Cultura l He ritage and Contempora ry Ch a nge

Series Ill , Asia , Volume 27

Confucian Ethics
in Retrospect
and Prospect

Chinese Philosophical Studies, XXVII

edited by
Vincent Shen
Kwong-loi Shun

The Council for Resea rch in Va lues and Philosophy

 Cuhural Helitage and Conternpora1y Change
Series 01, Asia, Volume 27
General Editor
George F Mcl.eau

Confucian Ethics
in Retrospect and Prospect

Chinese Philosophical Studies, XXVII

Edi1cd by
Vincent Shen
Kwong-loi Shun

The Council for Research in Values and Philosophy

 ('opyri$:hi 0 2008 b~·
T he Council fnr R~.tcnrch in Value~ and 11li lo~nJlhY

Bu!( 26 1
Cnt~Jin:1l ~:llion
Wa-dlington. 0 . C. 2006.&

t\11 rights rc.>;(.'f\·cd

Prink-d. lU lhc Umtod S l:llcs of Am<..'Tl<:a

Confucmn ethics in rctruspc<:l nnd prosp~:c t / edited by Vincent Shcn.

K''<lng·l<li Shun
p em.... (Cullural hcritngl! mkl coa1h.:mporary ch~ng~. St n.cs HI. J\si:1:
" 27)
l ndudcs bibhoe.r uphtc al rct'c rcnccs 3nd mdcx.
I C-:m fuciun ~:thic~ I. SJ1cn. Q ing:;.;.ln~ I[. Sln•n. Kwout:·1<.'1 . 1953· Ill,
Tide. IV. Scri c:~..
13J I2R9 >.C66200? 20010 10736
170.951 dc22 C IP

ISBN 978· 1·565 18·245·5 (pbk.)

 Table of Contents

Tutmr/u rfjqrr

/'art I. Ctm(ucian EtMcs in llistorical Coutcxl

Chaplcr I. Virtues of./mrt

Chopter II. Teochcr-Disciplc. or Ft iends'! -

An Historico-Excscticol Approach to the Analects
}itt'/ Kl•tm., /,o 27

Chapter Ill. J\.·fusic I' uc! in Classical Confucianism:

On ttlc R<...ocenth' Di scovered Xi"t: Zi t\lmg Ow

Charier IV. Is Mencius a Motiv:uion.'ll lntcmalist?

Anh 'littm Nm-cn 79

Ch:mlcr V. Xun1.i and 1he Esscntiali5"t Mode of

Thinking about Human Nature
Kim-chong Chong 93

Ctumlcr VI. Do Sngcs Have Emotions'/

tflmt K 1. Chmr ,,
Chapter VII. locating the rvtoml Self: Emotions and
Humgn A ..cnc\· in Song Nco:Confuci pn TitoughL
Curie ~ r6 ·, 137

Chaplet Vlll. ls Wang Yan~;;,ming·s Notion of

Innate Mom! Knowledge (f.wngzhil Tenable'?
Yrm gHurmg 149

Chapter IX. On Mou Zongs3n"s Idealist Confucianism

Wmg.chcuk Cha11 171

Ptrrt II: Cmdt~c inn Etllic!i ;, Compnrotire ("qnt~xt and in Pmspect

Chanlcr X. Between the Good ond the Right:

The M iddle Wa\· in Neo~Confuc i an and Mah3\':'in3 Moml PhilosOJJhv
Jinftn Yan 187
iv

Chapter ).'J. Chong Yagvong 's Four Books Learning

1Jm Ch11n·kmt 229

Chapter ~11 ItO Jinsai on Confucius· Analecl.t::

A Tvuc of Confucian Hcnneu:::ulics in E3SI Asia
(.'hun-thh·h Huan g 247

Ctu:mtcr XIII. Confucius on li and Momaignc on r·,,~mme:

A Rcllc-ction on Custom!lf\ Pr3cticcs .:md Personal Autonom' '
Cermo frt•c ?71

Ch:1ptcr XIV. Globalization :md Confucianism:

The Virtues of Shu and Gcncrositv to ~.fall\ Olltcrs
(1nceul Shm
 lntroduction
ltinccnt Shen

The original Chinese tcnn for ··c onfucianism- was -nu·;a" (fni:~!),
n term "l1ich lirsl appeared only hllc in the -Re,·ortl)· tJ/ t/J( Gr(lud
Hiswr icm"' (completed around IOOBCE) of Sima Qian (riJ .IJ5ltt l45-86BCE)
in lhc formt!r Han Dynasty. NC\'Ctlllclcss, it '''3S fUnned as., school alrc::tdy
in the prc-Qin era. Historic.11ly speaking, ru (t:fi) were those people who
scncd. iJl the Spring and Autumn period in ancicm China ns onicials of
middle range related to cducmion :md public rites. In the l:ucr Spring and
Autumn period. they Josl their office and earned their lh·clihood :\5 teachers
of rite-s nnd 1itual coordiu.ators. "Confucius", the lnlinit.cuion of Kons, Fuzi
(Master Kong), rcfc1s to Kong Qm {L.IX. ttlso know ns, Zhonsni N1 M.
\\hO scn·cd more or less the same func tion. tl1ough he wos most influential
because of teaching tl1e largest number of students (3000 stude-nts according
to the legend). ha,·ing systcmatic:~ lly organil.¢d his teaching materinJs, and.
most importantly. laying a philoSOI>hicnl foundation for rituals and Chinese
ch·ili?.ation by tht:ir lrans.ccndcnlal deri\'ation from n..~n to yi to h.
Confucius (5:Sl-479BC). seen as the founder of classical
Confuciv.nism. \HIS fo liO\\Cd in its s«ond phase by his gmnd son Zisi
(493-406BC). 10 be dc1•elopcd by Mencius (371 -21\'JBC), and in !he <hird
phases by XUll.7.i (298-DMBC) . Xum·j ·:; idea of Hcncn us Nature and hi:;
combin:llion of li (ritual) '' ith j b (law). w<~s fo llowed by most Confuc.lans in
Han Oynasly 10 serve emperors and to reinforce political stability or the
stnte. Dong Zhongshu (c 179--c IWBC) was responsible for making
Confucianism tl1c state ideology of Han ~· n:~sty. Unfortunately, since the
end of later Han Dynasty. Confi1cianism hcc.amc donnanl :.nd less
iofluentinl for intciJcctunls who were led nway frrs l by Neo·Dnoism :md
then by Chinese Mahayana Buddhism.
After Centuries of s ilence, Confucianism beg3n to rc''i\'C in th~
North Sung O)·n.n:sly as " Nco·Confuci:mism'", which dc\'clopcd through
three lines of thougln. First from the ft\'C m:~stci'S of Nor1h Sung Dynnsty.
such as Zhou Dunyi (10 17-1073AD). Zhang Zai (1020-1077) Shao Yung
(1011 ·1077AD). Cheng llao (also known as Cheng Mingdao 1032-1085)
omd Cheng Yi (also l.:n0\\11 35 Cheng Yichuan 1033·1107), to Zhu Xi in the
South Song Dynasty: this line could be called the Nco..Confuci:mism of the
RcoliSI Type. Second. from Lu Xiangshan (1139-1 193) to Wang Yangming
(1 -'72- 1529): this line could be called Ncc.~onfuc ianism t)f the Idealist
type. Third. thinl:crs from l:tle Ming Dyna.-.ty 10 mid Qing Dy n:~.uy. such 3S
Wang Fu1J1i (1619-1 692) Yon Yuon (1 635-1704). Li Gong (165? -1 733). Oai
Zhcn (1723-1777). etc.: this line constituted Nco-Confuc ianism of the
Natur:llist t) pc.
 Titis is only a very schematic prcscntiltion of Confucianism in
Chint."Sc History, ;tbstracred from ils ,·cry rich historical. philosophical and
cvel)·d3y meanings for the Chinese people. lnd~Xd. Confuci:mism. bod1 :'IS n
way of life- nnd ns n S) slcm of ideas. has been dc,·cloping for some 26
Ccnluries. and is still dc\'cloping in Chin.1. East Asia :tnd e ,·cn lhtOughoul
the world. It has long been spreading in Europe. Nortl1 and South Ame-ricas.
Africa, Australia. and ol.hcc pans of the " odd. This is not only bcCilUSC of
the increasing Chinese Diaspom :md cuhuml cxchancc. but :tlso from the
local interest of all these nrcns. h is worth mentioning OUt, recently in
China, the idea or "gO\'emance by \inue- of Jiang Zhcming. former
President of China. and the g11iding policy of .. Building Up a Hannonious
Soc.icty" proposed by Hu Jingtao. current President of China. both belong
to the Confucian political program. In today's contcxl of globalization.
there is alwnys a need to dch·e into the depth of Confucian thought ::md
practice, 0 0 1 only for the purpose o f understanding the cultures in the .lri!OS
under its inOucncc. but nlso for drn\\ lnu resources of spi_citu3l voJucs aluu
misht be helpful for solving problems in today·s world. For th e~ reasons
Confucianism is aJwnys an imponam subject for East Asian Studies ~d
China Studies in Nonh Ame.t·ic..'l, and it is not SUI'JUising to sec the recent
emergence of a group of distinguished Amcriciln scholars. like Robert
Nc,·iJic. John Berth.rong nod others. who cnU thcmsch'cs ..Boston
Confucians''.
American and Asi:m sc.holars gathered for lhc purp<JSC of mutual
undcrslnnding and deeper pcrceplion of what is at slake for Confuc iani:')m
today. ns to its method. history rmd ftmda mcntal \Ulucs. Some hi&hly
rcspec1ed and intcrnalionally reno~' ned academic institutions ors,anizcd the
lntcmatiOtul ContCrcncc on -Confucianism: Retrospect and PcospccC
"hich took l>l:.ce ~~ tJle Ocpanment of E.ls1 Asi:.n Swdics. Unh'ersity of
Toronto. September 2·3, 2005. I'm most e.ratcful to the co·sponsors of this
conference: the Department of East Asinn Studies. Unh·ersity of Toronto.
rcpn:.scnted by Professor Andre Sch mid~ the Unh·crsity of Toronto at
Scarborough. represented by l'rofessor Kown·loi Shun : Nation:1l 'J'aiwan
U nh·crsil~· ·s Center for Study on East Asian Ch·iliz.1tions represented by
Professor Chun·chich Huang: the- Department of Philosophy of Singapore
Unh crsity. represented by Professor Al.:m K. L. Chan; and the Council for
ReSC.1Ich in Philosoph~· and Value. \Vashington D.C.. n.:prcscntcd by
Professor George Mc l ean.
11tis ,·oJume is the outcome of the synergy of this conference
whose papers :tre dvidcd into l\\0 pans. Those in the first part are reLated to
Confucian EtJ1ics in Historical Context: 1hosc in the second pari ru-e related
to Confuci:m Ethics in CompamtiYe Context and in Prospect.
TI1c first part eoYcrs all major phases of the dc\·clopment of
Confucianism. lt starts with Professor Antonio Cua·s k c~· notc spcc<:h on the
,·irtucs of Jun:i, Using an analytical method :md ethical theories. his paper
presents a very c-ornprcbcnsh·c discussion of the ,·i.rtues of Confucian
pomtdignuuie indi\ idu111. ahe Jun ~i. consisting of such inlcrde)JCndem
 It~~roductum 3

cardinal vlnucs as ~n. U. and yi. and llteir tlcpcndcnt supponhc or

constilulhc: virtue-s. ProCessor Yuct·l.:cung Lo's pt1pcr on "Teacher-Disciple.
or Friends'?- An Hislorico·Excgctical Approtlch 10 the Analects'1 discusses
'' ith subtlct~· the concept of pmx (friend/disciple) in the Analec:ts.
inte'groting bmh philological :~nd hermeneutic considerations. Profc&sor
Joh.:mn:. Liu's prcsenblion. "Music [)•ucl in Cl:l.ssical Confu;;:i.;mism: On the
Recently DisCO\'Crcd Xmg Zl }.•ling (hu'', unfolds the l'ich mc;~ni n:; of the
Confucian philosophy of music on three h~\'Cis: sounds, aesthetics :md
sclf-c.ufti,·ntionlpersorullity ttonsfonn:uion. based on her annl~ sis of the
rcccnll~· di:sc.ovcred bamboo slips tc:-.t -xwg Zi A1inx Clm"' (Human N:tturc
comes from l\.Jandate). Professor Anh Tuan Nuren's paper ''Is Mcncius a
~·lora ) Internalisl'!" argues. using the analytic method. that Mcncius should
not be C·onsidcrcd only an inlcmalist. for he takes into account also cxtc-mal
factors. Professor Kim-chong Chong's " Xunzi and the Essentialist Mode of
'lb inklng ~bout Huntan N3ture". in critically a.n:'tlyzing, Profcs.~or Antonio
Cun·s consc<tucntialist ;tpproach 10 Xunt.i's LIICOl)' of human n.oturc as C\ il.
m:~kcs it de:u th:tt Xunzi does not hold an essentialist theory of huma"
auture.
As to the period of 1he Dynasties Wei and Jin, a ,,eriod quite onen
negl«:ted by Confucinn scholnrs. we have fortunately an excellent paper
presented by Professor AJan Chan. titled "Do S:~gcs HaYc Emotions·r This
discusses both historically and philosophical!) the concepts or xin (natUJc)
und IJing {f<.-clings) of He Y:m. w~ng Bi and GU(l Xiang under the influence
of Duoi.sm, This unfolds the phi losophicol :md historical mc;ming of the
proposition "Tiu.: sa&c is forgetfu l of his own R-clinu,s- till its innucncc on
the theorr of emotion of Che-n Hao in the North Song DyMsty. This paper
leads us into the period ofNco.-Confucio.nism dc,·clopcd in the D)nllSlie.s of
Song and Ming. In this \'Olumc we ha\'e included Pl'ofcssor Huans Yong·s
"Nco-·Confucian Pol itical Philos.opl\y: The Cheng Brothers on /i (Propriety)
~Political Psychologic.1l and Mctopbysical". ~d Professor Curie Virag's
.. loc:-ating the mornl self: cntotions and hunHul :'l~cncy in Song
Nco..Confucian thought" that discusses the concept of ''qmg" (feeling.
emotions) in Zhu Xi's moral psychoiO£,y. As to 'ontemporary Confuc i~nism.
this volume included Professor Wlng-chcuk Ch:tn 's "'On Mou Tsong-san ·s
ldc:tlist Confucian ism". updating us with the most rcecnt devclopmenl of
Modem New Confuci3nism.
l11c second pan of the book. relmcd to Confucian Ethics in
Comparative Con1ext and its Prospect, consisls either in bringing
Confucianism to the larger context of comparison "ith Buddhism. such as
Professor Yan Jinfcn's -~Between the Good and the Right: The ~iidd l c Way
in Nco·Confucinn and Mahny:ma Moral Philosophy''. and to the eon1c~1 of
Enst Asia. Korean Confucianism is represented by Professor Chcn-fcng
Tsai's '"Chong Yag)'Ong ·s Four BooJ.:s Learning.- while J:JJJallCSC
Confucianism is rcprcscn1cd by Prof\:soor Chun·chkh Hu~ng 's " ItO Jinsai
on Confuc ius· Analet:ts-: A Type of Confucian Hermeneutics i.n East Asiu-.
Included here. also is Professor Cecil ia Wce·s paper that com p:~res
Confucius "ith tJ1c \Vcstcrn thinker. Montajgnc. cntil1cd ··confuci us on li
and Montaignc o n C'mM·tumt>: A Rcnc.'Ction o n Customary Pr.n:ticcs and
Personal Autonomy... This pan ends up with my ~Gl oba li1.at io n nnd
Confucianism: Confucian Virtues of Shy nnd Genc:rosity to the Other··
\\ hich opens Confuci.:'tnism to the fu ture opened by the process of
globalitntion.
II is also worthy of note that SC\·cral philosophical methods arc
used in tl1is book to discuss Confucianism, such ns the analytic mcd10d and
ctJJical lhcorics used by Anlonio Cua. Anh Tuan Nuyen. Md Kim-chong
Chong: the phenomenological Md henncnculic mctluxls \\ ith postmodem
rcncctions by VillCcnt Shcn and Johanna Liu: philological and exegetical
med1ods used by Yuct·kcung Lo: the comparath·e method :md methods of
imcllcctual history used by Chun-chicb Huang. Tsai Chcn-fcng and Cecelia
Wee. Despite the '3ricty of methods. most of the pnpers presented hch! nrc
COn~rned wilh c thiC-3 ) :tnd n.x ioJogic31 (such 3 5 aesthetic) dimensions of
Confuciv.nisrn. We- may SO) thcrdon.: dml methodology and ethics of
Confuci.ilnisn1 arl! the two major conccnts of this volume .
1 want to thank all the co-sponsors and autl1ors of pa.pcrs presented
in the conl'ercncc and JlUb lishcd in this \Oiumc. It is their wisdom and their
b'Cncrosity that constitute the essence of this volume. In particular. I Wilnt to
thank Professor George Melc.1n. who has generously co-sponsored this
conference b~ being willing to publish this ,·olume. His ''isdom and 'irtucs
h:we always bri\'e n me :1n cx-cm pl:~ r image of j unzi. th e Confucian
p:lfadigm;atic i.nd ividu:.l. Also my special than.' -s go to Miss Hu Ycping.
\\ ho·scnrefbl arr:mgcmC11l and tcchnic.al suppo11 h.a\ C rendered an cxcdlcnt
tiSS i~tn.ncc in the \\ hole process of publication of this book.
At the end of Lhis preface. 1 '' isb to note cspc:ci:l.lly bO\\ sad it is for
those \\ hO know Professor Antonio Cuo that he passed <'l\\tl) ' on MMch 27,
2007. This indeed was a great loss for the enrirc community or scholars in
Chinese: philosophy and Asian Studies. Antonio Cua was an inspiring
tcacl1cr. a t:rcat scholar. :m eminent philosopher. and most imponantly. a
junzi in the Confucian sense. The editors of this volume :md the publisher
would dedicate in his memory their clforts in publishing this ''olumo.
 Part I

Confucian Ethics in Histodcal Context

 Virtues of ]unzi
:4nUmio5i. Clm (Ke Xrongwen ~if!flj()

l ~TROilUCTI ON

h is an l1onor and n pri' i lc~c to present this k-.:ynote <1ddrc.ss. 1 am

gmtcful 10 Professor Vinccm Shcn and the organi1ing committe~ of the
lntcl113tional Conference on Confucimtism for pro,·id.ing n1c this
OJ)I.>Ortunity 10 present a J>OI1ion of my recent work on Confucian ethics.
focusing on the idc.l of,irmzi ;tt -f one of the m:tin topics of interest in
4 •

my e:lfl}" re:us of teaching, The other 1opic pertains to the logical character
of Confucian dialogue-s. The {smyu ~~t fr/} was my main subject of
CXJ)IOration. Subscqucnttr. I dC\'OICd much crron in dC\'Cioping a Confuci31\
moml philosophy, my \Hitings range from the s1udy of hum:m nature,
rituals. rc:uoning and argumentation. SU"U Cturc or b.l.Sic Confucin.n concepts
to the unity of knowledge :md action. As I advance in years. I otlcn thought
ofrctnming to Confucius's conception ofpmzl . bcc(tusc it seems to me that
tbis conception otTers :1 way to contribute to the recent rt\•h·nl of \'ir(uc
ethk:s and. more imporlantly. the c-onception hns inherent import quite
ap:u-1 f'mm it~ rch~·,':m cc to cuncnt proble m~ and issut"S in mor:tl philosophy
o r nonnati' 'C cth.ics. Buildi.ng and cxp:mding on some of my prc,;ous
studies of Jtmzl and Confucian ethics. 1 just completed " lonJ: m~nuscript
cmitJc-d "Th~ Vlnucs of Junzi.'" This paper draws tiom about <1 third of that
tcxl
Throughout the L.wryu. we find frequent occurrence of ccnain
tcnns Sllch >~s rcn ·f.: (bcnc,·olcnc:c. humnncncss). li l~t (rules of proper
conduct. ritual. rites). :~nd J!f ~ (right.ness. 1ightcousncss. fininsness).
indicuting Confucius's ongoing conc.c:rn with Lhc culti\'ntion of fund:uncntal
virtues. 1 11tc unsystematic character of Confucius·s elhic.:'JI thought in p.an
rcncets his emphasis on the concrete and the particular. Confucius made
c.'\'tcnsivc usc of notion ofj rmti. instead of princ iples. for c.-.;plaiulug ethical
' 'inucs and instructjon. Plausibly. Confucius's notion of jrmz; rcnc-cts his
concern for flexibility in coping with changing circum!'tanccs. In t h i~ light.
Confucius's c:thic:al lhought. unlike that of Mc:ncius (Mc:ng.zi i!~t ~f) or

1
S~.o'\: Cua. ''Rcllccti,ms on th~ Slruclurc ul' Conl11cwn l!thic.s,-
Pflr'los()phy /;'tat and ll'e.Jt 21 , No, 2· 12$...40. mcorpomtcd in D lml'mions of
.\ fond Cn·atwity (UI\1W~i1y 1-'mk Pcnnsylvamu Sta(.· UnivcJslty Ptl-..ss. I ~7S,),
chap. 4. For 11n cxtcn:si\'..:.discussion nr the conc~~llu:~l frarn<..·work of Confucian
cthi..:s. S(...'\: ,\IQI'OI J /.Von tmd trmhtion: f.~\·(·sy:~ 111 Clmtt:it: Etltil:~ (\VasltingHIIl.
DC· C:Hhol•c Univci'Sity oi'Amcm.:a Pf'C/)~. 1998). Ess:a)· J:i
8 Antonio S. C11a

Xunzi \Jf T . is best charn<:terit.cd as an ethics of j tmzi or J)aradigmntic

indi,·idua.ls.. : l_o this paper I prc-scot a rccon.struction of some principal
uspccts of Confucius's conception of puu;, I shall otTer u \\ay for sorting
out the \~true-s in the J.uny1•, with spccia.l emphasis on rt•n 1- and yt iN as
a virtue of flcxibilit~'·
At the outsc.t, let us note somi! difTcrcnt translations of Jtmzi:
''Sitperior mon- (Legge. Chan. Bodde. Dubs), -gentlcmon- (\Volcy. Lou.
Watson}. nnd "noble m:m or person- (Giles. fingarcttc. SchwartJ"_ de Oary) 3.
Since there is no English cquh·nJent. junz• is best len untransltucd. In nn~·
c:~sc! for Confucius. as well as :\icncius and Xuozi.Jllllzi cxprcsscs an ideal
of a r;ullivatc.:d. cthicul chaructcr. Althoush more c,xplanation is needed to
3\'0id misleading interpretmions. the various Hanslations of Jlmzl may be
viewed a.S voJWlble 3ltCmplS 10 bring fotlh the lr.U1Sbtor's OWn C!ppl.)iSOl of
Lllc S<Jiicnt features uf this ideal of ethical character in a ":~)· that will be
intelligible to English readers. Thus. we may regard Jllf'IZI 3S a sort of
empharic tcnn that in context. scrYcs 10 accentuate ocruin ctJ1icallr
desirable nnd c.ommcndablc \'irtnes (meidt: ;nt~.{) or qualities of an ideal
p.:rson. in short. cthic:.l excellences.
In gcncral j un:/ is a pJmdig.matic indi,iduJI who sets the tone and
quality of the life of ord in:u~ morn I ag<:nts. A pmzf is a person who
embodies n,n. o.rtd)-1, and li. E \'CI'')' person moy stri\'C to become a_~tmzi in
Llle sense of a guiding piuadig~natic individual. t•athcr than a xulfJrcn
(small-minded person). 1'hcrc arc of course degrees of personal cthic.al
achic,·cmcnt. depending on t11c situation, chamctcr. :tbilit~·· and opportunity
of moral agents.

BASIC INTERDEPENDENT AND DEPENDENT VIRTUES: .REN ·f=.

Ll lfi, AND Yl ®

Concern with the basic interdependent virtues of ren. yi. and It also
in\'olvcs p;n1iculou dependent virtues such as filia lity (xlao ~: ).

~ Cua, {)j11ul mwns (ifMoml Cndli'-'''>'· chap. 2-.J.

~ \Ving·t'>it Chan, tmns.., A Source Book lu Chini!St' PMlo.tOp}T)J
(Princeton, NJ: Princct(ll) Uni\cr.o;ity Pre:;!!>. l%3)~ AJ.1hur Wnlcy~ trnn:;. Tlh.·
,1n(l/cct:s tlj Co,ifiu:itts (Nc\\ York T he M\)4.1cm Libnuy . 1938). I) C. L:nt
(trans) ('o,!{uci"s: The A1uil.tc:ts (/o~m p1J <,MtddlciiCX. England· Penguin.
1979): llurlc.)n Wutson (In ns), llsiin 1':11: flustc ll 'ntmgs (New Y()rk: Cohnnbit)
Univcn;ity rrc~.,-, 1963} Lioocl (Jiles, Sayi11g.~· t~( c~.,,!fi,ciu.~ (Loodon: John
f\lfnm•y. 1907): [h,abcH fmt~ arcuc. C<mfirchts: Th..--: St•catlol' m !J<,,~n:J (New
Yotk Elarpcr a nd RI)W. 1972). nenj ~lrnin Schwartz. Tlw World t>f rlui115J.hr '"
Ancivnl Chm(l (Cannbrlt.lgc: H!l.r\·:u\1 Uni\'crsit) Prc::.-s, )9~5): oml \Vm
Th(.'Qdorc de 13:try, 1'/u.• J'm ttbh· lt ith Cm~fudauism (Cornbridg.c. Mass u!ld
London. UK . Itm-vard Un i ,·ct~ ity l'n::.s:l. l !YJI)
 J'irfue,v ()f,hmzt 9

magnanimity (!..cum 'f-0. tmst\\ onhincss (xi, ki). and courage (yvng tf;).
These particular ,·i.rtucs nrc coiled dependent virtues i.n tbc sense lb:~t thci.r
cthi;;:al sign ific~ncc depends on C·onncction with the: basic:. intc:rdcpcndcnl.
c:udin:ll 'inucs (hcnc.cforth. cardin:tls). Dependent virtues :lrc not
subordinme or logical dcri\'o.tivcs of Lhc basic. ' irtucs." The ethical
significance of the particular dependent virtue! is dctcnnincd by rcn and yi.
since these arc criteria of moral ,·irtucs.' Of course, when If is im·\:stcd
\\ith an ennobling function, it cntn.ils the presence of nm nnd pi .4 As Chen
Daqi IJ.ii).:W.t maintains. " hat Confucius meant by de ~- in the sc:nsc of
excellence or virtu e. bns lo do wiah the product of lhc. intersection of rcu
,,
and t'J, Thus both n:u and .vi ma\'. be said to be the. 'onstitur:nl clcmculs of
tfe.

" The d1:'.1inction bctWL·cn bal'ic and dt.lX'mlenl ''it1lll!'"' i~ not 1hc
d 1stmetmn between b:lstc :md suhordin:th: virtue:> nuslah-nlr aun butcd to me-
by Schop<.Y. citing my earlier J):•pcr ..([sUn Tzu and 1hc U11i1}• Qf Virutcs.. (C\I(l
1987). Sc.,; &c Jon:.atb un W . Schopcr. " Virtuc.s in XUivj's Thought- in l'ir/11~.
Katim '. a11d .Hom / AgenC)' in tl~e: Xunzt, ellit.::ll h~' T C. J.:.linc anJ Philip J.
1\·anhoc (lndianafx>hs: Hacken, 2000) F4-W cltl.bornllon of the rtlmion belW<.'\."11
lxls1e-, tntc-rdcpcndt.-nt \irtucs :md dependent \'irluc-s, sec my .Hom/ n...iou ami
1'rtuhthm. E~\' 13.
:. In Dim;.,,,iou.t oj ,\lort1/ Cn:111iwry. I con.sid(;R"<I n:11 ;a~ 11n mh.r nal
cnten\;n of morilhly ond /, a:- the ~rcma l cril(.'llOn. Si~c the- HpplictUit'ln M li
as n1lcs of pmpncty is dctcnniOL.x:l by yi, yi csn also be regarded as an mtcmal
criterion. n.:~ i1 i:~ un exercise ol' jltdg.~ncnt conf!(.·ming the applicnbili1r of h.
rvfllf<.xwcr. "'JUSt liS j~ru lrnl 1 .;.·annot lx: J>l'<l\..1iccd "ithout II. or lll4: cullural
SC11111S, jen C:lllnl)l be I'C:311Zl:d \\~ lll tl4,lt i [1'1j , Or the j ldgment uf the 1\:IC\ MI!CC Of
j~>n nnd b in concrch! !H1u:ttlons ell' mo rnl perfnnnnnec" (Cu:t 197fi:, 51-57,
67-69). [u !\ lonrl r ·,~ion tmd 1'mdilion. b<,scd o-n ll modtfic..'l tion oJ' Ch~·u D;lqi!s
\\Olk o n /.m~ 1 u. I tli..'>l.:u~.,;li tl1c crileria fur ddc.nniniug t11c central OJ'
lln'hla.ml!ntal o."~nccrts itl th~ /.m iJll. S\:c CI1L"1l Dnqi, A't)IJb'Z' nre,fhtu) 1t=fl }\lifl.
(!'a•rei. Zhcnpdtong, 1977)
6 S<.x: my <·The Concept o f li i n Confucian Mural 1l1cory '' in

Uutk1'SUmdmg llti~ Chwese Mmd: 71te Pltilo.Jophical /(()QJ.V• ..:thlctl by Rolx,"T1 E,

Allinson (Hnng Kon~; : Oxford 1inivcf'l'ity Prc.ss, IW<9) For :1 mmc i:XIcnsi\'C
~•~coun t, S¢e nw .\ Ioral I i s10 11 ami 1i·tuiltion. Ess:av 13.
1 Chen Daqi dahorah:~ l't!ll and ,t'i a..; cClnsti.tucnls uf rk ffi: ..The cmt: of

rrn ts ni ft (aJl(.--ettontttc conc.::cm). thus at as: the mam cvne('m of r~·n. The
runJ amcntal nature ofyi is <ll'propriatcnc:iSU·i" 'iO. 1hus <!J)Il(OJII'ialcnc$."t is 1hc
rn:~in conccm ()[ p . t:..)nsid\.'1' .\·in (ff (tru.s£WOI1hine5s ()r being t1uc 10 4.1nc's
\\Ofds). Occilu~ o f affl."C1iouatc couctTu f<lf' jX.X>plc. one \\ ill no1 allow p4..'(•plc
10 he tlec.ci\'Cd. On(.·'s worJ:; musl b..:. sui100 to the aclifm. anJ oction mu.s' be
~'llllt.-d u' the word~ 'J'his 1::0 the Ci..'rC of nm. In ordt.T It' r1lnde l~ f:1imc:.:s
(:/l(mJ!,kcn '1•1!-f}, wtd for the Sllkc of (lbhlutiog good rcsulttl. one should adh.;;rc
lo :.:lu on!) if such :~dhcJ~n cc is opproplialc tUkl slll\Uid nN ~ldhcrc to xm if sucl1
adhm'ftce is inappropm11c. Tht~ is 1he fundanl.:nta1n~ 1 urc (lf J l/. ··Chen goes on
10

For forcstaiHng misunderstanding. let us note that dependent

vinucs are virtues. as they rcOccl person:~! merits. although their ethical
signiJlcancc is determined b~· their c:onne<:tio n with one or more bask
interdependent \ irtucs (Ju:nccforth. cardinals). At issue is their ethical
significance, not their \'alue status ns deserv ing of praise in appropritue
non-ethical contexts. Also. their v3luc status may be Olpprcciatcd in the lighl
()f tltcir function as spccifi c:.tions of the concrete significance of the
cardinals, which :uc basically abstract general concepts. To borrow Xmtl.i ·s
distinction. tbc cardinals. n:n. Jli. and li. arc gougming ~~~~- or generic
tcnns. and d ependent vinucs me brcming HI£ or spcc::iJic terms . that is,
tcnns th3t specify the coocrclc $is n.ifia1nce of the cardinals in partir;uli.lr
conrexrs of d iscourse. •
For cl3boration. we m.:~;y approptiate C hen 03qi"s distinction
between complete or whole 'i11ucs (tJttande 4?; ~) and pm1ial virtues
(Mmule '1~). Cardin::als (rclf. yi, 11nd II) nrc fundamcnml \'irtucs. They
m:'ty be said 10 be qutm 1i'.:: or comp le1~ in the sense 1ha1 rheic elhicol \'alu~
is inu·insic. ruther than cxlfinsic. In this sense. lJlWmle ffi!:\ arc complete
or whole (quan i~) ,·i.rtucs. Moreover. these c::ardinals arc rclc\'nnt to all
sirumions ofhum un life as our nc1ions ha'c :.1lways cfTc<::ts on Olhers. On the
other hn.nd, piondc {\ii~ or p:u1ial ''inucs arc so·c.allcd, because their
ethical signilkancc arc limited, no1 only in their application 10
circumslanccs. but also insof3r as their ethical \-:tluc depends on conllCction

