Journal of King Saud University – Engineering Sciences xxx (xxxx) xxx

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Journal of King Saud University – Engineering Sciences

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Original article

Vinyl-ester-based polymer concrete incorporating high volume fly ash

under tensile, compressive, and flexural loads
Taufiq Rochman a,⇑, Sumardi a, Sugeng Hadi Susilo b, Handra Adhi Wardhana c
a
Civil Engineering Department, State Polytechnic of Malang, Indonesia
b
Mechanical Engineering Department, State Polytechnic of Malang, Indonesia
c
Construction Engineering and Management of Civil Engineering Department, State Polytechnic of Malang, Indonesia

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: The utilization of innovative, lightweight, durable, and ecologically friendly polymer concrete is becom-
Received 22 October 2022 ing more popular. Therefore, this research was conducted to investigate the mechanical performance of
Accepted 30 March 2023 polymer concrete produced using Vinyl Ester (VE) resin and high-volume Fly Ash (FA) filler with a focus
Available online xxxx
on compressive, tensile, and flexural strength of strong and weak axes using a three-point flexural test. It
is important to note that the resin varied from 20 to 90%, FA from 10 to 20%, Mepoxe (MK) catalyst was
Keywords: 4.5%, and Cobalt (Co) was 1% of resin volume. Moreover, cube specimens were used to determine com-
Polymer concrete
pressive strength and specific gravity at 3 days, cylindrical specimens were also used to determine com-
Vinyl-ester-based
High volume fly ash
pressive strength at the age of 1 and 2 days, and dog-bone-shaped specimens were used for tensile
Compressive strength strength. This research also applied a three-point flexural test to both the strong and weak axes of the
Tensile strength specimens. The result showed that the specimen with 30% VE and 70% FA (RUN-3) had the most effective
Flexural strength compressive strength, specific gravity, price, and casting simplicity or workability as by the 66,2 MPa
recorded for compressive strength and 1.88 gr/cm3 for specific gravity with two stages of elastic and plas-
tic failures. The RUN-3 mixture was also used to produce cylindrical specimens and tensile strength was
found to be 11.55 MPa while flexural strength in the transverse and lateral axis was 53.74 MPa, and
57.69 MPa respectively.
Ó 2023 The Authors. Production and hosting by Elsevier B.V. on behalf of King Saud University. This is an
open access article under the CC BY license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).

1. Introduction
Polymer concrete has become the focus of research due to its
lightweight nature and superior mechanical properties compared
to conventional concrete. According to one study (Ferdous et al.,
2020), polymer concrete has an estimated 35% higher flexural
strength than its tensile strength at fracture, making it an excellent
choice for repairing damaged concrete. Additionally, the introduc-
tion of polymer composites has led to the development of new
classes of concrete (Czarnecki, 2018). The performance of polymer
concrete was mostly attributed to the excellent cross-linking of
polymer matrix and the resin coating of the aggregate, both of
⇑ Corresponding author.
E-mail address: taufiq.rochman@polinema.ac.id (T. Rochman).
Peer review under responsibility of King Saud University.
Production and hosting by Elsevier
which were facilitated by the low aggregate compaction and the
presence of a coupling agent (Malchiodi et al., 2022).
However, during the analysis of waste rubber powder in poly-
mer concrete, it was hypothesized that this material might have
an inhibitory impact on the radical concentration in the resin
matrix, which prolonged the analysis process (Shen, et al, 2020).
Moreover, it was suggested that coupling agents be applied to
improve the bond strength and mechanical characteristics of poly-
mer concrete in the future (Kiruthika et al., 2021). It is important to
note that polymer concrete is considered environmentally friendly
due to its ability to replace cement hydrate binders in conventional
concrete with polymer binders or liquid resins (Nodehi, 2022; Taha
et al., 2019). Cement causes damage to the environment compared
to resin due to the release of carbon dioxide during its manufactur-
ing process (Verma et al., 2022).
The entire body of research published on polymer composites is
divided into three types and further subdivided according to the
effect of concrete’s components, such as the type and amount of
resin, filler, and additive, as well as the impact of temperature on
the final properties of polymer concrete (Sarde and Patil, 2019).
For example, Heidarnezhad et al. (2020) examined experimental

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jksues.2023.03.001
1018-3639/Ó 2023 The Authors. Production and hosting by Elsevier B.V. on behalf of King Saud University.
This is an open access article under the CC BY license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).

