Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Erinn Brooks
Education Reform in the Twenty-First Century
“What happens when schools run like businesses? In this fascinating account,
Brooks goes undercover at Eclipse Prep, a for-profit charter school, to reveal
how ‘market-centered mania’ in education is transforming the work of teaching.
Richly detailed and engaging, this book takes us into a results-driven world where
teachers compete to climb the corporate educational ladder. The results may
surprise you.”
—Joanne Golann, Assistant Professor of Public Policy and Education, Vanderbilt
University, USA, and Author of Scripting the Moves: Culture and Control in a
“No Excuses” School (2021)
“While much has been written about the education reform movement, few
studies offer the view from the inside that Erinn Brooks brings us in this amazing
book. And what a view! Brooks’ covert ethnography carefully documents the
contradictions between equity and control in a ‘No-Excuses’ charter school, and
challenges the social justice rhetoric of education reform.”
—Christopher Lubienski, Professor of Education Policy, Indiana University,
USA, and Author of The Public School Advantage: Why Public Schools
Outperform Private Schools (2013)
“In her fascinating ethnography of a network charter school, Erinn Brooks shows
us how market logic undermines quality teaching and hurts students. Anyone
who wants an inside look at the dangers of turning education over to profit-
seeking corporations will find this book indispensable.”
—Michael Schwalbe, Professor of Sociology, North Carolina State University,
USA, and Author of Rigging the Game: How Inequality Is Reproduced in
Everyday Life (2008)
Education Reform
in the Twenty-First
Century
The Marketization of Teaching and Learning at a
No-Excuses Charter School
Erinn Brooks
Sociology
St. Norbert College
De Pere, WI, USA
© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer
Nature Switzerland AG 2020
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Acknowledgments
Eclipse’s administrators and staff are the bedrock of this study. In spite
of my covert status, I will be forever grateful for the openness and dedi-
cation that so many of my supervisors and colleagues displayed. I experi-
enced firsthand the precarity of working in a marketized, no-excuses envi-
ronment, but I also felt the deep comradery that coworkers and friends
sometimes develop under duress. I dedicate this book to the overworked
and underappreciated teachers and school support staff at Eclipse and far
beyond.
This study began as a dissertation, which was partially funded by the
Myra Sadker Foundation Doctoral Dissertation Grant, as well as North
Carolina State University’s Dissertation Completion Grant. I am indebted
to the members of my dissertation committee, who provided invaluable
guidance and feedback from design to defense. They include Martha
Crowley (co-chair), Sinikka Elliott (co-chair), Kim Ebert, and Michael
Schwalbe.
Several undergraduate research assistants poured their hearts into
revising and editing this book. Sara VanCuyk and Mofe Wyse, thank you,
and I look forward to seeing what exciting adventures come next for each
of you. I am also deeply indebted to Corrine Wiborg; I remain beyond
impressed with your work and could not have gotten this book across the
finish line without you. I am also grateful for thoughtful feedback from
Lisa McManus and Amanda Wyant, as well as three anonymous Palgrave
reviewers.
v
vi ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Finally, I imagine very few book projects are completed without the
loving, loyal support of friends or family who patiently endure hours of
fieldwork, writing, venting, mulling, and more writing. Thank you to my
partner, Katy, for putting up with all of it. To my five daughters, I hope
for your sake that this book adds to the critique of what schooling is and
the dream of what it might be.
Contents
vii
viii CONTENTS
2.3.1 Data 37
References 39
3 AAG’s Frontstage 43
3.1 AAG’s Frontstage 45
3.1.1 Achieving Measurable Results 45
3.1.2 Marketing the AAG Brand 48
3.1.3 Recruiting and Retaining Customers 50
3.2 Marketization and Paternalism at Work 53
3.2.1 Staffing AAG Schools 53
3.2.2 Standardizing the Labor Process 56
3.2.3 Surveilling the Labor Process 60
3.3 Front and Center 62
References 63
4 Eclipse’s Backstage 65
4.1 Eclipse’s Backstage 66
4.1.1 Managing Student Behavior 66
4.1.2 Policing the Details 72
4.1.3 Inciting Fear Instead of Feeling Afraid 77
4.2 Discussion and Conclusion 79
References 83
Appendices 185
Index 193
List of Figures
xi
List of Tables
xiii
CHAPTER 1
(Ellison & Iqtadar, 2020; Golann & Torres, 2018). In pursuit of their
college-for-all missions, no-excuses schools take militaristic approaches to
both instruction and discipline. Academically, they implement extended
school days and years, often minimizing time spent on activities other
than direct instruction. They deploy a rigid curriculum that emphasizes
students’ abilities to recite correct answers on demand, using extrinsic
motivators to cultivate student compliance (Lamboy & Lu, 2017). School
leaders demand that staff maintain the highest expectations for student
achievement, contending that any challenges related to poverty, racism,
and the like can be overcome by steadfast allegiance to the no-excuses
model (Horn, 2016). Together, instructional practices are meant to
produce continuous student growth on standardized tests—growth on
which teachers’ jobs often depends.