I(• d i~linglll~h nm ond yi from t)nf1icular vim•e-,, by way M dt~ th~t in~i()fl
l:x:-twcco coroplctc ,·irtucs (qt~tmd.J ~'!t!t) from p:t.rtial (lr incomplete vi11ucs
f.pumdi! (4~f[i), T he r. l nth .::J arc said tn be "'pctf t:C1 \'irrue:i free f h .lln any dcf'"~ts
\lhlltS(IC\'Cr. If .:1 \~ ltU C hos lhc 1\' JJ d emcni but docs n()l possess the ri ~Jc-m'-"111_,
it can onl)' be called Q pa11iol villuc- (Chen l...'o ngJi Xlll'.~lmtl n 7-~~';2:. 230).
Chen's ll i~ inchon is '(UIIc lliffl•tenl frt"Jm m) d1stinctit)n hcl\\'l.'Cn ~1 sic
intcrdcpcodcnt :md dependent \ 'i rtuc!), for :tl is$Uc l!i not comp1ctcnc.ss or
!XlSSc~Sion of 001h J\!11 and Fi. bul the tlltic~U siguit1cancc of JXuticular \'irtucs.
In other ''ord$. in the absence of the conncclion to rm anti J'i. i>arlicubr Vil'tucs
m:t)' b:wc llllll-\:thic,ll v~ I U~ :md may wdl he conunclld.•h!c fmm thr.:
f,flldcntiol point of \icw, pm\idccl of course. the~· .src not cxcn::iscd l'Ontr:uy to
n·u anti yi. As I will dtS(..•uss slton ly. Chcn·s d1stinchon i:s \'tdu~blc forr
elaborating m~· 0\\ll.
8 For runher <hscusslon, sec my Erh•ctJ/ ; II}Jumt•Jit/Jti(HI: 11Swrfy m fb·rin
1':11 .~.\lam/ l£pistcmol<•gy (1 lonolulu: Um\'<.Tsit~ M l law:ni t>res.s. 1985}~
42-43, pu.,~im~ :t.nd .. The Prohlcot of Conccplun.l Unily io 1I$Un Tzu :md l i
Kou·:l &llulion:· PlrliO.\"Qphy l?(IJI (WJ r"l't•JI 39. N..). 2 (1989); 11 5·J4:
inali}'IOI'a((-'1:1 in 1/mntm N tl flln!, Riurul. mul !fi,ftOI;t': .Siwlfes ;, X•ur:i urn/
Chmnc l'ltilosophy. (Waslnn1;.1on, DC: Cathohc Uni\'t.'TSity M Ametrca l're:a,
2005). Note that Chen 0 3qi cmpJoys the !i:U.nc diSiinclion. in distiatguishing
·•\\hulc- t'lnl.l "JXI!ti<~ l virluc.::t -
 l 'irflre,t tif./rm:l II

with the cardin~ Is. Here. again. \\ c may in\'oke Xun:d 's distinction bct\\CCn
dao as a whole and its \':trious pi1m (Q or ~spc c1s . Xun1.i is critic.1l of some
thinkers. not because th e~· espoused f;tulty or inational doctrines. but
because they comprehend only pttrti:ll :'lSJ)CCts of the IJna. Mozi {~}=¥'·. for
example. righll~· appreciates the importance or uniformity. but he- fails 10
aucnd to the Htluc of dh·crsity: Songzi :..f;: 1': rightly ~pprccialcs the \'aluc
of ha,·ing fC"'\ desires. but he fails 10 sec the \'aluc of ha\'illg m.nny dc-sircs.9
Snys Xun:t.i. " /)fl() embodies consta n c~. b111 encompasses all changes. A
single comer is in5Uflkicnt to cxh:tust iLS naturc.'' 10
In the {tlll)'l i. we do find some of Confucius's remarks thut mention
both c.ardinals and dependent \'irlucs in the saml! contexts. for example. rem
f::. :hi Jal (knowledge. wisdom). o.nd youg ~ (boldness or courage) in
1 4.2~t gong ·1ft (respectfulness). :hong (loy :thy). Jing W't {reverence). :~n d
yi ~ in 16. 10: li {~ and zlwng ~ in 3.19: li 1~1. .l'i ti. and .'Cin (;f
(trustworthiness) in 13.4 n.ud 15. 18. Once it wn.s reponed that the Master
tauglH four subjects: wen )( (culture. cuJtuml rd incment). xf11X if
(conduct of life). ::hong ],J.\. und xm (if (7.25).
For heuristic purposes. we m:.y regarc.l dependent \ irtucs as
belonging to two different c l~1crs. One dtlStcr consists of those that nre
closet~· rcl:ttcd to one b:!sic. cardinal ' irtuc rather dlrut :mother. Another
cluslcr (Onsists of "O'"erlapping- dcpcndcm ' 'irtucs in the sense that they
seem cspcci31ly b'<'nn:tnc to the pl.'cticc of one or more cardinols. For
com'cnicuc-c. let us introduce the distinction between supporti\'c :tnd
constituthc \'irtucs. Supporti\'c: virtues arc \'inucs that arc genia l or helpful.
though not necessary. 10 the dc, 'Ciopmcnt of the c.ardin:ds such as ron. )i.
and h. Constituti\'c ,·irtucs. on the other hand, nrc those that ore both
supportive and conslitutirc- of the ctu:tlity of l_hc cnrdinals actunlit..ed . In
general, \·inucs can be admired and ct:m o.lso inspire ideal achic\'cmcnt
when lhey arc ' icwcd as constituti\'C fea tures of' an acbic\'cd state of a
person. Howc,·er, dc t~c hcd from the gO\'Crning guide of moral idcnls.
virtues arc mere objects or praise tbot m3~' not possess a transfonuing
significance for moral agents.
Again ll1e distinc.tion between suppOnivc and constitutive
dependent ,·irtucs is not intcndc:d as a dkholomy. Depending on the
chnrnclcr a.nd tcmpcr.tment. what is mcn:l~· a suppor1h·c tmit in one person
m3) be 3 constituti,·e ,·irh•C for another, kutzn J'l (m!lgna nim it~', generosity,
bro.Jdmindcdncss). for example. may be c::onstituti\·c for a person of mild
tempcr<uncm, but merely supponi\'C for another \\hO has an inordinate

• <!l 'l'1iJU Hl ..!.UI.Ji.t IIJ.!J :l<i' {di.~ !J.'. JlH!. !:.t:l>>. "'-"
Ti<mlun 1Ji<m ~~l'l.'l. JS J .
10
<7dU.;Y,•fi!i'jf,lfD L11~. -~-,}/l'hlW.M.l.> . .h (fbi pum ftt.lff.(1oij. 411:\,
Su.: ~•bo 7'hmluu piuu )~ ;S)~. 381 .
12

sclf·confidcncc in the practice of IV:Il. [n tJ1c diKussiou below. although on

occasion I propose a Spt.."Cilic interpretation. Lhc class1ficatory question is an
open to alternatives. Moreover. the distinction is offered in a tcntath·c spirit.
Perhaps. on closer nnal)sis. the distim:tion may ha\c only a pr.1cticaJ. not
theoretical \Olue, i .e.. helpful to individual agent's rcne<:tion on how best 10
constitute his or her ch:ua<.:tcr. o n which dispositions art: the most congenial
for development in thc- l i~ll of indh idualtc.mpctmrn:nt and c.ircumstanc-c
Constinuh'c virtues arc those that :Jre imegral parts of the state of
ron o.chic,·c d. and thus may be termed ~intcgr3 l \'irrucs... Below I discuss
bricn~ .fwm's bask qualities of cl1amctcr 3S embodying a ctmcern with the
Confucian cardinals and some supponivc :md constituth·c virtues as a
preliminary to dcn1ing with Confud us's idea of the flexi bilit~· or
adaptability ofjlulzi.

REN t A.NDDEPEND.ENTVI.RTUf.S

Ren. in the bro:td sense. is Confucius's dao il!. his 'ision of lhe
Qood. ~m ideo/ l"rme of conc-ern for humanity. The term "'ideal theme- is nn
rtppropriation of the notion of theme fl::uniliar in various linguiS1ic- contexts.
Unlike ideal norms. ideal themes do not provide precepts. mlcs. dirccti,·cs.
or principles for action. They :~rc ideal points of orierllation thnt ha\'C an
11

impon for eommined agents. Such tcm\s !IS de,·clopmcnt clarific:ttion, Md

CXJ)an:;it)n ore. ahus quite at home in discussing ideal themes. Wltcrcas in the
case of ideal nonns, tenns such 3S applicalion. cornpli:tnce and extension
:tre more appropriate.
Ren is like a theme in litc:r.uy or musical C·Omposition. amenable 10
polymorphous. creative expressions. depending on the committed person's
in.tcrprct:uioo of tbc significance of the idcnl for his or bcr life,
Fuudnmcntally. n:n is the ]O\'C of fellow humans (12.22). or affectionate
concern for the ''ell-being of humanity, Commitment tO ten invOI\'CS
benevolence, lhill is. desire to do good to other ns " cll as to "!iludy the good
of othcrs:·U As Confucius s~ys: -111e Jw•zi hdp_.; othe1·s to realize their
(clltically) praiscwonhy qualities (m£>1 :J;;): he docs not help tJ1cm to realize
their bad qualities (e f&i.) . The small man docs abc OJ>posih.:" (12. 16). 11
Contributory· to Md constituti,·c of the rc:tli7..:Hion of ron, is the
de\'ciOpment o f Jh1rticular dependent. conStitutive \irtues such as zlumg .'J.t

11 F~~r tht! dtSJin..:ttOn lh.1wcen Jdc:tl norm :.nd tdc::al theme. sec 1m·
(if
Oimemit:m.J ).fora/ C rcmh•Jf)', chop. 8. .
1
~ Sc..: FnUld:l ilutcbcS(lU. A" lnqui!y Com.:anht~ Mvrv.ll G I)(Ki (md E1•il.
158. ll)is i.s Port II tlf ..Jn Jnqutl)' ml() th~t
Origilktl of Our ldeit.t uflk<m/y mrd
ct a). 1729)', ISS
' 'inue; m 1'\ro 1h!IIIISt-s (l.<'lmk,n· J :md .1. J..:.napttm,
0 Jn th1s tron~bttoo. J rc.:td md :t$ 11uide ~ ~~~. clhic~llv :tdml.t'3blc
t1Utlliti..:;s •JI' ' irtu.::;,
 l lr111e!. of.hm:t 13

nnd slru :W . ?J10ng and slw are perhaps the most important constiluti\·e or
intcgri.ll virtues of t•en."'
7Jwng .•J). is onen uanslated as "loyally. den llion.- sometimes.
"doing one's bc-s t." u For consltuCti\'C intcrprct..1tion, all these renderings
may be- used for indicming n unified conception if \\C adopt sa~·. Josiah
Royce's preliminary definition or ··Joyalty-: "The willing and pr<lctical and
thoroughgoing dCYOtion o( a person 10 3 C3USe." H• -Thoroughgoing
devotion to n cause- implk"S const;~n c~· (lu~ng fl1 ) and doing one's bestlo
rcali:~:c lhc cause or objccl <..)f one·s dc\'otion. th:.tt is. in doing one's uLmost
with one 's \\hole hean and mind UiiiXill &~ r(.•) to realize the object or
commiuuent (jin;i l/r1.c!.). 11
As a self-regarding virtue. zhong implies a commitmcnl to a
sclf-go\'cming standard for conduct, The objcc:t of one's dc\'{llion mny be
anolh cr person. For example. when F:m Chi !J! ~ asked abou t reu.
Confucius replied: ··while at home maintain your respectful attitude <gong
:JM: in h<1ndling afT'3irs. be re\·crcnd (jinJ: 17.0: in dealing wtth others. be
: ht>ng .~:· (13 . 19). The Qbjcct of : bong may be- ;t person in a ~;upcrior
position. Thus. in one sense. to be t hong is to be loyul to someone superior

1'1 The intt.•qHe i:H i~Jn p10fl\)scd bciO\\ i:i a 1'1"'o.

.- m.;tnu:tion thal mnkt.':i> nn
claim to hcin~ r:uthful to the original lc.-.:t, II drnws SQRl(: m~·tcri a ls fmm t\\'Q
JXIfl'CfS' ··c onfucian Vis il)R .-n,i thl! I h1m:m Community," ./mmml Qj Chine~(c
Philosophy 11, No. 3 (198-1}: 226·38; und "'Rcasonoblc P<:r.sons and the Guood:
Rctl...-..: tit~n;) on nu A$f)(.'Ct ot' Wcis:{' Ethical ThougJu," in P hihJ.t(lf'h) ' l)j Pcml
lf(lr1. l.tbmry (I!' l,i\ in,g Philosoph\..'f:i. <.:di14.'<1 by Lewis 1'~. Hahn (l,aSallc. II:
Op~.-'l t Cnurt, 1995) He re I di sc u~ : lmng and .'t.lttt as dtstincl, supporli\'c and
constlt\lll\'\; \' il1u~ of ron. ·n,is i.ntcrpt~tatiOll do~s "''t deal Wttb :lt<>n~-slm ns a
pair. thu!( lc:t\'in£, open the- intcrprctati\'C i~$UC . ]:or u brief crilical !'lun·c~· uf
tli(fcK·nt intclllfclatjons or ::hong (UI(I slm a,-. a rda l ~i.l )Wir. !'C.C 0 s. Ni\ i:;oo.
"7./,Qng and Slm (I.Pyalty. Rc..'Ci prod t~·) .. 1-..'n cyclnp.•dia oJ Chf,t'.~e Pfrilnt t)ph.v .
c..htcd by A S Cur~ (New York nud Locldll!l' Routledge, 2003). Sol! also
Ni,'i$C.m, '·Golden Rule Argumcnt:s in Clun"-......- Morul Philosophy" in D. S.
Nivi:;<.,n. 1'he Hi'>'·" cif Co,fuctaTJI., m: ltrwJ.f (i!aliou.f in C/u11e,~~ Philor(lj>lry .
edited hy 13ry:m W. Van Nonien (L:1Salle. 11: Otx:n C(mn. 1~.)6)
u Sec Latl. Conji1ci11s~ lntrod\tction. X\ ' Note 'h:.11 Con.t\tch1.s I)CI(;asioo:-.lly
JX!mXI zi NJnJ' and :..:iu f,J (tn•stwortbinc..ss). Xm ts J IS(I <~n impoctant dependent
v111uc. r·or om illfonnath·c. bis1orical ~u rrey ..'S\.'C K\\ong.loi Shun, " 7.hr.m g and
Xitt" in EnC')1c-lopcdia ofChincst• Philosoplry .
16 1\d•, plinj: this definition implies no co tnmitmcnl to Royce's c.fincc ption
(\!' ' 'lu) alt} II) 10):111) .• a:; :l !1\tprcmc ~wod &.-c .fu:;iall Royu:. nl(. (J/,jfo.wphyof
/..t))¥~11)' (No..·w York: Mxmlllan. 1920). 16· 17.
1
~ Zhu Xi. S;,,/mji:lm i!Y f.if~Qf (l f(lll@Kon~: TttipiugyuuG. 19SO). 23.
in the social. politico.! hierarchy. cspcciaJI~· 10 a ru1cr (2.20. 3.10. 12.14). 1~
for c~amplc , "'The ruler should employ the scn ·ic:.cs of his subjects in
~ccordo.ncc with rites (It ·~). A subject should scrYc his mlcr by :Jumg.~
Notably, zhong :1lso occurs in non-hicmrchk.al sense ( 1.4, 7.23. 13.19,
16.10). When Zigong -f ·~:,t asked about friendship. Confucius replied:
··Advise them in the spiril o f zJwng :1nd t<lelfully guide them·· ( 12.2.3). II is
imponanl to note that the object of :hong is people in genernl: it is not
confined to either one's superior or equal. 19 As a nm-dcpendcnt \'irtue.
zh<mg is not n blind dCH"IIiOn to persons or mnucrs of con<:cm. Eren n
ruler's conduct· is also subject 10 criticism by subordi.n::alcs (e.g.. 13.)5,
13.23), In Xun1.i ·s '\ Ords. the .sland;ud for great condu~:t is to follow the dclQ.
rather th..1.n the ruler :'lnd to foliO\\ yi ~ rmher th:ln the wishes of one ·s
fathcr... z''
Le1 us now tum to sllu '.B. which c.xprcsscs the idea of
considc:r;uion or others. Viewed scpMatch• or togclbc:r. :hong mtd slm
irwoh'c rcncc1ion and judgment llumg expresses J oy~ hy to :md
conscientious rcg.:ud for Lhe mornl sLrutdud or the ideal of ron, i.e .. on
attiludc of sincerity :md sc.:riousncss in one·~ commitment to ren: shu more
especially pcnains to other-regarding conduct. A commitment to ron is a
commiuncnt to reali~ing ron in the pcrson.1l relalions between oneself ;md
anotJtcr. Slm may be said 10 be '-the golden rule" lhat govcms the
exemplification or the ren anitudc:. Zigong asked ...Is there a single "ord
which can scr.,.e as a guide to conduct throughout one's life?" The master
said. ·· [t is perhaps the ''ord ·shu.' Do not impose on others ,,flat ~·ou
)'OUrself dO not desire (J'II nk) (15:24)."
In olhcr worth;. to be guided by .dw is to usc -oneself us a mc<~surc
in gauging the desires of others" ·• an idc.a expressed in l.unyu 4.30 and
6.15. 2l In both fonnulations. what is crucial is the notion of yu W\ or

u l'm.~m:~l)Jy , these JY.ISS:tgcs 3t'C p3n ly the ba..-:1s fi,r Nh'i~n ·s view th;1t
;:lumg be consamed tlS "lo~· odt)'' os .;:xpi'¢!SSi.ng 1bc swndard g_ ovcnling tll ~
conduct of an inf...'fitir loa supcri()r ur tu an ~ t1 U31.
19
1:~r this reason. Chen Oaqi cnJorscs Zhu Xi '.s inl~,.,'t))f'Ctatitm of z/vmg
as jin: i ,JJ c!. Thi:~ intc(J)rCilHion is pl:msJblc when we dmw tulcntion to its
ethic:.! basis in ~~~ ~~ . Sec Chen. K<mg:i ~u.:~huo, 236-37.
:» l idtiO f'k m ,..lll~. 651: <(oljij;(~~t.l , . f..t!,'N~:;; r~.>c>
:• Sec !'l iM) 5.12 ..Zig·onp. s3id. 'Wbtlc I do not wish others to tmpose on
me. [ nls() \\' i!>h mi l to i tniX~ t'lll oth~r:s.' ,.< t 1~( El: r.f.i: ::r~m: A i:./J:I ;ff iX L!!. '
·ff·*?'J.: M:JJU~f.)... . J > J:or :rimtltr lransi:Jiion in JlvhxiC1'n Chn'M!.~. see M:lo
Zbthui 'E: -f,Ji.. f.lltl) '" j i11:lm jiltli .iQ;fi~ ;j;b,oiJ; ( fuipci: Shangwu. 1977}.
2d8
::. ThL~ ls Lau·s {:l()S:S. tau continues: "11 ultcrdting to no1.c t11;~1 wh\.'11
T;;u-kung (Z.igonp.'(rt.'lmtrk<.-d lh:.t if he did not wish olh.:r:; lo impose on him
ncilhcr t.lid he w i~h lUimpose on Olh~,.,~. C<lflfuciu:i eonnucnl w~:~ tbsl lhi:; " as
lx.'y(lnd h•s abilily •· Soc Lau, Conjilclll,f . 1.l5n7,
 l lr111e!. of.hm:t 15

desire. h is misleading to sa~· that ,)·iw concerns the nature of dc.sire in lh~:
ordinary sense. for it has more 10 do \\ith the manner of satisfaction thnn
with the nature of occurrent desires. A plausible explic.ation of shu thus
requires n distinc-tion between occuncnt and rcnccti\'c desires. Thus \\hot I
desire now may. on rcncetion, be something I ought not to desi1e .
7Ju:mg and shu may be said to be ::~ method o r rcfl~tion on
occurrent dc.s ircs. for assessing their appropriau: n<.~ss in the co ntext of
human relations. In this wa~·. the exercise of shu pr"supposes a capacity of
scJf.rcOcction Md sclf·C\'.Oiu:llion. To pny bccd to shu is to deAl earnestly
with tl1 e question: Do I \\8Jl t my present desire to be sntis!icd as I \\ 3111
other's an.1logous desires to be s.1tisficd in a way 1hac compons with ron'!
The wanting here is a rcOccth·c desire. Thus a deliberate considcmtion on
the character of occ.urrcnt desires has consequences in terms of tltc moral
ehn.racter or one·s acts. SJru as moral regard h:.s o practical impOn only
when the :Jl;C1ll ha..~ Subje<!tCd his OC:Cunent desires tO rc0eelive C\·,:du:lliOn
i n the lit;.ht of ren.
Recall that the vision of n.., or the good is :m indctcm1inatc idea l
rhemc. and os such it is subjeer to dh·c rs-c. concrete specifications wilhin the
lives of committed agcnLS. At any given time. a I'Casonable :!gent "ould
tn:Jkc such a specification based on a partial L.:nowlcdgc of tbc significance
of the holistic \'isioo.~! The ideal of impartiality implicit in the notion of
slm. as opposed 10 parti:tlity of the knowledge of tJ1c good. scrns as n
reminder of one's impcrfcc;tion c,lr inc.ompl~tcncss of cthic.al lmowlcdgc. By
construing the ncgali\'c fonnulation of shu (.. Whot I do not dC"Sirc. I ought
not to impose on othl·rs.. ~') as a counsel of modest)' omd humilit~'. we can
tlppre-ciatc its impon:tnce by nucnding to a ehamctcristic of reason3blc
pcrsons. 1l Modesty pcrlains to the moderation of one ·s clrums or demands
UJlllll otiJCI'S. One ordinary ~nse of ·1-cason3bk' indicates l hotl 3 rc:asonablc
person will rcl'rain fro m making cxccssi\·c or cstrm·a gant demands on
others.:$ More imponruttly. in the light of the vision of dno or ideal of the
goc.xl human life!. we ''ould expect rcasouablc. committed persons tn be

lJ f ,)r a tli:~cus.sion of the Confuc.ian noliun of n:U!«lJtO:bh:nt: ~ us

with rat i tH)~I i t)', ::cc m~ The l/miJ' of l:nowlnl~~ am/ ,lc.tum: ..-1 Stud)'
ec.>llii'<L'>h: d
In WOng J',·mg·mmg $ .\ ((Ira/ PsJ v:holrJK,l' {Honolulu: Um\'crs1ty of H:aw:m J're..;s,
1 982)~ ..-:hnp 4: :.nd more gcncr::~ Ur, my ··tdc:tls :and V:atucs- 1\ Sludy in
R~o'SI.)bcr·s: Moral Vi::.:i,)u.'· in Pmxi,\ mul Rl~osmt: StudiC's tu:he Philosophy of
~\i't:lwla.v_Re:tcfter, c.-dih..'tl hy Robcl't /\lm~dcl' {\\'nshingt<"•n, f>C: Uni,·crsity
Pre~ ,,f
.'\ml·nc.:J, 1982)
z• $.::c Lwrpt 12 12 :1Jld 1$:23.
1J See Rl;bcrt Allinson. "The Confu<.:ian Golden Rule: A N~;i,Wtiw
Fonnulation." Jmmwl <if f'hin~·o~t· PMftMOphp 12. no J ( 1 ~5) . and my
"R(•aiil>nablc J)(-rsons tmd the Good: Kc-n ~.-'(;tion.s ( l ll un ..\ s.llect of Weiss' Ethical
Thought."
26 Kun B1~icr, Tl~~: Mo1'JJI PQilll of l·iew (hh:tc~. N.Y.. Cornell Uni\cr.:!ily
Press. 1958). 316.
16

modest in making their demands and requests. IJccause no one possesses the
knowledge of all pOssible. co ncrc1e. and appropriate specifications of the
signiJicnncc of dlC good for indi\·idual humnn Life.
let us tonsidcr bric:Oy some other ren-dcpcndcnt virtues. On one
occasion responding to a question about rom, Confucius said that a mnn o f
n:n pmc:r..kcs five things: .. Gmt_~: Ni; (respectfulness). kutm 'Si
(mng:nanimily, generosity. opcn-mitldcdncss). xm 1r'i (trustwonhiness,
bcin& t111e to one's ''ords). miu il~ (agili1y. ndroitncss). and lmi W-'
(bcneliceocef ( 17.6). I suppose lh:U kutm ond hm are dc~dcnt.
constitutive \'irtues of rc:n t :. for nm is basic<1lly expressed in lo,·c. o r
affcctionutc concern (ni ~ ). Similiul)'. waml·hcrutcdncss (u·cn }~) is also
l't'tH.1cpcndcnl. constituth·c \'irtue ( 1. 10). Ren as an affectionnlc concern for
others would also be ~xprcssed in lo,·inS-kindness (d f.!:) (2.20), in som~
concex1s, \\Ould be expressed in kt~nn 't't. Hw A!{ or beneficence is also :m
expression of n·n eoneem. ,VJu seems to be nnothc:r c:onstituti\'c virtue of rt•n.
as indicalcd in lhe pairing o r zlwng .'l~} and .' Wl ·ffl (1.8. l.9. 9.21. I 5. 19).
For inst;mcc. "ht'n Zi~hnng 7· ~ nskcd nbout t<Jnducl (xing H ).
Confucius replied: ··Make :hong and xin your maslcr auidcs" (15.6). As
zllong in\'Oh'e s doing one's best on behalf of the object of loy:dty. min f:t{
(adroitness or agility) would be a \'i J1uc of resourcefulness in h;mdling
aO'nirs on behalf of the objccl of Joyahy. While g(.mg ~!i is n dependent
supporth•c \'inue of li m. it is also a supportive \inue of r('IJ when the
spiril of 1~r1 informs hs expression accordil1g to li. As Confucius remarked:
" If a man has no ron. wh.al has he 10 do "ith /i" (3.3). Morco,·cr. as
in\'oking rro11: IT«. g(mg would be merely supporth·e as in the case of the
3gcnt's refu...o;al to yield (rang ~'") to his h~ac her in the prlCiicc of Nn
(15.36). As we shall scc.finx ~ ( rc\'crcncc) is a eonstitulh·c virtue of both
n :n and li, sintc it is no c:sscntiol ntlitudc required i.n fi li.ll conduct (xiao ~:)
-- a foundation for the practice of ren ( 1.2~ 2. 7).
At this point let us interpose by briefly llttcndins to b ji SLC. ::md
yrmg Vj 3S r>W!rlnppmg. constitUii\'C virtues of ren. II, and )'1. \Vhcn Y:tn
Yuan iJm~~~ asked about rcn. Confucius said: ·'To n:turn to the obscr\'ance
of the li through sclf conuol (k(:ji k:: C ) e<>nstitut~s ron'" ( 12. 1).
4

Elsewhere. Confucius also rcm:uked. " If a man has no conccm for

ren (...:. what has he to do with Ji 1~'!" (3.3), These two sayings show the
interdependence of ron and Ji. Self-control is constituti\c of the practice of
nn as it in, olve!i O\ erc.oming emotions and des ire~ 1lut may \\ell h:~.mper
the lt'lli)Crfon:no.nce. Tbc II. as delimiting the proper boundnry for the
pursuit of sclf·sotisfnetion. arc ahc. menns for sclf-eonuol. In 1hc. case of .vf.
scll'-control regarding self scl'\·ing desires is indispcns:.blc to its exercise.
4

l'Ong -!h. as au arctaic or "inue term. is perhaps best rendered as

"eourngc" -· lhc quality or ch3raclcr lh.:Jt shows ilself in facing danger
 l lr111e!. of.hm:t I?

wtcbwucd despite fear or lack of confidence. =7 Y<m~ is clcarl~ a dependent

,·inuc of n)n, for "the nm JlC:rson certainly po~esscs yung. but a ydnJ(
person docs not ncccss;uily possess rctr (14.·.1).-8: Morco,·cr. the pcrwn
\\OUid even sacrifice his Jifc in order to rcalit.c IWJ (15. 10). Likewise. yOuf.:
is a dCJJCfldent virtue of li: rot il's cthteal s ignificance depends on its
connection with Ji. It is an open question whether )'Vmg is a constiluti,·c
vittue o r fl. Ar~uabl y. a pc1-son c-ommitted to 1hc. obscr,·nnc.:c of h. in wtrn:
context m:ty need ynng to act in the absence of knowledge of the dct:til
rituals in\'oh•ed. Here the agent m ll)' need yon~ in the sense of boldness or
audaeitv. a sense of \'Cnturc. risking emb:ur.tssmelll or hwuiliatlon. or C\'CU
shamc. 19 In the case of yi. rmrg is clearly :t dependent consthuth·c \'irtue.
for example. when Zilu {~'it 3skcd : - oocs the jwr;i cherish )'OIIJ:'l" The
f\hsu::r s.-.id: " For thej umt. it isyt that is considerOO supreme. Possessed o f
; t:mg but devoid ofyi. apmzi will make trouble. but a small m::m will ben
brigand.. (1 7.23'). Yong is eonstituli\ c of y i seem:; cvidc111 in this passa&c:
··To sec yl (the right thing to do) and le<we h undone shows a lack ofJ-.m g-
(2.24). At any rnte. J"ng requires learning ( 17.8). knowledge. :mdjudgmcnt
\\hich inform the excl'cisc ofyi.

DEPENDENT VIRTUES OF Ll ill

Fund:tmcnlally. rut action conforming to a ritu:ll requirement of li

has its ethical :;igni(kanec:-. because :;uch an action is perfonncd in the light
of 3 concern for rtn. Witham a. regard for rtm, ritual observances \\Ould
amount to mere lbm1al gestures \'ncuous of moral substance. Notably. in
addjtion to imposing resLtaint on human bcha.vior. as Xunzi points out. the
li also support the ,;atlsfactlon of desires (gciron :hi qw M'AZ~R) within
tl1c defined boundaries of proper cooduct..w And wh(...-n uj unzi's compliance
with II is informed by the spirit o f ren, II has also an ennobling qual it~·.
c..;cmplifying thc junzr s respect fo r Ji !lS an ideal, rfn embedded uOO.ition. ~•
l11is auitudc IOW<Jrd li signifies also a I'Cspcct for the reality of the situation.

~- Other n.!ndcrings o f ) t-mg ~·n: po,":-ibl~ in J ill .;;n,:nt contl!xts.. .;; g .