Please cite this article as: T. Rochman, Sumardi, S.H. Susilo et al., Vinyl-ester-based polymer concrete incorporating high volume fly ash under tensile, com-
pressive, and flexural loads, Journal of King Saud University – Engineering Sciences, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jksues.2023.03.001
T. Rochman, Sumardi, S.H. Susilo et al. Journal of King Saud University – Engineering Sciences xxx (xxxx) xxx

and analytical techniques to determine the mechanical character- VE resin known as RipoxyTM R804J. This resin has excellent chemi-
istics of different lightweight polymer concrete mix designs. The cal resistance, especially against acids and alkalis, as well as high
results showed that these designs can minimize the total cost of mechanical strength for Fiber-Reinforced Polymer (FRP) materials.
construction and the amount of damage incurred by structures Additionally, it has excellent fatigue strength and toughness, and
under specific types of loads, such as earthquakes. Another study its advantages include lower viscosity, quick curing, longer shelf
by Balabanov and Putsenko (2018) showed that the addition of life, and less bubbling. The data on VE and FA are presented in
micro-silica and acrylic emulsion to fine-grained polymer concrete Tables 1–3.
increased its strength. Furthermore, polymer concrete is more FA has silt-sized particulates that are typically spherical and
promising in terms of drying speed compared to conventional con- range in size from 10 to 100 lm.
crete, which takes days. This simplifies and speeds up the progress The compositions were also compared to determine the effect
of work in construction projects (Mechtcherine et al., 2019). of the resin-to-filler ratio on the mechanical properties and dura-
Polymer concrete has high mechanical performance compared bility of VE-based polymer concrete as well as to optimize the
to conventional concrete, but its properties are influenced by the mix design (Krishna et al., 2018). The resin-to-filler ratios were
type of resin and the amount of filler used (Gonçalves et al., combined for 15 RUNs starting from 20%:80% to 90%:10% as indi-
2022). For example, Niaki et al. (2018) showed that the addition cated in Table 4. Moreover, the content of the MK catalyst and
of 2% basalt fiber to polymer concrete produced using epoxy resin Co additive used was 4.5% and 1% of the resin content respectively.
increased the compressive strength to 104.12 MPa and the tensile
strength to 15.95 MPa. However, the application of 1.5% basalt
fiber had a maximum flexural strength of 43.02 MPa. Farooq and 2.2. Process of VE-FA polymer concrete
Banthia. Farooq and Banthia (2022) also used epoxy resin, Fly
Ash (FA), and silica sand, and the results showed that the compres- The three specimens for the VE polymer concrete were pro-
sive strength of the mix design with a resin composition of 15% and duced in the form of a 5x5x5 cm3 cube in under 3 min. Firstly, a
18% were 48–62 MPa and 61–74 MPa, respectively. Previous pan was used as a mold, and oil was applied as a coating using a
research also showed that the application of fiber as a filler pro- paintbrush. Secondly, the necessary VE and FA ingredients were
duced high compressive strength in polymer concrete, but the weighed in accordance with the pan volume while a pipette was
material is expensive (Li et al., 2018). Moreover, the use of epoxy used to measure the MK catalyst and Co additive. Thirdly, the VE,
resin is considered difficult due to its high viscosity, which nor- MK, and Co contents were stirred in a bucket until the mixture
mally makes the mixing of polymer concrete dough difficult and was evenly disseminated. FA was added to the new mixture and
expensive (Ejaz et al., 2022; Peerzada et al., 2020). Polyester resin stirred with a wooden stick until it became homogeneous. It is
is cheaper than epoxy resin but has a lower bond strength and is important to note that no vibrator was needed at the material
not easy to mix because it is also viscous (Arasu et al., 2019; mold level, except at the structural mold level such as pipe and
Akaluzia et al., 2021). This led to the discovery of Vinyl Ester ditch. Finally, the composite was poured into the pan, set to be
(VE) as the resin between epoxy and polyester resins (Nguyen heated for approximately 15–20 min, and the cured polymer con-
et al., 2019). crete was later released from the dish. A grinder was subsequently
VE is a type of thermoset resin that does not return to its orig- used to shape the specimen according to the ASTM dimensions.
inal state when catalyzed and is not dependent on temperature
(Kandelbauer et al., 2022; Bruton et al., 2020). This resin has the
ability to provide good mechanical properties combined with Table 1
excellent heat and chemical resistance (Wypych, 2022). According Property of liquid VE of Ripoxy R804J resin.
to Nguyen et al. (2019), polymer concrete with high compressive Property Unit Value
strength value was included in the category of high-strength con-
Appearance – Clear yellow
crete according to ACI 318 (Mohammed and Rahim, 2020). It is Viscosity dPa･s/25℃ 2.0–3.5
important to note that VE has a low viscosity, meaning that it Gel time minute 16–25
has the capacity to ensure workability when used in polymer con- Shelf life Months/25℃ 12
crete mixtures (Zhang et al., 2018). Advanced research has been
conducted on the effect of catalysts, curing time, and the addition
of glass and basalt fiber on polymer concrete (Cakir et al., 2020;
Table 2
Cakir, 2022; Ulu et al, 2022; Cakir, 2021). These studies have Properties of cured VE of Ripoxy R804J resin.
shown that polymer concrete with VE can achieve a minimum
Properties Unit Cast Laminate* Test method
compressive strength of 41 MPa (6000 psi), which is one of the
mechanical performances required in ACI-318, in addition to the Flexural strength MPa 144 184 ASTM D790
appropriate tensile and flexural strength (Mohammed and Flexural modulus GPa 3.6 7.6 ASTM D790
Tensile strength MPa 82 111 ASTM D638
Rahim, 2020; Zhang et al., 2018). Tensile elongation % 5.4 2.0 ASTM D638
Heat distortion temp ℃ 107 – ASTM D638
Barcol Hardness – 41 50 ASTM D2583
2. Methods Curing shrinkage % 7.6 – ASTM D2566
Corrosion resistance Acid alkali

