothari

Agam Kumar Virendra Kumar Mishra

Kavita Kumari Sanjeet Kumar Paswan

Avinash K. Kushwaha Deepak Pathania

Krishna Rawat Anubhuti Singh

Prafulla Kumar Sahoo Gurudatta Singh

Naresh K. Sethy Ram Kishore Singh

Vhatkar Shashikant Shivaji Sukhendra Singh

Reetika Shukla Rupika Sinha

Shashank Tripathi Jitesh Narottam Vyas

Water Pollution and Its Security

Water Security and Human Health in Relation to Climate Change

The capacity of a population to maintain sustainable access to sufficient quantities of accept-

1.2 ­Quantity of Available Water Resources in India

Table 1.1 Annual surface water availability of India.

Annual surface water availability

Source: Govt. of India (2009).

Table 1.2 Overview of surface water potential of Indian rivers.

Catchment Average water resources Utilizable surface

1 Indus (up to border) 321 289 73.31 46

Table 1.2 (Continued)

Catchment Average water resources Utilizable surface

8 Mahanadi 141 589 66.88 50

Source: Central Water Commission, http://cwc.gov.in/water-info.

Table 1.3 Groundwater resources assessment from 2004–2017.

Annual replenishable Net annual Annual groundwater draft Stage of

2004 433 399 231 58%

Source: CGWB (2017).

1.3 ­Quality of Available Water Resources in India

1.2 Quantity of Available Water Resources in India

1.3 Quality of Available Water Resources in India

1.4 The Impact of Climate Change on the Quantity

1.5 Impact of Climate Change on the Quality

1.6 The Health Perspective in Association with Water

1.7 Major Challenges to Water Security

1.8 Government Initiatives to Ensure Water Security

1.9 Managing Water Resources Under Climate Change

1.10 Conclusion and Recommendations

2.2 Materials and Method