"bflt\<.'ly, bllldn~~. being dating, auda<:it). fe<ltl~"-!l<.-R-. "' On~! pas;:agl.! (14 21:1:)
d cnrly snys tbot a y(m~ pcr:;on ba:; ll\1 fc.nr ()'OIIJ.:~It~ buju 9} li•~~m!j. (Sec :tl~
9 29.} I k:t\'c the lran:d;tli<tn is:-.uc opc.:n. :o:iJl<:c Ill)' ~li::cuss-i on ®tl~ •'n l~· will~ !he
rdation u(vf.mg In,...,,, Ji, :md J'l,
" L"'?"· IV : <t: ~;JZ·'(JJI) , 9jf.i·::f£•'1J(:>.
2? l'or !he Coofuci:ln c..·onc~,..--pcion ~,f sh:.m~:. $C."<: m~ "l~lhic;UI Stgnilic.:!llcc
of Sh:1mc· lns:1gh1S of AristoUc and Xuuzi ... l'hllos<,phy E<nl mul Wt'~'l S3, no 2
(2003): 147·202: JOCOrpOICttcJ. m Jlumau .\'awn•, Rifu(l/. and Jlu tory.
'!•> U/1111 phm t'Ji¥4~. :1 17
.~• Fot a dts;r;:::us:uon ofthe tlu·cc fu nctions of li. :w..-e my .. Tbe Ctln(·<.vt of U
in Confuc-ian Moral Theory•· (J989). Mun: cxtcn:iiYc. discussion of li :md il'>
c.-:onnc.:c t i~:'n wilh 1(.11 :1nd y l is t{i\'Cil in my Mw·(l/ J •;Jivn and 71·w/,uo,, Es~•Y
I>
/fi

Lhc background and possibility that furnish the c-ontext for successful moral
pcrfonnancc. The Confucian emphasis on li is one jus t i fic:~1t i on for the
Confucian hom:~gc to the concrete. lf we :~cccpt this stress on li. some son
of c<nn·r,tiou fo r idcntif) in,g the normati\'C import of Jet ion seems an
csscrlli~ l clement in any moral 111cory. Granted the imponancc of ethical
com·ention o r tradition. attention to the acsthc1ic and religious dimensions
of It ''illal50 lend us to an apprcdation of valuable- face IS of hum<tn Ii ii: in
difTcr~nt cultures and ci,·ilizations.·~-z
Perhaps the most i.mpottant dc.pcndcnt 'inucs of J.i arc x ong ~~
and png ·~~i. Both tcnns pertain to expression of respect for otht!rs. For
distinguishing grmg from jing. \\C mDy sa) that the fonncr pcrt01ins
primarily to outward 3PJX"arantc, the: Iauer to one ·s inner attitude. As Zhu
Xi $4H~~· put it: ..Gongls principal focus is o.ppcM'tl.t\ec (nmg :if). j ing on
human afr::~irs. (long is sctn in outward expression (wm !tt-). .img focuses
on what is wit_hin (:hong 1j' ).·· .tl This c~plilllation is supported by
Confucius's remark that amons lhc nine things that occupr.Jun:rs thought
is ..tO think of appearing respectful (gong 6~) \\hCU it COR1C.'S tO demeanor
(m(J(' :n gong !fl..'.!l. J~t;)" :uJd "to t.h.ink of bci.~:~g rc,·crcod wbcn attcodi.~:~g to
human atTilirs (.~·hi sl.flng !J~ .IM.~ r· (16. 10). DiiTercntly put. gnng pcrt:'!ins
to one's bear ins or deporlmcnt Jing. howc,·cr. pertains to \'i.nuous conducl
more specially to one·s inner :mitudc. The idea is :'! ISO present in the )~/mf{
J?.ft:~~ .. Being str.~ight me:1ns correctness. ;md being squ;1rc mC3ns Jf .~
(riglueousncSS). The j un'!i J.l-1~ applies jing :ffl 10 Str:»ighten the internal
lire (nd ~) "nd_r/ to squilrc the cxtcm:al lire (wui *-). As.fing ondJ/ ttrc
cs1ablishcd. one's virtue will not be an isolalcd instancc... :;.J

l! Sec my ..TJtc Ethic31 :.:md Religious Dimcn:i>iuu:-; of Li... Uevi.:u· of

Jl<'wphyt.ic'f 55:3 (2(()2), 50 1-49~ incol'por:ncd in lllurum Xatun!, Utlllal, tm d
1/wmy. A shor1cr \'CrSit1n or
the s:lmC IItie :~ppt::Jrcd in Cm!liiCiniJ Spu; maluy,
\()I. I. edited by \V.;-iming 'fu :tnd M:uy Evclyn 1'uckcr (New York; Crossro:Jds
2003). 252·288. For tbc not it~n of (.;onluciou ctlJi,,d tr<lditJou." SC.'C .\hv<'l
I'IJimr tmd ];·<Wilicm. E.~ay 12.
JJ i'.hu Xi, S u lm;i::Jm, 9 1.
" Zhou n f.\J~. l1l•X 5': <UJ~ iEI!L. 1r1t'l'i l!! . ~
:11 f l' ill;( Ti.lll.
~.1Ji&1-. ~?til ,f'.lrf f#:if.tJL > Ch:m n:mlcrs;wg :1s ":;cri uu~11t."S.'i" (.S'oun:P !lfJok,
264). Jiug, rtmh.·t"(."(] ns ··rct'ee"TCncc"' m the :>l."nsc of "dL"-1' rl."spccf' for
SQRll."tbing t>f $Omconc is :. $crious. attcnti,·c slate Ql' mind. This pt' int is
Ct)n.;istcnt with Gr3ham ·s rcm3rk thai Ihe word Ji"g t'1t :ls u~ by the Cheng
troth~'t's (<..:hcng lloo ;f~i!lfi ond Chcnp Yi f~:tll). "C~tnnoc be trnnslat.:d by
'n;\I_..TCIU;c·. ami Hrucc·s ··scri tJU ~1 tc~- is un..Tl}' iu:"-I Ctlll~ lc, ~Uthuu~th
accusatu:m can be made :1gam-.:t RnhX. 11ls ddficuh lo fmd :l 1:>\!tt\.,. allcmatl\·c.
'I he two o.:.-pccl~ of citing arc i.tuet'(k1JCnd.::rn. to <..-ollcct <nl(·s df. be oi1<.•Jlli\'C to
lhl." person (If thing implic!l that om: n:sp<."CI:s hm1 or Iukes it scriolL-;1~·; and to be
rcs~tful impli<.-:s llwt Olk! i$ colh:ch.:d and ~lll~otin: But lhcl\: is no Engliti11
 l lr111e!. of.hm:t 19

Another imporcant H"cpendcnt 'irtuc is rang :;n-. which cnn be

rendered i.n two di.ITcrcnt "ays: "to decline voljtcly (lllid W:iU)." nod rang.
as in Menciwis r~rang zJ11 :r fu ~H.t! ..CA:.• - the seed of the vinuc or II -
h11s to do with -yiclding.'oJ) ln both cases. rong mn)' be considered as rut
example of concern whh gong 1!'::. One should ~·ic ld to others in some
circumstances. sJ.y. in dealing with onc·s parents or cldc~ . il.') one may
respectfully decline their request In the either case. as we shall sec toter. the
exercise of rc:tSonablc j udgment in accordance "ith y j ~ is a crucial
dctcmtinant
Perhaps the most promincm dependent and consthuth·c
U-dcpendent virtue is wen ~ (culture. cultural refinement). H't-n is
reported to be one of the four subjccls of Confuc ius's teachings (7.25). For
Confucius. the .Jlm:i who is ..widclr Ycrscd in culture but brought b3ck to
essentials b) the /i can. Tsuppose. be rdicd upon not 10 turn against wh;u he
stood for" (6.27). Although Lhc li is rundament:JIIy a code of fonn:ll rules of
proper ~onduc t. apart from its connection with J't'll. it has an ncsthctic aspect
U:arning is for tJ1c sake of sclf·improvcmcnt. not for the sake of impressing
other people (14.24). Xun1j would ;:~dd. ~Th C JWlZI uses learning co bc;:~ut ify
his own person (mel Cfi slum :.RJC.Y,)."l-6 Implicit in the idea or U'£'11 is the
bcnutificouon of c hnro~.tcr in the light of cuhurol refinement. The idea of
u-tn. in the light of the COIUJ{'Ctit1n of II with r~.·n, in eOCct nppcrto.itu to the
ennobling character of persons. Altcrn:uivc1y. k'en expresses the ennobling
function of li.'n In this light. the,iun:J is :1 ~beautiful" person. as his IifC and
conduct ~xcm plify the "beauty of ,·irtue"' in an cntincnt way. reminiscent of
the e.o mnton concern with "the beauty of virtue and the defonnity or ,·ic.c-
among the British Mom lists of the eighteenth century.
As a dependent virtue of /i, a regard for -.·o:·n. as XunO'.i would put it
is '"'to honor the rocus.. or hum:m existence. Jll liO\\'C\·er. cxag~,~ratcd
cmpb:1s-is on wt•n without regard to :lu ~ Ms dubious ethical vnluc.
Confucius s:~id. "When there is a pret>Ondcr:~nec of )n:uh·c ) subSI:lncc (zlu'
f{) o\·cr acquired rcrmcmcnt (wen .:t). the result will be churlishness.
Only 3 "cll·balanccd ndmixturc oflhc two do we ha,·c aftmzi'" (6.18).:ts-

\\OJ'cl which e~.•vcrsboth. amllhc on!~· cour:oc ~ccm:t; to u:sc ''J\.."'''Crcncc- fOr o ne
~uJ <l d i ff~o'fClll \\Ord fl•r the •'lh~o'f," &-c A. C. Onthtull, Tl l't~ Chinc>.w~
Philn:oopho~r..l'.' t'h't•ng JHhtg~1'oo am/ L'lr'mg J'i-ch'mu1 (l.uodon: J.u.nd
l lumphr;~ . 195~). 69.
-" Mtu~:i. 2A6.
~ ·&JJ~~t~. 19: <.lFF'1-H!t~J.:¥Utf..t>
Y S<:c Note 31 olx)\\:.
t'f /.iflm p;1111 i'1J.,¥et'i, 424: <.G11ilhfll ~hiw.:I wen ~pf,;.(: ~I1Jt>.
·" 1."'9"· 6. 1~:~-J' I-I , fiil!Jii:tJ~J~~J-. )(~Ji\\tJI1 !.1! . )(i!W-~ . f.~ lli
Jl· 7' . J > ~also l.m~w1 12 19.
20

VI ~ AS TilE VIRTUE OF FI,EXJBJJ,ITV

T11c well-balanced admi'\turc of muive substance (zJtf 'a) and

cultural refinement (welt X') docs not indicate tJ1c ideal. for fnndruncmally
yl r~ is the $Ubstancc (=lu fJ) of the ethical life (15.1S). Yi is the
Confucian ,-irtuc oi nexibilil)'. According 10 Confucius. tllC,iwtti. in his
dealings with the world, "ls not inra riabl~' for or against anything, He is on
the side of J'i ;& (4. 10) . .au Recall also Confucius's autobiogmphical
remark: ··1 haYc no preconceptions 3bout the pcnnissiblc or impcnnissiblc
(wu k~ wu bukt.• .~ t~j' ;~.';;f.. nf f
( 18 .8). Freedom from predilection.
prejudgmcn1. infle xibility, and csotism is said to be char<~cteristi c of
Confucius: " rhcsc qualities m3y nlso be ascribed to the f mJZi, qualities
\\'h ich arc ncccss:uy to maimain his freedom of L11ought and ~ction in
advance of encounter with panicular problemalic siluations.. although
Confucius, pcrh:~ps out of modesty. disclaimed being :tf tmzi (14.28).•:
If )i is "'to squ:uc with.. the external life of the j1m:zi. then its
primary funclion is to dc~tl with maltcrs cxlcm:JI to t~ indh·iduals. seen as
dcm:ands or ~qui.rcm cnts ttmt occd to ~- m;1dc (Ompatible witb their i.rmcr
life omd concern. These e ~ tcmal demands may appear in the form of duties
imposed by custom or tradition. along with inslihUion31 rules and
rcg u l.atiorL~ more gcncr:tlly. demands for compli:tnc.c with ll os a set of
form:tl prescriptions for proper bclla,·ior. This sense of rf. which L~
functionall}' cquhrnlent to /i, is often rendered as ··duty... The Ltjl l0i1C. for
C:(nmplc. mentioned ten duties of human relationships (nmyi A 1\i). such as
..·nc (ather's IO\'ing,kindncss (/itcJ ~~)the son·s tili.:\1 pict~· (zixitro -f
:¥;). gentleness on the pan of elder brother (l:ionglitmg A'.. I~) , nnd
obcdjcncc (di.'drtm !¥Hitl) of the }oungcr brother." ')

., r- EJ , w y.zh~ 7~ -FIll. .~ill ll!. ,..~ ll!. 1~z fi~ J tt.

<~J l. 1o~wt. 9 4: "Thcr.; were four things the fvlastt·r rd 'll:·;.;;d tu huvc
~nydt in gto do \\ith: he r~I'U$Cd 10 CIU<.1"h•in ...~)OJCl-1urt.>s or to itl'ol,.tl)ll ccn~imy·.
h\! rcfu~:d IQbe inflexible or I() be cgoti:,1i~:ol... (< ( fi! J!Y, !i.t:@:, QJ :~~ V}~.
llt.Jlt. >).
·C The :>:~111\! rcm.tU'k i.n 9.29. On ~nothcl' ooca:sion. C.<m.fucius suit.!. "In the
kncm lodsc or k:ucrs nn.J 1hc. arb>. I ma)' pe1haps lXlfUparc myself \\ith tlth1..'1'
mc..'TI. But :ts l'or th\! ..:ham~::u.:r of :J)Imzi who cam c::s oulm his pcnoon:tl c~.mduct
wh:1l he pmfl!sscs •• tbol is somcthms to which I have nc)l y~t allan~f' (7.32)
43 Ww~~ M~•gou -c~r~. L fji ji11zlm jil{t l f!l;';l! 4" ;~1: -4- ;'t'f . 2 ' 'uls.
( T;tipcl: Shmtgwu, 1977). 1:301 For ~ cn t ic~ l d JS4:USSJOil or the \'JI1UCS
a$SOCitSt(-d WttJ\ the li\"(' bunt::.!\ td utlOnships, S(X: m~· "Li aod Moral
Just.ificulton: A Study in the {J Chi,'' PM/ompll)' Ea.\'t and Jl·t-.u 33. No. I
( t98J): 1- t6.. : l)t '·Jiuman nd~•t i Ofl:>ltiJ'S und tht.: Vinu~..~·· in /hmum J\'illll tr..
Rlllr(J/. (lllf/IJJ..,·tm''· 63·67.
 l lr111e!. of.hm:t 21

1l1c l.i. as a torpus of rules of proper conduct. can be quite

complex 3nd burdensome even for the commiued persons. Thl! \':tstncss of
the rules staggers our irnaginalion. A chaplcr ({.itJi f:~:l~) in lhe l.ii' alluded
to three hundred -gre3t'' or important ruJes (dllli A la>and three dlous:md
rule-s of lesser importance triavli .tJ'm). btll points outth.:u " they all lead 10
the same thing.- }', J).. in the sen_sc of rightness. npproprintcness or
filting.ncss, would be 1hc basis of modifi<::tllion of II. Moroovcr, the
rete,·;moc of the II to the present paniculltdy cxigcnl situation. is :1 matter
of reasoned j udgntem b3Scd on his sense of appropriateness or yi and
appreciation of the regulative. supportin, and ennobling fimctions of li..w
Wherefore. the li nrc subject to revision or even elimination.
In sum. concern for yi is generally a cone-em for right conduct
\\'hieh is deemed fi ning or appropri:ue 10 a par1icular &ilu:uion. liowc,•cr,
one problcm utic area of conduct. to usc Xuozi's expression. is our fondness
for profit or personal gain (11aoli ff;f.IJ). In Confucius 's words. ·'·Thc .Jwlzi
mtdcrslands what constitutes right conduct (v; it'i); the sm:lll·minded man
understands what is profitable" (4. 16). In situ;uions where we arc tempted
to do wbat promotes our persona.! gain. Confuci us wouJd coun.sel 1hat
""hen you sec somclhin& thnt is Jib.cly to promote JJCrsonal gain. ) ou must
think o r rosht <•>nd uct vwn de Slyi JU\l .\ll.i't}' (14.12; 16.10), l.h•t is,
whcdter tltc contemplated. self-sci'\ ing aet is lhc right thing to do. Tl•is
contmst between .1'; a.nd self.-sctYing benefit suggcs1s the Confucian
distinction between morality ::md egoism.ol5 Perbnps fo r this reason. yi is
sometimes translated as ··morol.. or "moml i t~·:·

DEPEN DEI'iT VIRTUES OF Yl ~

let us consider some of the dependent virtues of yi as n virtue of

flexibility. The idea of l:rmn 'I.I.. with rcspc<:t to its cognitive purpon.
expresses :a concent witb the "largcncs5- of mind. with catholicity and
neuual it~·. "hic.h are 1hc main supponh·e :wd eonslitutive virtues of yi.
Earlier, \\'C mentioned kutm, :.s :1 dependent. eonstituth e vin-uc of ll'U i:.
Thcr'C kutm is concerned more with magnanimity. generosity. or liberality.

~· ):or the notion ol'y i .?!. as appmprinLcncss (ri ~:l), $CC Zlttm!!JVtiJ:. '1•
lih". ~cti l'•n 20 tn Clum, .W un:e B<NJk. 10.1 For tlus nOti(IU '-Jf yt and its ~cn~n l
S!£mfi,·.~.nc~ as 111ling on the r~h~\'iincc of mor.U ruk"s 1<1 p:nticu1ur
circum.J;t!!I)C(.":':i, ~c my
-c,mccpt of Paradigmatic Individual$ io the 12-th.ics Clf
Confucius- (1971 }. 44-46. clalJil.lfah.xl in DmtciiJiom oj'.\hn·t'rl Crt:otn'il)'. chaps.
5 :snd 6. -Similar intcrpretalion may be found in Cheng Chu.ng.ying. '")I as a
Umv.:..-r&::ll l>nncipk- of Specif1C Applicatwn in t:tmfuci:m Moral i ty~·· Jll!ilo.wph)'
£a.Jl am/ llbt22 ( 1972}; Lau, Cm!fuciu.J, }ntf()duc.tioo, 49-50; nod Chco O.:tq•,
Kungzi xu~~J!mu (1?77). chap. 3.
1
; Sec Dimeml&'s of ,\loro/ Croi,fl\.·iry. 67·69
22

For elaborating Lhc complex notion of ktum os a constituti\'c \'it1uc of bolh

ren f : nnd J'' ~. we may approprialc Xun1.i's conccplion of 1hrcc
desirable qu;tlitics of pnrticipanls in aryumcnl<tlion. Xunz.i says of the
argumcntath'c discourse of the scholars and .fw•zl: .. With a hum:mc mind
(rr:1u·in I:>L.•) be explains his ideas to others. with 11 Jeaming 1nind (xu,·xin
·fP:·C.•} he listens to their words. nnd with an impanial mind (gong.n n i~·t•)
he m;~kcs his judgmcnl.''~
A different " '"' of indicating the ' inue of kutm, in the light of
Xunzi's remark and his distinction between generic (gong Jt- ~ ) nnd
speci(ic terms (btfming }iiJ :¥. ), is 10 say that kucm is a g~ncric tcmt
(xmrgmi,g j~ .8) for a COnlJJOSitc virtue. which may be concn;tcly
specified in three ·drtucs: humane mind (rcm:iu f.:•l)), learning mind ('}~
•1)), and impartial mind or fair-mindcdncss (gongxin ~: ·C:·) . In 1h~ context
of the exerc ise ofyi ~- t't:n.rin expresses a cone em with the bo.nuful effects
of one's conduct on others. More cslk-cially in spee-ch, rcm:m would council
tl1e o;cnt to lx: vigilant (J·h m 1Jt) in usins \\ Ord.s d1"-t nmy hurt olhc.rs'
feelings. Says Xunz.i, .. Hurtful words engender wounds deeper than tl1ose
inflicted by spears or halbcrds: "11
As g<Jng.rirr ~(,•. impaniality or fair-mindcdncss. is a sp<."'C ific
virtue o f kuan la. charactcri.stic of lhcjun:i's neutrality and Cltholicity. we
shall attend to.ruc>xm ·~ ·C•, tho learning mind (,\'lUtxm). which for Xunzi. in
discourse. is the virtue of rcccpth·ity. i.e .. the ability to listen to others
" ithout prepOssession or prc,:judgmcnl In / ,11,)'11. Confucius frequc.ntly
st.rcsscs on the import:mcc of cxtcnsi\"c study or learning (bo:rue It~~~) :.md
applic:Hio.l (6,27, 1.1). As Confucius said, ··Learning without thinking is
l:tbor lost. Thinking '' 'ilhout learning is perilous'· (2. 1;). H Confucius did
not seem to council deep thinking in situ3tions that require cffccti\'C
decision. ··Thinking duicc'" (5.20). for in.stancc. mn.y result in the scparmion
of lc:1ming or knowledge from :1ction.
Another Supporlh'Cnnd constiiUti\C \'inue ofyl is sht!ll fn. caution
in speech ruuJ conduct, which i.~ c:sscntiol to the cxcrc.isc or
gon{?in or
imr)ani3lity, :1s \\CJI as renxm. Gflng Jqf or gongyi VN1~ (13.27) is nlso ~ "
impon3Ut supponivc and constituth"c vll1uc of yi. for resoluteness in
cornmiuncnt to yi and the dccisi,·cncss in judgment according to yi is an
indispensable prerequisite to its c;r.;crcisc. So also. l i~c slum. ga11g is :1
supportiYe and conslituti\"C \il1uc of n:n t::.

...: Sec Zlrrnsmi"G pitm 1E~ ~. 52-1

• Ro,Ji!m piau ~ltlt::'). 55: ..Shwrxn!tt : hi ·''(nt. shc:rryu m(ulji (mJ... Z, "(}"
4

i.\lh~ 'O·~i(), ..
• J..cgg~.: ·.:~ ll"J.n:!lntkm of 2.15. <~ m;r. .\!!.f{ljll":J. J~UIYP1~ !?- !tHfl>. P"'f
4

04hcr p3:\S3gc~ (ln thulking and l camin~. S4.'C 15 31. 15 32

 llr111e!. of.hm:t 23

Perhaps. the mos1 imponant s uppo11ivc and constituth'c virtue of

both rem nnd J'' is yong !Jj (cour.~gc). Confucius said. ··The dctennincd
s<:holar and the man of n:n will not seck to Ji\·e at the expense-of n:n. They
will e\·cn sacrifice the ir li,·cs in order to realize rt?ll.. ( 15.10) . ..., In
conncttion with rt·n, yuug is the t'Otwogc ro be. In the context thotrc-quircs
the cxcrdsc ()f yi W,. )t"JnJ.: is the <'ouroge ro do the right thing. In sum.
yong is an overlapping. dependent. constilutiYc vinuc of both n:n ondyf.
The foregoing disc·ussion prcS<:nts a nt<lp of the ,·inucs of junzi.
consisting t)f cardinal. intcrdcpendem ,·inucs such as re11. li. and yi. nnd
their dcpc:ndct:tl supportiYc and/or constitutiYc \irtucs. The dis-tinction
between interdependent and dependent ' irtucs is a heuristic dcYice for
sorting out the ,;nucs. I make no claim as 10 completeness or to a sharp
di\'ision of dependent ' 'irtues as belonging to one crudin::ll rather th:'ln
another. for tt.'\ I ha,·c l'ointcd out there arc overlapping dependent ,-inucs
of rcn and .vt such as ycm,g !1-) and klum ft:.
There is a complementary wny of grouping the dependent \"lriucs
suggested by ZlwngJmng 1l 1 ~-tf, section 27: honoring moral ch:l.r:tctcr (zun
(/exing ij: ~~ f't) and follo wing the p:nh of inquiry tmd learning (tltm
.lll"w"n iJl!,'{)J}I:). much reminiscent of Aristotle's distinction of ,·inues of
chnrac:lcr. and \'inucs of inlcllect in Nt(.'Y.mwc/le(IJr Elhic:s.
Dependent ,;rtuc!i of n.•n :\nd ll arc essentially the virtues of
or
charm:ter. ond those of)'i, virtue$ the intcllccl Notably the ,·i.rtUC$ of lhc
intcllc.-ct are complcmcnmry to the Yinucs or character, <1nd they comprise a
few ,·irtucs nol ptuticulatly crnphasi?.cd by Aristotle, but the ide:.. of
plm.mimom or man of pmctknl wisdom seems implicit in the idea of the
exercise ofy1. wh ich may be clabornlcd by Xunzi·s conception of zlulii ~ I
!lit or wise and ncll·infonncd dclibcrollion. a topic I disc-ussed elsewhere. J<t

CONCLUSION

For concluding this study of the virtues of pm:i. let me brictly

remark on some problems tlt3t coli for further cxplonuion. ' ' In our m3p for

n ·rhis is :t l\."\'isod l.cggc's tmnsl:lt1on of IS 9: <:-f 1-1: r1.:!-l:f.:A . .~

lR:t;!;l.\!it:. '11~~ !~J& t:. J >
...., Sc::c;: my '"lhc Possihili1y ._,r Etlu..:al Kn\)\\ l¢ll~c: Rcflu.:tk,ns un n
Theme m the f/.viitt 1':11" ulll:m.;: L<,lk and <.i r~·gof Potll (cds.), l!just(JmolaJ:,1cl:l
/s.smos m /J,d<-ttl C lrim:Jc- l'ltilruoplty (Aibaur. Sulc Um\·trsity of New Yo1t
Pr..:.:s;.-.. 1993); inC(»T'Orulcd ~tlhmtatt Xttlllre. Riwal. tmd 1/i,\Uny. E:-;.,'ily 6.
~· lnnl)' 'Kc...'}'llOII! r\ddre~ t~) th¢ Eh.....·cnth Confcrcucc llf'thc lnll.'tll3lit.lll31
Soctcty for Chinese l'h1!ooophy held in Ta1J>C1 in 1999. I mcnt•oned odu..-r
p!\:,bk:ms: "Whut i ~ the t\'tle of th" d(;\'(;h)piu~ tr:-nlihon o:s the ba(;kground o r
Confuctnn ethics'? To wh.:tt cxlcnl can lhc idot.-al or da11 or r\'11 be ooncn:td y
SJ'ccifi..:d in :t CC.lnc.!"''l' llhtl CnuneworJ.: Cl'lllprising rtm. It, aud y/! lie.•" nrc l_ht.:.!:IC
tUnd3mcnt31 n•lCiiVls to be further sh~,pod 10 aot."<.x'lfTimod.atc the cvoh"ing
Lhc \"irtucs of juuzi. in the distinction bct\\CCU basic. c-:udinal.
intc:rdcpcndcnl \"irtut:-s and dependent. supporti\"c/constituti\"c ''irtucs. it
m:ty be said th:u 1hc tmity of virtues is presupposed without ::argmncnt. This
is J difficull issue that dcS<:rvcs cxlcnsi' c disc-us.sion. In studying this issue
in Xun:t.i 's mornl philosophy rcpo11cd in h\0 p3pers in the 1980s, I
propo5cd what I called the completion thesis. Concise~· sbtcd. this thesis is
that n.·n, li. and J"i arc intcrdcpcndc:nt C9nccpts. for an adcqu:uc cx:plication
of one must im·oh·c the other eonc.cpt. :o~ This thesis pertains to rdeal unity
of ' 'inucs. since n·u. in the broad sense, is an ideal theme. Gi,·cn the
irucrdcpendcncc of these cardinals. the idc3lity of ren will also J)CJ'\ttde
through the ennobling function of It and the cNcrcisc of,w as exemplified in
f\'ll):in ·f: -t• or humane mind. Converting the ideality of the unit)' of
\'ittue$ imo the octualil) of the practice of the virtues is not a theoretical
t:.1$k. In spirit. our thesis on the intcrdcpcndcllCc of the c:udinnls is nkin to
that of J. L. Ackrill a nd E li:tabcth Tclfct in their defense of the Aristotelian
unity of vinucs as an ideal mwy ofl'irtutJ', rather than empirical thesis."l It
is a tosk Jbr Confucian nonnati\'e ethicists to inquire into the rcsp~t s in
\\hich our Lhcsis ncc.ds to be recast in the light of aciUal c:q>ericnccs of the
connict of \"irtucs. When such a task is successfully canicd out. we may
1\:lvc to rc,ise our thesis huo a ''lim.itcd thesis of the u.oity of ,·i.nues.~s..;
Also. for developing an ndcqume Confucian ethics of virtue. there
is ahe crucinl task or el.:lbor:uing both iL~ theoretical :md practical
signi1icanc.c. and presently. of dealing wilh dimcult problems nucnda.nt 10
OUr djSC·US..SiOil Of )'I :IS 3 \'iCIUC Of nc:o~ibi Ji l~'· C.£ .. SUt;b problti11S US tJIC role
or status of ethical rules :md JJrinciples. ond the possible con[ribution of
Confucian ethics 3S an ethics of charnctcr or jun;i to contcmporo.ry ,·i.rtuc
etl1ics. os "ell a.s to deontology :md consequentialism.'~

n<Jmutth'c problcn's in the cthic.:d life tc.•d~•Y and IOUl-1.111\)W, l>rublcms that :uc
c,.u<:kly :"~Cquiring gr;..-:~tcr 1rnnS(..1.111ttral and glohal s•t:;niflcancc'! In t h ~ <..'\-.otcxt
of inh•.,·~tr-aditklfltl1 ~uHI!or ull~rcullunll cthic3l conllict. what dcg.l'cc of Stlcccss
can l>nC expect from the cmJ>loymcnt of my pmposL'Ii 1!,round rulc.s or
tra.n~o.:ulnual J"!Clncip!cs: of adjudication. ~1\:-h J11i ncipl"-:s as nOn·Jl1C$cripti\'lty '..lf
cultural mtcgrity. nmtunlity, pr.:,ccdural JUstk."C, r.:..'CIIficm•<lO, and
reoonsidcruiiCI!l"l (Set:: .\lorn/ I l sioPJ (lml l'raohuon, ESilliY I 11). Jl,'::rlulps
:add1lional or other principles will do !'I OCUcr job in cnntlict rc."ulutiou.·· S<.."C my
··Problems \ll' Chinc:;c Moml Philosophy." Jou,.mll ofChin~tu Philosoplty 2·1.
N<'. 3 (2000) 269·85.
$:.1 Sec lbmum Stilf/ri', Ritu(J/, tmd /li,\·ton•. Es;.;:ws 4 nncl ;5.
SJ Ehz,•bcth TcU~r; "'"J"hc Unit} or" Morai V1rtucs m Aristollc ·s
,\ i"t:muuclwtlll Ethic.r." PJucecJdi,g,\' •if Jhc At•i.1Joteliu11 Society ( 1989-00):
35-48.
q Sec N"t."\'r:t·K~ptlr B:tdhwar. "'The LimiH.xl. Unuy of V•rluc,·· ;\"ou.Y ,i0/3
(1996): 306·29
M Keynote !ip!.'CGh ddin :rcd at the lnlt."TJl-'lianlll Ctlnfcn:ncc on
C<Jufut;ianism Rcth.ll!>])\."l;-1ilnd Prospt.'Ct, the Uni\crsity oi'T(~<t\)R IO. Scph:mbcr I.
2005
 l lr111e!. of.hm:t 15

GLOSSARY

biandc n~w
boxuc hl} l}~
Chen Daqi !lli:ki'!f
ci ft;
cirang ;d•i xin ~U~l't.L ,t:.•
bicming ff]oj!,
<bli ;1;: M'l
roo m
dao xucwcnjJ1FiiJ!J.
de lli
(/i,,Jwn ~·;nu

· ~ Chi };!il:il
Fan
fuci ~:ft.
gang )~'l
uangyi ~m
~circn zhi qiu ~1 A.Z.:It
gong -J/s;
gongming JU;
gong:..in ~~ ·C.•
hooli ~f-i'J
hcng ·~1
hui };!(
jian de siyi QI\II.!J!/J!
j inj i 1/li:!.
j ing rji
j inxin -~1·t·
jun~.i ~J:r·
kcji f{. r::!.
kuon 'I'~
li i.\!1
l.~jl 111£
l.iiJi 111-/1;~
Lunyu /ii/!IJ'
mei :;R
mcidc ;1!~
mci qi shcn ;)'~:):ttl
~·lcngd ;£~-f
min i{l
piOJl ~~.
quandc ~15
rang oi!
rcn t:
rtnxin i->D
renyi Ai&
sbcn I)'[
shu!:U
tuici ~g~jf~·
wen .1(
\\CO },1;!

\\ U ke \\U buJ..c }.!fiiLQ:if~iiJ

xino ~:
xiaoli 'J'l:~l
xiaorcn+A
xin fii
xing fl
xionglbn~ }~ f.l
xucxin Jj~.C.·
Xu.nzi Yii ~~
Ynu Yuan •ttll!:1
yi;t.l
yi ~;~:
l1Jing #J~!
yong m
yu ~X
>hi jJI
i"hi ft
7.hong.'l,t
Zlumgyong 1/-J.Jif
Zigong Ti'~
Zilu 1~i~
>hi Iii ~II Jill
/.i.~ iao :Y·~y,;
Zi;.;h"'ng ~~oJf<
zun desing .~li,;f'-1:
 Ch:tc>lcr II

Teacher-Disci (lie, o1· Friends?-

An Historico-Exegetical Ap11roach to the Analects•
)iu~l Keung La

I NTRODUCTION

TI1c crucial importnncc of c uhurol and historical. as opposed 10

p hilosophical. specific ity in hennencutical exercises cannot be
O\'CK"mph.1sizcd. This is cspcc:inlly true wbcn we try to C:\'Piitatc p:assogcs
or components in the An<Jiet•ls that arc oot intrinstcally philosophical. E,·cn
though the c.ommcntators of the Amrlects we shall d iscuss in this article
were not historUns in a stric.t sense. we should do well fo be-ar in mind
Croce·s dictum thot the historinn ·s dcfinhion of his problem is nccc:ss.."lrily
and quite pmpetly 3 reflection of the concerns of his o'' n time. because, as
will be d cmonstr.ucd, these commcnmtors nlso formul:ucd their
undcrswnding of the.: Anah:,·tS through the Jc.ns of their 0 \\ 11 liwd
expe-riences under unique culmral and historical circumstanc.e s.
This article seeks to cx:lminc a deceptively sclf·c,·idcnt tcnn in the
Ana/eels. ll is the term Jlt' ng }II] ( usually translated as ··friend·· ). ~' hich
appc-:us in the fi rst chapter of the first book in the Anah·ct.\·. While P''ng
docs not have nny intrin.sie philosoph.ical import and its meaning appears to
00 immcdiatcl)' clear :u lc:.st to the modern reader, it h;~d outmctcd the
attention o r m:my n commentator in the long history of cxcscsis of lhc
Ana/e,~ts. According to prc,•alcnt interpretations of the (icst chapter in the
book. pan of the topic seems to be simp)) a banal sentiment about
friendship. Howc,·c r. ou.r discussion will reveal that pcng otigina.Jiy means
·"disciple" and the meaning of ··friend.. dC\'Ciopcd only under the changing
circumstances and ideological dcn13nds of later h istory. T his 3nk:lc thus
argues tb:~ t t.hc precise meaning of peng b:JS to be situ:ucd i.n the S)K'Cific
cuhurJI ;md historicnl cin;u m sla nc~s "hic;h the commcntntor has to
confront as :. lh·ing rc::tlity. Only in this way c~n the reader of the Anttlc:cn;
ttnd its comment:arics grasp the ccntr:\lit)· of the te:u::hcr-<lisciples rebtion in
what Confucianism was all about and how this ccntrnl rc.l:.ltion would come
to inform Tang {61 8-906) and post-Tang commentaries iU'Jd inspire

• This a11iclc w~ fm~ prcscnlcd :.1 lhc coniCrcn(:"li! on ··New Wort on an

Old Mus((·f: Confucius :UJd tl~c .in(ll<-c:t.i• in Ann A1bor. March to;, 2003 "Ihe
uuthor wishc:o; to thnnk .all lhc p~uticipttnts fi)'T lhcir ..:ommcnls nnd criticisms.
Spt..\;ii•l thur~k ;; go t<.l Ol.lfhll\1 Munro and Bry~u1 V~•n N..uU.:n. wl1o n::.h.l the
manuSI.~ripl C3rcful l~r and ma~ constntetwc su~gc slh)ll S.
Confucians of later times to unr:wcl some of Lhc in\'igomting meanings
hidden in the simple term p eng.
For the sake of com·cnicnce. let us begin our distussion by quoting
tl1e-chapter in question. Aun!c,·fs 1.1 reads.

