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INTRODUCTION
1.1 WHY REUSE WATER?
Sustainable water management is an important goal and a key element of sustainable urban development. Government authorities and the land development industry are increasingly seeking to use alternative sources, such as water reuse, to conserve drinking water supplies and minimize wastewater. Water reuse must be considered in the context of the specific development and management of the entire water cycle. A Water Sensitive Urban Design (WSUD) strategy is the starting point for developments water management planning. Within such a strategy, reusing water may be deemed appropriate for a particular site after considering all other water streams and their interactions. Water reuse describes the treatment of wastewater to a standard where it can be used within our community. Throughout the document the term reused water is used to describe recycled water, greywater reuse (wastewater from the household excluding toilet water), sewer mining or reclaimed effluent. References to particular water streams will be made where required. Reused water is used on a fit-for-purpose basis that is, of an appropriate quality for the intended use.

1.2 SUSTAINABLE AND INTEGRATED WATER CYCLE MANAGEMENT

The conventional urban water cycle consists of a large-scale centralized water supply and disposal system. Water is collected from catchments, treated and piped to customers. After use, wastewater flows through a second set of pipes (sewers) to sewage treatment plants. The treated water is then discharged to creeks, rivers, bays or oceans. Sustainable development aims to minimize water use and dependence on natural resources and maximize reuse within the built environment. In Figure 1, the dotted red line separates the natural and built environments. The general approach is to minimize water and pollutants crossing the boundary, and maximizing water reuse within the boundary. This can be achieved by: reducing drinking water demand (through demand management) using available water sources for the most appropriate purposes (fit-for-purpose) identifying and maximzsing alternative water sources minimizing the impact of urban storm water on the receiving aquatic ecosystem.

Fig 1.2.1 Integrated water cycle systems approach for water reuse with typical urban applications 1

2. SELECTION OF APPROPRIATE WATER TREATMENT TECHNOLOGIES

Conventional evaluation of treatment technologies compared technical viability and cost-effectiveness. But a simple costbenefit analysis does not adequately assess the breadth of issues for water reuse. Site characteristics, an integrated water management perspective and externalities such as downstream infrastructure interactions and the impact on the natural environment must be taken into account. The identification of water reuse as an alternative water source will occur before the evaluation of water treatment technologies. Typically a Water Sensitive Urban Design (WSUD) strategy is formulated to identify structural (eg. water treatment, storage and distribution infrastructure) and nonstructural (eg. policies, pricing, demand management) solutions for the provision of urban water services within the urban design. An integrated water cycle management strategy will then identify the opportunities for water reuse following which an evaluation and selection of appropriate water treatment technologies is undertaken. The viability and suitability of technologies within an ecologically sustainable framework depend on criteria including: water end use and demand profile water quality and quantity available space for treatment and storage infrastructure near the site e.g. trunk sewers, proximity to local centralised treatment facility interaction with the environment e.g. greenhouse gas emissions, land capability, receiving waterbodies. social considerations e.g. community receptiveness to alternative water sources economic considerations climatic conditions operating and maintenance ongoing ownership of the treatment system A structured decision-making process, as outlined in Figure 2 below

Fig 2.1 Flow diagram for the evaluation of appropriate water reuse technologies Step 1. Identify site characteristics and interaction with the built environment a. identify development scale, type, location b. evaluate current centralized capacity c. evaluate potential upgrades to cater for development d. investigate offsetting investment in infrastructure upgrades with reuse treatment opportunities Step 2. Conduct a water balance a. align water uses with available water sources (including rainwater, storm water, drinking water) on a fit-for-purpose basis b. assess water demands with an end-use analysis c. calculate water balance d. align demand profile with supply profile 2

Step 3. Identify water reuse options, for example a. onsite b. localised treatment c. dual supply pipeline Step 4. Social and human health considerations a. adopt a risk-based approach to defining methods of delivery and corresponding water quality requirements b. define requirements for pre-commissioning monitoring and demonstration of compliance to current health standards for reused water c. identify community receptiveness to different applications of reused water Step 5. Evaluation of the impact on the natural environment a. receiving water quality impacts b. greenhouse gas emissions c. land suitability Step 6. Life cycle costing and economic considerations a. economies of scale b. capital, operational, replacement and decommissioning costs Step 7. Select an appropriate technology based on the above six steps, having completed an analysis of economic, environmental and social considerations in the context of site characteristics.