2.1. Materials *
Laminated constitution: 3 plies (450 g/m2), glass contents 30%.

The resin used in this polymer concrete experiment is VE R804

J500, which was catalyzed using methyl ethyl ketone peroxide Table 3
(MK) and Cobalt (Co). FA type F was used as a filler, with VE and Fly ash content from PLTU Paiton (IPMOMI Co. Ltd.).
FA having specific gravities of 1050 kg/m3 and 1430 kg/m3, respec-
Density SiO2 Al2O2 Fe2O2 CaO MgO S(SO4)
tively followed Wypych (2022). kg/m3 Weight (%)
To provide further information on VE resin, Showa High Poly-
1430 62,49 6,36 16,71 5,69 0,79 7,93
mer Singapore (SHPS) provided the data on a Bisphenol A-type
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T. Rochman, Sumardi, S.H. Susilo et al. Journal of King Saud University – Engineering Sciences xxx (xxxx) xxx

Table 4
Compressive test specimens.

RUN vinyl ester in % fly ash

(4,5% MK and 1,5% Co) (%)
1 20 80
2 25 75
3 30 70
4 35 65
5 40 60
6 45 55
7 50 50
8 55 45
9 60 40
10 65 35
11 70 30
12 75 25
13 80 20
14 85 15
15 90 10

2.3. Specimen’s dimensions

The 15 RUN specimens produced were poured into 5x5x5 cm

mortar cubes in accordance with SNI 03-6835-2002 code as shown
in Fig. 1a. They were tested for compression at the age of 3 days
without curing.
The compression test results were discussed with a focus on
compressive strength, weight, price, and workability after which
the most suitable RUN was selected. Moreover, cylindrical speci-
mens shown in Fig. 1b) with 10 cm diameter and 20 cm height
according to SNI 1974-2011 code were also applied for compres-
sion test at the age of 1 and 2 days.
The dog-bone specimens shown in Fig. 1c) were designed based
on ASTM D 3039/D 3039 M code to conduct tensile test. Mean-
while, flexural test specimens were produced to be 100 mm long
and 16 mm wide on the strong axis according to ASTM D 790 code
and 128 mm long and 13 mm wide on the weak axis based on the Fig. 2. Compressive, tensile, and flexural test setup and equipment.
ASTM D 7264 code. They were both tested through three-point
bending. It is also important to note that the difference in the 2.4. Test setup
thickness of the specimens for tensile and flexural tests was
between 8 and 13 mm in order to determine the effect on the The mortar cube specimens were used to determine the specific
cross-sectional area. gravity. They were also used for the compression test and the

(a) (b)

(c)
Fig. 1. Specimen’s dimension: (a) mortar cube, (b) cylindrical and (c) dog-bone for tensile.

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T. Rochman, Sumardi, S.H. Susilo et al. Journal of King Saud University – Engineering Sciences xxx (xxxx) xxx