The tvlnstcr said... Is it not a plcJ$urc, hn,·ing learned

somc lhi n~;:. to tl)' it o ut :.t due intcrvitls? Is il not a joy to
h~we friends come from aJar'~ Is it not ccntlcmanly not to
take offence whc.n otltcrs fail to apprccituc your abilities'! 1
~A.MQ H% . ~-m ~? ~m ~•~*· ~-·
'f?
A.:;r-~l iiFf;•)l;l , -i;)J):;tt=-(- f. ·?

In this Lrip:utitc cluptcr Confucius nppcm to be describing Lh.rcc

different klnds of cmoti\'c e:q,cricnce. Here. Confucius rna~· ,·cry \\CIJ be
talking about his personal experiences. which he probably regards as ha\'ing
a general significrutee. or he mrey be simply describing the \'arious objce1ive
si1uations or spiriwal goals th:u arc accessible to rell. The three cmOii\'c
st.au:s seem 10 rcOe<:t three kinds of inner experience in cscahHing Jc,·els
th~t correspond to one's progress in spiritual cullivation. Lcnming and the
regular pmc:,tic:c of wh~ll is teamed rcquirts only the effort of the ICI'Imcr.
and 1he 1wofold endca,·or gires him Jlleasurc. When 1he Ieamer's - rriends..
come from afar prosumt1bly 10 discuss and exchange learning "ith him.
bonding ru1d communion of sontc son is necessitated bct\\Cc:n both p.:trtics.
and the joy resulling from this relationship and exchange appca.rs to be
more profound than the simple pleasure the Ieamer can C!1joy all by himself
from learning and practicing on his 0\\ 11. But companionship is a
double-edged sword. When the bonding and communion <:an be
c-onsUTUI.'IlBtcd, profound joy ensues. Such cotl.SUI.nmntion. howc\'cr, is by oo
means a guara11tcc. and Lhc learner's true \\Orth may not be fu lly
apprecimcd. When such a disheanening scenario becomes realit~·. if the
Ieamer is co.pable of not allowing the chagrin and frustrotion to upset hi$
inner tmnquility. or to undermine his fa ith i_n himself. he is then considered
a gentleman, and that inner lfanquility is the mark of truly sophisticated
sclf·culth·ntion. 2

1
D.C. I. au. tr.. 1'/t~: Anoh•cts {1 J~~.r~nondswm1h: Penguin Boul:s. 1979}.
p 59. IL shou!t.l bt: puintctl out tlwt con•mcntator~ lm the: tlnal!:!(:/.\' do not di\'idc
the ch:.ptt.'r.' (:lwng /fi:) of each o( the twt.-nty hclol:s of the cl:t.ssl-e m the s.:tmc
w:ly. but for tbe S:lke of <:<:•m·c•llcn1."C. aU eit:ationslo the tluult'c/3 in this essay
rdCJ' to tau· :s ~h::~pll1' Ji \'lSIOJ1S.
2 'llle two readings gi\"'Cn here arc not mc:.nt to bot! cxhomstin: l;or
c.xample, Z.hcns Rux.c ~1?£(~ (fl.l 2u.. ccntur~;) tokes dus fir st c-hapter o f the
Clllife dnssi~ In be "'Ih.: gatC\\lt)' lc~ the c~u.ruc.i an Way ~ (nukto :lti J 'dO AlttZ.
.~)and :u-gucsthat the lt.."\'cl" of cxpcril·n<·c {lUtlincd these :tr(' crit('no by whic-h
a disciple's self-\":ulli\·ation can OC gnugcd &~ Zhc-n jfs /.m~m J!I)Ttan ;~~ ;m .@":
 29

FAMILIARIZING TilE "FRI END"·· BAO XLo\N AND IIAN

EXEGETES

While Aua!~ct~· I. I may be of philosophical import o ur discussion

uctually is focused on the n1eaning o f the tenn peng in this ch3ptc•·. In D.C .
Lou's lranslation peng is tnmslatcd os " friends~- in fact. no tr.mslotor h:ts
rendered the tcnn differently. Howe ver. if we look at the earliest
commcnuuy we hm-c 1oday d..1ting back 10 the Western Han ~riod (206
B.C.E.·8 C.E.). we will (tnd a quite difrcrcnt intcrprct.:llion. !lao Xian t!!.t.X
(6 B.C.E...fl5 C. E.), lhc author of this commentary. W::tS d tcd by He Yan f•~;J
Jfo: ( 190·249) in his !.unvu jfjle ~~f.i~M (Cullccted Conuncntaries o n the
AJJdlec/.5) as saying that ..peng refers to people who sl1:uc lhc same gatc i~'O
111) 1- IJUJ. .. ~ Baa's gh.lss is of profound signiric:mcc upon close c xamin;llion.

Ei!. in (}iuding Siku quumlm ~Aii! PQfltt ~~t Wcnyuungc ::::c~:UU ed ition
(Ji'no.u: Qiln shmsbc fOld Toin~m : Zhu~l •li:D':l.ll w~hua shi)'\:. 19%), j11tm 1,
199: 113 (\"tz.. ,·olum..: 199. pu~oc 133) . As lht:s 11rlldc shows. hcmtcncullc.'> i.~
alw:l) s ()jlCit to u~'' r1:adinss.
; Htwng Kun •;.Hll, /.JIIf)'lt jljie yhltu i'~i-Ji!.f..H~~~!Ii., 2 Wlls.. ('r:nbct;
Guangwcn shuju, 1991. 2(04edition), I :2. B:~o Xtan w ao; hom dUJing the rctgn o f
lhc last ~:mpcwr or lhc Western I fan and tl.iod iu lite ft~t CCUlUI)' or the EaSlt.' I'Jl
H$0 during the reign or Emfi\.'I'M M ine 19h'if When hi.!' wa:; )(lung he ~ ud i OO
the Odt·s and . lna/,:cts "itb :t bosbi ~n. J : ~h(l l:u· r.uum:d Ywsh• XiJlUt 4.iftlifil
.l l' lo the Western Han capital Chang·an ~:it . Smcc he S:I\Uih!ll th-.:: l.\ 1 {!,t
n:.r.sion of the OJo'3• il is highly probable th!ll he :d so S~udicd the Lu n rsion o f
the .4 nolrctJ. e ve n though Zhw1g Yu ~~~ (d. 5 BCE) had all~ad~· inlcgrah.xl
lhc lhrcc exisling Ycrsion~. including 1he Lu \'co;ion. of the ..lnultcls and
cumplch.:d hi~ v.:triurwn \'Cr:sion. c.:J.Jicd ZhanglKm lwt <.f< ()'i :i~ . \Vh~n Emperor
Gua•-swu it JI~'ti'i' ft':'>UUH.X1 the l-llcn ndc <JS Ihi.! Ji.'lund~t or th!o! Ea::tcl'n Hnn, h-.::
iO\'itcd Uoo X1~ln to llltOI' the heu··liPP:tfl.!tn on the . lntl l<'cl .s. ~nd Uoo wrote :1
zlumg,ju t!CI) C(llfUncnlm)' fill lhc \\\Wk while in this .:.apnc il)'· A J il Xinn's
C(>lllUJCJlha)' was saoctit.,u-.::d by the scw<.'tllmcnt and t"-X:t.:'JnCd •ls one c.lf lhc
official comm.:ntruic:'S on the . fn(J ec/t . l'his mu..~ be, Lhe s:unc commcnt:uy th:~t
wa:; incorporated in Ilc y lln.$ c(,1fc:ct.~d C(ui/J/I C/1/(m'es when it wa:s cou)pil~
in the early third ~cnhll)'. R1o Xiao's son, Ro1o Fu .fi;t a l~') nuor\l\1 Em(X..~or J.Je
,.fll·;yj· (r. 89·10S) oo lbc Anoh•cls. S~ J).a() S biosruphy in 1::-a.u Yc ;'!r:H~~
(398·445), floulltw slm fXi:l:)J , 12 vols. (Bcij mg· Zhooghua shuju. 1973. 2'"1
rcprint j.j ll(m ~ 79b. 9:2570.
l3tiiJ Xiun \\'as lhc only ..:onuncnl:tiOI \\ ho liliOS:::Cll lhc lcrrn potg in II ~
Y3n's Colfqcl~·t! Cmlln "~"um'~·$ But lhis of cou~ dcx.-s not m~ n th:ll Bao X ian
wos indN'd tJ~ c (lnly <~ouuncm:ttot from the l inn petioJ who hnJ actu:•11y
glo ~-d lhc lcnn. II J;<; cnttrc:ly pu::;siblc that other commcnt.ltor.s hod something
lo sa~· :llXlUl i1 as well. but :since Onv·s ttkl'<:ls " a.s sd ~'"lc\1. th..·a"! WitS uv •wed lo
cit~.: an~· olhcr s•mi1ar !'IROOial ion
30

First of aiL the term pr:11g appears nine times in eight different
chapters in the Anoleav.'1 lntc:l\."Siingly. except lbr its singular nppcamncc
in Analects 1.1 as a monosyllabic graph. the other seven occurrences of
pcng are all coupled \\itb :Utothcr monosyllabic graph J-Ym (/.1). which
means -rricnd,"' such that the reader is pn.""Scntcd ,, jth what :appeal'$ to ben
binomc peng;mu Jti):/J.. Howc,·cr. the tcrn1 J'i:lr.'{l'(lll did not appear in most
of the non·Confucian texts from the prc·H:lR period. 5 Its usc as ru1
unmistakable binomc meaning •·friend'" did not appear until the third
c.cntury B.C. E. in texts such as Xunzi {ffi~ and Hanj'ei:t \~ ·lf:-1-. On the
o ther hand, Han-dynasty commentators usually made the e tTort to indicate
thou peng and J'ou were two gr.~phs o r distincth·c meanings when lllcy
glo ssed pt'UgJ'Ott in pre·H:m Confucian canonicttllcxts such like the IJ()(».· of
Clwugt:s .~~E. 0£/e~· ~~or Zlwuli J~l frt 6 Now. it is no coincidence that
Bno Xinn glossed only the· tirst insL1ncc of pcng! wh.ich :~ppc.3rs in Analt>cls
I, 1. because witl1 this clear uodcrstunding or pt:ng being a distinct c·o nccpt
his rcaclc1·s 'rccc. in cffc-cl. \\arned not to take {'i'ngym' :lS :1 binome when
they encountered it in the Inter books of the Analtcts.
B<'lo·s intcrpu.:~1ion ''"s anytl1ing but idi<»ynctlltic. For him,
Analects 1.1. appc.:us to be the hcst place to tell his readers that peng has its
dist.incli\'c mc.·ming dl::U can cosily be conO:ncd " 'itlt lhtn of you C\'Cll
though the h\ Oterms should not be confused. 1 [n reality. people in the Han