3. WATER TREATMENT TECHNOLOGIES

Increasing demand on water resources and the prolonged drought have combined to drive the market for water reuse. Numerous commercially viable water treatment technologies are available in Australia and the market for decentralised and localised water treatment systems is developing. Water treatment processes are typically a combination of biological, chemical and physical removal processes. The main processes are: Physical removal treatment technologies rely on physical separation processes such as filtration, sedimentation and flotation to remove pollutants. Chemical removal chemicals, typically coagulants and flocculants, are used to increase the removal rate of pollutants. Biological removal biological processes are used to transform pollutants to more manageable forms for separation.

Fig 3.1 Broad classification of treatment technologies 3

3.1 GENERAL DESCRIPTIONS

The conventional approach to water treatment processes is based on large-scale centralized water treatment facilities. Historically, water treatment plants combined unit operations to remove selected pollutants. The treatment level ranges from primary to advanced (refer to Table 4). This terminology is also often used for description of smaller water treatment systems. Treatment Level Preliminary Primary Advanced primary Description Removal of wastewater constituents such as rags, sticks, floatables, grit and grease that may cause maintenance or operational problems Removal of a portion of the suspended solids and organic matter

Enhanced removal of suspended solids and organic matter typically by chemical addition or filtration Secondary Removal of biodegradable organic matter (in solution or suspension) and suspended solids. Disinfection is also typically included in the definition of conventional secondary treatment Secondary with Removal of biodegradable organics, suspended solids and nutrients (nitrogen, nutrient removal phosphorus or both) Tertiary Removal of residual suspended solids (after secondary treatment) by granular medium filtration or microscreens. Disinfection is typically part of tertiary treatment. Nutrient removal is also included in this definition Removal of dissolved and suspended materials after normal biological treatment

Advanced

Table 3.1.1 Levels of wastewater treatment (adapted from Crites and Tchobanoglous, 1998)

3.3TYPES OF TECHNOLOGIES
To further explore the broad groups of technologies available for water treatment, representative technology types are described. These technologies listed below provide an overview of the most common and applicable treatment systems available and include: biological systems including: o suspended growth systems e.g. activated sludge systems and sequencing batch (SBR) o fixed growth systems e.g. trickle filters, rotating biological contactors (RBC) and recirculating media filters (fixed film bioreactor) o natural systems e.g. subsurface flow wetlands sand and media filtration membrane filtration (micro, ultra, nanofiltration and reverse osmosis) membrane bioreactor.
Suspended solids (TSS) Biodegrada ble organics (BOD removal) Yes Yes Yes Function of size Function of size Yes Yes No Nutrients: nitrogen Nutrients: phosphorus
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Salts

Pathogens

Biological processes Natural systems Recirculating media filter Media filtration Membrane filtration Membrane bioreactor Subsurface flow wetland Disinfection

Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes No

Yes Yes Yes Limited Function of size Function of size Yes No

Limited Yes Limited Limited Function of size Function of size Yes No

No No No No Reverse osmosis only No No No

Limited Good Limited Limited Function of size Function of size Good6 Yes

Table3.3.1 Overview of treatment technologies and their pollutant removal abilities.

3.3.1 BIOLOGICAL PROCESSES

Biological treatment accelerates natural biological processes and efficiently removes soluble and some insoluble pollutants in water. Suspended growth systems refer to those where microorganisms are freely suspended in water. They are primarily designed to oxidise organic and ammonium-nitrogen (to nitrate nitrogen), decrease suspended solids concentrations and reduce pathogen concentrations.

3.3.1.1 ACTIVATED SLUDGE

Activated sludge is a suspension of microorganisms in water. The microorganisms are activated by air that provides oxygen and hence the activated sludge process is an aerobic suspended-growth process. The process usually occurs in two distinct phases and vessels; aeration followed by the settling. A relatively high proportion of microorganisms are maintained by recycling settled biomass back into the treatment. The activated sludge process is typically continuous-flow with aerobic suspended-growth. The process maintains a high population of microorganisms (biomass). There are two main mechanisms that remove organics: 1. Biomass oxidises and synthesises the soluble and colloidal organic matter into cell mass and metabolic materials. 2. Suspended organics are flocculated with biomass and settle.