process involved turning on the machine shown in Fig. 2 (top) and fore, RUN-1 to RUN-6 specimens were re-read 2 times after loading
observing load reading up to the moment there was no increase in to observe the behavior and this further confirmed that polymer
the value. The same procedure was used for the cylindrical speci- concrete is ductile due to its ability to experience elastic and plas-
mens. Meanwhile, tensile test was conducted by placing the spec- tic degradation. The maximum load value, compressive strength,
imen on the UTM equipment shown in Fig. 2 (mid) and pulling specific gravity, and price for all the specimens are listed in the fol-
until it broke. Flexural test was conducted using the three-point lowing Table 6.
bending as shown in Fig. 2 (bottom) and the process involved The workability of the specimens was assessed during the man-
applying force up to the moment the specimen failed. ufacturing process. It was discovered that the viscosity of the VE-
FA composite provided a certain difficulty level during the mixing
process and this reduced the workability of the mixture. Mean-
3. Results and discussions while, the MK catalyst added sped up the setting time while Co
improved the catalyst properties. The inclusion of these additives
3.1. Compressive test in VE increased the temperature of the mixture and produced
smoke during the mixing process. It was observed that a hotter
One of the significant characteristics of FA is resin absorption composite mix produced more foam, and this hardened the speci-
and shrinkage and this was found during the analysis of the spec- men and produced top surface pores and cracks as shown in Fig. 3.
imen. This means a certain multiplier factor needed to be applied This means a drastic increase in temperature is a problem during
for resin volume prediction during the preparation. Volume factors the construction process.
were found in the range of 2x to 1.2x for each specimen as shown The workability rating, surface texture, and temperature
in Table 5. changes were determined by assigning values between 0 and 9
A typical concrete only undergoes plastic degradation due to its as in Table 8. The workability aspect was assessed using 0–1 = dif
brittleness and this means it can be considered plastically damaged ficult to mix, 2–4 = relatively easy to mix, 5–6 = easy to mix, 7–
the moment load was no longer increasing. It was discovered that 8 = very easy to mix, and 9 = too runny and potential to leak.
compressive load readings for polymer concrete in RUN-1 to RUN- The finished surface texture was rated after polymer concrete
6 were halted when load stopped increasing within a period of has hardened using 0–1 = uneven and many holes, 2–3 = flat and
±25 s. Meanwhile, the RUN-7 specimen had a second load reading looks good, 4–5 = has few pores due to gas pressure from the mix-
after the first stage for approximately 15 s. This means polymer ture, 6–7 = many pores, and 8–9 = poor surface due to several pores
concrete experienced both elastic and plastic deformation. There- caused by gas. The temperature changes were classified as 0–1 = no
change in temperature, 2–3 = a slight temperature increase, 4–6 =
Table 5
temperature increased, 7–8 = temperature increased drastically,
Volume factor of each RUN for casting. and 9 = very hot. The visualization matrix for polymer concrete
specimens is color-based presented in Table 7.
RUN Vinyl ester in % Fly ash (%) Volume factor (%)
(4,5% MK and 1% Co)
3.2. The effect of VE:FA ratio on density
1 20 80 2.0
2 25 75 1.9
3 30 70 1.8 VE and FA resins have different densities due to their distinct
4 35 65 1.7 chemical compositions. This means the density of the specimen
5 40 60 1.6 is one of the important factors to determine the most appropriate
6 45 55 1.5
RUN. Therefore, the relationship between the VE:FA ratio and den-
7 50 50 1.5
8 55 45 1.45
sity is presented in the following Fig. 4
9 60 40 1.45 The reduction in FA was observed to have caused a significant
10 65 35 1.4 decrease in the density of each specimen as indicated in Table 3
11 70 30 1.4 and Fig. 4. The results further showed that RUN-1 had highest den-
12 75 25 1.35
sity with 2.02 gr/cm3 while RUN-15 had the lowest with 1.17 gr/
13 80 20 1.3
14 85 15 1.25 cm3. However, the value recorded for RUN-1 is lower than the
15 90 10 1.2 standard concrete density of 2.4 gr/cm3 and this simply means
polymer concrete produced is lighter than conventional concrete.

Table 6
Compressive strength results.

RUN VE FA (%) Pe (kN) Pp (kN) (MPa) (MPa) Density Price thousand

(%) (gr/cm3) (USD)
1 20 80 95.50 – 36.26 – 2.02 0.42
2 25 75 134.5 – 52.53 – 1.93 0.49
3 30 70 163.0 141.5 66.19 57.46 1.88 0.55
4 35 65 187.5 157.0 73.04 61.32 1.80 0.61
5 40 60 206.5 211.5 80.97 82.93 1.75 0.65
6 45 55 208.5 222.0 81.11 86.36 1.70 0.68
7 50 50 217.0 227.0 84.42 88.31 1.60 0.76
8 55 45 203.0 218.5 80.42 86.67 1.54 0.81
9 60 40 207.5 272.5 83.57 109.74 1.48 0.88
10 65 35 209.0 296.5 83.98 119.12 1.41 0.92
11 70 30 215.5 350.5 85.60 139.22 1.36 0.99
12 75 25 205.0 359.0 81.84 143.32 1.32 1.03
13 80 20 207.0 393.5 81.34 154.53 1.21 1.05
14 85 15 208.5 380.5 83.40 152.20 1.22 1.08
15 90 10 219 391 84.42 146,51 1.17 1.09

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T. Rochman, Sumardi, S.H. Susilo et al. Journal of King Saud University – Engineering Sciences xxx (xxxx) xxx

Fig. 3. Pores and cracks on the polymer concrete surface due to thermal problems raised in the casting process.

Table 7
Rating of workability, surface texture, and changes in temperature in polymer concrete.

RUN VE Fly Ash (%) Workability scale (0–9) Texture scale (0–9) Temp. scale
(%) (0–9)
1 20 80 0 (hard to cast) 0 (uneven) 0 (room)
2 25 75 1 (hard to cast) 1(uneven) 1 (room)
3 30 70 2 (quite easy) 2 (flat-good) 2 (warm)
4 35 65 3 (quite easy) 2 (flat-good) 3 (warm)
5 40 60 3 (quite easy) 3 (flat-good) 4 (increase)
6 45 55 4 (quite easy) 3 (flat-good) 5 (increase)
7 50 50 5 (easy) 4 (few pores) 5 (increase)
8 55 45 6 (easy) 5 (few pores) 6 (increase)
9 60 40 7 (very easy) 6 (many pores) 7 (hot)
10 65 35 8 (very easy) 7 (many pores) 7 (hot)
11 70 30 8 (very easy) 8 (poor texture) 7 (hot)
12 75 25 9 (very runny) 9 (poor texture) 8 (hot)
13 80 20 9 (very runny) 9 (poor texture) 8 (hot)
14 85 15 9 (very runny) 9 (poor texture) 9 (very hot)
15 90 10 9 (very runny) 9 (poor texture) 9 (very hot)