" Sc!!An<Jiecss J. l. l.4, 1.7.4.26. 526 (twi-.:c).I0 22.10.23.and t 3.28,

~ 'l'llc /)(x:•murm,t ~"if l hou (l.houslm J,'J~)\ a t-:xt from lhc Zhou dynasly
whid t prcccd.;..-d Lh~ tim(~ of Confuc::aus. was qut)1c.xl to say thm ···nt<: rulcl' takes
;::•'C<:~:x.k.,lCc O\'CI' lhc mini:>1ct. JXU'tnt.:~ take IJI'CCC·tk:nc~: 0\'CI' brotlt('r$. brol1u;rs
tal.'e l)t'C\:c.'t.l.., lL:c over friends: fricn•lil t:1J.:c pr.;.-.xJ encc <l\cr onc·s '' ifc and
children ;\;Alllu{!lJ:i, 7\::itl'tl'li1!il~ ?.'~ ;t;Jt ?.'l iiJ l!1:'l::U, ;t;~liltH!I.th ."
Clt::1rly. th~ lc.nn )' VU "Ji. not Jlt:ll):. \\ as U~'\1 h.l denote whnt \\C C·llll ··fii cnd ...
Sec l.iu Xiang ~~ ~i} complied. WanJ;, Qingqu:m .Yc ii'l )_it :mnolatcd . .'011.ri
Ut>m1zlrumt lJf~1\:9'tJ £d~ (T<Iibci. S-.!utmin ~mju, l 9%),jtum S, Jl 24:l.
6
Fot iMtancx:. Zh-:ug Xuan glos~ t )(l pent; <lll\1 )'4)tl (discnss('d u1 the
main K-xt). I.e~ oflc.m, ll:m c.ommcnt:ttan> would ~'Cm to t:.l.:c peugyo u as a
cvmpound \\<.lrJ. \\hich they glo.>:lscd <LS ··various oll'icials.. (qtwc/l~n lrf.l~) or
··v:~.riou~ oll'iculls wbo shored the $lfflC !llTibtti(ln" ( qunt:ltt>tt ,.,,.g:ltihao:he tl~
~~~l:ij;;J,.{~·f 'X' ) St.'\: Mav ·~ I.X)!tutJ!!'!llttl)' ~f..J t..\11 lh~ Otl~s. in Ru:.m Yu~:~n lftJl:
(116·1·19J 9). Shismy'iug dw.tlm + : ~ tl: 1Jft. 8 ,·ols. (Ttubct: Yim.m
yinshuguwt. 1976. 6c' et.liti<m).jumt 17.2, 2:605. 616.
; !'c,.'Tiwp:; on~: o( the l111_1:;l ~~(.ln\'incintt PlCCI,.~ ur (.:\'ideJlCI.: for J'( llg and ) ()'II
as two distincl con-:cpts c:m be fOund in the tlmrlo!ct,\' Uf£1f. where Ihe two tcmls
appear u1dcpcodcntly in diff<:'1cnt pllSS3_ges For tl1c ~ppc~mtlC''.S of you. sec 8 S.
9.25, 12.23. 12.24. 15.10. 16..1. 16.5, nnd 19.15. lt is no coincidence thal lhc
Jp~~~•r:m~~ vi'J ou far oulnt,unl>~.:rs th~l of f'C:"g. •·~ ) '01' d":•ls with ~~ much widl.ir
ci~lc orhurn~n rel :~tt<.ms.h i ps ,
 J/

dynast) had a consensual understanding of the paired conccpc.s of peng fJJ

:md y<Ju /i.. which they g.lo.sscd as foUow$:
People who slwc the S."'UttC gate arc c:l.lkd pmg. and
people who cmcnain the same ambition arc calk"<l JVU Jfil
I"J 1::1/IJ . I•;J;I! EIU.'
The gloss 11sclf C\'Cn become a common expression in C\'C tydly lifl!
dw·ing Han times. According to Xu Yan ~~ (0. early SC\'CrU.h century) of
the Tang dyn3sty. the expression W:tS also included in a children's primer on
Chinese grnpbs called Clmj?jit.• pilln .fti'J!iP1.9 In the infamous episode of
I Jan historr which subjected the g.re:n historian Sima Qian r;J ,I.!H~ (b. 145
B.C. E.) to the humiliation of castration, Emperor Wu lit·;t (r. 141.-87
8.C.E.) w~ pu.:r.zlcd \lS to why the h.istod31.1 would w:mt to risl; bis life to
speak ou1 for Li Ling <H!i (d. 74 B.C.E.). who had surrendered 10 1hc
Xiongnus (iiJK{c,·cn though the disg.r:~.ccd general wns o. mere acquaintance
to him. In asl.:ing Sima Qian the reason the emperor had reminded the
historinn. ··u Ling was not a pc:ng who shnrcd the snmc gate with you. nor
was he a you who 1.:ntcrtaincd the same ambition os >ours !$li-l~tk1fil I'IJ:Z.
10
)ltj . li'iJ:'t;.:::t;!.( .- The emperor's statement is sclf·c\·idcnt II seems dcor
th<ll you, in this context, should mean ·"like-minded friends.'' More
importMtl)', it is ccnain tll:lt pcn,r, nnd you \\•ere tn'Odistinct :3..nd different
categories of social relationship in Han times.
But just \\hat arc these " people who share the same gatc"·r A gloss
by the rcnowucd Hnn c;.,.cgctc Zhcng Xuan ~~· (129-200) provides the
most tJncquirocal explanation for us. In glossing a line in ahc Zlwllli, Zhcng
sap.
People who study with the same teacher arc called fellow
disciples (pe11g) l")illii3JUJ. and people who cnlcnain lhc
same ambition arc c;;allcd likc·mindcd friends (ymt) lii];ii~
EIU . II

$: The tk•finil!i)Jl:\ t::31\ he round in a numht:r t't' c:motuC~II .-ml

conuncnl:mnl sour<:cs includinp. the l.iji ·;_a~, Zhcng XlUUl's 91) ~· ( 121}.200)
Cf) mmcntary on the Zlnmll fl.f ~~1 a:-; well a~ llt: Xiu '.!i (L:ff),.: ( 129· 1::C2)
commc.-"tltUl)' on lhc Gon~'au!( : huon ~ ¥-#1. Sec millu 1<.-xt below.
" Xu Ytm, Clumqm Gong.)'tmg :lmslm 1f.f1;~.:)~Hlli &:~: Roan Yu:m~
Shismwng :luulm, D ing. J,jtmn 25, 7:322.
1
The quotation was c:itcd by Xu Y:1n i.a bh; Clumqiu Gougyan;: ~lm.Jim,
Sc.....: Rum' Yu:m. SMUII!ti"X :luu/w. Ding 4. j uwt 25. 7.322. It cannvt be found
in Stma Qian ·s .')1,yl !.b'r~ or B:m Gu's !lttlria·lm rJi, ~( we han· t\"'M.1ay.
11 S<.:c Zhou/i :Jwslm J~ltrH~ l/i in Ru~m Ymu1. Shis(uifwx :huslm. f utm
10, J· l;9.
 \Vjth Zhcng Xuan 's oon, cnient helping hand. il would seem that
the ..sate"' that people share refers 10 the "gate" of the quarter \\here
lcnming takes place lUlder the guidance of t1 c.ommon tc:.chcr. and
undcrstJndably this ·'gate- belongs to the teacher. Indeed. Confhcit1s
himself had mentioned this ··gate'· and claimed it as his (qiu =hi nwn li .L
r"h.12 Although we do not know exactly wh:tt kind of physical selling
Confucius had set up for his teaching purposes. we do know th::n his
disciples \\CfC cnllc:d menn:u f"l A. people who "belonged- to "h is gate:·B
HuMg Knn ~ Ud (4M5·>15) c bborotcd B~ Xiln's interprcl:uion
with :tdmirnblc clarity in his /.Jmyu ./~lit: yl.\'lm ;:~ i.ft % .M ,;q ffl
(S u~omm cntarics on the Aunh.·cts.). He s:~ id.

tpcoplc whol share the 11amc teacher arc called ptrng

whereas Jpcople who) hold fnst to the same :unbition arc
~lied fr ie-nds. Peng is synonymous with "comrade"
(dang): pi!ng rue people " ho fotm a comradeship at the
gate o f alcomntonl teacher. 1.:
JilJt.JWlii"JHl¥1. JOiJ fA- ·.•!ii.i;/.;:. I~Jlilli¥11!!. ~~ ir.\ i'li:li'i (~
(IIiI"l ll!..

As if he \\ CI'C afr.1id that the. tcnn men I"} (gutc) in BJo·s giOS$
might be misunderstood, Huang Kan made a spcci31 cffon to make il ckar
that the -gare'' referred to the teacher's gate <~·Jrim~n Olli1 111). Thus. on
Huang 's authority, \\C kno\\ for cert:ein th:U J'tng means "fellow disciples"
in B.1o Xi:m's commentory. 1 ~

I:: Atullttt.~ts I 1.15. In t11is cltJptcr. Confuciu!): al.lit> commented th<:t hi~
disciple i'.1!11 -{'~3 h:ul !llrc:kly 3r.ccnckxi the hall o f his le:lching (LU:trtcrs C \ "t."rl
thou,~;h he might have yd to L'ltlcr lh..: inner room. The hall and inner room may
not be m~t·c ;;uu.dog)· here. th(.~' probably h<J\'c some reali.sHc reference to the
a~tm)) t)lly!'ical ~I ling of Confucius·); tca..:hing cnvimnrncut Si1llil:1tly, the gate
(mtJn) tl!SK> took l'm n mct;~phori ca l mc;uung I\) rercr to t l)llfi.lcnl:s's acndcmy or
tc:u:htng.
0 The t~nn menrc11 npp~t~~ f0\1r tim~.:; in three difl'cn.::nt ch:>t)lcrs in lhc
:J11alt'C:U. &c ! lnaftciJ 4.15. 7.29. I 1.1 1 and I I 15.
11
' Huang Kotn. LJm)"ll.fiJre ) 'i s/m, I;4 Hu~ll@ Kan' j;. g.!(lS~ or pt>11g a-. drmg
actuully wus based on at )cost two llan fl(lun;c:-;: Xu Sh1.'U' s if'f-frl (tl S\.'COnd
cc.:n1u1y) Slmo,,r., Jit':l f&:>cM..:.j::: (l'rcf:tcc.: dutW 121) :md 011n Gu's tt£~1
( 32-92) Bailm umg I~J}i:i!i. h 1r tJtc citnt.ion on Slmmt'('ll. soc n.9. For Dailm
tmrg, sec Chen Li ~4!•!: ( 1809- 1&)9), Bmlm wng , /w:heng J!.U}lifDJiti.\J.. 2
vob. (ll,'ljing: lhonsbua ~h u,iu. 1994).JU(m to!, I :376.
u In point of f:~cl, llutmg Kun ·s inlc:tpn.:tation is not unex<:q llionahlc.
All(llhcr \'i:t bk~ CXIJiamllil)l'l did Jl\,)( C(!IIIC Until the S(;\'CIIl1,.'C-n1h CCJltUI)' s-;c;
main text below.
 33

l n oracle bone and bronze inscriptions. tJtc gmph for pelf:~ signifies
two strings of cowry shells lied together. which \\CtC originally used as
dccorati\'C omruucnts and became tokens of c.tmcncv no later th:m Zhou
tint<:s. l 6 1t is not tlctlr ho'' the gmph C\'CRI\Ially to~k on the meaning of
"fellow disciple." Jn f.1c1, when Xu Shcn ~·tfl (0. second century)
compiled the Shuowen.Jiezi .~lt:tflf(. f . his magnum opus on ll1c .. original
meanings•• of some 9.000 Chinese grnphs, he seemed clueless ilS well. He
glossed peng as follows:

II is the iconic g:r:aph i.n Ancient Script for tbc word

" phocnj;\::· When the phocni:'l> takes Oig.ht. as m an~ as ten
thousands birds \\'OUfd foliO\\ in ilS wake. l11US.. the craph
bccilmc o. loan word for -fellowship" (pcng:tfnng) .11
r'i~li:t. ~I(;. ml.R.~f~ ~!;).,\~I'<· .~ t;J.~IUJ;lii'i"

While Xu Shcn may be doing pJain guesswork. his etiological

conjC(turc about the gr:~ph peng is b:~scd on a rnythologi?.ation of the-''irtuc
of the pha<:nix that can attrn<;t a lnrgc:- following. The conj ~turc seems lo
fC\'CUI thut in the minds of lian-dynusty people pcng implied iJ fellowship
around a common figure. or leader, m uch like a lilrge nock of birds trailing
behind the phoenix. As such. pmg Md you, \\'hen mentioned scpo.nucl~· in
Han litct·:uurc. usu3lly refer to L\\ O differen t, if not entirely distinct
categories of people, the fom1cr being fcUow disciples while the latter being
like-minded friends. l:S So. C\~n though Xu Shcn was less th;~_n ccnaio abom
the exact meaning of peng. he \\as perfectly confident aboul his gloss for
you when he simply <k:linc:d it conventionally as .. people \\hOentertain the
sttme 3mbition: · )·) In the conlcxt of Anal£-cts I. I, CQnfucius would appear
to be: the mythological phoc:nix.ll> and his fellow disciples \\Ould be. the
multitude o f bit•ds th:u n ocked around him.

1'
Yu Xingwu T~(ft cd .• Jiagu \V~ld guiilr ~1 1 1'":-:R:'i~ir.~:u-•. •1 \'Ol s.
(O·q jing: l honghua shuju. 1999. 2tl<! reprint), 4:3285:3289.
P L>u:m Yuc:u !5.t =r; ·'-~ ( 17:\.5-I XI S), SlmQwcm jie:J zhu ~.i({ll¥.*H:
(Taibc::i: J..:mtru shuju, I974, 4c' edition), Ch.!plc:r ~lA, p.I SO.
u Zhcua: Xuuu in ltis interpretation of one fl'X!Ul fnnn the Otlc!J' ~IO:.i:)CS
Ihe tcnn l"~ngyou 3<; ·the \'ariou.:: oiTid:Jis wh(l shared the 5.3me amhilil)ll If~'! I~
fiiJ~~~Y·?.i'· lli.." Sec Slti.fins :luulm &",J,!j1iilJt. ln l{uun Yu:Ul. Slu.wmjing :ltu.shu.
j utm I7b. 2:005. llcrc. peng\'011 "as 1:1kcn to be a binomt: ~nt.l its scm;mti~
\"<<luc was placed on JY.III mthcr than f1<'118 Thi~ only )l,l)C'~ t•>:;how 1t1:11 \\ h~Jl
o...-.eJ indep~ndenlly. pcug h:Js tt:> umquc mcnn i n~ In f:~cl , in ll:m .:.our<:<·s.. ) 'Oil
or y uuren 'JJ. A i:t in\'uriubl)· the chni..-:c of dic.tinn when I he in1cndcd mean in~
is ··rm..111.r' or •·fm.'fld:))up"' and th i~ i::; al~- the cn::-;c \\'llh the Annlu~1s itsclr.
' " Dtu.n Yuc:~i, Slwt)w.m jw:i :1m, Ch:~ptcr 33. p.ll 1.
~ C.uriou:~ly cti\IU!Lh. .lie) u 1~-Pl. the madmmt fr(•IU Chu ':1!1L \\hO '' ~
presumably Confuciu ~ ·s contc.mporou:r. : Is•) <.~.'mp:m::d Confucius 10 a ph•)cnix
 h goes without saying that t11erc arc different IC\'cls of friendship.
People who know C3Ch other may be simply casu31 acquaintances. Then
there ;~rc people who nrc truly good frie nds. but the~· do not ncc.css.'lrily
study \\ith the same tca" hcr. ilSSuming that they lnnc such an opportunity to
StUd)' in the first place. Bao Xian seemed ncutcly a,,.a ..c of such nuance-s in
diflCrcnt k-inds of friendship when he made n spcc.i::.l nolc :about peng in his
t:·ommcntaly on Auaff:,·tl· I. I. In fact. he might C\'Cn consider such nuances
to be of fundamemal signiric:mcc. As we :.11 know, Confucius \\3S most
probably the first person \\'ho acruaJly oOC.rcd education on :1 regular basis
to ru1~·onc \\ ho wa..., eamest enough to study \\ it.b him .11 ln his time it was
probably not very common for someone to h~wc the fortune and opponunity
to pursue the patlt of learning under the tutelDgc of some Jeamcd person.
When people came 10 study under Confucius. they of course bto:-tame his
disciples. but at 1he same time the discip les c~atcd a mutual relationsh ip
runong themseh·cs th~t night h~we never been. They were fe llow disciples
of one common master. <1nd there should be il name to s i sni~,· such n
1\e\Yfound rclationsllip, for Confucius Sl!cms to ha\'C been known 10 be
particularly Ct)ncctncd 11bout the- proper naming of thing.s (zhenxming ii
=t).~ The ccrm p mg mighc not haYc been chc nal\1ral choice. h is ccnninly

that \\' :IS trying tu seck apprce-iahon from a w ise lord. Sec ~Jnnluts 18.5. In o.
no'' los,t pJss;tgc from the book of l lm<mg:i Ji·t T·. L:.m li ~T· \\;ts also
reported 10 have described C('lllfUI!IUS :~s a .. ph(loCI)i:o-; " (fCug _({'!) when he S3W
Ihe m;tSlcr being ~urroun..JI..'ll by fi"c d i~iplcs. Sc.-c Ouy:mg Xun ~irni,1•J. J'Jweu
li~:,irJ t;){_M~ 2 \'Ois. (Shons,hai: S h:mghm Gu; i chub:mshc, 1982}, 2:1558.
M\)!11 int ~ l\."::i l i n£,1y, Confuciu.s ar.1..:-ill!'i to h.:.\'c alluded t() himsclr us a plll,tcnix
(fi·nglmrmg if:.>X.), S~c 'J'aL:ig:tw:'l Kmntnr3 iQJII ~~P.Ik 5ihikl knlcltt1 ktH·hil
9.! tii! ~t~:KJ:-Q (T:1ibci: l [on~ c sbuj\1. 1971. 2'"J ~..'\iitiou).jurm 47. I'· 737.
~~ l)rior tu Cmtf~..::ius. lhcrc ''uuld h:t\'e bt:cu MaS(cno vr .:rafi~ ~uch :j:;
ntual. musi-:, nn::hcry. chrtriotocrlng, woting and 3nth.!uchc (wh ii.~h w.::rc
clo:ssi1i<:.d ns t.bc .'IO•calkd Stx Atb 7\:tii) and the hk..:.. Con1i lcius hunsdf. for
in:nanc<:, hnd studied the Zither with ~h1 X1angz.i r.•!t'{.li :-y ~<:c T:'lkigawa
K:tmttll"''}. SMki k<",lclrii M .,fui. j11tm .11. r>p.736·737. E\-.:.1l cru-ller. in th~
lll iti· SC\t'IHh century. 7Jwn Qin .~f)S {ak;:~ l.iu XiaiiUi twr·nr, \\he) was t)l).:c
a judge (sltishi ±R1~ ) in CCinfucius:·s home s•otc J.u, nppan:.,uly acccp1« 1
S1lh.knt:s to study umlcr him. amlthc~· "ere a.Jdrcsscd as his disciples (llh~m-cu
r·fll A ). Set Huang Qingcltuan, Xu~'' l.1wii zlmcm. pum 2. p. I07. Liu Xi::dtUi 1S
111(1lhUncd mAualc-cl$ IS 2. There ungltt oouight 1)(1( h:wc b(:Ctl SOHICtcnn or
udili..::5:; for li:lltm · :;tudcnL-; who :;tudicd \\ith. th~ same m:~stcr. Yct, even if thC"rc
\\~ts ~uch :t h.:nn of tll.ld r~:~s. il n~,.,,t nnt ncc~o,.~sa ri ly huvc lx:c;n petrg t'\ /$ " ~ I HW~
m cnllon.:.:d . t~ns did not appel'lr \'t..~' ortcn IR texts prior to Con111ci\1S and was
fl (l{ used to mean "dis;ciplc:· I duu1k Uryun Von Nor<kn for· culli n ~ my aU\.'1llion
to the mu.stcr·disciplc relation that had existed ~fClrc- CLmfucius's time.
l! Sonu.: ~lu.l1a.1~ htl\-c qu~ii.'ucJ whcth~.-r Ct~lll'tt~ius did hl,ld a thC(!CY '.)1'
proper nanung or tlung,." ()r som~l imcs ~~nii C~:I rccliftc<'lhon (l f names, /\nhur
 J5

not our first choice in modern Chinese tod<Jy. But pcmg did end up being
that signifier in Confitcius 's time. In any case. Bao X ian w:~s C\ idenlly
interested in highlighling the f.'lCt that peng was the tcnn that signified this
llC'' inlcrpcrsonal rtlationship e-merging in. the Han socict)'.
It appenrs that Bao X ian·s commentary w:~s moti,·atcd b}' two
hcnncncutical considcro,tions. First. BDo w.-.s drive-n by such ;a keen
hislortcal sense that he wilntcd to highli:;,ht thc term pt·ng as the signifi er rot
a newfound human rcl3tionship th:u c:unc into being with Confucius"s
unprecedented o·f fcring of education to the common people. Second, Boo's
historical interest \\:t.S: not purely academic. It \\:lS actually sparked by the
historical reality in H:m times when the tr::tnsmission of Confucian classics
lx:eamc :tJ1 event of ccnual import.:tnce in the scholarl~· and political :ll'cnas.
Tbc textual transmission ncecssiullcd a number of .. schools.. that
S})l!ciali-zcd in each of the Fhce Confucia n Clns$ics. Each school w:as formed
under Lhc tutelage o{ n masler who lud inherited the te:tchirtg.s On D given
classic from a lineage or
transmission. The tc.ochings on a gh·cn classic. n
disciple inherited from any gh·en school were relath·cty unique ond thus
diiTcrcnt trout other llncagcs of scholllrship on the same classic. :::s Vis....i.·,·is
such a ne\\ phenomenon in thf!. scllolarl) arena. the term shtmen (litcr3lly.
teacher's gate) began to app~r for the first time in 1hc first cen1ury during
the carlv vcnrs of the Eastern Han •• cxaeth· the s.1me time when Bt1o Xinn
\HOle l;is.commcnUu) on d1c An(l/~ct~'i. 24 tiy hi&hlighting the term pcng in

\Valcy. for in.sluucc. has c.tffcr..:d urgum..:nf:s ug:sinst the hi:s.luric.al reliability u f
rlnalt't:t,~ 13 3 \\here the 1cml :ltcwgmwg Migiualcs, Sec Wnk)', 1'h~ A twl~t:ts <if
Confucius (New York: Vintage Bnok, t93X), pp 2 1·2l l~cccntly, Bryan V:m
Norden ;lltcmph.xl h.) ftll1hct SII\'O@Ihcn w<tlcy 's 1lf8UIUCnl &.'X: his -·r he l>tiO o r
Kont;:ti." manuscripl pp. 9 ·11. \Vbtlc thi:o~ is certainly not the plocc to tackle this
thnm}' i ::;~Je in de111il. J wouM ju::;t ~•Y thai W.:~lcy's and Van l\\1ot'dcn's
ar~umcnts :uc hy no means C()nchlstvc E\·c n if lhe !U:)1orical reliability of
l lrl(l/..ct:. B 3 i:> in f:.CI qtlCSUOn3bl..~. it docs Mt mean 1h:t Confu.;;ius did not
Ctltcrtnin some bdkf i11 the ptq>er nntntog (If things. In 14et. in Analects 6.25
where Confucius c\·idl·ntly 11ppcars tu ha\'C u l.:ccn 0.\\'Un.,lcss o f the- propt:r
llllllli ll ~ Of thing_:; in tl13t the U:llnC Of 3 lh i ll~ ~hOUhJ lll!l~~l What it ilf ill rl!~l l i l)' ,
And hy thdr nwn :.dmis::inns, Wah..·y and V:m Norden rC(..·ognizc R.ook 6 :tli cmc
of tl•c "'\,".()(C bool;s'" of the 111f<llt•ct$. s~ UJ)'M w. Vnn Nordell cd .. Confucius
artd 1/J.: Ano/!:cu·: Xc.•w H..uaw. (Oxford and Nc:w Ycrk: 0:-dOnllJnin.:r.sih· Prcs.'i.
21) )2). p. J8 . .
·ZJ J:.:m Yc:' s comments on the ··Bingraphie." of Confuci:m ~chokus" fli+~
ft/. jn the J/()u/hm .,/m, juart I09b. 9.25~
::.• Sc~.· , for example, th..: ''B«)£1"'.1phy ot' Hu:m Rong" ~tl $. i!,J and
·'fliugraJ>hy of Liu Bon•· ~:.j{j~(~ in the 1/mtl/tm .Jhy. j uan 37 uml j rum 39
I'C!>pccti\'cly, $· 1292 :'IU4.1 S·B04. ·n1~.: K-nn .flliml!n lktes nc•l :tpJ:k.~~ r m thr.!
st:~ nd:trd histories <>f the Wc.srcm ll:m dynnsty ~uch as S1m:t Qinn's Shfil, Ban
(iu ·s lfmulm or Xun Ylk.:':J ·wm (148·209) Qwnl!tm Jr f}lj?~KC. Ndtlu,:r d\M;S
it t~ppcar in prim,.ry sm~n.--.cs ot' other genre~" on the Wcstcm H:~.n .
36

his commcnuuy . B:to pcttmps could remind hjs readers who had joined n
or
community or fellow disciples drawing p:u;tllcls between themselves ;md
the disdplcs of Confucius. Thus they could lbllow the models of fciJow
discipleship ln the Analects in ncgotiJtiug their O\\n nt\\ fot1nd relationships
tu\dcr a common ceacher.2~
In tJ1is connection. it is instm(;.tiYc to point out thnt the Hon
r;o\t:nun cnl had a peculiar intct'c st in formulat ing the norms fo r a \ar iel)' o f
cardinal interpersonal r"lationships. In the year of 79 durinc chc reign of
Emperor Zhang f{o: ~ii in tho £astcm Han. IUUncly founccn years nftcr Bao
Xian had passed away. a council \\3S called by the emperor to distuss- the
meanings rutd intcrprct.11ions of tltc Fh-c Classics among Confucian
5<'holnrs :u the \\'hile TiKcr Hall. and the rcsoh of the dclil.x:ration was
compiled by Bon Gu (32-92) !)l ilA in a bonk aialed Hnihu l<>n&'>'i 1'-lJ!fii!l<lii.
l\'fany issues were discussed in the conference, aud there wos a special
discussion on the issue or interpersonal relations hips under ' he lopic or
scm 'gnng liuJi =:NI(f\f![. (Three Bonds and Six Threads). Of the so-era lied
"Six 'J'hreads ~" Qne of them is pcng·)tm (JDJ'J:i.) .
While the relationships between c las..smatcs and friends may seem
too nnmdanc to merit any political attention ror any govcmmcnt today. it
was ccrminly not the case in H:ut limcs. The Baihu I OI'Ig)'l dcfmcs pc:ng a.nd
you sc,erally: '-f'eng means ·fcllowshil) (<long ~iS) and yuu mcru1s ·being
coring' (you f'f)." Then, intcrcs1ingly. the defi.nit.ion cites two li.ncs from
the l .tjl ftliC. for textual suppon. TI1csc two lines, ' 'hich have been
mentioned earlier in our discussion. hnd \'irtu3lly become common
knowledge in the Han period. Again. they read. ··rooplc who sh:uc the same
gate :uc called rellow disciples and people who entcn:~ in the s:.mc ambition
nrc caJJcd friends.- ~6 And in outlining the obligotjons bc1wecn fellow
disl!iplcs and Lhose bei\\'Ccn friends. 1he 8f1llw tongy; ci1es only three
17
p:1ssagcs for textual support o.nd they tall come from the Anolecrs. As the
Anah:c1s " ns a primer for ethics for young children in t.hc Uan dynasty. we
can understand why th is was so. and perhaps iL ,,.,s for this very same

~ ln his co•nmcn1o.ry on ,Jn<lh·ct3 19.3 in which two of Confuciut~ 's.

W:u..:ipk~.ljxia .1ntl Zi1Juu;~. dis.;u.~ personal rdatiun:ships. Oao X ian makes a
~llc.: i n l note tlull "in inh:rocting \\ ilh fl'icud:;:, we should foll•lW Zixia ·~ nd,·icc
whcrc35 in inlcra.;til)g of3cqu3iOt31li.'C!t, we $bould foll ow Zizhollg's ndvicc )f.
!!C',1;\' !.,!)j-: _g . ii~f.\' ~7- ~.- his. im1XII1aut tn J)Oinl oul lhal Bao dt~ not
mc::n hon pt·ng in h1s nntc
zs Chen Li. l~}i/m t t)tJg .rlm!lumg. )"fln 8. I :376, My tr:msl:llton of you as
"bciug cm·utg" f..,no w~ Waug Ni an !'tu~ ·s t .~ Tf: (1744-1 832) Ulm...~e alion.
which was tncludcd in Chen l..i's (.."Omm...'ll.to'lrv :md can be found tn 1·377.
' Chen l.i. /Jailm wng slm:lu·ns.Jtt<•J~ 8. I :317-378. Tlte tlu'i!C 1lnal~t·ts
2
pa:;sagt.'S :~n: 5.26. 10.22. nml I L22 F(lr some reason. Ben Gu's cxposilion
Lbcu!')CI(.I <.n1.ly ou lhc vblig~tions that "~,.,c dccmcJ C(1111r1Um 1 ~1 friends and
tt:llow disctplcs: it dtd no1 ~ mgte out thos~ unique hJ fe llow d1s..:iplcs.
 37

re:tSon "hy Bao X ian highlighted the tcnn peng in his conuucntary. In
conclusion. we can s;~y that 8.10 X ian's commentary appeared to be firmly
grounded in his sc holarl~· interest in the historicity of dcmits in the Ann/eels
as \\CIJ as in 1hc CYcryday ra1lity of his own time. In ~u HkcHhood. his
inte'rprcu.tion reptc-scnted the view on chis simplt.! tcnn in late Western ~:md
corly E;astcm Hom.
We shall never lmow how Oao Xian actually understood Anah-c/,')'
I. I since his gloss on pmg was Ihe only snippel He Yan selected from his
o riginal commcntOl')' on this chapter. Did Bao. for example, think
Confucius was talking about his personal experience and moral
achievement. or did he understand wh.1tthc Master said to be the outcomes
of various kinds of sclf-culli\·ation acccssibJc to aU'? Gh'c n his gloss on
peng. however. it is probnblc that Boo would prefer a reading that \\:IS
specific to the p:trtieular historical person3ge Confucius. rather than one
that would appeal 10 the sig.nific.lnce of ~c lf..c u lti ,·ation as .3. univerS31
prnctic.e, By sl1ccr luck. \\C hmc a J>iece o f C\ idcncc from the 5-11mc period
that corrobor:ltes with Bao·s possible intcrprclation. And i1 was recorded in
BM Gu 's Baihu 10ng)'i . a text th:u was compiled .Uter Bao Xi:tu 's
comn1e ntary had been officially endorsed by the Han go\"councnt l11c text
mentions tl~t there exists a thrccrold rclalionship between teacher and
disciple. ;\ teacher ca.tl be a friend (pt:ngJ'Ou )JJtO lo his disciple: he can
also command rcspccr from his- d isciples like a father fi gure; still, a teacher
c.:m :;u;t liken lor:d 10 bjs dis.~ip l c who willlcam (rom. hir:n the w;~y of bd.ng
a subo rdinJtc. 2~ ln arguing for the friendship (jJet~.1J.r(m zhl (/oo F~f .U:.ti!t)
bctwocn lcacher and disciple. Bnn Gu cited A11alccts 1.1 ns his c\·idcncc. h
is clear. then. that he. like Sao Xian. understood 1he tcnn peng in Anal.:t:ls
1. 1 :is 1hc disciples from the same ''gn.tc" whom were considered .. friends"
:lS wcU. And according to Ban Gu's judgment. the "g:uc.. belonged 10
Confucius. who trcau.:d his disc.ipl.::s os -rricnds." When his disciples.
luwi n ~ been done studying with him. came- blck for 3 visit. Confuc ius
l\Ould find grcou joy in their compAny. E,•iden ll~·. O!Ul Gu understood
Am'l/ecJ.o; 1.1 10 be Confucius·s articul<ltion of dtc ' 'arious expcr·icnccs he
had personally undergone in his sclf-culli\'ation.

RESCU I!'iG T HE TEAC HER -- HAN YU AI\D LIU CHANG

No doubt He Yan endorsed Bno Xi:m ·s gloss of peng ns he made n

special dfort 10 include il in his CQ/Iectt:d Commemari~s. i\s a mancr o f
fac t. B:~o ·s gloss C"ontinucd to be followed for :u lc-:tst :tnothcr s;c\'Cn or cighl
hundred yct!J"S. during which l ime Buddhism had come 10 China, gained a
finn foothold and made ll1ousa.nds of COII\'C·I'IS even am on~ lhc literati. It

::=o' Ch~n l.i. JJmlm tong slm:IJ«:rrg.pwn 6. 1:258. In the -xw.:ji"' ~~i£

c:haplcr of the Ujr, we :tlso knm th:tl ..a 1cachi:r h; wmconc from whom c)nc
lcarn:t h(m' to be a lmtr (11~1!!.·7.1· . JJH:H}~:Qir t!!). Sc,.."\; L ijl ;lwJim r.a'3C ~j:_ii'~
in Ru:m YU!.lO, SlnSolljmg :Jru$1/U, jii(J/1 36, s ·65J
.i8

has e' en been argued that as Buddhisnt gained \\ illcsprcad influence across
a11 social strnta in the Tang period. China. in this sense. became ,· irtuall~ n
Buddhist state. '!9 Buddhism was cv(.-ry·whcrc in evidence, physically :mel
spiritually. Enryonc otcccptcd the Buddhist religion ns an integral part of
their li\'eS and the reality they li\'Cd with. Chan lilcnnurc provides one of
the best rc<:·ords that dcmonstrnte h ow Buddhist masters t:omm:mdcd the
respect of pcuf)lt from ull W;tlks of life when the)' dcli\·crcd 5enn ons OJ'
simply cntcnaincd queries from visitors in tl1cir monasteries. While monks
uckked all o'er t11c counuy, the)' did not do so for missionru~· purposes. On
the contrary. Chan rc.cords show thai people flocked to the monasteries in
order to seck instructions. In fact. even scholars who aspired to learning
would lca,·c their ruban dweUi.ngs and come into the mountains to study in
the monasteries. This is especially true \\hen the Tang empire \\:IS
approaching ilS demise 3nd during lhC SC\'Cnly-thrCC- yearS (907-979) Of
politic:'tl disunity following the T:tng dynasty.
The noc:kin&of scholars to Buddhisl motHJSICtics indiCUICS that the
Confucian teacher was losing his cuhur:ll and spi ri m:~l mnhority. By the
Lime of the famous Confucian sc.htllru- Han Yu .~~.G! (7GS·S24). schof:u·s
who aspired 10 learning were actually ashamed of seeking instruclion from
a Confuciao teacher. The situation hod dctcrior:ucd so deplorably that Hon
Yu felt obliged to compose an cs.s.,y to condemn it In his essay tilled
"Discourse on Teachers- (Shishuo" f:lll~). he :wcrrcd tho.t ..sludcnts of
ancient limes all hJd their teachers. fo r it is only through the tc:lchcr that the
\V01y is transmittC'd. learning impancd. and doubts dispelled" (f~Jli . ~ ~,
~f.~) . But looking at" hal was h~ppening nround him. lie lamented.

Alas. the t~chi n s of the \\!;~~· has Jon~ been negloctc:d!

Hard it is, then, to expect men 10 be wilhoul doubts. llte
sng·c s of antiquity far excelled ordin:uy men, o.nd yet the-y
sought tc<tcl•ers and quc:stioned tl1cm. But the common
people of t oda~·. though they :ue equa l ~· far from the lc\·cl
of the sages. count it a sbltltc to study witlt n teacher ....
Tite sort of teacher who onl) gives a child a book and
tC-llChcs him to punctuate and read i.s not whm I call a
trnnsmittcr of the Way and a dispcUer of doubts ... .ilmons
the families ofsc;;hohu-offic:iuls if ) 'OU speak of a teacher or
a disciple e\'cryonc g:uhcrs around <tnd begins to
Jaugh ... ."

~ CluuJcii (l;:utmon./!t.m fil wtd Ill<-' T'tm;; St•ard tjor Uttil}' (ITiocctnn:
Prin~.:"-1on Ur~ivcrsi ly Pn.:ss. 1986). ~l ) , Sw al ~' Slanh:y Weinstein. J)uddlti:n n
•mtli!r 1lr•• T'rm,t: (C~mbndgc. England· Cambndgc Umvcr:nly l,rc5s. 19l:t7).
·'~ There is o ~ompl.:tc translation of tltc (·s~,)y in Wm. 'l'h<'Odo•-e <.!<' fury,
Wing-tsit Ch;:u1, ond Burton Wat:;on compilt::d. Som-cc.f ofCitim:sc Tmditimt.
Vol l , (New Y<.u·k. Colmubi:1 Uni vc1~ity l'r~. 19'1-})). pp 374-J75 Our
citmion come~ from Jl :ns.
 J9

ln Han Yu 's mind. as the c uhuml authori1y of the Confucian

teacher crodc.:d. the respect for lhc Confuci;m \Vay would inc,·itably f:d l inlo
oblhion. For this rcnson he wrote another css41v tilled ..Wbnt is the Tmc
WayT ("Yu:m oao·· J.ltiilh in "hich he asserted that everything that was
best in Ch inese- civiliz:.tion wos indeed indebted to Confucianism and that
t hi~ glorious civilization had onh· bc••un to dc··· cncmtc with Lit~ l'isc and
nourishing of Taoism and Buddhi~m in° China.'H.,Although classical Taoism
(he cited the Zluumg:i in his criticism) was mentioned in the essay, Han
Yu's diatribe was in fact printarily targeted at Buddhism. Thus at the end of
his essay he concluded lhal "unless !BuddhismI is suppressed. the Way will
not prevail: unless lthcsc men of Buddhism I arc stopped. the Way will not
be prncticcd. Let d1cir priests be tumcd into ordinal)' men again. let their
books be bumcd ond their temples eon\·encd into homes. Let the Wa) of
our fa nner kings be made- clear to lead them .... Then all will be wcn:·n
Han Yu ·s petition to the nuthoritics to exterminate Buddhism W015
p.usion:ue and unmistakable.
When Han Yu :~:sscrtcd th:u one or the duties of the teacher was to
trilJlSU1itlhe w~y. he implied lhat the Way indeed could be U:UL'itnittcd. And
in his css.1y he achJ.111y claimed that there was a lineage of the transmission
of the Confucinn Way which bcgnn with Yno 3to.nd was passed down to
Shun ]q•, who succeeded to his tl11'one as well. Then aflcr :U\ uninterrupted
succession of SC\'eral sagc·kings. the Oukc of Zhou J.)jj'l.hransmittcd the
\Voy to Confucius. who then taught it to Mencius. But when Mencius died
tl1c Wny was no longer handed down. II is \\til known that lfan Yu·s
inYention of such n lineage of transmission of the Way w~s inspired b>'·
Chan Buddl1ism in his time. Ne-vertheless. for this i.ngcnious exploit. he was