Disciplinarily, no-excuses schools prioritize order and obedience,
policing every detail of student appearance and behavior (Golann &
Torres, 2018; Whitman, 2008). This approach is rooted in a belief that
“sweating the small stuff” is a necessary precursor to academic success
(Whitman, 2008). In a synthesis of qualitative studies on no-excuses
schools, Ellison and Iqtadar (2020) noted the meticulousness with which
teachers monitored student behavior:
1.2.1 Accountability
Accountability refers to a widespread belief underpinning contempo-
rary education policy: schools and teachers must be held responsible, in
concrete ways, for achieving measurable results. The preoccupation with
quantification takes its inspiration from the corporate world, but it is
fueled by policies that demand schools demonstrate progress and access
funding on the basis of their data.7 This logic now informs the work
of teaching. In the most marketized environments, accountability means
that schools hire teachers as at-will employees, supervise them closely, and
1 MARKET-CENTERED MANIA AND NETWORK CHARTER SCHOOLS 9
evaluate them largely based on their students’ test scores (Abrams, 2016).
Even in school districts constrained by collective bargaining agreements,
states or private entities sometimes put teachers’ data on public display in
efforts to foster accountability.8
1.2.3 Competition
Market-centered education reform also centers on the principle of compe-
tition. Legislators, reformers, and school leaders who embrace marketiza-
tion argue that an absence of competition in the education sector drives
down school and teacher quality. Opening an otherwise closed market to
competition, they assert, improves efficiency and performance by forcing
schools to compete for students and teachers to compete for jobs (Buckley
& Schneider, 2009; Buras, 2014; Fabricant & Fine, 2015; Hoxby, 2002,
2003). Market-centered logic that prizes competition began on the far
right (Berliner & Biddle, 1995), but it now finds enormous support
among progressives. For instance, President Barack Obama’s 2009 Race
to the Top initiative (RTT) created a national grant competition, encour-
aging states to propose innovative education reforms for funding. RTT
channeled schools’ efforts in a marketized direction. Eligibility hinged on
states lifting caps on the number of charter schools allowed, plus elimi-
nating barriers to evaluating teachers based on test scores (Fabricant &
Fine, 2015). The vast majority of grant winners then incorporated two
staples of market-centered reform in their proposals: accountability via
performance-based teacher evaluations and competition through charter
school expansion (McGuinn, 2012).
1 MARKET-CENTERED MANIA AND NETWORK CHARTER SCHOOLS 11
1.2.5 Scale
Finally, market-centered reform hinges on scale. “Scaling up” describes
the growth or transformation achieved when supposedly excellent models
of schooling are replicated and proliferated across the nation’s educa-
tion landscape. The principle of scale operates at an organizational level
when districts or governments identify best practices then scale up by
implementing them in a number of schools. For example, the recent
adoption of common-core standards reflected a scaling up of a certain
set of learning outcomes (Tampio, 2018). Scale also applies to school
culture, particularly when it comes to the no-excuses model. In his book-
length profile of six inner-city schools, journalist David Whitman (2008)
praises the aim of scale in the no-excuses world. He explains,
The modern-day “no excuses” schools are thus unlike most of the high-
achieving, one-of-a-kind urban schools of earlier decades. They consciously
seek to copy themselves and spread a reform gospel, a message that runs
counter to the defeatist view that underlying social inequalities have to be
redressed before low-income minority students can do well. (p. 9)
Successful teaching in urban and rural areas requires all the same
approaches that transformational leadership in any setting requires. It
requires extraordinary energy, discipline, and hard work. What is encour-
aging is that there is nothing elusive about it. We can replicate and spread
success. By deepening our understanding of what differentiates the most
successful teachers and feeding those lessons into strategies for selection,
training, and professional development, we can increase the number of
highly successful teachers. (p. 33)
Paternalism means social policies aimed at the poor that attempt to reduce
poverty and other social problems by directive and supervisory means.