3.3. The effect of VE:FA ratio on compressive strength

It was discovered that the specimens have different compres-

sive strengths based on the respective VE:FA ratios. The results
showed that a higher VE:FA ratio led to higher compressive
strength. RUN-3 to RUN-6 were observed to have relatively high
compressive strength but RUN-8 had elastic strength of
80.42 MPa which was lower than the 84.42 MPa recorded for
RUN-7. The elastoplastic strength later increased dramatically
from RUN-8 to RUN-15. The findings showed that RUN-11 and
RUN-13 reached highest value of 85.6 MPa and 154.53 MPa respec-
tively for 1st and 2nd stage loading. Meanwhile, the elastic com-
pressive increased from 81.34 MPa to 84.43 MPa for RUN-13 to
RUN-15 respectively. RUN-7 to RUN-15 had a relatively high
Fig. 4. The effect of VE:FA ratio on density.
strength but also experienced a significant temperature change
and this produced a lot of foam for all specimens that were not
cured. This shows that the elastic strength of the RUN-7 to RUN-

Table 8
Visualization matrix of the effect of workability, surface texture, and temperature
increased on the specimens.

Fig. 5. The effect of VE:FA ratio on compressive strength.

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T. Rochman, Sumardi, S.H. Susilo et al. Journal of King Saud University – Engineering Sciences xxx (xxxx) xxx

US$ 1.2
15 specimens tended to rise but failed due to the reaction of the
material and this made polymer concrete physically defective, por-
ous, and prone to cracking, thereby, reducing its compressive
US$ 1.0
strength as shown in Fig. 5.
US$ 0.8 This high content of VE relative to FA binders prevented con-
crete from instantly becoming plastic and increased the plastic
US$ 0.6 strength on RUN-8 to RUN-13 specimens. Meanwhile, polymer
concrete composite did not bind well without FA and this reduced
US$ 0.4 the plastic strength in RUN-14 to RUN-15.

3.4. The effect of VE:FA ratio on the price

Fig. 6. The effect of VE:FA ratio on the price. The differences in the ratio of VE and FA resin compositions
affected the price of each specimen. It is pertinent to note that

(20% : 80%) (25% : 75%) (30% : 70%)

(35% : 65%) (40% : 60%) (45% : 55%)

(50% : 50%) (55% : 45%) (60% : 40%)

(65% : 35%) (70% : 30%) (75% : 25%)

(75% : 25%) (85% : 15%) (90% : 10%)

Fig. 7. Differences in the surface textures of each specimen due to the pores generated by high VE content.

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T. Rochman, Sumardi, S.H. Susilo et al. Journal of King Saud University – Engineering Sciences xxx (xxxx) xxx

price is one of the main criteria to decide on the most efficient

composition to be used for construction. Therefore, the relation-
ship between the VE:FA ratio and the price of polymer concrete
is presented in Fig. 6.
It was discovered that RUN-1 with a VE:FA ratio of 20:80 was
US$ 0.41, RUN-2 with 25:75 was US$ 0.49, and RUN-15 with
90:10 was US$ 1.10. This shows that the addition of more VE led
to an increase in the price because the resin is more expensive than
FA.