usU31ly considered, in retrospect tllc forerunner of iliw.we iii * (0.:10
LcMning), or what is oflcn l:nown ns Nco..Coofucianism th:n w:1s later
developed in tll e Song period. V.'hilc the im cntion of a Confucian lineage
itself might be borrowed from the Buddhists. H3n Yu should be credited for
his astute observation of the crucial connet:tion between the dismption and
resumption of the transmission of the \V{l~' and the- rcnsscrtion of the
cuhur:'ll and spiritual authotit>' of the Confucian tcad1cr. In order to be able
to rcsumt! the transmission of the War. due respect should be p:tid to lhc
C..onfucian lC;tchcr again. Indeed. if we read the tenor of his C$.$4y C<~rcfu lly.
it seems dear that Han Yu was inclined to consider hims.clf Ute
long-awaited person who would be able to carry on the transmission of the
Confucian Way from Mcnc ius. In so doing. Han Yu, in c.O"'cct. c-reated :1 dual

·'' A cm.nplc.t~ tnmslution of th~ c.ss::~y cnn be- found i.n Wm. ·nJI."'J<.lorc de
O:uy and hell\: 1311.101n \)1.1-!Upilcd. fWurceJ of Clune.se rnldii/QII.' Ft'Qm Ear/ie$1
Thw:~ ro / 600, Vol. I (New York: Columbia Umvcr:nty Pres). 1999, 2'"
1

\..•dition). pp.569-573. Tbe t1tJc of the (.'S$1i~' i~ tru.nslatcd os "E:~ setthul.s of 1hc
tvhmd w~y."
.~ Trau.sl~liun i~ nllKiifict.l l'rmn de Bm~· ct ~tl.. So11rcc.-~· of CJu'm:.~l!
Trmllll<m. Vol I , p .l79
origin of tltc idea of lineage for a nc\\' kind of Confucianism
(Nc.'O-COnfbcianism) 10 be developed in lhc Song.. To wil, Han Yu gave binh
to the id~a of a school of thoughl as a lineage has its roots both in the
influence of Chan Buddhism and also in the ide;~ of a lincnjlc from
Confucius the tcachel' to his la1cr disciples. As regards scholars who aspired
to inherit :md c~· on with the Confucian Wny. H:m Yu re<om.mcndcd that
they reinterpret t11c- Way ac~;0rd i ng to thdr own undct!ltanding. In his
eommcnuuy on Ana/eel.~ 2.1I' 1 he said,

Sc.:hola•s in the-past all said fthe meaning of this p:tssagc-is

thus:) ·•to inn:stigatc and interpret litcmry writings,
suu1ing with the old n.nd then proceeding to the new." But
this is rmc learning. and )its mastery! docs nol qua.li(y one
to be a acachcr.il l I sa) "old .. means "the Way of antiquity ..
:wd " ne\\ ·• means ··one's own innov:1ti"c intcrprct=~tions
. .. J\
l hUl C.Uil SCI\C liS 3 llCW IX:Ir:ld1&111 • . •
'"
/~ "' 'c' "J "'
h •if'lfd "" ~·· '"1 • ljl -t·
'\l\;.:,_....,_~.( ,,.,. ltH'"'I"J""''
1.10t.iJJr•. -,-oo'
JCiiC •1 iTJ l f ., 'l' iJ;J.-! i
.A. illi 11!. -p;.•~, ri .ff',., 4 mtl!. :~r, .-:o1c 4 ii'li ;c,;ror:A t~i iii.
It is nmpl) clear thnt H3n Yu dispnrngcd rotc learning and blind
adherence 10 the Way. " 'llic h were exactly \\h~ t the te-achers lauS&ht in his
time. ro him. the Confucian W3y C.ln only be made \'i:tblc with i.nno,~t~tivc
i nt~r,, rcLatiOilS that build upon t11c collective-wisdom fro m the 1)3$1. Jndecd
personal creative insights should outweigh the unthinking obs.cn'ance of the
\V3y. It is no coincidence th3t Han Yu somc1imcs chao~cd the original
gmpbs in the Analects to suil hi~ own re-ading of the tcxL 3.(1 And he. oficn
cued interpretations from He Yan 's r allected ('omnu:mtmes and subjected
thcllJ to his scathing critiques. Typic;ally, he would blmJtly poiot out,
\\ ithout cxplruullions. that these earlier commentaries \\CCC "rong and then
pur fonh his o" n intcrpn::tntions, 17 Comp:tred 10 B3o Xi:l.n ·s hisaoricist
approach, HM Yu's henncncutics stro'c to free its imogln3tion from the

\'J Han Yu \\T( IIC a t..:tmuncnlu~· dn the Jl ll(s/ect.v in tt..·n scrolls Cl1llc d
Lunyu -:lm ~MHf . but it was l<mg lo.~. Jl(m'cvcr. Jl:m Yu had (UlOih<'r
commentu1)' in h\0 scrolls whkh he co-:~ulht':II'Cd with l.i Au ~\!U (7 72-S~ l ).
·1his sholt <:ouun<.,lttuy. titled Lm')'tl bijir ii;;iil\~JVI. is :Still c:-..1:.nt 1oda}' and is
cited in our CSS<I\'.
,, Thi~ lin~ ~~tlUIII~t I!OR'lCS rrillll the "'Xucji" chaJltC1' of the l.~ji. set /Jjt
=luuJm m Ruan Yuan, .<,·tusnnpng zluulm,JIUm 36, 5:655.
JJ l bo Yu aod Li /u,, Lu~tytt Mj1e , in Qi11dmg Siku 'fllml.fltu , jlltm ~'lumg
1ii 1·.. 196.5.
M Sec, for mst~ncc. Ius .:."('lmm\!nt~ny on Auttii.!CIS 2 2 . 5. 12. ~nd 11.1 9.
llan y~·s l)'pict'lln::•£;OJt was dwt the original gn•ph was a nusprint
3
Charles Ihrtmoo has oom::ctly pointed out t11~t f IW'I Yu's writmgs
t!Cil ~J~• I I) t• d ~lptcd :.a mm1i:tl tone. Sec his /lim J'u mtd the.· 1' '< mg S<'mt.:ll jot•
IJnay, p.5.
 ~I

constrnints of concrc1c historicity. It is most ironic that while Confucius

described himself as someone who " transmiucd but did not innovate." :;s
Han Yu. in his valianl aucmpt to revive the Confucian Way, insisted on
i nno\'~ tion . In fact. he argued thnt lrn.ditioonl commentators gol it all \\ rong
when they said Confucius " 'as being modest in saying that he- was a mere
trttnsmiucr,):» In anr c.as.e, it can be nrg·ucd thi'H tl:ln 's highly interprerive
t:-omnu.:nuuy on the Annlech· foreshadowed So n g-dy nast~· (960~1279) ~il)'lc
exegesis on Confucian classics. which was routinely condemned as
s:ubJCCti'c by Qing~dynnsty (1644-19 11 ) classicists.
(n spite of Han Yu's protest against Buddhism 3nd his allcDlpt 10
mlly suppon for the reassert ion of the authority of the Confucian teacher.
the situ:uion did not impro,·c when the Northern Song opened :1 new p:~gc
in Chinese history. Shi lie 1-1 :it ( 1005-104S) continned to deprecate
scholars who felt a$h;tmcd to seck in~tructions from Confutitm teachers; he
considered this to be lllcir • big blind spof' (i!iti~ I!I;~ ~HJili. ~l?{..(.Aiili
1.!!.)...u The spiritu..'ll .-utllority of lhc Buddhist masters did not seem to
diminish in any way. A liule known but extremely telling episode from the
c:.rty Northern Sons (9W-ll27) best illustr:llcs the pcn;civcd superiority in
the Ch ineS~: mind of Buddhism over Confucianism in spiritual mouc.rs.
Once, Empcrot Tni~.ong );;~~ (r.976-997) told his prime minister Zhao Pu
k1 1~ (922-992) thai Jlis Majesty ''as auractcd to the tcacl1ings of
Buddhism for hs "subtle words :lnd fundamental prindplcs'' (we tytm
zcmgzlu r~;r;;t f-r). At the same time.. the Clnpcrol' illso emphasized thnt in
ruling the co-wury it n'ould be ludicrous to foliO\\ 1hc exilmple of Emperor
\Vu of Liang ~it·i'ii (r. 502-549). \\ho. somctimc.s "-nown os Cbin:1's
ASok3. was inf.·unous for his lifelong dedication to Buddhism. He. for
instance. ·'sold" himself three times to the momJ....q cric:s nnd wns c,·c:ntu~lly
compelled to redeem himself by dona tin& millions of C.1Sh to the Buddhist
c:stoblishmcnt. TrnditionJIIy, Chinese hi!itOn:UlS unl ntm(miily blamed
Emperor Wu of Liang for lhc ultim:atc do'' nfu ll of hi.s regime. Zh:w Pu ·s
response 10 Taizong cnlpcror·s remark is p:1nicul:u ly wonhy of note. He
said, .. Your Mojcst) f!O\'('fOS the. world with the Woy of Yoo and Shun. cmd
cuhh '3tc.s the mind in li~ht of the teachings of tllc Buddha Lofty and

.~1 Atwlcc:t.s 7.1.

)) /.m1J7t hi.Ji•~. jrum .~lumg. in Qin<lmg SJk11 'tmm..~ hu. 196·9 Han Yu
seems to he arf!um~ lh:rt Cc:mfuciu$ ' '' as : u;lur.lly lamenting in Ann!t·Cis 1. 1 that
be could oQC fiud :tJJyooc: wonhy enough 10 rece-ive tb..: Way fn.m} bh:n.
,)) S(,.,;: Shi Jk-·s C$:;ay ..Oi$C!JU~l'¢ on Tcacht:rs.. (~IJ&'& in hi.s Culol Slu
:rianRslr.mg wctf_}i fll l¥ ;fj $\; !t X: 1.1~ (Beijing.: Z.hon_gbua $ltuju, 198-1),
I~' 25S-l.$9 The ess:ty ou))' :;:un·i n .'::l in fragmcnta1y funn tod3). bul il is .;!em·
1hat Shi Jie wrolc u in the style or 11:-.n Yu. ''hom he n.:n.:n.'<l
profound. your sagely ''isdom pcnctr.ttcs into Lhc principles of Truth ~"'F
~ }l~Z. ffiif.i li!:, ~i1JitZ.~)!tj.C,•, ~~~~f.V1&i ~. iliiJfti,t-'tki!.""' 1
II is clear from this cxeh=:~n ge that both the emperor nnd his
highcst·ronk.ing officill shared the \'iC\\' thai ConfuciAnism t:tnd Buddhism
each. ns il "ere. had their own pbilosophict:tl prccincl with tlte forntcr
guiding the go,·cmancc of the state and the I:Jtter enlightening the minds of
sendent beings. The two prcc:incts were considered philosophically distinct,
and t11c possibili1y of intcg.ratiug the t\\0 seemed to be out of the question
for either the crnpcror or the ptimc minister. In Jigln of this t!pisodc. \\ Ccan
fully :tpprcci:ue a l~mous slogan attributed to Zhao l,u, which says. "One.
cnn govcm all under Heaven with just one half o f the Analt·cf!.·- ( .:Pf~~;'i~;·;n
}ftJ~ l-\ .: Whether or not the Analects had the alleged magical power. it
4

was delinitcly c.onsidcrcd to be a bool.: whose primary efficacy lay in

bringing order to tht world.
\V'ith this ~ncroJ understanding o f the Confucir&n doctrine:. it is oo
wonder. tl1cn. thilt Buddhism continued 10 dominate in the c:uly ycai'Sof the
Norlhc:m Song insofar ls spiritu:tl matters were concerned. 'l'hc spirillutl
authority or the-Confucian teacher dCm:lndcd to 1x rCCQ\'Crcd more Lh:.m
ever. In fact, Loo Congy:tn f.ftl~'~ (1072·1135), who reponed tltc episode
between Emperor Tnizong and Zh:1o Pu from about n lnmdrcd years ago.
made an astute comment o n it He agreed with Emperor Tait.ong that
Buddhism was indeed :m insishtful teaching tlmt W:~S rcasonnblc: ::mel
profound. so much that it wns bc:.yond the im.ny.inJtion of the Confucians.
Howc,-cr. he cmJJiw.sizcd that the Buddhist doctrine was not the same ns th~

remained aloof from worldly affairs Mill' A f~. *

Way of Yao. Slum and Ctmfitd tl.t, (or it cut off hum:ut relationships rutd
1'·lltf!l, ~lijtf'i:it 7-z

41
l.no t't'ln£y:m fl: ~ ~ ( 1 012· 1 1~5), /. 110 J'uzlumg p Ui fi ;.:l-m,
(Sha.nsb.-i· Shougwu y in shugu~n. 1937), jmw 2, p 25. On another occn$iOll.
Gmper~ll' 'ftlj7..ong told Zhao Pu that he noh~ccl some uf tlu.; C\lnJie.lutcs " I·•~) KIOI\
the ci\'il cx:lntinalilm '\en: formc1l)' Tooi:-t OJ' fiuddhi:'t JHil~ts. The~
c:mJidatcS: d1d n~)t sn1dy the clo~ics wdl, ond if th~r wcr.:: gJ\"t."ll a po~1. lh'-'T
would not be mur:tlly incorruptible. 1'hu.'\., the emperor rciter.atcd th:tt succc.ssful
c:mdid!1h~l:\ mu::-"1 Jir:s;t $ludy th~ C·ln~icl:\ ILKIC'Ollt!hl~ and fl)llow the w.:~~· of the
Dul-..c of l.huu omd Confucius. Sec J'u:lumg ji. fumr 2. p.18. ll ~hould be p(lillk'tl
c.l llt thut Luo Conf;yan ,,·us ::a d~.s..:a p l e or Y<'ng Sh1 H}ll-.~ (1053·1 135), " ho had
studied undt.;r the Cht.·ng f~ btlllll~.o-T;o; in tile Notthcm Sonp. l.uo '::; (m•n stude nt
l.i Yanpiog +.i$"1'- ( 1093.1163) W:JS nont:-. other 1han the K".lchcr of Zhu Xt.
4l fa~~'FJU ZC'II,f.:J!II(UI{.! Jhild ,tlli:ll dllqiUm f.f.f~!lJff1JiEJ~lJ1£X:!*J:¢. ju(lll
15. in Qmtfb1g .' )lht qtwm·hu, 952·426. Th1s ,,·ort. was probably completed in
the hU(; thir1ocnth C(.':lltUty duriu~ tl1(; ('at'ly yco1'S (If tl1c Yuon dynas1y
(1 279·1368): it i!' a collc<:tion of .unccdotc:s about historic:.11l p~rsonag~!> from
Chinese hislOI)' until dtc &'lt·t~ dyna:ily (960 12i9) '11t~o: mllht'l' (.I I' lhis \ \ (i lk is
4

unl:nown.
ijj,.&J It is clc.ar that something must be done in order to re-claim proper
rccosnition ;~o d respect for the Confucirut Way. It was around th.is ti.mc l iu
Ch:lnt:f.•J(.f.c: (10 19·1 068). a specialist on the Confucian classic Clwnqfu 1~
fX. composed his commcnt:uy on the Alfnlect.f. liu 's commentary is not n
com piece one: he only commented on selected passages from the Atwlecu.
Sometimes he might comment on c;~ch individu:ll line in a cbnpter1 or he
might simp ) ~· write a summn~· statement on a gh cn chaplcr.
h should be noted thnt Han Yu ·s inn:ntion of the linctlgc or the
tran.~misSu')n ofJ.! the Confucian \Vtl\' •
won "ide currencv •'
in the e.:ulv
•
Northcm Song. l11is widespread pursuit of the WB)' wns nlso reflected in
Liu Chang's c.onuncntary on the Armle£'(,1. In his commcnt:JI)' on Analtt'l.~'
5. 13, Liu ttd:nowlcdgcd that only the sage-s h.nd oe:cess to the Way of
Hca\'CJt.. "hich wns passed down from Yno to Shwt. and then from Shw1 10
Yu ?(jlf X· .. . fo:!AJ1i~~Ji t1!.. j"f.~~·. !Y;f,f.f~~J~ ·W.."5 And on Analect.~ 1.4,
liu had this to ~y:

Clnutn means "tr.lnsmiu.ing the Way th:tt one h:.s received

from one ·s teacher:· How c-an one t~· to reach it to
someone \\ ithoutlirsl pracaicing il? One cnn only do haml
16
to others Ithis way 1.'
ltV i!i·. IIIJfr 'Sl:bN1PZillio~ ~ 7l>FN i1ii t:J.Y.<A 'J'n'.;ii)f
A~ .

Read ag::~ insl He Yan·s C{)mmcnl:trr on the- s:unc p;:.ssagc, Liu's

intention to single out the Way as the object of U':l.nsmission becomes
crystal clear. He Yan ·s commentary rc3ds . .. for the Jhing:J tl1at one is 10
tmnsmit. can one no( s1udy and proctice them routinely before doing so ;j' H.
mCeU:.'l~ . r-'1;~\.ift::r-~~'Mirlm.L'l'T '" In He's reading, the obj«:l of
trausmission is knowledge about concrete things: in contrast. Liu Chang
was only inlcrcsH.xl in the transmission of the Wa~·. Aficr all. Han Yu had
a ltc:~dy decried the imparting of boot knowledge as dctrimcnl.lll to the
authorit) of the Confucian teacher.
Else\\ here in his commentary liu Chang repealed I) emphnsi1.ed
the di ffi cu lt~· of the trnnsmission of the W:~y. His words on An(l/ccls 19.1.2
rend as follows:

<C) J.uo Congy;)n, J'u; lmngj1.j11tm 2. pp 2)-26

41
Sec, for ..:x~mplc, Shi l ie's cssoy "·On Vcn~T:tting Han Yu'' :fl.il!i in his
Cultli s·r,;Xltlltg.\ ·lw ng ll'l'tlji, J)J"! 79-M.
tS J.m Ch:mg. Citmg.thi Qljing xioozlmau 'l.:~t ·~~i!.~J·f.}j , jurm xm ·'(l ~~
in Qimlittj: Siku qtwn.slm, 183:33.
,. Liu Cb&Uj!.. G utrg.JIII Q(jlng xhunfN,(III.)IIl lll xw . Ji'-..1 J I.
4S
I luang Kan, Lmt;~ ·u Jijlc .vtsltu. I: 10
 Titis (chaptcrl addresses the difficuh~· of transmitting the
\Vay. How can one i mprudcnll~· uy to teach (the Way( to
someone withoul ftrst practicing it oneself! (On tltc otl1~r
ha_nd.'l ho" c~n one be IOlZ) about transmilling (tJ1c \Vily'l
knowing that it is rcadr fo1' transmission?·"
~t 1.r f# ii!:t •l'lt 1!!,, ifMPI~ ~~iii ~i l!l f{)d'-? ~Jrli'I!,OIFJ~
i•ff<i\lfii f!I.LJ'i. flf!!H'· ·1
h is unmistAkable th..11 Liu was COIIIJlletely constmted \\'it_h the
passion to rc\·h·c· the Confucian Way. He was nol so much imcrcstcd i.n
whether the Woy could be transmincd as in "hethcr one hJd pr..cticed the
Way cnoush to transmit it In other words, the crux of the issue about the
trnnsmlssion of the Confuci:m W:ty lies " 'ilh the person \\hO c:an transmit it~
and !his person is called the lcacbcr. Liu Chang \Hl.S acutely ilWOfC or the
challenge im•oh·cd :md his commentary on the Aualiu:ts bears testimony 10
his historicnl consciousness and his missionary zeal.
Lit...e his spiri1ual predecessor Han Yu. Liu Chang fully apprccia1cd
the role oflhe Confucian teacher in the formidable lask of re\ i\'ing the Wa~ .
~nd thus the c:ritic.1l role of the tc ::~.chcr figured prominently in his
commcnuuy as well. On the three p;:uts of thmlc:cts 1.1. Liu wrote
accordingly.

Keeping WiUm tht! old and getting to kuow the new.

}tHlltfiJ~~ ~Ji

/-'eng means a multitude lofp<.-oplcJ, When <.lnc: is qunlificd

to be :a teacher. u multitude of people will come to him us
if rclurning home.
mt. >ill!!. ufl;l. t\ll!Jilli~~.~z

Not lo worry abou1 others' failure to appreciate yourself. J<~

, . ,.,, ~ -r. <!o
"I'.'Q.t .AZ-1' C:.).ll

First of all, it should be noted th:u liu cited two pass.1gcs (2.11 and
1, 16) from the Ano/,;cts it~ If to comment on Anah:t:ts I_, I intratc;-:tuully,
While it makes sense to S;:ty that "'h;n ing lc.1mcd something and uying it
out at due i.nterYals'" is in a sense .. keeping wann the old and gelting 10
know the nc\\. we mu.~t not mi.c;.~ the subtle ye1 ingenious clue in this
M

intratextual reference. In its original contest in Arrolecl.\· 2.11. the purpose

of ··J;ccpi.ng worro tbc old and gcttl.og to know tbc new•· is to n:mkc one
<JU.Uli~v to be-n tcm:her (kt•yi w-:i ~hi J f iif U l.)fl"j~). Liu dro\·e his point
home in his eomment..·u·y on the second part of the ch.aptcr. Here, Liu

4( Liu Cluutj!.. G utrg.JIII Q(jlng xhun/N,(III.}IIl lll xw . Ji'-..143.

t) l.iu Ch:m g. Gcmgtlll (]ijlug ,"(luf!:hmm .ju(m Xl(r, 183:31 .
 45

dcpancd from Bno Xian and g lossed ~>e.ng" :ts ..a multitude of people."
Philologically. he was on safe ground.- It is signifi c:mt that the tenn gui
&~1~ (litcmlly. return home) may c.;nTy a subtle Buddhist connotation here. In
Buddhis1 tcnninology. w hen one accc1Hs the tc.1ehincs and prcc.cpu o r the
Buddhtt, one is said to take refuge in (gui) Buddhism. Conversion 10
Buddhisnt is compru·cd 10 finding a shelter or new home in life. Liu Chang's
usc or the term gui here appears to be deliberate. as it subliminally com·cys
rbc hope d1nt people who find spiritual fulfillment in Buddhism will ··rcnun
home.. and ''lake refuge in" Confucianisn1 again.
Just as Sao Xi:m lrk'dto rc lacc his commentary co the reality of his
time. Liu Chang ::~ddrcsscd the concerns of his own era. and to him the most
pressing of ~II \\tiS the rcvi\'nl of the nuthority of the Confucinn teacher.
How could the Confuci:m lei'lcher aurocl people to himself.' TI1is is the
question tlmt loomed l:ugc in Liu ·$ commcnl:lry o_nd he brought it to the
fOrefront in Lhc \'cry first litu! of his wo•-k. This is also tl1e question that
dctenu incd liu 's interprcLnlion of the 1emt peng.
Titc examples of Han Yu and Liu Chang indicate that the
preoecup:uion of tJtc ltansmis5ion of the Way had made Confucian schol3rs
painfully aware of the critical role of the teacher. and such preoccupation
then sbopcd tbei.r u ndersm~:~d iog of the mcaoi.ng of P''ng i.n the Anni£"Ct.r.
Instead of focusing on the interpersonal relationship among fellow students
that was occasioned by the pr~ se nce of n eommon tcnch~ r. the
hennencutic:tl spotlight "as now shined onto the tc.ncher him.sclf. The
tn~lmin g of peng was then explicated in relation to t.hc cuhural fUJ.lc(ion nnd
influence of the teacher. Wl1cn we com~ to the SOtuhern Song ( 11 27· 1279),
how<:\'CC. the interpretation ofpcug began to toke yet anot.bcr nc" tum.
In response to the erosion of 1hc aulltOril)' of the teacher. Coniueian
scholors began «o introduce rcionn in lhc education system in the c.uly
Northern Song. One of the ultimate concerns fo r educational reform wns to
uain OC\\ Lal<::nts to institute political reform. as the Nonhcm Song. a
rclati\'cly wc:tk government, h:td to confront the Khitans in the north and
tl1c Tanguts fro m the west. who were threatening its $CCUrity. Of parliculor
imtl0l1~HICC in the cducalional reform \\Crc. the. roles of Fan lhonSYan ti!. M•
/(1 (9K9· 105l) and Hu Yu:u1 ii!Hk (9'JJ. J059)." When he wns young. Hu

=.> In the commentary on the .'i/raugJim (•\i3 allributed to K•)ng Anguo

{1..~~ of the We:slctu Jhm dyua:ny. tbcu:; a glo$$ on tile tCI'lll peug ill the
IS
"Yi;i·· ~i ~ \'Jl::JpK.'f and it ~ys. ··p~'l'Jf mcJ~ns
a gr'"mp (oi people( JPJ, llltk ··
S.x .)1wtrg.,lw :h11Jim i:'ti"flti;JAL in Runn Yoan. Shis<nyin,t ::lat:~lm. jitmr 5.
I 71.
~~ J-'or stud1cs in English on Fan Z.hongy:m. :\(:c J :tnlCS T.m, ··An l.·::~rly
Sun ~ l{(·fonnt·r: Fon ChUJ)f!·)'t·n." in ChinC'sc 1'hcmght nml lmtihtiJOIIS. C(h1C.'<I
by Jt"iln King Fnirbank (Chic.ugo. Uni,·crsity of Chicago Press. 19"57),
I~' 105- 31. " Some Rc.:llc.~~tion:; ..:.l Fan Chung·rcn (989· 1052)... 111 ..1 f~J tsc:hrifi
In /lo uor Qj l'rofes:tor .lao 7:'fu"g4 Qlt 1/JC' OtX (1J i l m IJj 1/i.\· ."iePintiJ'"'fi}ih
len his f:lmil) to SlUdy in a Taoist temple on Mt Tni ~ IIJ for ten~ cars. for
there were. no schools ;~round for scholars to rc;cci.vc cduc.at.ion. Thc;rcaftcr
he \\a$ teaching Confucian cl;~ssics in the S u~hou !t~~lf:.reil. When F<Jn
Zbonsyan was prefect of Su?.hou, he employed Hu Yuan to teach in the
pn:f<.-ctural school: Jater on. Hu also taught in Hu:d10u ~\IHII. In Hu 's
curricular design swdcnts were put on two different trotks •• one on the
scholarly studies of the c.:lossics thcmscln:s and one on the practical
applications of the classics. A bal:mce wns stmck in this dual focus on the
Confuci3n curriculum. Hu Yu!Ul·S curricular design .(lnd pedagogy I:Jtcr
became-the model for muny rcgimml schools and was C\'Cn .adOJ)I<.xl by the
ccntr:JI go,·cmment " hen he w01s employed to take charge of the lmpcrial
Academy. It was known as lite Su·Hu pcdogogy (!~~Wl'.al;J. Altogether he
spent twenty ycors in his te.~ching c.arccr and he was said 10 ha\'C taughl
roore lh3n 1.700 students. ' · Just as liu Ch;ms ::tnd others were busy
defending the 01uthori1~· of the Confucinn tc.ac:hcr. the instiuuion of academy
~''lmyiUm Cil;t) ~gan 10 ~implemented all o,·er the countty.~~
By the middle of the clc\·cntlt ccntut) ' there \\Ct'C signs that showed
that Confucian teachers had begun to command authority and respect from
society n1 large. The well known episode of the Nco-Confucian master
Cheng Yi -1'11~11 (1033- 1107) speaks ,·o)umes. When two or Cheng Yi's
disciples went to sec their m:'tster for the first time ~t his residence one
<lficmoon in the winter. Cheng Yi was ubout to tukc ~ siestu and so he nskc.:d
them 10 come back again. However_. the }Oung men decided to stand in
'''ailing. As the mos.ter awoke, he looked :tro·und nnd sa"' them in his room~
so he urged lhent to go home ns night had already begun to f:1ll. When the
two disciples went Otltsidc. they notk.cd that a foot of fresh snow had
accumulatcd. 5" The Kspec:t for :1 tcochcr w:~s most ~phkally :md even

Anmwr.,·nry• (Honj; Kl)n ~:. ChinL"sc Uni\'CI'Sil) of l-lt'lflS Kung Prt:~s. 1993),
w .293-3oo
~ Qum Mu ~ .~~ . •Y.mg·.\lin;.: lixm~ gaislm ~ IJ] J'j!.Pf:~jf ( fttibci:
Xuc.•:hcn~ '>huju, 1975), J)P 2-5 Fm' n 1'\:CCIU SluJy flU Hu Yuan :and hi!'
oommcntary• on the ZIJouy; }1o1M, Sc:.: Tzc.-.kJ lion, ··En:-mili;;m. S3p:.-hood. and
Publit.:. Scrvic.c : The Ziumyi ku11,a:i of J lu Yuan.·· iu.\fomw~t·nta Saico 4& (2000).
67-92.
~1
1-·or rt."t'Cnl :o>ludics oo ac:~dcmtt:s in !he S~ng pertnd , ~'C Thnm:1s H.C.
L~. -Ac:tdcmJ(.'$' Ot'fici~l SponsorsJ'up o.nd ::iuppr.:ssion.'' in Frcck·nck 1\
£3tnnd:m
: cr and Chun-dt.ich [luang ctb.. lmpcricrJ Rulr:n/up mKI Cultural
C!Jfmge in Tr.-ullltonul China (Sc~•ttlc-: Uni\'ci"Sity uf Wa:shin&h'n Press, 1')9-t),
w 117- 143, :Uld Thomas H C. Lc.-c. (im '.N'mnrtm):;duet'I/Jon a11d t.:·mmmflllOII.'f
;, S11ng Clrlnt1 (New York: St Marlin 's.IJl(lng K(lng Chinese Unh·crsily of
lion~ Kong. 1985).
"' 1/euatt Clumg:d:i \i"iti.rlm ~ffi~i!f\.:?H!l.JIWU 12, in Hrchtll~ .fi_ .=.f\~
::Ut 4 \'01.$. (UCiJmg· Zhong hu~l shuju. 19S-L 2(.{ n..1>rin1}. 2:429. This t:unous
episode wa.i <~lso includl.'d in the .!mM lu .il( .1&J~. an impot1ant omlhology on
poclically c:lpturcd in this episode. lnd<.~d . when Cheng Vi was tutor 10
Zhc-long 1't;i~cmpcror (r. IOSt'i·I IOO). he conducted himself in the w:1y
thlll befitted the 1C~achcr I;J..jl~.tii t{ Jii},.~:S AS it wns CUSIORl:ll)', tile tutor. 01'
tcchnic:llh• known as the Classics Mo.t lcctwcr (jiugymr shi f!f)';lO~ ).
should Sland up whil~ lecturing. but Cheng Vi always sat down nnd kept 'l
solemn countcn:mcc.' 6 Cheng argued th:1t the practice was contrary to what
\\as done in the past. and not only was it moraH~· appropri:llc for lhc tutor to
be seated while lecturing. but it aJso helped to encourage the Emperor's
honor for Confucian schol:lrS and respect for the Confucian \VtJy t~ ~~
,;)), ;;r:Z\:{.iPI.X,)IIjl, ffr !Wlf. ·l~ l:iiHii!flid-':.·v." II is, then, little surprise
that Cheng Yi in his well known commentary on the Book <!{Changes s.1id.
" In anch:nt times. only when the lord had expressed their utmost I'C\'Crcncc
in full accord with prescribed rituals would a person answer his summon.
This i.s not bccuusc the person summoned wanted to be urro:;nnc Rother. il
"as probably because he honored ,·inue and took delighl in the W.ly. for if
a lord docs not bcha,·c in the s.1mc way. he is not worthy of being helped
towurds the ochic,cmcnt of greottbings i!iZ Al~i !)(<!-11' A~Jl?J:Cflil.ill!i(j
jtflj ,r.;·, ~I'W< f:ll\ 1\'i;/;: , l?iiJHH\!'1/!ii!. +!lil:l'~+~J)Hi ,e Ill:·" The
emperor held Cheng Yi in nwe,59 Once aOcr tu101in~. the emperor pla)'fu lly
snapped a twig fr om ~ wiiiO\'' uee by the " 'indo"'· and "'hen Chen:; Yi sa"'
it he admonished him. !i:l)'ing "It is now spring time and life is stirring. Do
not injure anything for no reason li1.f. ~ *· 1~iiJ-~t{(~tV.1JT."M Compared
to the situation Han Yu described about two centuries ngo, the Confuc:ion
teacl1cr had indeed c-ome a long way.

Ncc,.C:cmfuclani:.Til comptkd hy Zhu Xi :md Ul J.uqi:m ,•...nu.J-1 ( I 137-I ISI ),

Ft.1r ttn Eo~l ish
tronslation of the cplSOdc. sec \1/iug-t:>it Chrul tnm:Ji at~·d, with
noh.-:t. RC'flecliom· em Tfli,::., utllrtnd (N~"'' Yolk. Colwnbia Uui\'t:Nlty PI'C$.S.
1967). p.JO-l
!os Chen{! Vi 's :o;trong sl·nsc ()( sdf·J\.~pcct can be llh•s.tr:lh..-d by the f3cl
that he us CJ:assics Mnt Lecturer refused to submit :m :~;pphe.ation for his s:~!3J}'
lO the Boru:d or Rcn;uuc as C::U:ItC.l!U(trily h.'((UirOO. llc'd rutlu.:r bOI1'(1W mom:y to
li\'e on &'C llentm ('heng.1hi yi.~lru i•1J 1f1IY, [fdli i!r. pum 19. in Erclutng ; i,
1:259. Sec :~ lso de 13ory aod Uloom, Souro:s o.rc.:Mucse 1'rodrtitm . p.634.
~ ]:or some b:tcl.:grouud vn the in!'titution l~r lhc Classics Mat. sec de
Omy au(l O!t\01\1, 5i(l llt'Ce.1 tJ/CIIlu~-Jlr: Trt,Jrtlon.pp.6 28.(i38.
s.· .. l.un Jmsy:m di::::m zh:rzi'' Uti~fi!Jn d.fl~~ in 1/~ncm CJwugthi "''''Yl
~I:J f{J f.'~[\; X:!#£, juan G. Si!c Ert:lmtJ! ji. 2:539. For n tr.:.n:;lation (lf th~ C1.'XI. lol."!
de Lhry and Hloom. So11rct'-f ojCIIIm•Srt 1"mdilitm, p.6J~
~ Zlu>rtyi Cl11mg.slu':lman )·1·:1M :f.E~f~ .,i1Um J. conuucnl:!i)' on the· Mcng
ti-: lu:;xag.nun, m E"c"c:"gJI. .3.7 19.
5'} llemm C'htng..·hr II'Ui$/w,jumt 12 , in l;'r chrm gji, 2:423.
eo Zhu Xi ~~n. " Yichuun xiunsh<.:1lg niunpu" fJlJ li$\!~Et-!!ttf in llemm
C/JrJ tg,tM .~'J Sim. App:nd1x. Sec Ert:Ju•ngj l . I 342
 On the other hand. as the Northern Song was preoccupied with
naliOn·building. issues of mc:lnphysical signilic.:aru;e were paled in the
process. B~· nnd l::ugc. sehol:1rs were expending their ercn1h·c energies in
the politico] arena. Ou)ang Xiu 's P_kp,)lj ( 1007- 1070) perhaps copturcd
the ethos of his lime in the most direct "ay. In one of his letterS to h.is friend
li Xu ~Jfl. he said that the Six Classics " ere all aboul practical issues tlliU
were pertinent to our lh·es. rutd dlilt issues :~bout human nature should not
be the pressing concems of scholars iu his time. Be subs1antiatcd his claim
by noting th:u Confucius's disciples. as reponed in the Amllects. nc,cr
asked any questioo ;~bout humon oaturc. 41 Ouyong Xiu. in c:fftxl.
confinn cd the vic\\5 of Tai7..ong EmpcJor and Zhwo Pu lhat mci.1J>h}sicul
speculations and spirttual cuhh-a1ion d id belong to the precinct of Buddhist
teachings. At the very le:tSt., spirituol concerns should be put on the b~ck
burner :n this criticaljwlclurc of uo.tion·bui ld in ~ .

IDENTIFYING WITH THE SAGE·· ZHU XI

TI1c nmbitious nnd radkal political re forms introduced by Wang

Anshi J:X:(.j (102 1-1086) in the middle of the: cJc,·enlh century split up
1
m3n) a .scholar-official in opposing factions and failed in the cnd.' One of
the lessons m:~.ny schob,..afficiols lcnmcd from the contentious factionttl
politics \ \ OS that successful political reform hinged on the moml minds or
the people invoh·cd. As Wang Anshi himselfp,JI h. '·the difference between
:t kins and a hegemon lies in the mind." (!} The pai.nful lesson of this
protracted political s1rugg]c helped to shlfi t11c interests of Confucian
scholars onto Ihe search for a bener understanding of 1hc human mind.61

61
··oa J.i Xu d icr.>hu·· !§ ~;,jf~l'~.=: gf m Ot~wmx .nu qutmji ~~~(IS~~~-
6 \ 'O)s (Beijing: Zhonghua shuju. 2001}.Jttcm ~ 7. 2·669. 1:or <a study of Ouyang.
Xi11. S...'C .l:uncs T.C. l.iu, 011·)'(1118 1/.tw: ..In £/ev!!mlr·Ct'IIIIII)J
Jo,',•()..(."onfuciani.H (St!IJ\ford, C;\ : St:mfoni Univc:n;ily Press, I %7),
<\: j:·oJ a <.lis.;;u~JOil 1.lf t11c t~((lnns mh'OdU\..'CJ ·by Wan!! Aushi dutiu.g the
rdgn of Emtx n:>r Shenzc:.ng. f~a ~;; (r. 1067·1085). sec Jamt."S T.C. Liu. R•>fimn
in Sung Chmn: Wan~!{ .ln-Jhilt ( /021·1{)JJ.9 j nnd /Irs 1Vc~r PolinN (Ctl!Ubridgc.
r\'lA: Jl :swanllJ nivcrsit~· Pn:s.'i. 1959). Sec also the chapters by George I latch.
P~aut .T Smilb. tmd 1'ctt:r K, D<.ll in ()JY/c:t'log 1/w. Jl'or·M: Apprqm~hes 10 Stale
(llkf SdCI~ ty in Sung l)J•n<1,\'f)• Chhm. cdttcd by Rob~11 P. Hymc~ and ConroKI
Schlft.'tkaut:r (BcrJ.:clcy: Uni,·~rslty ._.,f c~r h fomia Press, l993), pp.39· 192
w Cited in Qiou Mu. Song·.\liug lixue g(Jlslw. p.l9.
(,~ The ide~ of '' ua'king on lhc fund omcntoJ. mn1.td y. tlu: human mtnd.
p:trlicul::.rly. Llwt of lhc ntl ~r l:i rt1>e;;tK\.IIy c.·1nphn.sizcd in }trOll 8 of the Ji1rsllrt,
For cx~mpll:. Cheng H:'o was quoted as s.1ying. ···n1c way of gon:mmcnt may
be discu:;s.;.-d from 1hc r~sp<:<:t of its fundarncnlals or from the aspcc..--t of its
tw:td icol offoir.s Fmm the- ospcc.l"' of its fwtd.:uncnt:r.ls.. il ts nodling but
·n..'C1il\itt!:! \\h::it i~ \\ 'HIJ)g iu the.: ruh.:($ mind· :md ' t\'lCtii) i n~ vnc·s mlntl in
order to rl.-ctif)' Ihe mmd:> Clf the om~~ud s <II <.'.01111. aOO rt.'<.'tJIYmg the minds or
The S\\ itch from poliLical rebuilding to philosophicul exploration of lh~:
mind certainly juslilics wh:H bmes T.C. Liu charactcri7.cs as "im\ ~ud