Programs based on these policies help the needy but also require that they
meet certain behavioral requirements, which the programs enforce through
close supervision. These measures assume that the people concerned need
assistance but that they also need direction if they are to live constructively.
Policies and programs that take a new paternalist approach offer tempo-
rary aid conditioned on recipients’ demonstration of prescribed behaviors.
Those providing assistance define the expected behaviors and monitor
participants closely, revoking help when outcomes are not met. This
approach gave rise to—and justifies—a host of recent changes to the US
social safety net, including the 1990s welfare reforms (Hays, 2003) and
broken-windows-style policing (Wilson & Kelling, 1998).
1 MARKET-CENTERED MANIA AND NETWORK CHARTER SCHOOLS 15
It’s undeniable that these schools aim to change the lifestyles of those
who attend them. They teach inner-city teenagers to embrace middle-class
values, to aspire to college, to behave properly, and to reject the culture of
the street. And they do all this by offering explicitly instruction in how to
behave, what to aim for, and how to get there. (Whitman, 2008, p. xiii)
Notes
1. Widespread concern about underperforming teachers and failing schools
was not always a given in the public education landscape. An elite narra-
tive mercilessly paints public schools and their teachers as at fault for not
only inefficient, low-quality education generally, but race- and class-based
achievement gaps specifically (Johnston, 2014). The Reagan and H.W.
Bush White Houses institutionalized criticism of public schooling and
teachers in unprecedented ways (Berliner & Biddle, 1995).
2. After a school is converted, the same students continue to populate the
same facilities, but instructional techniques and organizational patterns
change. Until recently, the same faculty stayed on as schools were
converted to charters (Buddin & Zimmer, 2005). It is increasingly
common for conversion schools to fire a significant proportion of—if not
all—staff (e.g., Buras, 2014).
3. One crucial difference is that CMOs have far outpaced EMOs in gener-
ating enormous enthusiasm and loyalty among teachers and leaders
(Abrams, 2016, pp. 186–187). For a detailed comparison of EMOs and
CMOs, see Abrams (2016, pp. 190–221).
4. Even before considering enrollment in a charter, families possess unequal
information and resources when it comes to choosing non-assigned
schools for their children (Fuller, Elmore, & Orfield, 1996; Lareau &
Goyette, 2014).
5. “Creaming” describes selective recruitment and enrollment practices, for
example when schools recruit more educationally favorable students that
will be potentially less costly to educate (Lacireno-Paquet et al., 2002).
1 MARKET-CENTERED MANIA AND NETWORK CHARTER SCHOOLS 19
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CHAPTER 2
Phoenix was a seventh grader with a big personality. Kind eyes softened
the smirk that often graced his face, but this depth was hard to notice at
first. Hard because, during the typical class period, Phoenix was cracking
jokes with one classmate and tirelessly teasing another. He was also a
familiar face in the hallway—a common destination for students whom
teachers decided to send out for misbehavior. As a teacher’s assistant (TA)
charged with remediating students in reading and math, I quickly learned
that Phoenix was confronting pre-Algebra coursework with the math skills
of a third grader. I hoped that I could help in some small way and tried to
build trust with him, first through short conversations, and later by slip-
ping him a pack of multiplication flashcards along with a nightly practice
log. It was especially heartbreaking, then, when Phoenix wandered to the
back of a classroom to chat with me one afternoon. We had known one
another for a few months now, and he asked, “Are you gonna be here
next year?” When I affirmed and asked why, he downplayed the question:
“I just wanted to know.” When I pressed him, he admitted, “People are
always leaving, so I just wanted to know.”
Phoenix’s question reveals a largely unspoken understanding at Eclipse
Prep: people and relationships are temporary. Mirroring other no-excuses
charter schools where annual teacher attrition can reach 50% (e.g., Torres
& Golann, 2018; Horn, 2016), Eclipse teachers come and go. Some of
this churn is rather tidy, occurring at the end of a school year, on good
terms, as a result of a move or a promotion, perhaps accompanied by
who oversees operations and supervises teachers and TAs for grades six
through eight.