3.5. Surface appearance due to chemical reaction

The VE:FA ratio content affected specimen workability. It was Fig. 8. The compressive strength versus time (s) at 1–2 days.
observed that the value of workability increased as more VE was
added and FA reduced. Moreover, the reaction between FA, VE,
MK, and Co increased the temperature of the mixture, especially
3.7. Effect of 1–2 days age on compressive strength
when VE was increased and FA was reduced. These hot gases pro-
duced lots of froth by pressing against the surface as concrete hard-
The impact of the age on polymer concrete compressive
ened rapidly, thereby, trapping several pores in the mixture and
strength was determined using RUN-3 mix but the VE:FA ratio
causing cracks as shown in Fig. 3 and surface texture differences
was slightly altered to 27:73 during the production of the cylindri-
in Fig. 8
cal specimens. The alteration was applied to deeply understand the
Tables 4 and 5 show that the process of producing RUN-1 and
behavior of polymer concrete when the quality diminished during
RUN-2 was difficult due to the usage of less VE relative to FA and
mass production as well as to reduce the cost. It was discovered
the resin entering the solidification or hardening phase quickly.
that polymer concrete specimen 1 at 1-day age presented in
These specimens had uneven concrete surfaces with several holes
Fig. 9a was able to withstand a load of 653 kN and experienced
after hardening. Meanwhile, RUN-3 and RUN-4 were simple to
plastic failure. Meanwhile, specimen 2 at 2-day age in Fig. 9b with-
make because the mixture was thin and concrete hardened flat.
stood an elastic load of 444.5 kN and a plastic load of 997.4 kN. This
It was also easier to produce RUN-5 to RUN-8 because the mixture
means the specimen had not fully hardened at 1-day age and only
was thinner, concrete hardened flat but with foam pores, and the
experienced plastic failure but exhibited both elastic and plastic
mix was warm during the pouring process. Moreover, RUN-9 to
failure strength characteristics at 2-day age. The experiment was
RUN-13 were also easy to produce because the mixture was watery
conducted to determine strength of polymer concrete mix selected
and the temperatures increased dramatically. RUN-14 and RUN-15
under delivery load at an early age.
were very runny and produced the hottest temperature compared
Most of the maximum strength in polymer concrete was
to the other specimens.
achieved at the end of the 7th day. However, the first 2 days were
analyzed before compressive strength was reached due to the peak
3.6. Determination of most efficient RUNs and their appearances of delivery activity during this period and the need to ascertain
strength of concrete at post-processing and delivery time. The find-
Figs. 4–6 show that VE resin content determines all the charac- ings showed that the delivery risk was reduced and strength
teristics and properties considered important in making a decision increased significantly after two days.
for the production process such as compressive strength, specific Fig. 8 and Table 6 also show that age slightly affected strength
gravity, price, and physical properties. All the specimens basically significantly. This is because the surface of polymer concrete was
had a relatively high compressive strength with most observed dry and solid but the inner part had not hardened perfectly. More-
to be above 40 MPa, ranging from 52.5 to 85.6 MPa, except for over, the density of the 27%: 73% VE:FA ratio was found to be 1.81
RUN-1 with only 36.2 MPa which failed to satisfy strength criteria. gr/cm3 and this is not much different from the 1.88 gr/cm3
It was also discovered that RUN-15 was inefficient in terms of price recorded for the 30%:70% ratio.
and should not be considered despite its smallest density of 1.17
gr/cm3.
One of the most important physical properties assessments
considered is the workability of the surface textures shown in
Fig. 7. It was noted that RUN-2 should not be considered due to
its poor workability even though it has the lowest price. It was
quite easy to work with RUN-3 to RUN-7 and RUN-5 to RUN-7
were observed to have produced several pores. The findings also
showed that RUN-8 to RUN-12 also produced several pores on
the surface, had a high temperature, and are expensive. This means
the most considerable specimens are RUN-3 to RUN-7 but RUN-4
to RUN-7 had pores, high temperature, and are also expensive.
RUN-3 had the lowest compressive strength of 66.19 MPa but
the value is higher than 40 MPa. It also has the largest density of
1.88 gr/cm3 but is far below concrete density and costs only USD
0.55. This simply shows that only RUN-3 matched the criteria
required by having a compressive strength above 40 MPa, rela-
tively low density below 2.4 gr/cm3, cheap, no pores, and low tem-
perature. Therefore, RUN-3 with the VE:FA ratio of 30:70 was Fig. 9. Cylindrical specimen failures after compression tests: (a)1d-age (b) 2d-age
selected as the most efficient mix. with due consideration for the delivery impact.

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T. Rochman, Sumardi, S.H. Susilo et al. Journal of King Saud University – Engineering Sciences xxx (xxxx) xxx

Table 9
Compressive strength of at 1 and 2 age.

Day VE (%) Fly Ash (%) Pe (kN) Pp (kN) (MPa) (MPa) Density (kg/m3)
1 0,27 0,73 – 653 – 83,14 1800,17
2 444 997,4 56,53 126,99 1814,05

Table 10
Specimen dimension and their tensile stresses.

Code Thick Wide Cross-sectional area (mm2) Force Tensile Strength

(mm) (mm) (kN) (MPa)
T-1 7.3 11.96 87.31 1.37 15.65
T-2 9.66 11.3 109.16 1.22 11.17
T-3 10.03 11.3 113.34 1.46 12.89
T-4 10.53 12.23 128.78 1.22 9.47
T-5 11.65 12.15 141.55 0.94 6.62
T-6 7.86 11.5 90.39 1.63 17.99
T-7 11.03 11.97 132.03 0.69 5.22
T-9 9.63 11.97 115.27 1.55 13.42

3.8. Tensile test
The RUN-3 specimens with 4.5% MK catalyst and 1% Co of VE
content were used for this test. The mixture was molded in a
square dish and ground into dog bones after curing using ASTM
tensile specification. Table 10 shows 8 specimens were produced
with different thicknesses and an estimate of 13 mm widths at a
difference of less than 1 mm.
Tensile test performed using the UTM machine was used to pro-
duce load against time curve, and the maximum load was found to
Peak at
1.5
1.37 kN
Force (kN)
Force (kN)
range from 0.69 to1.63 kN as indicated in Fig. 10 and the summary
in Fig. 11. Moreover, tensile strength value calculated for each
specimen is presented in the following Table 10.
Table 10 shows that T-1, T-6, and T-2 sequentially bulged their
area from 87.31 mm2, 90.39 mm2, and 109.16 mm2 respectively,
and experienced a reduction in tensile strength by 15.65 MPa,
17.99 MPa, and 11.17 MPa respectively. Meanwhile, T-3 and T-9
had 12.89 MPa and 13.42 MPa reduction. These strength fluctua-
tions showed that the cross-sectional area did not depend on the
average tensile strength estimated at 11.55 MPa. This also means
the low strength value can be attributed to the absence of any rein-
forcement other than FA used as filler.
1.5 Peak at
1.22 kN
1