3.3.1.2 FIXED GROWTH

Biological treatment systems are primarily used to remove dissolved and colloidal organic matter from water. Biological treatment promotes natural processes to break down high nutrient and organic loading waters. Fixed growth refers to systems where the microorganisms are attached to a surface that is exposed to the water. Typical fixed film growth systems are trickling filters and rotating biological contactors. The rotating biological contactor (RBC) is a modified form of a trickling filter. It uses rotating discs to support active biofilm growth. This biofilm metabolises and hence removes organic material from the wastewater. RBCs are available in package treatment plants which allow for ease of installation and operations. These plants contain a primary sedimentation tank, the biological chamber, a secondary clarifier and a sludge storage zone. They come packaged in containers with their own electrical device and remote telemetry systems. The rotating shaft naturally aerates the biomass. Typically wastewater flows perpendicular to the discs and flows under gravity and displacement. The RBC has several baffled chambers to ensure a well-mixed reactor. Rotation also causes biomass sloughing (excess biomass sliding) from the discs. Thus to remove the biomass and suspended solids sedimentation, clarification is usually required. Rotating biological contactor treatment technologies suppliers include: WaterPac system

3.3.1.3 NATURAL SYSTEMS SUBSURFACE FLOW WETLAND

Wetlands are a complex collection of water, soils, microbes, plants, organic debris, and invertebrates. Subsurface wetlands are a proven technology to remove organic matter and suspended solids. In subsurface flow wetlands, all the flow is through the soil substrata. The soil typically has a high permeability and contains gravel and coarse sand. The bed is planted out with appropriate vegetation. As the flow percolates through the wetland, biological oxygen demand (BOD) and total suspended solids (TSS) are predominately reduced by biological decomposition. Subsurface wetlands are typically applied in wastewater treatment systems where there is a relatively consistent influent flow rate. In comparison, surface wetlands used to treat stormwater flows must be able to cope with variations in flows as a result of rainfall patterns. Subsurface flow wetlands provide a low cost, very low energy, natural treatment system. Natural technologies suppliers include: Rootzone Ecological Engineering

3.3.1.4 RECIRCULATING MEDIA FILTER

Recirculating textile filters (RTF) and recirculating sand filters (RSF) are biological treatment processes removing organic material from the wastewater. Recirculating textile filters are similar to trickling filters, however the media used for the growth of biofilms are textiles rather than plastics or rocks. RTFs are available in small compact footprint package plants, suitable for decentralized treatment. The RTF and RSF consist of two major components. The first is the biological chamber and low-pressure distribution system. The wastewater flows between and through the non-woven lightweight textile material in the RTF and through a bed of sand in the RSF.

3.3.2 SAND AND MEDIA FILTRATION

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Filtration is a tertiary treatment process that typically occurs after the secondary biological process. Filtration may be required to remove residual suspended solids and organic matter for more effective disinfection. Filters have been used for water treatment for more than 100 years. Sand (or other media) filters typically treat settled wastewater effluent. For onsite treatment, sand filters are usually lined excavated structures filled with uniform media over an underdrain system. The wastewater is dosed on top of the media and percolates through to the underdrain system. Design variations include recirculating sand filters where the water is collected and recirculated through the filter. Sand filters are essentially aerobic, fixed film bioreactors. Straining and sedimentation also occur, removing solids. Chemical adsorption to media surfaces removes dissolved pollutants (e.g. phosphorus). Water is applied to the top of the filter and allowed to percolate through the media. With time the headloss builds up and the filter media has to be cleaned by backwashing. The principal removal mechanism is by straining where particles larger than the pore space are strained out and smaller particles are trapped within the filter by chance. The hydraulic flow rate determines the dominant pollutant removal mechanisms. Pollutants are removed by infiltration. Larger particles are retained within the filter media by filtration. If organic they will decompose during low-dose periods. Typically a biofilm forms on upper layers. This layer helps to adsorb colloidal pollutants and encourages oxidation of the organic material. For effective microbial control, low flow is desired through the sand filter. This ensures contact between the sand medias biofilm and water. During low flow, the interstitial spaces between the sand granules enable oxygen to diffuse to the biofilm and encourage oxidation of organic material. Depth filtration is a variation of a sand filter. Depth filtration uses a granular media, typically sand or a diatomaceous earth, to filter effluent. Typically there are four layers of filter media. The particle size decreases through the filters layers. The coarser top layer removes larger particles and finer material is removed towards the lower layers, increasing the efficiency of the filter (compared with a conventional sand filter). Sand and media filtration technologies suppliers include: Baleen Filters

3.3.3 MEMBRANE FILTRATION

Membrane (or cross flow membrane) filtration is a physical separation process to filter pollutants using a semipermeable media. There are four classes: microfiltration has the largest pore size, decreasing to ultrafiltration, nanofiltration and reverse osmosis. As water is passed through a membrane under pressure, it squeezes through the structure. The membrane selectively traps larger pollutants. The feed stream is effectively split into two effluents: a purified stream and a waste stream.