Because AAG manages each school in its network, high-level admin-
istrators from national headquarters or regional hubs frequently visit
schools. AAG surveillance feels ubiquitous not only because higher-ups
visit often, but also because they sometimes drop by unexpectedly. Staff
become most familiar with regional directors, who schedule day-long
visits at least monthly. Regional directors oversee a handful of AAG
schools in a bounded geographic area. In addition to overseeing school
quality, they directly supervise principals. National directors’ visits occur
less often but draw more careful preparations and staging. National
directors oversee all network schools, and they supervise regional direc-
tors. Depending on a school’s location, they may fly in for visits. As
a result, principals and VPs structure a school day—sometimes a series
of days—around their presence. On the day of a national director’s
arrival, one-third of classrooms might be staffed by substitute teachers2 to
allow for standout teachers to participate in evaluative and developmental
meetings.
AAG maintains a vast internal labor market, and the organization both
allows and encourages staff to move between positions frequently. Occa-
sionally, movement is lateral. More often, staff achieve upward mobility
within the organization. This is by design. AAG runs specific training
programs, through which staff obtain the certification necessary to qualify
for higher-level administrative positions. Employees typically move up
one level at a time; teachers become VPs, VPs become principals, prin-
cipals become regional directors, and regional directors become national
directors. Variations of this promotion path allow teachers and VPs
to pursue educational specialties instead of school leadership positions.
For example, employees might become specialists (later directors) of
curriculum, instruction, or assessment. Later in this chapter, I discuss how
AAG positions its internal labor market as a counterbalance to relatively
low teacher salaries.
When one steps into any AAG school, certain commonalities produce a
particular experience. This is intentional; each school is an extension of
AAG and therefore a reflection of the brand. Physically, AAG schools
appear almost identical. Although building structures differ somewhat,
floors in any AAG school are carpeted with maroon, indoor-outdoor
rugs and tiled with beige, vinyl squares. In empty hallways, two stripes
on either side of the floor draw one’s eye. Each 12-inch stripe spans
the length of the hallway and squeezes groups of students into straight
lines as they transition between classrooms. AAG paint colors, signage,
logos, and mottos are consistent across network schools. Visitors immedi-
ately confront walls decorated with the AAG color palette: maroon, slate,
teal, and beige. These colors also appear on AAG’s website and in its
printed material. At Eclipse’s main entrance, bold block letters proclaim
AAG students as “super scholars.” A nearby wall of well-known univer-
sity mascots reminds visitors of the network’s goal for its students: college
readiness.
A main office lies at the forefront of each AAG school. Two front
doors house the Eclipse office—one providing a first stop for visitors and
the second providing office access for those already inside the building.
Immediately inside the main office stand two, expansive L-shaped desks.
Arranged side-to-side with only a small entryway between them, they
create a customer-service counter of sorts. The counter displays business
cards for its occupants—the administrative assistant, Ms. Thomas, who is
a white woman in her fifties, and the admissions coordinator, Ms. White,
who is a black woman in her forties. On the customer side of the counter,
upholstered maroon chairs line the wall, interrupted by a coffee table
displaying AAG literature and Eclipse printouts. Thomas registers visitors
by checking their licenses and noting a destination on hand-printed name
badges.
Beyond the customer greeting area, a shared wall hides a teacher
resource space. A crowded copy machine radiates heat, opposite a counter
with dwindling office supplies and a row of locked cabinets. In the far
corner of the resource space stands a skinny wooden table. On Eclipse’s
most put-together days, this table holds four, evenly spaced laptops. A
laminated sign on AAG letterhead declares it a “Customer Work Station,”
where parents can complete online satisfaction surveys by an approaching
deadline. To the left of the resource area stand two offices, which house
the Eclipse principal and one of four VPs.
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Regierungsbaumeister Ernst Boerschmann
16. Paukentürmchen in einem Familientempel,
China, Tschangschafu. Nach einer Aufnahme von
Regierungsbaumeister Ernst Boerschmann
17. Wu-I-Hsien, Regensturm, China, um 1400
18. Unkoku Togan, Landschaft (Teil eines
Setzschirms), Japan. 16. Jahrhundert
19. Holzstatue eines Priesters, Korea
20. Kopf einer Jünglingsstatue,
griechisch. Erste Hälfte des 6.
Jahrhunderts vor Chr.
21. Theseus. Detail einer
Gruppe „Theseus und
Antiope“, griechisch. Zweite
Hälfte des 6. Jahrhunderts vor
Chr.
22. Figuren aus dem Ostgiebel des Parthenon, griechisch. 5. Jahrhundert
vor Chr.