1 3.9. Flexural test

0.5 0.5
RUN-3 specimens produced with 30% VE and 70% FA as well as
4.5% MK and 1% Co of VE were also utilized for flexural test. It is
0 0
0 1 Time (s) 2 3 0 0.5 1 1.5 2
pertinent to restate that the test was conducted using the strong
Time (s) and weak axes under a three-point flexural load. The span support
Peak at Peak at [Y
for each specimen was up to 120 mm in length and the results for
1.8 1.5
1.46 kN VALUE] kN flexural load versus time on the strong axis from 0.51 to 1.01 kN
Force (kN)

Force (kN)

1.2 1 and weak axis from 0.35 to 0.74 kN are presented in Figs. 12 and
14 respectively.
0.6 0.5 Tables 11 and 12 show the dimension of the specimens and
their flexural strength on the transverse and lateral axis respec-
0 0
0 1Time (s) 2 3 tively. LB-1 to LB-6 and LT-1 to LT-6 specimens were tested for
0 1 2 3 4
Time (s) three-point bending by being placed on two supports and provided
Peak at
a concentrated load at the middle of the span until the specimens
1.5 1.8 Peak at
0.94 kN 1.63 kN
fractured.
Force (kN)

Force (kN)

1 1.2
20 T1 (MPa)
0.5 0.6
T2 (MPa)
15
Tensile Strength (MPa)

0 0
T3 (MPa)
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 0 1 2 3 4
Time (s) Time (s)
T4 (MPa)
10
0.9 Peak at T5 (MPa)
1.8 Peak at
0.69 kN
1.55 kN T7 (MPa)
Force (kN)

Force (kN)

0.6 1.2 5
T6 (MPa)
0.3 0.6
T9 (MPa)
0
0 0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2
0 1 2 3 4
0 0.5 1 1.5 2
Time (s) Time (s) Time (s)

Fig. 10. The maximum tensile load versus time of all RUN. Fig. 11. The tensile strength versus time of all tensile specimens.

8
T. Rochman, Sumardi, S.H. Susilo et al. Journal of King Saud University – Engineering Sciences xxx (xxxx) xxx

0.8
Peak at Peak at 80
0.62 kN 0.6 LB 1

Flexural Strength (MPa)

0.51 kN
0.6
Force (kN)

60 LB 2

Force (kN)
0.4
0.4 LB 3
0.2 40
0.2 LB 4
0 0 20 LB 5
0 5 10 15 0 3 6 9 12 15
Time (s) Time (s) 0 LB 6
Peak at Peak at 0 5 10 15 20
1.2 1.2
1.01 kN 0.98 kN
Time (s)
Force (kN)
Force (kN)

0.8 0.8
Fig. 13. The flexural strength versus time of all tensile specimens on the transverse
0.4
0.4 axis.
0
0
0 6 12 18
0 4 8 12 16 Time (s)
Time (s)
Peak at Peak at
1.2 1.2
0.82 kN 0.82 kN
Peak at Peak at
Force (kN)

Force (kN)

0.8 0.8 0.4 0.6

0.35 (kN) 0.55 kN
0.5

Force (kN)
0.3

Force (kN)
0.4 0.4 0.4
0.2 0.3
0 0 0.2
0.1
0 5 10 15 0 6 12 18 0.1
Time (s) Time (s) 0 0
0 3 6 9 12 0 4 8 12 16
Fig. 12. The flexural load versus time on the transverse axis. Time (s) Time (s)
Peak at Peak at
0.8 0.8
0.74 kN 0.74 kN

Force (kN)
0.6
Force (kN)

The LB-1 specimen was computed to process flexural load of 0.6

0.62 kN and produced a flexural strength of 56.64 MPa as indicated 0.4 0.4
in Table 8. The same steps were also applied for other weak axis 0.2 0.2
LT1 to LT-6 in Table 9. It can be observed that the cross-sectional 0 0
area is independent of flexural strength. Moreover, the average 0 5 10 15 20 0 5 10 15 20
Time (s) Time (s)
flexural strength for the strong axis was found to be 53.74 MPa
while the value for the weak axis was 57.69 MPa. The results of Peak at Peak at
0.8 0.8
0.62 kN 0.62 kN
flexural strength versus time for the transverse and lateral axes
Force (kN)
Force (kN)

0.6 0.6
are presented in Figs. 13 and 15 respectively.
0.4 0.4
The differences in the results were associated with the precipi-
0.2 0.2
tation of the cast FA as sediments. The cured fly-ash VE concrete
was eventually formed in multilayered fly-ash sediments. This 0 0
led to the exhibition of different behaviors when tested trans- 0 6 12 18 0 6 12 18
Time (s) Time (s)
versely and laterally due to the different grind directions with FA
layered vertically in the transverse axis and horizontally in the lat- Fig. 14. The flexural load versus time on the lateral axis.
eral axis.