turning" in the Song pcriod.6~ Issues concerning hum:m nature fin:~ll~· wen:
moved to the fran I burner in the Southern Song.~»
Zhu Xi *Xf (IIJ0-1200) wns born shortly al1er the Song regime
had been foreed 10 ntO\C south in the year of 1127. Wi1h the Confuci~
teacher now \\CII respected in society and an interest in explori ng human
lllltute and the mind rekindled. Zhu Xi came to read tl1c Aua/ects quite
dilTcrcntly from all his predecessors. ()1 His gloss on peng is concise and it
says.

r~ng rd crs to people " bo >~rc of the same kind. Since

1hose from :~fal' have come. we know 1hose from nearby
lwill come 3 $ well). Master C hens, said ... When a person
e.\:lcnds goodnes-s to ()(her pcuglc, n•:.ny \\ ill follow him in
f:. ith. Thou is how he is joyful. ·l'l
rJIJ, i"i.Jl:!IJ!. o~1/ll!. ii!'lo·nr~n . ril f l3 1;!1.i&A.
tflifrf m:t'H~l • •~ uJ ~.

Zhu Xi was more interested in the common onto logi e~ I ground that
ptmg shOrt-d than in lhc social rclntionship !Mt made them difl"crcnt. When n
student of his a~cd him about the mc~ning of Ana/e<.'l:~ 1.1. Z.hu Xi
answered, "("JIOOdocss i s not something one can monopoli1c; c,·c ryonc h3s it
When I acquired goodnc.ss by ,·inuc of prnctlcc and yet am not able 10
e~aend it to othc.rs. it mDy be pleasurable but it is not joyful ~;;f~JC l:li.)(1lj
11, A 13"ff:/:, ~!d~ 1f.i tlf.1. ;!Hili&A , !!Jl.f.Si.*~:·•' That ;, why he
elaborated on the implication of p<!llg coming from afar. which is not

the t)fficinls :11 Cl) UJ't in Ol\ h.' f to rc.-ctif)r the minds f1f varic'M t:'; t)ITicers:.' Fr<'m th~
aspects of 1ts pr:tclJc::ll .:~tl:urs. nolhing ncc.-ds to be done 1f the ntl~:r dot.~ not
want 10 save the ct)untry ... :· Sec \Vin,g-t:;:il Chan. R4iflt:t;l/t}u:t t)lt 1'lling.J ut
/land. p.21 J. Sec :~lso pp.21 -L 215.
(.) .Jmncs T.C. LIU. C lrmu rurufng lllll'(lrd : lurt'fl~clll(li·PolltJCal Clum,gl'$
m tlrt> Htwly 1\.·t-ljth Century;(Pnll<:(•hlll' Princeton Unt Vffitty f'(~S5r, 1 98~)
6S For a discus.'\ion of the bra:tdcr $0Citlpolili,a1 conh:xt uf the
twcl11h-o.,llucy th:lt $hapoe.x! Zhu Xi's cLTorts lt.l r~invi~i.lro tc :a wcakcn'--d culture
ami nmral {radiLion. ~e Daniel K. Gardncl'. l.etmting tO ht: u Sagtt: Seft•c'ti(ms
{rom Ihe Conwnmlkms t>f.\lusUtr Clm. Arrangn1 1'opu:al~v (Betkdey ond l.l).~
An~;cl~ :i: Umvcrsity of Cahlbrnm J>n.-ss., 1990). pp. l0-22. 62-63.
(,- Zhu Xl Sl>«iticall~· criticizl.'d Liu Cbru1$'s cQmmcnt:.~· on thcAua/,:ct~.
:sa~· ing. tluH Jt W<lS " Lao·ZftU:Ulg Tauist in spirit iu ils intCJprctati(lt~ or the
critical p~ls;::n b~ ill the ..-lnalecb· .. S...'\:: Li flllgtl ~ ~f. ~ht~ Ctl!ll[lllcd, l lmtl )'td~i
* f ijti Xl1 (D~:ljing: Zbunghun sflUJU. 1999. 4'11 rcp1i nt).jucm 19. 2:43.
<jj Zhu Xi, Lm~vtm j 1: hu U.oi-~tiH'l: in ,\ ',slm : l uUI!Jill ji:/111 1;q-j!~ •i'i:hJj.l~

t£ (lk:tji11g. ZIIQUg.huJ shuju. 2001. 6ih r~:p1-lnt). p 47.

(.) 1.1 .lingdc. llm:f.rulf/,j:uw20. 2·454 .
.!0

necessarily intimated in the Anlllects. In Zhu's underS-tanding. pe11g is

someone wilh whom o ne nssod atcs because of their inherently shared
conditions. which arc neither physic.nJ no r soci:ll, but moral nn d
mcUlphysicnl. The citation fro m Master Cheng mokcs this point clear. Pe-111-:
c.rc people w ho join company br vinuc o f their moral amnities. I n this
70

sense, ptm g then is equivalent to what was c:.allcd you ( like-minded friend )
i n the Han period. I n fact in his S1sJw Juwwen p_q.rH!RI!~J. which details his
meticulous mminations of the ideas be C\'Cntuolly incorporated in his
co mmentary dtat \\C lnow as the Sislm zlwng{ujizlm VQ:tl!:HiJ.mtl:. Zhu
Xi actually uses the tcnn you in d iscus.si.ng the: second part of A nal~ct~· I. L
where p~·nx appc;~rs. 'I f In ot11cr words. p~tng and ~'ou become
incerchangcablc insofar as moral t'lffinitics :uc conccmcd.
Zhu Xi c,·idcntlv had rend He Y:.n's Cd/lccu:d Cumm,•nwrics as he
seemed Co discuss it rcg~larly nith his s.tudc:ms. 71 SO he was fully ;mare or
Bao Xian 's gloss. Yet. after dc,·oting his entire lifC o n writing his
commc mnl)' on the Four Books. he chose not to fo llow B::to 's intcrprcmtio n.
There must be some profound reason for his dcpanurc from this !Uandard
interpretation. :md it hns to be found in the significance of his own gloss.
B~i e.-.lly. Zhu Xi charnc:tcria:d the exegeses from the H rm~Wc: i
period us .. philological and nnnou~ti \'C.. (xungu ~1!1,~~). but he considered
the Anolcct.f to be a cbss:ic from Lhc sages tluH encapsulated the-essential
teachings tOr ow· li\'es. Therefore. we should try to understand. in a
perso nal \\ 3)'. the experience ::trticulatcd in the boo\;, o r as he put il. 10
··s:.,·or cJ1c taste.., ot d1c book (~·:R~ff~fJiJ t ..Ftalft~ . G'~~~li1!iJtJ.i~) rather
than j ust knowing the mt.:::lnings of the tcx1 (.Ft ~t l!l.fl' ~ ·~). 7' Conmuy 10
the condcmn.ution of man~· Qing·tlynn.str c.l:assicists that Zhu Xi disregarded
the scholarship of Han cxcgt.::tes. Zhu X i 's g loss on pmg actually saands on
solid philolog icnl growtd. Zhang Yi's •Jil j [ j (11. corly third century·)
G11hngyt1 Ni flf., for in.s.tnncc. was nnd still is one of the standnrd re ferences
ror philological rcscorch. and il s losscs ..,u:nj( QS "c:ttCf:OI)'.. Or .. kind"'
:fJl n But when Zhu Xi defined pf!ng as wnglei. he did not o nly have

°1 Chl.'n~;t Y1 lumsdf s:1itl m tus cumml.'nt:•l)' ~m the l't: h1mn J;H~ th31
·'men and S!l!;C!i un: uf th..: !)l.nlC kind A :L v:l !\:~A. :l'( tk."' Sec ZlunJ) i
Chcngvlti:/uum in Hrcl~ettf!.JI. Juan I, 3·71)1
11 Z.hu Xi ,\'t.~lw Jwowtm (~h:mgh!l l' Sh~mgh:u Guja chuh:mshc and Anhui
ji!loyu cbub:u.1.sbc. 200 1), p 106.
'~ 1. i Jiul:l'd~. Zlnl:i ,ruln .ju<m I~). 2:428-445. passim.
fl J.i Jill&"-~. 7./nm )''' lei.}tum 19, 2.4~4. l.hu Xi's e mphasis ~)II J'CMn:ll
cXpc.'1"1cnti:al undt."J'St:!ndin!t 111' lhc AunluJs is :t cmtl>1:mt tht!tnc in his thscusshm
of the text with his $Indent!>. &.-c, j~t(w I(), p:lssim,
1'1 Wttntz Nian.s\ln. GutmKJY'I Jjf~~- (Beijing: Zbon~thua shuju. 1983}.jucm

' '· p 8 1.
 51

philological juslification in mind. n The 1crm ""tonglf:i." which he used 10

C:<p lic~IIC Jh!ng. 3Cimllly COmCS from the book of /t;{endus where it SII)'S.

Now things of the s.•tmc kind arc all nlil\c. Why should \\C
have doubas "hen it comes to m:~ n '! Tltc s:'lge and I are of
the same kind .. .. Should hearts pro\'c to be ;m exception by
posscssi11g nothing in CQmmon'! What is common 10 all
hearts'! Re-ason nod rightness. The s:1ge is simply the mO\n
I•trst to d'LSCO\'Ct ••'uus common c Icmcnt .m my hcart. "
o\li.Ji.l"l !l?i.r, . J)l ~llf!:( \!!.. ~o;r ·!~ol?i\ ~A i(:j liA! Z. ? 'I'(MJ.! ~~
I••HJ'i<ll·... •C·Z.!Ji I••J i!!i'll· f'J l!!1 :l'l~l: II.! r.1 t!!. 11'1 A;t t:Jft
•f.•.(:fTrfuJt-'\ IL

Howcn:r. in this passage Mcncius is not talking shout fellow

discipleship: he is indeed m:1ki.ng a unh·crs:Jl claim that the S<J.gcs ~nd all
other human bdngs nrc of the same kind in tcm1s of their minds wherein
"reason and rightness.. lie. In other \\Ords. 1\'tencius defines " ler· in moral
tenns in ~ univcrs-.listic way: he is not interested in arti.tic.:i:tl social
boundaries here. And it is pr-ecisely this unique philosophicul undcrpinnins
of lei that Zhu Xu" il.IHcd to introduce in his own intcqlrctation ofpeng.
Zhu Xi's intcrprct~tion of pt~ng \ \itS predic1ned on his
undcrslanding or Lhc entire first book of dtc Analects. whose csscnrial
meaning. he argued. focused on the idea of le~ming (rue .l}~). He expressed
this most uncqui\·ocally \\ hen he summarized the gist of lhc first book as
follows: "This is the- fi rsl hook or t_hc Analet·u·. so most of the sayings
recorded center on the idc::1 of working on the fu n d;~mc n t. h is the gate lo
entering into the WJy, :'Uid the. foun dation of the accumulation Of\·irtuc.s ~t
~ 8 :<:.tta. • •~• ~• *z.a . ~Am:<:. N. m•z. ~:"
Else\\ here. he also said. "Thl~ book (i.e .• the lirst book of the AtUI/(!CISJ is.
abo,·e all else. lo spell out the ooe fundament ~t -·[;lfol;tl!.$\:ilJi -f<! KI
711
.{.: ... And Zhu Xi pointed out directly that this "IUndamcnt- was carc(ully
elaborated. i.n gmdation. in the experience of lcnrning in Analects 1.1 . 19'

15 Zhu Xi him:;cJI' oonl'c:,.,""-'\l lh:at he WtlS c..wit~J bc)Otltl \\ Nds wltcn h~!
a.i a h.•cn;lgcr rc~d the line "The ~Jig<..-s und I t'r the ~me kmd·· in the ,\ le~tciuJ ,
l~C3U ~ he thought h-.: could bc,ome ll saec 3$ \\"~II. &'C l.t JtnsJ.::, Zlw:• )'llh!l.
j mm JO.I. 7.26l l.
itS n.c. J.,ou. tr., Mt:nciw~ Ol:tnnondsworth: r ...·nguin I3ouk:;, 1970), GA. 7.
r 164.
,. Zhu Xi. J.m~vu11jl:hu in Sl$'/m :lumg.Juji:ltrt, p.47.
11
Zhu Xi, LJm: 1)'lfl<•i .jurm 21 ,2:488.
~ :\ nothcr Sons schobr l hcns Ruxic who W;:t:; a comcmporJJ)· senior to
Zhu Xi ~ti :K.'I hc.l d the $11.1llC \ icw tctwrding the fin;~. cJmpM· (,_,f l h~ A.tm/e,·IJ'. s-;c
Z.h.:.-ng Ruxic. Lmt)·'ll J I)"'JilW .JII fm I. in (lmdlng S#;,, lJtllmtdw , 199: 11 3
.!2

Just like Han Yu who disparnged book knowledge for its O\\ n s.akc.
Zhu Xi. citing Yin Hcjing ;J I MI~!'; (106 1·1132). who was a student of
Cllcng Yi. staled that ''learning refers to lc;nnins to be hum;;m. When one
lcams to become a sage, one is simply practicing to the fullest the w:.y of
being humon 19i~Wii1~. m!;!. 'i\1:\A tll. INfo :rib!·~A. iiJ:~;ii:lrli<JlA
2.UiifUe... $0 So. for Zhu Xi. learning goes beyond boot learning and
should be intcgrntcd to the 'cry essence of one being humnn. As Donicl K.
Gardner sums il up most succinctly. ··1,..caming - defining it and
tran.~mitting it-- nas: at lhc hc3rt ofChu Hsi's IZhu Xi's:)lifelong miss-ion."
31
To Zhu Xi. authentic learning can only be found in Confueion IC<tehings.
As he himself put it lxtldl)'. '"If one wants 10 connect '' ilh the Way. there is
no other :m::nuc than C.onfucilln IC3toing trX.t~UM~z..·~, J{lJ"i!i tJli.'·ZJ~L1.;
uJ."tJ Learning now L<tkcs on an experiential dynamism that obliges us
morally to cultivntc the knOl\ lcdgc and to emulate the conduct Q( earl ier
~gcs . .. Learning mc-:lns 10 imitate t.}~Ll~ ;r~-l!!.:· Zln.1 Xi pronounces
cmphllt.ically in his commentary on the first line of the Analects. and he
b'OCS on to say, ··Human nature is all good, and there is an orde-r or lx:ing
quicker or slower in :twa&.:cning. Those who arc slower in awakening must
imitate tl1e conduct of those who arc quicker: only then nrc we able to
manifesl our goodness ~md return to our orit,;inal state Atf.~:.lf.l-lf.tf.HZY·f$1.:
!!(, iH'l·fo·:ll:·%cX1:lZ.JJi~. 7~ iOf 1;).191 1!\' i~rH~~H!J ill:·" Lcaming. as it
turns om. becomes a redempti\'e endeavor that helps us reconr our original
stntc of bciug which is pure goodness. J..n Zlm Xi's mornJ metaphysics. the
c~pcrien tial dynamism of learning thus linl.:s us b~ck to our o01ological
grounding. And lt is prc.-ciscly on this mQral-ontologic:ll grounding that we
and the sngcs arc of the snmc kind.
ln a sense. fl.·feocius"s claim ol>out the sage and l being of the same
ki nd runs counter to the rclationship-b:tscd nature of pt.>ng :ts D:to Xi::m
glossed it That is. fellow discipleship is possible onl~· \\ hen it is formed
<'nd defined \\ith rcfcr.:ncc to a common mentor. Yet the Mend nn c laim
attempts to break down :tU nnificinl distinctions bclwccn hum:tn beings nnd
appeals only to their inn:ttc mornl wonh that is their common ontological

~cc Zhu Xi, "Oot /'.lmns Jingfu wennlu" ~i~fHjl :kl~~ FJ ("Rcsronsc--::
$}

h> Zhang J in~fu 's Qucn,>$·'). l111iau j i l.fj J~m . j ua 11 32. in Qinding .~•ii/.;u
c)li(IIIJ/111. 11~3 : 71 8
*~ (;ardner, Lowrning w he a ."\(fb.'t' . p.l:l
81 Zhu Xt. ..Do Zhan~ Jingfu \ H ." llmu"' m Qi11diug SiL·11 qumulm,
11<13;? I fl.
SJ Zlm Xi. J.m~vuu jlrlm. in his SisiiU :JumXJit jizlm. p.47. In his
C()ilUUi.,Uary (In the litll! ming mmgtle 19JUJJt·~ (making •)nc ·~ Jum i ll(IUS \'iflul!
rmullt'i..~l) itt the (Lr~t lihnptcr of the D<«ue 7::.*-. l.Jm Xi :sui..J. "The lcarn<.·r
should build on l\ hilt he ha~ dis;xwcr<.'\1 (nl hi~ m(lraJ nature( wht.'1Cb~· he
manil'csiS 11 :tnd J(.'(;.(l\'crs his orif!.tnal sta1C 'f~-(a·f.tllH &J1Hiliu J!Ijij~ l;.l1UJC
1JJ •· Sec his l'Ja\Wt: z/J(mj!jll A. ~!! ~t'} in Si.tlm :lumlfiujtrhu. p 47.
 53

ground. h is difficult to imagine th:n Zhu Xi was not acutely aware of ll\is
subvcrSi\'C nature of the Mcncian claim vis.Ji·Yis Bao Xian's time-hallowed
and historically informed gloss. On the other h:md. Zhu Xi wns nlso well
prepared to substitute Bao Xinn·s historicnl gloss "ith the ri:1dically new
tu\dcrstMding of pmg or his own. "Fellon' discipleship,.. as Zhu Xi
undcrslood it. had now trnnsfonncd from a rcl:uion·spccific conccpl that
ddi ncd the inLcrt)crsonal rcbtionship between tno indh·idu"-IS with
reference to 1hcir common mcmor. 10 a quasi-metaphysical concept that
dcfmc.d hum:)n n."lturc. and prescribed the moral potcnli:t.litics or all humnn
beings '' ith reference-to the perfected nature of tbc s~gcs.
Zhu Xi warned his students ·'not to miss the imponam words when
rc3ding 3 conuucntary;• :llld he proudly confessed tll3t he ··weighed C\'Cry
''ord he decided to use before com milling it t<> \\l'iting .lf fl:.fl~£14< . ;;J"~ Tifill
~\ -"" J • •• ;r;.,:'""-
-~·•><V•!~: 11 I' "!<IJ'. ",..,
•1• .U ,.,..,
!-1.!1"PJ'f- ,~
.l!.' .~ -
.fi
rJ -"'' " ' UI •,... 0n .L
7}liA·i.<.l .L hMd.
UleOUJer
I.e admonished them that they read C\'CI')' single word in his ./l zlm
commcmnl)' on the Ann/eels: in f3ct, the more a word appears 10 be
inconsequential and insignificant Zhu Xi emphasi<'.cd. the more it should
demand lhcir nllention. When )OU think it is an insignificant word. it is
indeed the cn1clol o ne J.Ui~H~.~'l~~~JJLt;'T:, ~~.{i. (] *~~MH2f~7:,
JJH~Ti.E~e~fJ!~.:f-.'~ 11 is clear, ttlcn, that l.hu Xi's gloss on pcng was 3
deliberate choice. Why would Zhu Xi want to introduce such a new concept
of peng'~ And on what ground could he justify his own intc~prct:u ion? The
:tnswcr to these two questions lies, panly. in Zhu Xi's specific historical
ci~umslanccs .
Just as liu Chang's hislorical concern was 10 rc'ive the aulhoriry
of Confueinn mentorship in the c:~rty years of the Northern Song. Z.hu Xi's
commentary rcnectt:d il quite different t>rcoccupat.ion peculiar to his own
time in the first dccad" of the Southern Song ( 1127-1279). Aller NOfthcm
Song Confuc-ians had struggled to institute educational reforms for one 3.Dd
alutlf centuries, Confudan academics sp:." ned ~II over the tcrritmics of the
Song empire. Aspiring scholars no longer needed to go into the mountains
to study io seclusion or i:n r.nonasteriC'S. Siate-sponsorcd :teodcmics were all
stan~cd with scholars of Confucian lcamjng \\bo scrl·cd as mentors for the
stud"•nt_s. Thus 7.hu Xi was no longer preQC(;upicd with the reassert ion of the
:tuthority of Confucian mcntorship. In f:tct, Zhu Xi confessed lh:n he did not
n::olizc that there \\crc studcnls just r~bout l\\0 scncnuions before his lime
who did no1 believe in their teachers unlit l1e l'e3d about il in 1he wor'-s of
the Cheng brothers fi! t\;,}L}I}. ~~~ Zhu 's 3pparcnt ostonishnu:·-nt indicates

~· J.i Jmg(k·.. L/11d yulei. j rrnn 11. I: 192. ' ll)JS is o j)Osition that Zhu X1
oflt.TI rcpc3tcd. Sec, f<lr i n..-; l~cc, in llm:i ) 'UI .:i.j1w11 105, 7:2G26.
SJ Li Jin~Jc.Zim:i.ru/e,.jtwu 19. 2..137-438
M 1.1.lingdc. 7./m:i .rulfl. j:uw %. 6·2460.
Lh:u the mnhorit\' of the Confucian teacher in his time was d rtuallv taken
for gr:mted.' . ' .
Meanwhile. C\'Cn as Confucian academics dolled nll OYer the
country and the she<=r number of students '' ho were fello" disciples to one
another steadily increased. the ltlea of fellow disei p l e~h ip became
familiari~ed eventually. 111 Jn comp::..rison to the strict obscr,·nnce of a
unique lincas,c of textual transmission by all d iseiJJIC$ under a common
.scriptlu'3 1 m:1ster in the Han period. physical mobility 3nd intellectual
c~cbangc among students from different academics in Sons times rendered
fe llow discipleship a kss fonnal and more flu id c.oncc.pt A special glos." to
high light this commonplace relationship \\Ould then be as poinllcss as one
that glossed a common kinship term. If we look at Xing Bing ·s Jft')lA\
(932- 1010) co mmeJtt:try on Anale~Is kno"n as J.unyu :lmslut f:eMH;I:.V.t,
which '"'s lhc sw.tc•sanctiom.·d standard commentary on the e l:ls.sic since
the ye-ar of 91)9 in the Northern Song, we can clearly sec the Han·dynasly
meaning of pens becoming obsolete in the tenth century. On Annlc•cr~· I. L
Xing Bing considered pen~ :111d )OU to be different on]) in degree. not in
kind, They both mean .. friend," As Xing put il. "'!'eng n.re (frie nds( that arc
not close to us whereas yvu :nc Jfricnds J thot nrc intimate 10 us /VJJ1iffjfl:
tll .••,

~· Aubthcr war to Jook at the cstablislKxl t~uthorit~· and cultuml status of

the ConiUdun l~<i-t c h~.:r in lhc &lttthem !$(In~ is 10 ~tnai~"..:C lht.: di ;:i~;Ussi on of U1c
role of the tc.:tchcr by ~holors or the time. For insc:mcc, \Vu Ruyu ~'WH:U (tl
m.id-1 }11' u:ntury ), composed OO I..'::iS.JY ca.lled "Shi.\lllt</. (l)i::;c\)Ut:S.C on Tt.:.:~d.ter~)
ancr il:m Yu's f:mu.·d c:ssay of thc smnc litlc in \\hich he 3r~u"-..1 that :l te:t c h~.,­
~al i flcd him self to be such on the basis of hi,_ le.:trning :end mor;~l chaf:'lcter.
No"'hcrt m his cS)I.:)~' did he rcti-r lO the moral obligall(m (If the rcuch<.-r 10
tr:u.l :;mitthc Cm).fuciwl Wny. Thus we ca1' :;cc thut lht: c;-.:istcnlinl c:-.: i£CI'.\Cf of
lhc No•tb(.11) Son~ to I"C.")tlrf'CCl lh~ c,mruci:IJl Way seems h~ have bu.:n quietly
thsplaccd. Se<: Wu K u~·u, 'lh1m:h(li :tulwo ''\l.YlH:HSl,j"(m slums. m Qmdmg
Si!·tJ f£:UI1!hu ..fo<J:IJ·14. . ,
hlf tnstancc. two hwu1tcJ thousaud cand1datc.s took J)rd..:dur:tl
in the laTe IWt:IJl h C("lt1ur)', !-;() the slh.:er ~11.e (If the student
cs:un i n :tli~,ns
populattQn m Son_e: Chinn cnn be imagined John \V. Ch.:tl'fc , -c.ctuc:~ l u>n ::u~
Es:w n ilt :ltion:~i.n Sung Society (960·12"79).- f'ltl> J i~ s.. llnivcts:ity o( Chic:tg<t,
1979. llp.55.Q l. und idelll. Tlte 71umtv 0 c"lle s of L~aminx in Sttnl! China: ;(
Sociol lfi1rmy of lf.t·twthwtlrm,t (Combri~lge: Cmnbrid~oc tJoivctsity Press.
J9S5), pp..15-·l l .
J!:l- Xmg Binj:. L111ry u :lm,,},,, t~tlHiil/i.jmm I. iu Ru;Ul Yuan. SJu,\'fU!Iirtf{
zlmslm. 8:5. lu l'acl. Huanj!: K:tn in 1hc. sis lh c~n hl r)" was lhc llrsl Itt point out
the distmct•on behn::t.:n 111mg and J'Qt; m tcnns l)f' in1 1m~~;y but, :ts w t: have
d t"1nons.1rattd . h'·· insiMcd on tbe tuuquc mt3nit"lg of pcug bting "fellow
d.iscipk..'S." ll is :sd f·c\•id<.'ll1 tl1::tl unlike friendship, fcllo\\ di~i p l c:; hip wn.."' not
~mnclhing l.lwl (.If).; .:oul(l c.: hOt.r.;c in Cc~tlfu ciu:fs lime. 1\;rhups Lbr this 1 ~son .
rnendo::hip W:l.S C01l'$ld(.1\.'d mnrc inhm:ltC than fclJ(l\\" diSCIPI'-'Ship. Xtn~ Bing
 55

If the cultural authority of the Confucian teacher was full~ regained.

it was m;tdc possible Oflly under lhc protection of the instiuuion or
Confucian academy. But Confuci:m mcntorship was lost to tltc Buddhists in
tlu:-ccniUrics past for a more fundamcnutl reason. Thnt is.. the Buddhists
were considered to be more capable th:~n the Confucians of cxplicming
issues related to metaphy sical spccul;ttion t~nd personal salvation. Empero r
Tni:r.Q11l,: and Zhito Pu \ \Crt: con\inced ubout this. and Ouynng Xiu
confim1cd it While the institution of Coofuci:m academy could pro,·idc the
ph)'sical conditions tbr schol~s to re-examine the Confucian clossics, it
could not put the classic-S in a position to matc.h Buddhi:u scriJllures on
mctaph~·s ica l :md sotcriological issues. 'fo do so \\Ould cnt:til a rejuvenation
of the Confucian classics thcmsclns. It was ot dtis p:uticular historicaJ
j uncture that Zlm Xi carne on the scene of the ongoing enterprise of
reintl!rpreting the Confu cian undition since ahe e:uly Nonhem Song.9"1 Zhu
Xi w::mted to :.dvocate n m!w ,.;,.~ion of Confuci:m hum:mity th:.t w::t.~
nnchorcd on his Buddhisl·inspircd metaphysics and his rcrc.odi.ng of the
Fout· Books. It wns bis intention 10 privilege the Four Books 0\1Cr the Five
Classics in the b::tSic Confucian curricuJum.9 ' He repeatedly insisted dtat
e ,·eryonc:. not just scholars. reod the Ana!tu:ts 3S it c,ont:Iiocd everything
thcr~ was to know.,~ 11lis was a possionatc his1oric appeal 10 refashion
hlUn;:an beings in the Confuci;:an way. h presupposes lhat tl1c Four Books

cv1dcntly found this l l) be true of the ~c1cty in the tenth ccnttu:r 3." wc.ll Sec
( hu.t.nt! Knn. Lwi)!JI iiJ'fc yiJim..Jrt(JIJ I. 1:5.
~.> F(•l' '' discus~ion <tL' broad;:.'C hi~h.>rical contc.'it for Z.hu Xi ·s
tnmsfol'matilm llt~ the-ConfuctAn tt:td!luln, ~'C (J:trdntt•, I.R.rmrmg m he tt S'rtgr.,
pp.57-~ l.
91
Wbilc ZJ.m Xi t::> br oo OlCons :t ulilit:t.ri:10, ouc of bis rcaoons for
pri\'ikgin~ the four Dooks On;t the Fin:: Ch.usics i.s that it n.:quil\::1 less cmut
U• (Cad the: l'o,Jftncr With tx:Uer rctUI'Il whcrc:ts the c.ppos:itc is true fOt' the ktllcr.
~ l.1 Jing\lc, ZJud J7tlt•J, jumr I 'J~ 2 428. For :1 discus.:::il1n l•f tht.• luswrical
circum~1:t nc~ surrouodm,g Zhu Xi's pri,·i!q;ing the Four Books O \'cr the Five
Classics. Sl.~ U:u1i<:l K G:u-.Jncr. Clm JlJI a11d th.: Twh.wu:h; ·"•.'w·C mifirciau
/?('jl~·ctiofl <m tJh~ C()njucion CiJuOn (C:unbridgc (Mass.I nnd Ltmdon· Council
()!'I HaS;! ;\si:m Sludtt.~. H :l"'~t rd Unt\'crsity, Haf\':trtl Ens! f\~i:ln Mtmogr:tJ1hS
No.ll8. 19~6}, c h. J. Elscwh(..'f(', (j;lfdncr al!:'(l pomiS oul lh:u "the cumcul:tr
sluH t<• the F<M.tr Uooks was <::<•nlcm{xn'iU\(,'0\ts \\ttb the htcruti 1\!trcal from
national politic:s'' and Zhu Xi's 11 im~l f '·:-~a "' his cunicu1um ;s:s JXOViding literati
\\'ith t\ trJining Ihat '' a:. cxplki l l~· Jlbt )lrfJfl!~iotlal : it wol..; tneant b~· hirn u• he
an altcrnatn'c h' cXnmm:lllOn-onentt.-d teaming, fur lhtlsc st."t:'king spinlunl
advance , n(l! tnnlcri:.l ::td\·ancc rcstti1U\S from success in the ex:.ol.i.n::tlioos."
Simply put lhu Xi wtullt-,1 to tr"Jusfortu learning "from prul'c.:lsi(luuJ
j)l'l.llllt:ition f ('ll' puhlic SCI'' 'i<.-c to a n1cauinoful way of life in itse l f.<~ v(~e<t ti on:·
&.~ G:mJnt:r, Lecmmrg It• be a StJgf, p.7?.
~~ Zhu Xi C\ '-'11 went so f:lr :.~to $3\" th:ll' the lln~~Jt•C($ CQ\'o.!fCd Jll is:>UC$ o r
impoc1mlcc dl~;.'fc t•rc (~1flhl!t:f !Llli,Jlt1..1fr81l~~. :~J-trll~{jfif'1-f) Li Jint:dc.
7./Jiitf.vuiiJi,jmm 120. 7:21-191
.!6

were rclcHtnl to the human c.ondilion of all.9·' Zhu Xi's philosophical

posicion on human nature thus took on an undertone of mom I egalitarianism.
And it was imperative that he present nn nrgmncnt for this pres upposition.
Thus he fou11d it necessary to "rite his 0 \\ n comnu:n1.t1rics on tl1c Fo ur
Books. nu~·re is no bcuer place than Anflfecu 1. 1 to send the explicit
mcsSo'lgc 10 his readers t h ;~l "they and the s.:~gcs nrc of the same kind."'

DEFAM ILIARIZ ING THE " FRIEND" -- MAO QILING

f inally. let lL~ look :n how one Qing dassicist read Zhu Xi's
commcmary on the Annfects in a dinCrcnt timcfrnm c. As will be clear
presently, historical displacement c-:10 mercilessly dispose one scbol:u to
make a fool of the earnest imcntion of another. In hjs retirement from an
illustrious oiTic.ial ca.rccr. Mao Qilins :l§ (ij-B'!: (1623- 1716) \\'rotc a book
c..1llcd l .ltn.\'11 .tiqiu pion :ia;·r~t.f~:::R~ for the sole pu.,,ose for crilicizing
Zbu Xi's CODlmentD.ry on the Analects. rvlethodologieally. M:lO's single
criterion of truth lies in classical texts from pre-Han times ns \\Cll ns
commenlarinllitcn1ture from Ihe Han dyn::~ sty. If a rending cnn be jusliried
on philologic.1l grounds wilh reference to such early tlns.sical texts. il is
deemed a ' alid one. Mc.iJsurcd ngainst such a philologkn1ynrdstjck. there is
only one esegettc:~l mc1hOO possible in Mao·s henm::neutics. and by
imp lic-:~tion. only one kind of ttuth to be disCO\'Crcd. '10 Moo, this is the
t~uth of the orisinal iluthor. 9J Since Han scholars li\'cd in a time close
enough to dtc pre-Han original amhors.. and they had the fonunc to r~cch·c
oral instructions on these early clnssicnl 1exts from a lineage of text

•>J i'.hu X i 's (iltl<~>phy <lf human n:1turc ~omplcd hun tc) r~-org~lni7e the
uncic:nt t\.\'(1 of the J>atltc: j'Pi:(Grcat Lcamm~). As Dante! K. Gardner ho..-.
«'lll~t\\XJ, Lhc ancien! K-xt of the lfi1:mi' \\ ~1.s pri m :•ril~ \ 'iC \\cd as "a po lilical
IX1c:1k for the us..: c,r the rulc..-r :~l•)n..:." b("Cau.se ''it riX.~·Il\koJ cxh.."llsiw lcnrning
which co,dd be used in the :tdministr:tlion of ~ovcmmcnt, " 1\$ we know, the
D(l.\'uc: wa~ o..iginally o chapter in the l.fii. but 2 hu Xi c~1nt~::Lcll it and ~uK>thc.:r
chapter called Zlwllg)'f)IIS l~r J;H (Thl!' Mean) fl'•' m tl1e sau\c cla-.si.. : m)t)
g_J\)Uj)\"'<.1 them mth the Jl,altJcls oald M('tK'i ll.f h) fonn 1be iiCH.:alk:d Fo"r Boots.
But by rc·orgMizing and rc-intcrprc-lin;; the IJa.fll(' tc:-..1. Zhu Xi \\anted to
promolc it as :t lc:-a lhitl~o:ontai ncd ..:1 W~r Qf cuhin1l in~ the ~lf arlll g~.wcmin~
o th<.TI th3t w~.s tn he studied by C\'C~·onc. nN ju:-.1 P•' liti<:JII le~tdcn: ... i\s
c.:ardn¢1' f" ''s al. "In Chu's IZhu' sJ und.::rsla.nJing. the 1(I-hsnch's LL\-n'11t''sj
nacs."'lagc bCf!lln W1th the p1'cmisc that oil men W(.'f'C capublc of pcrl'cctiug
lhcru.sch'c.i und. ind~..x.J. ~lmuld :;trivc to do .«<>. thro u ~h a proc;.c$.-:; tl r
.:iell'-cultiv:uion: · 'f}m:;, h'l.! concludc.s Ihal u h l Chu's hand ::~. the t.:nlirc O licn t :uk~l
or the 7'<'·hVItt~h text had ch:mgcd: :1 oon of 'dcmocmll:t.a tion· of the work had
takcnJ:Iocc " Sec Gordner. Chu Hsi <md tlur 1'o.Jrsurh, pp.S 1 rutd 58.
Jn his commcnllu) · on the Analccu l im Xi nlso :timed al rccO\"'Crint;. the
lllC~JI'Iin ~ of {()!.~ vriginal mnh...)r, Sec his nuniJUllklnS OJ} A u(llc:t:IS 2.11 in s,.s/m
lmowen , p. (.:U .. J45
 57

uansmiucrs. tllC) could speak for the original authors. Beginning wilh He
Van. in 1\'lao·s j udgment the original mc:ining of the Analetts had been
lost~$
In his commentary on Analects 1.1 ~13o C·riticizcd Zlm Xi's reading
of the lirst awo pans of Lhe chapter, and \\ ith rea:ud to Zhu's gloss on peng,
he cited Sao Xi:m ·s ,·1cw :md S;tid i( was Ihe: ancient gloss - n ame~·.
"p~oplc \\ ho sh:.rc the :;:arne gate arc-called peng.- He then hastened IQ add
that textual support for such view could be found in the Slmowen .iiczi. the
Han tommcnuuics on the Odes, Zuothutm as \\'ell as the Gongyang :!man
ld)I"JFIJUJ. »t II} i 11~I;. 1:1hQ)C_& (l."'fi;i;, 1c ~~fol;, 1: ~)": fiJi;i; ~'ft.~ . Here. Mao
made it very dear thm his frnmc of rcfcrcnee wns philology nnd
HM-<I)•nnst) commentaries on the Confucian classic·s. But Mno was not
entirely indiscriminate in c iting bis sources. We htwe discussed e:u licr that
Zhens Xuan glossed l'mg in a passnsc in t.hc Zlum/i as "J'eoplc who slmrc
the ~me teacher: · but lvfno Qiling n1<.1de :1 special note that Zhcng ·s gloss
was actually not quilc as precise as the other Han commentaries. (:flt~iE:f~
'Jflf.ll:t );:i7H4!ril'fiilftl 13 J•l· fJ! 71~ ~U fiill"lZl:t). He argued chat pmg ""'
r·
originally the appellation for "sntc .. (JVLLHJlJ Z ~) and this "gntc"'
actually referred to 1J1at Which gu:ndcd the donnitorics of dlC SltUkml.'t (l~t:
f~ff; A~) rather than the gate that lx:longcd to the tct1chcr. People who
shared the same gate were cOl lied ptmg. Md hence, the original mc:ming of
fJen!'! was ··fellow disciple.- o.nd it could not be altered (~t~ ...i ~*~~. ~~
nf M·I!!J."'
While Mao himselr did not offer any independent cridcncc 10
corroborate w ith the H3tl glosses he cited. his intcrprctJtkm, in f:1ct. can
find support in the Analects .itself. ln lfualet:Is 2.9 we nrc told tbnt
Confucius was impressed with Van Hui illili!Jc\'co 1hough this fa,·o ritc
disciple of his appeared to be stupid and never disagreed witlt his tcndter
during instntction. Titis is bcc.ausc the Master. b~· observing Y:m Hui's
private conduct, noted thnt it could a;aunlly throw light on what he had
taught ·n1c fo.ct thai Confucius could obstn·e Ute i.utc~tion of his disciples
in pri\3te suggests that the disciJ>lcs did notlh·c far away from their master.
Furthcnnorc, :teconling- to the "'Xucji'. ··~,;c chapter of the- Ll)i. we lcom
that in nncient tJmcs studentS returned to their qu:nters at the conclus ion of
insuuction jij .~ ~ .(( )i.. such quancrs could only be wh:lt we call

')} Mav Qiling. Lm~y, j tqtu pltm. l'rcfacc. in Qhtdwg Si!m qulmJitu.
210 •134-135
% Moo Qilin~. IAI")''Jt jiqw pian, ju~m 1. m IJmding Stb t lf'Uuulm.
210: 1:\7. rn his monumcntnl .:;ludy of the Analu •t.t calk-d I.Ut~Wl -=l1.mgyi :I~ ,1fi
JEJft. Liu lhonsn ~~~'/!.f*J ( J19t-1&55) argues thll pmg mc:ms ··dlsctplc-- «lr
·'student:"' hi.;; emphasis is lln the rcl3tiunship bct\\ecn pc'n~ rutd tl1c t<:~chcr.
rfllhcr lhau pcmg t hr.:m~hcs Sw 1. 1111)11 :ltotg1i (Beijing. Zbvngluus ~h uj u .
1998), p 4.
Jli

dormitories toda~·.91 On the other hand. Mao ''as also aware of the locus
classicus of the tcnn umgle1 in lhc A1~m·ms but he insisted that it only
referred to -ordinary people" in general and therefore i1 did not ac1ually
mean "p<trpv,- (*~liill.A :t{r,. -1~/~JJX?n. os Zhu Xi had claimed."