Table 3.3.3.1 Membrane filtration key features summary Membrane filtration processes can remove particles, bacteria, other microorganisms, particulate matter, natural organic matter and salt (desalination), with removal determined by the membranes pore size. As the pore size decreases smaller pollutants can be removed and pressure requirements increase. The smaller pore size requires greater pressure and greater energy requirements for effective treatment.

3.3.3.1 REVERSE OSMOSIS

Reverse osmosis (RO) is the finest membrane filtration process with the smallest pore size, estimated to be 4 to 8 Angstroms (about the size of a molecule) and the highest pressure requirements. RO removes most pollutants including pathogens, viruses and salts. It is typically used for sewer mining or desalination. It can separate ions (dissolved salt) from water and produces very high quality water. A very high pressure (determined by the osmotic pressure and ionic concentration) is required. This high pressure results in high energy requirements. The small pore size can be more readily 6

blocked (or fouled) and requires regular maintenance. Fouling can be managed by upstream water treatment such as sedimentation. Reverse osmosis units are particularly effective when used in a series configuration. RO membranes are typically constructed from cellulose acetate and polyamide polymers. Chlorine concentration has the potential to damage RO membranes. The cellulose acetate can tolerate chlorine levels used for microbial control whereas any chlorine present will destroy the polyamide polymers. Membrane treatment technologies suppliers include: NuSource Memcor

3.3.4 MEMBRANE BIOREACTOR

A membrane bioreactor (MBR) combines the process of a biological reactor and membrane filtration (refer to Section 3.5). The treatment process has a small footprint and produces high quality effluent with low TSS, BOD, and turbidity that meets almost all health criteria guidelines. MBRs are relatively new processes with a demonstration plant installed at Werribee, west of Melbourne.

There are two basic configurations for a MBR: a submerged integrated bioreactor that immerses the membrane within the activated sludge reactor and a bioreactor with an external membrane unit. MBRs provide a proven and reliable treatment technology, having been used extensively in Japan for greywater and blackwater reuse systems. MBRs replace the need for a separate filtration process. Membranes are costly to replace. Control of membrane fouling is an important operational issue. If fouling is not controlled, membranes will wear quicker, and there will be increased energy costs and decreased effluent quality. MBRs also have higher capital cost and energy costs than other treatment systems. Membrane bioreactor technology suppliers include: Clearwater Aquacell Port Marine Ludowici Zenon Veolia Water Systems Aquatec-Maxcon: Kutoba Memcor Memjet Xpress Nubian Systems

3.7 DISINFECTION
Disinfection destroys pathogenic microorganisms in water to ensure public health. Eradication of waterborne pathogens is the most important public health concern for water treatment. Disinfection ranges from boiling water to large-scale chemical treatment for water supplies. The three most common disinfection methods are ultraviolet radiation, chlorination and ozonation. Ultraviolet (UV) disinfection uses UV light to deactivate microorganisms in water. The short UV wavelength irradiates microorganisms. When the UV radiation penetrates the cell of an organism, it destroys the cells genetic material and its ability to reproduce. UV disinfection has low capital and operating costs, is easy to install and operate and is well suited to small-scale water treatment processes. Chlorination chlorine, a strong oxidant, is the most common water disinfectant. Chlorine can be added in gaseous form (Cl2), hypochlorous acid or as hypochlorous salt (typically Ca(OCl)2). Chlorine addition requires chemical handling and storage. Byproducts of chlorination could be carcinogenic, with particular concern and research to understand trihalomethanes (THMs). Chlorine provides residual microbial control; that is, it continues to disinfect water after it has passed through the treatment process. It is typically selected for drinking water supply systems. Optimal chlorination dosage is dependent on the concentration and water pH and temperature. The pH exerts a strong influence on the chlorination performance and should be regulated. Ozonation ozone is a more powerful oxidising agent than other disinfectants. Ozone is created by an electrical discharge in a gas containing oxygen. Ozone production depends on oxygen concentration and impurities such as dust and water vapour in the gas. The breakdown of ozone to oxygen is rapid. It is impossible to maintain free ozone residuals in water for any significant time.