Table 11
Flexural strength for the transverse axis (FA poured horizontally then ground and tested as a beam).

Specimen Wide (mm) Thick (mm) Cross-sectional Area (mm2) Force (kN) Flexural strength (MPa)
LB-1 7.45 16.32 121.5 0.62 56.64
LB-2 8.38 16.33 136.9 0.51 40.82
LB-3 12.00 16.17 194.0 1.01 58.19
LB-4 10.28 16.33 168.4 0.98 63.85
LB-5 11.42 16.21 185.1 0.82 49.16
LB-6 10.28 16.33 167.8 0.82 53.79

Table 12
Flexural strength for the lateral axis (FA poured horizontally then ground and tested as plate).

Specimen Wide (mm) Thick (mm) Cross-sectional Area (mm2) Force (kN) Flexural strength (MPa)
LT-1 13 9.37 121.81 0.35 55.35
LT-2 12.9 11.91 153.60 0.54 53.74
LT-3 13 12.37 160.81 0.74 67.05
LT-4 13.1 12.60 165.06 0.74 64.14
LT-6 12.8 12.90 165.08 0.62 52.76
LT-5 12.9 12.81 165.21 0.62 53.09

9
T. Rochman, Sumardi, S.H. Susilo et al.
Fig. 15. The flexural strength versus time of all tensile specimens on the weak axis.
4. Conclusions
This study determined the mechanical properties of polymer
concrete produced using VE resin and high-volume FA as filler with
a focus on the compression, tension, and 3 points flexural strength
in both the strong and weak axis. The results obtained were used to
formulate the following conclusions:
1. FA absorbed and shrank resin significantly during specimen
processing, hence, a 1.2–2 times volume factor was required.
2. Polymer concrete produced using a VE resin-to-FA filler ratio
above 25%:75% exhibited ductile behavior. Meanwhile, the VE
content below 25% did not produce a proper mixture or good
workability and this increased the density, thereby, making it
difficult to cast in the mold.
3. The most efficient mixture based on compressive strength, den-
sity, price, and workability was VE:FA ratio of 30%: 70% with a
4.5% MK and 1% Co of the VE resin weight. This was indicated
by the production of 66.19 MPa compressive strength at 3-
day age with a density of 1.88 gr/cm3. Compressive strength
is smaller than the 104.12 MPa reported by Niaki et al. (2018)
using epoxy resin and basalt fiber as a filler.
4. The alteration of polymer concrete composition to 27%:73% pro-
duced an ultimate compressive strength of 86.57 MPa at the age
of 1 day as well as 57.68 MPa (first stage) and 129.57 MPa (sec-
ond stage) as elastic and plastic failure respectively at the age of
2 days.
5. Tensile as well as flexural strength in the strong and weak axes
for RUN-3 was found to be 11.55 MPa, 53.74 MPa, and
57.69 MPa respectively. This means polymer concrete with this
composition had a weaker tensile strength but stronger flexural
strength when compared to those designed with epoxy resin
and basalt fiber filler by Niaki et al. (2018) with a tensile
strength of 15.95 MPa and a flexural strength of 43.02 MPa.
5. Suggestion for further research
The mixing of VE with MK and Co to produce polymer concrete
increased temperature significantly and this necessitated a curing
process to prevent defects and damages such as cracks or pores
in concrete. Therefore, it is recommended that short fiber be uti-
lized for polymer concrete surfaces to prevent cracking caused by
the hot surface temperature. There is also the need to measure
the temperature in polymer concrete in order to control the rise
during the manufacturing process towards ensuring safety for
large-scale production.
Future research should also apply non-absorbent fillers such as
plastic seeds or glass powder to prevent bulging VE and to reduce
associated costs. There is also the need to reduce polymer concrete
production costs by using materials with lower prices such as
10
Journal of King Saud University – Engineering Sciences xxx (xxxx) xxx
unsaturated polyester resins for mass production like pipe or ditch
products.
Declaration of Competing Interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing finan-
cial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared
to influence the work reported in this paper.
Acknowledgement
This work was funded by the Minister of Education, Culture,
Research and Technology and the Innovation Research Scheme of
the State Polytechnic of Malang, East Java, Indonesia.
Conflict of Interest Statement
The authors whose names are listed immediately below the title
certify that they have NO relevant interest and NO affiliations or
involvement with any organization or entity through financial
interest such as honoraria, educational grants, participation in
speakers’ bureaus, membership, employment, consultancies, stock
ownership, or other equity interest, and expert testimony or
patent-licensing arrangements, or non-financial interest such as
personal or professional relationships, affiliations, knowledge or
beliefs in the subject matter or materials discussed in this
manuscript.
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