Mno ·s hermeneutics is as philological in no.turc as it is historicist.
Hi$ interpretive anal~· sis of tl1c t.lriginll meaning of peux is corwincing and
it can ccnainly help us get a clearer picture of whal peng was like and how
it became a mctonym for fellow students who sl-urcd the same donnitory.
As such. Moo's analysis can add much to Bao Xian's gloss \\hich cmplo~· cd
the same historicisl principle of exegesis. While Mao's arudysis
dcfamiliarizcs tOr us the ide:~ of fellow discipleship nnd helps us understnnd
tlu: earliest selling of Confucius·s teaching environment. \\C should not
forgec llis own concerns as a clnssicis1 of his time in 1he early eightecnlh
ccnturv. Toward the end of the ~C\"Cntccnth century when l:uter-d:w
follo".crs of Wang "'{angming l:~i;tl (I.Jn. J52.K) w~rc embroiled in ·a
\·chcmcni contestation with t11osc of the Cheng brothers and Zhu Xi for the
truth iu the Confucian classics. ncitJtcr seemed to be able to defend their
claim on objccth·c C\idcnc.c. A hermeneutic momcnlum was beginning 10
pi<;k up Jt th•n time when Qing dassicisls in the scvcm~Xnth century
focused their intclkctmd cncr~;.ics on detcm1ining the tlulhenticit)' of em;h
Confucian classic on fllt ilological grounds. They wanted to ::~uthcntieate not
only the texts but the mcaning·s of the texts :1s well. This " 'as considered the
()Ill}' OltiCctiVC Cl'i iCtil')ll !O :ldjudic:JIC. the intCIJCCtuol dcbaiCS 0''CI'
intcrprcti\'C meaning. ~ Thus began the so-called C\'idential research

sw· Sec L~'ii. Jttatl ~S. iu Rtlflll Yu.un. SIII:JmyiiiJ: :htq/m, 5.65 1. Kon,ll
Yincb'~ il ·~'{.i! (.S74-64R) Standard ComvHmlarmr (:hf!nKJ·Y 1E ;(i: )
el:~boratcd on th1s line· Wh~o the smc:k.-nls b«iunc liri.'ti. lbcy C(l~tld r~irc 10
their rc!!ulo.r qu;utcrs "ht.,'T'C th~ <:ouiJ dist:uss (what lln.J' had lcJm-t:Uf wtth
their fricmls, SQ that th~.-·y \Hmld nol l>c: nhlc tH nsSQciatc thcm:;ch•cs \\ ith b:!d
compnmt:s ~·p-}':;t.· m.t\.Ct•{f',if; J,V2. ~ . 3 V~JtJi I~Jo•i. 1fHII~Yk . .1~ 11rft:
il~ li!. Ibid Th..: J cch>i\c ('I'Q Qf for the c..'\.i!'lcocc of dormitc.wics f t.lr the disciple.')
<:tf C•1nfl'I:IU:i iX a fragm~"lll:uy n:cOrd frt~tn tbt.•/1unng/au f.~ \1:, C-.>3\ld l(lr\.'tl hy
WJ.ng Xiang .1: ~ n.nd Miuo Xi !i~ in the year of ? 16. ll1c original work.
which h:xl !On£, be-en lost, consisted of O\'CT 1,OOU ch3ptcrs (pian ff.'i) on tombs
und t;ru\'Csitc:s from previous times. The surYi vin~ record in question notes that
"The Hall o!' l..c.:unin~:t of c,,nfuciu~ i~ localt:.l bcl\\t."Cn Rivt:r Si lv its norlh a1 ~J
Ri\'t.":f Z.ho lo ils soulh, and the dormi1ont.'S for lh.;.·_di$Ctplc:.: sun·ivc C\·c.,:n l\'1:ry
~!rl"l>:ii!: i~M(tllJ l:lt, i:li7J(liJ J~ IIi. 5l.'lh';fi/l ::/l·f·Iii -:!1 J~1:ti'HT. Quotoo in
Kong Chua.n 1Lf~ (0 <.·.arly 12";. ~cntury) comptled. D<mgjltl ztJjl !;l!~~'ii :Z
in QhulitJ]; St!.."U tjllnJt.lllll,juo'lll.:l-la @'F. •l46:86.
'I$ Mac, Qiling. IAIIIJ''lt JUJW pltm . ju;ul 1. in Qmdi"X StA"'t lJIWmlw.
210' 1:17.
'>> S<:c Yu Yinf!:shi {J~ /I~It;l, "Qin~'tl:.i sisiangshi de ytgc xm jk·shi" i~H\:
J-!.U!hl!(ltJ- (I!I!ijJi-1f:J irl Jais u.~J,· y11 sixiw1x f!~ !J.! !JIU!J:!ll (raibci. t.ianJillg
 59

(ka"cJumg.xue ~ ;11 !}~) that charnc.tcrilcd much of Qing-d)'R3sty

scl:tob rsh.ip. .Mao's com.mcotary on the Analccl.r :md hjs c riticism of Zhu
Xi's i llustr<~ tc such hermcnculic:al primacy in the seventeenth century.

C ONCLUDING JU:MARKS

M:~o Qiling complained th31 Song-dynasty scholars such as Zhu Xi

imposed their own t\."3dings on the Annlecrs at the expense of its orig).nal
meanings. 100 We can appreciate M~o 's own historical concerns and his
privileging philology O\'Cf ph ilosophy. but his hcnncncutic vision
cfTcc.tiY'Ciy murowcd his imagination :md immunized his s,·mpillhy fo r
scholars like Zhu Xi who also had their 0'' n historical conccms C\'Cn
though they respected the- historicisl p1inciplc of exege-sis as well. A
philosopher may be searching for the ultim::Hc truth that is universal :mel
c \·c.n transcends time <Jnd space. but his seardt w ill ne\'cFLhclcs:; be
infonncd. shaped, and therefore, confined by the historical conce-rns of his
own time. He can only search tbr the uni\'Crs:tltmtb and investigate it in his
panicular cuhuml historici t~·.
1'his a.rticlc has tried to document the symbiotic rci:Hionship
b;; tw~n tbe search for ph.ilosoph.ic truth and tbe cuhurul ond historical
circumstances that mo th·::~ ted il and churacteri'l.cd its outc-ome. In
philosophical hermeneutics there m:.'l) never be a;uy "&rc:u chain of being"
ot ovcrnll grnnd sch~:mc lho.t unifies the od~·ssc,· of iiS historical
undcnakins. The intellectual historiun, i_n cluutint: the \'icissitudes or the
philosopher's search for uninrsll truth in the shining c-urrents of history.
should resist the tcmptt~ tion to -arrange things in ;t tight pnttcm without
gaps:· for ·'only in this fashiot' can the historic<'! I im<'lgination be ~n<:hored
in something ::1pproaching real ity." IGI He has to respect the h-cnnencutic
diO'crcnt cs between Bao Xion aud Hmt Yu. or between Zhu Xi and fl.·t no
Qilin&. and try to aptJI'CCinlc each of them in th<:ir uniqliC: C·ulturnl and
hisrorie.al circumsl.:.nccs. As a result, we m~'Y all s~o.-c the philosopher's truth
inn bcUcr light

chubonsh iy~ gon g~i. 1976}. pp 121-1$6. ··&nne Prd imin:aJy O h$C.."f\' ~ t ion.:. '.)11
1hc Rise of Ch'ing Intellectualism.'· in T.flng lfllll./()m'IIO/ rifiiii~I;.·.Ie Suulh!s,
New Serits 11 .1 It 2 (Occc mb~t 1975). ~nd IJCnJOOiin A. Elm<ut Prom
l'hiltUtJpll)' to J>hi/osuph,1·: lntdltrt.'fttctl (IJ«I Socictl Asp<'cl.s t?{ CIIWIJ!l• l11 l.af('
flupel'ial China, tlan·urd E:t:>t J\$ian f\•fonogruph II() (Cru.nb rid~;c . Mass:
Council on East A :si~n Swdics. I hu ,·an.l 'Univ,,:r:;-ity. 1990 rcprinl)
tr.o'> tvbo Qlling, /..Jtn:t:u pqm pum. Prefxe. 10 Qmdlng S#;u tpranslm ,
210, 134.
10 1
11. Stunrt f(up.hcs. Coll.scioumt•.u and Scdi!ty: The Ui!dl'iCIIlalit)ll rif
109tJ-19JQfNcw Yt..•lk: Vinwg..: Books. 1977. n:vi~xl
RlrtVf'<(lll .''Xx:Jrrl1'lt1Jfl[dtl
cd•tion). p 23.
 Chaaucr Ill

Mu siclyuel in Classical Confucianism:

On the Recently Discovered
Xing Zi Ming Clw
.fohmmn l .m

I NTROOU(;riON

Yue. as one of the Six Arts pertaining to classkal naining of

Confuci:m liter:ui, has~ rather ambiguous n~~at urc ns to its thcorctkal suuus.
when comp:ued ~spccitllly with shi lpne.try l. not only because of the
historical fact that the B()flk ofMu.sif: [Ytteslml was lost aOcr the bumin&of
books in Qin Drn3sty, butnlso due to the complicated relationship between
yuc and li. Besides, on the linguistic nnd scm3tltic lc\'cl the Chinese
character ~ • which rcprcsC1ltS music. is endowed "ith double
pronunciations )ttu: 'lc nod double rucaoi.ugs ruusicfplcasu.r c. The recent
disco"crcd Xing Zi A1ing Clw. among otl1cr bamboo slips of Guodi.an. with
a major tre-atise OnJme, provides us with a mm· clue to re-think the aesthetic
meaning of .HI.: in ckts.sic:d Confueil.llism. This is the mnin purpose of this
p.1pcr. By the stn11ct~ of iJitertcxtualily i!pplicablc 10 the rcndinu nnd
incerprcuuion of h!XI, the firsc pan of this paper is to co1nmst the lcxts on
)TIC in Xing Zi A-ling Chu with otlter nncicm texts in the JJ./i. Zlwu n. luo
Zlmtm, Xun Zi. Slli .li. etc .. 10 idcnt iJ~· problems to be re-defined :md
re-undcrstood, such as the ideas of music pursued by Confucian scholars.
the crisis ofZhcng :md Wei music as new sounds :md melodies criticized by
Confucians. the ploce of music in the sclf-.cuhi\•ntion offunzi. etc. The
second part o f this p.3pcr \\ill focus on the aesthetic meaning of musk by
referring to Confucian theory of qing (sentiment, affection, $itualion)! Ollso
z;
b.1SCd on lhe Xing tHiHg rJw. which has dcall with the in-depth rclntion
bctwecnJU£' and qlng.

I NTERTKXTUA I.ITV AND THE INTERPRETATION OF XING Z1

MING CHU

l11c text entitled Xmg Zl Ming Clw. written on bamboo slips

discoYcrcd at Guodian in 1993. has been considered br scholars as one of
the most important uneanhcd documcnls pcrt.lining to the theory of music
in P•·c·Qin ·s Confucianism. Rescnrcl1crs could fiud. in its tn~nscribcd
version. esl!lblished by Jing-f\·k n Museum ond publisht!d by Wcn-Wu
Publishe-r in 1998. tlult one third otthc text. distributed among G7 pieces of
b.1mboo slii>S. are devoted 10 the discussion or music. It would be probably
too rash to claim thot :t new theoretical undcrst:tnding of cl:tSsiclll
 .lolrmmo /..;u

Confucian music could be built upon this newly unearthed text. bcc:Juse of
the fmg,menUu) character of lhc te:xl ilsclf ~md the uncertainty of its
nuthorship. Nc,·crthclcss: it provides us undoubtedly wi1h at lc:.st a new
,·icw and il critical rcncction on the insufficiency of the rccch cd cheorics.
\\hieh \\CI'C- br~scd on other con vcm ion::~l 1cxts th<'lt considered Confucian
music mostly from ils cuhurnl ideological function in keeping peace ::md
hann(lll)' in lhc society. tather th<~ n ~5 an iUtcfact \\ ith wl1ich people con
enjoy more or less purely aesthetic ,·aluc.
A eompar:lth·c S(udy of tltc similllm~t between the tro.nscribed rcxt
of Xing Zi J\Ji11g CJw and other known tCXlS in Lite 1J .li. flu: Ji. llwnx )'(mx.
Xun Zi, etc .. allows many scholars to infer that the texts of )(ing Zi Mmg
Clru could be attributed to the so ct:tllcd Zi Si and Mcncius' school (Si A1etlf:
Xue Pw). (Li Xuc Qin 1999: 75-79. lioo Ming Chun 1999: 36-74). One of
the <:ontribulions of this line of research consists in hn' ing tmccd some
tcxl~ of the U .II, cspec i.tlll~· th.:u of the Yuc Jl, b:u~k to Lhc: period of W:u-ring
StaK-s. lt concerns olso some problems in,•oh·cd in the dcb:m:s be-tween
scholars of Jill wcm and gu wen about the aulhor:;oltip of Yiu..> Jr. 1
The mo.in lure rest of this paper is not to get Uwoh·cd in the debate
about the authenticity of author. Instead. the problem th<1t we arcc.onccmcd
with in 1his p.1pcr is how to achic,·c an in-depth understanding of the
:ltstltcticlanistic meaning of music tyuel in Confuci;:mism. through the
application of the reading strategy of intcrtcxtuality or inter(cxtual analysis
to lhc Xing Zi Afing C~u. The tcnn "intcr1cxtu:llity"' h~,s been coined by
Julia Kristen in 1967: and developed by Roland Borthcs later (Roland
Runhcs 1977: 155-IM). According to Julia Kristcva. C\ '( ty text is
··consll'uctcd as a rnosoic of quomtions.. , and '"abso(ption and
transformation of attothcr··. Kristcva claimed that tending is on on·going
dialogue between the writing subject the addtcsscc (or idc.al reader). and
exterior teXIS. and she suggested to ,·icw a text by both horizontal and
vertical axes. since -the word's status is thus defined horizontaU~· (the word
in the text belongs to both writing subject ~md addressee) as \\Cil ns

1 In the \:Onlpilmion of l-'1\·c Classics of Confuci:.mt~. !he thi.'OTJ of

music was :tt1tlngcd i.n the HO<.,k of R•lc., . A\';¢.llrdmg to the cs:pl:u.Htt i~)n or Ou
Wen scholors. tt wnl' due hl the diJI.U(lp:or.mcc uf thc-lJo.Jk tifMusic after Qm ·s
t1rc. N-.:-,·cnhch..~:; .
nc-c-~:!cU ing to Jm W1.11 $Chul ~rs~ und...-n;t tlllllin~.ll OOok t1l lh~!
thcmy of music never cx:1.;:tcd before. what has really cxisK'tl was the
(](l(;umcnts \ )ll the niles of nmssc somHL Sitlee then:: is noc etl\1U£.h docum cnL~ ltl
ccrhfy the orig_iua.t source of the tc.xa in tl1c rm: Jt. ~llC sd10I:lrs claim(.\~ lm\.1'
that lhc J"ut• .Ji wa~ crcatl;!d b~· Htto :>cholur:> and falsdy nllribuhxl to Prc-Qio
Conf'uchm.s &tine olhl.!f:) ciHin.OO lhal thl;! " ritcr '-'r fr~t~ ./1 \\ ~1$ n:HntXI (iLYil
Shun N1 , :• Confucian scholar in !'iJ>nn!!: ~nd 1\UI\ tmn p.:riod
z "llu:- \\\)r\1 int.::tlcxtuality \\'tLll uS<.-d by Jullo Kt1stcv;~ to cxpk•in the
lmll.-tp~l:;itiQn in tcxtu.:tl sy~lcm. ··A Ia plu<.-c de lo notion d ' intcr.;ubj<.x.1intC.
:iinshtlk ccl!c d'Jrue,•lc-Stlwlile. ct lc l:Ln,g:•gc P<~tiquc- $C hi. tmmv•n~. e<.lntlll~
dcml)/t'.. (Juh:. Knste,·n 1%('· l46) ,
 ,\/u.rlc:/)1tt'/ m Clo.t\'ICtsl Cdnfuc:umiMt

\'Crtically (the "ortl in the text is oriented CO\\;m.Js an anterior or synchronic

liiCrm)' corpus} (Julin Kristcva 1986: 3~37), Rol:md Barthes develops this
idea of tcxnt.nl inters~tion and considers C\'CJ') ' text as 1hc outc.omc of
intcrconnc:ction of cultuml artifacts. He said.

One or the paths of this dcconslruction-rcconslruction is to

JX:I'mutc- texts. scrups of text$ that have existed or c-.:iitt
around and linally within the text being considered: any
text is an intertcxt: olher 1cxts arc present in it tH ''arying
le\'cls. in more or less recognisable fonus: tltc text$ of the
previous and s urrounding cuhurc. (Roland Barthes 198 I:
74)

Thac is- 10 s.ay. a tcxa is: ne\'er n solitary work done by an isolated
writer, but a network of \\Tilings by quoting one ICxt from Wu)thcr. or by
nHuding one text lo another. through n.nd by " hich a co•llinu:.1l deferment of
::m idl!3 or a meaning in a panicular cuhure would be able 10 continue.
ln \'icw of liternry texts in Chinese classics. this type of
irucnc.x t u:dil~ could be found everywhere since the tirnc of Confucius. who
claimed rhat "I transmit buc do not inno,·atc.- (Ann/(',·fs, 7:1}.) In this paper.
the study of Xmg li A1ing Clm would be n good example for decoding
Chinese textual meaning by intcrtextual annl~ sis. \\ bich lakes Xi,g Zi A·ling
Clm as :m intcrconncctctl body or cuhur:1l texts from both synchronic
(horiwntol) and d i::~ ch.ronic ( ,·crticul) \'icws. According to the results of
sc.icntific ..:,-.:amin::uion of all c.-.:cnvotcd relics in the Guodian Chu tomb. it is
supposed that lhose ba,mboo s lips and !heir wcltinss l\'Cre pcesumably no
la,tcr th::m JOO DC. tho.t is. in the midd le~ Line period of Warring States. n,c
owner of these scripts was supposed to OC :1 Confucian scholar of Chu.:.
arguabty a te:~chcr of the crown prince Hcng. good at both Confucian
Classics and 03oist, ns e''idcuccd by the co-cxistcnc.e of fmgments related
to both Zisi and Lao;.o;l (Li Xuc Qin 199'): 13-1 4. Pang Pu 1~)~)~): 23 - 24).
Some parts of the unc::uthed texts. including Xing Zi Mmg Chu. arc
nppan:nl.l ~· rchucd to other Confucinn Classics. Some schoh•rs nssumc lhiil
tbc author " as prcsumubly n follower of Zisi ~nd Mcncius, Tltc 1ex1.
supposed to be used by the O\\llCf :tS leaching mntcrials. could be viewed
horizont:tll~·. us h::~,· ing an dialectic rc:lntion \M;twccn writing subjci:l
(comJ>ilcrsltcacl•crs), addressee (readers/students). and \'Crtically. as
intcr:lcting \\ith prcrious texts and various fonns of its contemporary
cultures.
B~ contrasting the text on musk in Xmg Zi Mi,g Chu with olhcr
texts quoted from other Confucian classic, or when ulludcd to the other
texts. or otherwise in coMcction with the cultur.tl fonn of the day. two main

3
This text is trnnslutcd from Chinc-~c by the.author of dtis p:~pcr.
.. The own1.'f of the tomb \\aS presunutbly rclah,:~.t n ilh Chen Linn!!. a
Confuc1::tn ::chol ~r. recon:kd in t he ,\f~ucilt$ , (.f13118 Gmmg Hui 200J· 160· 162)
 .lolrmmo /..;u

questions c.an be asked anc.l examined: l) the an i.stlc mcruting of music in

classical Confucianism: 2) the aesthetic foundation of Confudan music on
the concept of qing (sentiment). Some other questions relevant to Chinese
m:sthctic of music " ill also be discttsscd. such ns the ideal of music. that
Confucian sc.holars: were pui'Suing: the symbolic me.lning o f ritual music;
the crisis of Zhmg anti m.•t music as new sounds and melodies critici7..cd by
them. und t.hc ph~c o f music in the lOur \\ays o f sclf·cuhi\·ating o f af rmzl.

Til£ ARTISTIC M EANING Of" MUSIC IN CO Nt' UCIANJSM

z,
Generally speaking. Xing JHmg CJm. as a Confuci.1n 's teaching
m:ttcrial. is an antclc talking about cuhiv::uion to become n.jrmzi b~· w:ty of
music. gi"cn r.hat music is supposed to contain spiritual power Llun may
ha"e innucnce on thl! formation of hum:m nature. In it. there i.~ a pru-ticular
p:trag,raph that cJucid:.tts the cducatiorull role of music as one of the three
nr1s by which the Sa&cs tc.l)chcs lhc rcaliznlion of Dao in hum.,_n per~on lluu
::II lows him!hcr 10 get olong with all things. It reads,

TI1c DiiO is a \\3Y of gelling along with all beings. l11e

major concern of Dao consists in the art of mind. Among
the four ArtsiWays to the Dao. ooly the Art!Woy of being
human is the \\3) ahrough \\ hkh Dao could mnnifcst itself.
The other ahr~c sns/w:lys. (e.g, the an of poetry. the :U1 of
hjstory. ;and the uri of ritual music (If yucJ,) urc human
W:'l) s o f expressing the 0.10. Poclry. hislory :md ritual
music. all these three are originally produced bf hum:ln
beings. Poetry is \'Crscd by copablc persons. bisto~· is
uarmtcd by cap:1bk persons. the c·i tu;-,1 music is perfonned
by capnblc pe-rsons. ~
[Jiji(,·, llf.VJ:t l!l. J-LliJ, •C· !Ii?.~ :t. ili!L41ti, 1111lAi:i!
Jt -' jiJ:/l·, il1.Z.1fut!.. ~~-~ . i!f. WI!~ - JtiG;
i!~oofjtl iJ! ,
Hll"f'trA. ,;;1. 1Tl4.7.l.Z. ill. ;!1. :frtlriz tl!. m~.
l iiMJ:ttl! . J (X~IC:l79)

Three points implied in thi5 plt:tgr:lph dcscn·c our 3ttcntion:

I) Dao mcons humon 0JO to l,;Ct along with a\1 beings. indudin&
those from Hc.;-,\'cn. from Eanh. and :unonc people.
2) The ways of D:to cont:tin two lcn~ls: human D:to :~.nd ducc ruts
(san .-.·lw) including shi (poetry), :.·h tt (11istoty) and liyue (ritual music).6

:- Cngli:;.h text i.s tnmsl:th.'ld from Cbin.;:;c b)' th..: author of lhis p~tpc:r
t. A<.:cordmg 10 the :umot3110n by l.i Ling. here "cloo sr slm'· shCiuld be
111\dcr:>t OOd OS C()JlSISt il\g Ul four :ltlS:. say. tltt Of nltnd. till (If pOctf)'. art Of
history nnd art of ritual music; whereas "'.~·ntr $lui ' (thn:c orts) m..::tns.
resv..:..:tivcly. :.·It! (pl)clt)'). slm (hisl0l)') tuxl II ) 'lit" (ritual mu::.ic). F(1r the
C(>hm"ffce of mC<Ulmg$, the t W(.\ w('lrds .. ,, ym··· shouJd be re-<ld together ~s one
 ,\/u.rlc:/)1tt'/ m Clo.t\'ICtsl Cdnfuc:umiMt (jj

3) The son .~Jw ore originaJiy produt ed by those who arc capable of
carrying oul human Dno.
Our funhcr question nO\\' is how to lUtderstand the formational
mewting of "'li yuc·· in the context of Confucian culture•! How s hould we
undcrstMd ahc meaning of II J1te'! l.l o f yrt<', o•· ym• o f If! What kind o f
music. docs the Jl ym~ refer to'? Why Confucian scholm cmphasi1..c the
sclf·c.ulti\ating func1ion of li yuc'? \\'h:.t ha\c the~ karncd rtom li )/Itt:'?
Fnnhem10rc. what is the :mistic me:ming of II yue from the dew pint or
Confucian oesthetic.s·?

RELIGIO US t' UNCTION Ot' RITUAl, MUSIC IN ZHOU llVN.\STV

It '' as an old tmdition in Confucian Clthurc to consider music as

having a trnnsforming power on indi' idu:1l mind!hcnrt and on social
customs. Since Zhou ~·nasty. music h:ts been considered :.s one important
subject in the curriculum including fou.r disciplines for cultivating 1he sons
of royal fam il)' and emincnl people sclcc1ed from the S1a1e to be prominent
future lenders. ln tbe Book of JUtes, il W:\S said in the chn.ptcr ..On Royal
Rcgultuion.. (mwx Zlu) th:n,

The (bo31'd for) the direction of Music gave nil honour to

its four subjcc.ts or instruction. and arranged the lessons in
them. following closely the poems. histories. ccrem(lnics.
ond music of the former ki.ngs~ in o rder to complclc its
scholurs .... Tite eldest son or the king mtd his other sons.
the eldest son or all the fcudll princes , the sons. b}' thcits
"h·cs proper, or high ministers. Grco.t offices. and oOiccrs
of the ltit;hcst cnulc. and chc eminent and selcc.t scllohus
from (:111) the states. nil repaired (to their instruclion).
entering the schools according to c.hcir years. (Janles
Legge 1%7: 232-233)

t\Jso in the ch11ptcr VU ... King Wen as Son and Heir.. (rJ~u Wang
Sht Ztj , it " 'AS said also,

In the cducution of the crown princ-e s adopted by the

founders of the three dynasties. the subjects were the ruh!s
of propriety :md music (James Lcssc 1967: 349)

A'cording to t.hc chapter "' Spring Ministry'' (CJwn <itum) in the

book of Zhmt U. it was da ,n J"'''"';kllJ~ (dircc:tor of music) who tool.:
chJtgc of t_hc. school of grnnd studies (Cheng Jun). n.nd taught the. ltcir-sons
and the young gener:.tions the six wlys of mu$ic perfonn.::tncc with ethic

""y/nn. in~h:"'l of being 1'\:tll.l s-:p~rald~· as Hm difl"i."1\:lll mls· ~rl vf It ~nd :111 '.II'
ytw (Li Ling 20<12: 10)
66 .lolrmmo /..;u

\'aluc 1: mca1t harmon). respect moderation. pict). friendship: and taught

them the six :ntiSt forms or musical language: ligurati\'CfiCSS. discourse.
ironic. n<~rrnth·c. speech. wording. After they became capable of pcrfom1ing
music in ethic sense ond expressin g music in various forms of m usical
language. the heir-sons and eminent young schol:trs were tauslu the six
pieces of ritu:~l d;mcc inherited from prcYious dynasties: (..'ltiUd (}arc ::mel
(;rund 5icmfl. Grand .Wan. Gram/ Chime.. Grand Xtu. ( ;rand Huo, ;~nd
(;rand 'fkli 11lC objccth'C Of teaching the hcir·SOUS tO play shon Outc,
string music, and to perform the ritual dance of \'O.l'ious kinds consisted in
cuhivating thd r capacit)' to conduct ceremonies with ritual music. r.uhcr
than to become profcssion.1l musicians such as voc-alist. ins1nunenta1ist or
composer. nil these roles ofien played by the so-called gu mcnx ~U~ (the
blind).
As to the value of mu sic. wlut lms been $tressed in the Zhtml.i :mel
l.i .II was its religious function in the rituals of sac.rilicial offering. such 015
the socriricc to He:wen and Eanh onercd b) Son or Hcm-·en. that to the
spirits of the land :md gr:~ ins by princ-es of the states. and the five S.icrificcs
of the house offered by great officers.~ All ceremonies of offerings \\Crc
:1ccompanicd with pcrron nance of differen t ritual music. songs :1ncl
cbnccs. II> Tbc si..x pieces of ritu>~l dance- .:~.rc the ritu:.l music of the si..'(
dynasties in ancient China. Somehow like other ancient ci\ ili:tations in the
t\Orld. the complete repcnoircs of their music pcrfonn:l.ncc \\'Crc lost. but in
China. !l.Omc tc:d u:'ll descriptions about the titles. pe:rfonnanccs, nnd
religious and soci;'ll·polilical flmctions of its uncicnt ritunl music slill
remained and could be read in some ICXIS in the Zlmo ZJuum. l.ulf Yu. 1.t J1,
Zl:ou Ll. Guo 1'11. LiJ Shi Clrun Qiu. etc., which could still fC\~caJ to us a
certain idea 3boul music in prc.Qin China.

; ,'\ccording to the ..:c,mmcnl:try or IA:li\Q Zhongshu. quol'--d by Zheng

Xuan m h1s :lJUJOtmi l)J')S (11'1 /.1 Jr, t~ m t:~n ill£ of rle=hf! c.ould b~ undt~Ood 1's
th~ person cupab1c to perform. I oocept Zhcng Xuan's (.'Olllmcnt~· that
\lnd-:r:>l11nds d1c _ytJ<!d<! :;~ a \\ ay t.lf music J>erfonnunce,
8 CC ·•Sprin~ ~;1iniS1r) fCiwnk!-U~m] w1H1 thl! (h•cr.,J~,.'Cr vf RiiUal :\iiairs

[Z..lnsbor in the /Jo()k tif21rou Li. i -}:;.iil 9!¥JJ.V~J .Z.tF.. f). ff.ttlY.lf Z. ·1}~~ .
iii<l'~:t Hil!i. Jl'{.fjij.?;·, 'ift-:1:(1'. N:.t'~!:;, JEI!lJ [;l /.)~i!l . fcH ·IJ;;, ,
t;l~ •e ~+ = ·~· • · • · •- • . a. t;t*ma ~+ ~ - • ·•·
.;u. 1r. >li . t;t!'l! J:MJtp,n : ~~I"J J~'if- J~·~ · A~~ - Kfl. . .k~ - k
ilt. J
IIcc.. R..lyal Rcgul~lion" in the Book ojUil("~'. vvl. I. r~ 7·~7(1"! . :;n
(;; f,Ht,f!l . ;k;l(tl:/l l~ . J
1
°Cf. "Srsi n}! Mini~lr) ·· (Cinw~;uan'( i.n lhc Zllou U. i J)~}~jfi)Ji~z.. l;J.
;!;' !;.( •J' li.t'i~ . JH; l4 i!1i, lfr.;J;: ~.. .W•~I"J. l;.l i~ /Of . J ll# fA , 't~lll!J:ri , 1$
~JuJ!!. ml!.ii<. 11 :s. !~Mit. ij~itJPt . ~k 'l'l . ~Jiemll . JH~m'i'. if•
>Jii.li · ~;J;; !J., I;( f.'! Ill J!l , Jj ~ ~ JII), •J' /:\ , jlli;):l!t. I;( j ( $\; Itt, )j ~1f.>f<
lll . il()l! ~~ . 1*-A·"" · W~Jt Jfl , J
 ,\/u.rlc:/)1tt'/ m Clo.t \'ICtsl Cdnfuc:umiMt (j J

Apparently. in referring to the abovementioned texts. Xhrx Zi A-ling

('hu's mentioning of \\atching the ri tu:d dances of l.ai and Wu. Slrtro and
Xin. could be understood ns dealing with the religious ,·aluc of ritual music·
from an aesthetics poinl of' icw. 1t rends.

In watchins the <bncc of J...ai and th:u of mr, there arises a

fe-eling of being wclJ atrdllgcd in order. In \\atching the
dance of Sllnt) r~nd thr~t of Xia. Utcrc arises a sense or
beaut) o f simplici[y. 11
i nRteJ~. !1tJ n~ull!J!Ji f1'· ~ij:1u: . f!IJil!~u ilJJ!Iil& . J
(XZMC: 180)

It can be sure that, learning ritual music. for the lu:ir-sons, is

diffcrcnl from learning music for self-e-ntertainment and for passing through
leisure Lime. For them, tl1c- JlU I-p<JSC of learning mu!iic is to cultiv.,tc- lheir
spiri ll~.t11 senslbilil) to the rc,·caling of Hca\'en, E:lflh. and ancestors,
through their troining in the art of sounds. This means the religious func-tion
of 1i1ual musk has its aeslhctie· foundmion in human mind. as expressed by
the word "tpng" in Xmg Zi ,14/ng Clw. Before we discuss in more details the
relation between music and tjing. we have to rc,icn· briclly the shlO of
musical ,·nluc in Confucinn thoughl from religious func tion to more
humanistic concerns.

CONFUCIAN IDEA OF MUSIC AS A WAY OF CULTIVATING

A COMPLETE PERSO N

Alor)g with the collapse ofZhou aristocracy and the rise of various
schools of thoughts in the periods of late Spring and Autumn and early
Warring Slates. education was not uny more the privilege of roynl family
members. In this process. the value of music in the cuhiuuion of hum::u1
mind dcgcncmtcd. Lao:rJ cmphasi7Cd the quietness and sile-nce of Nature.
:md critici:r.cd tlmt loo rn:my sounds (fi\'c tones) wo uld ma.kc people deaf. In
the ft1o:i we lind n chapter a&ainst music and there we rc:.d the criticism
that in du l g~n cc in the plc:tsurc of music \\:tS a c:tuse of cortuption. Among
various i.ntellc-ctu.al schools. the ConfuC-ian wo.s the o nl~ school thai kept the
trodition:\1 ide:t or education and putt he cmptl :~si s on the cuhural mcanint-t
of music. Confucius himself was :~ man of music, he used to sing. 10 piny
music>31 instruments such as chime. qin and .~. and he C\ 'Cn knew how 10
compose. He had pul to right order the rcpcnoircs of music for odes. and

II The author or Ihis P;:JI>Cr translates this: tc.'\1 in rclt:-rcnce to Confucm{

words o:bout Shoo MJ Wu m tlt<· Lrm h1: " the Ma5.1<"r .s:.ld of tile SJwo that 1t
wos pct1'cctly beautifu l :.nd nlso perfectly good. lie soid of the lli1 thot il wa.'>
p\:rf~.-ct l r hc~IU Uful but not pt.:Jfc-.:t l~· tt'xxl: · (;lualecl~~. J;2 ; ) (James Lc~t~c 1991 ;
J (~)
 .lolrmmo /..;u

concctcd their tones after his trip from \Vci back (O Lu. •z. He has discussed
the pcrfonmmcc of music with the Grand ~'fusic Master of Lu in saying.
''how to play music may be known. AI the commencement of 1hc piece. all
tl1e-pmts should sound together. As il proceeds. they should be in ham1ony
''hile sc,·c •':'llly distinct and no,,ing "'ithout brc:tk. and thus on to the
conclusion ... (A11tikt:t.t,l:23)
Conf'ucius taught disciples music us one of the si,x arts. and
considered music esse-ntial clement to the completion of cuhivation of a
.fun:i or a condition sine qua non oro complete person. D
Music. as csscmialto a complete person. did not consist merely in
music."ll pcrfonnancc such as playing an instn1mcn1. but in the rcaliz:'llion.
through music. of lhc human Oao. e.g. lhc virtue of humrutity (rrm). without
\\hicb mus ic. ns an art of sound. \\OUid bocomc meaningless. Confucius
said: " If a man be without the virhi¢S proper 10 humanity. \\h:u has he to do
with musicT (Anllh•cJS 3:3) Only with the hunun 030 of rru. would musit
become properly n human an of sound. and dtcrcb) the foil on in~;t question.
proposed by Confucius himself, would hare the possibility of finding 3U
answer: "R..itooL ritunl. docs it mean no more than gems ru1d silk'! Music.
music. docs it mean no more titan bells and drum s?~ (Am:dtt'/;,.' 17:11)
Basically, this question proposed by Confucius himself has touched
upon a crucinl problem in Chinese aC'Sthctics of music:. and would arouse n
series of questions on the essence ~md the existence or music ns an art How
the !'()Unds of bdls and drums could be music~ ! and be considered as
belonging to the art of music'! If the answer is that their 5ounds art:
produced merely by the ~rformam:c of a musician. then. "hat kind of
music pl3ycr could be c.onsidcrcd a..; a music.ian-lrlist? If the ::mswcr is 1hat
those who know how to piny bells and drums and perform in a \\llY that is
p•·opcr to music. llten lltc: que-stion will turn bn.ck: What is music'? Who is
musician'!
In contemporary western pbHosopby. Martin Hcidcggcr has bkcn
·'the Coming of BeingiTruth in thing'" us the starting point for answering the
question on the origin of work or ;ut.(Man:in Hcidcsgcr 1971 : 17-76)
Confucinns would t;.kc diflC~nl approtJch than the ontological one t01.kcn by

11
Confucius $lid, '·I returned fnmt Wet to J.u. ond then the mlL"iic wo.'i
r<Rmucd. and lh~ pi<.'\:\.'S in the 1\l~· al stlJlf.S tllXI Jl l"3isc: son ~s ~· II L0Uihl thl.!ir
proper pl;tees:'' {Ana/i.•('rs. 9 1.5) (.l~ntes l .t:~gc 1 991 : '2 2 1)
., Confucius s:tid. "lt ts by the 00...--s th:"tl 1hc mind is ;)roused. It ts by the
ru!C'~~ of propriety tlwt the thlut•Ch.-r tS \:.)1abhshed. Jt 1S ffCom music dtut the
linish i$ n:ccivcd." (Ana/~ cu 8:8}, (21 1). h\ UtJSWt.Ting Zilu'$ q uc.'Stion ubou t a
complclc pcr~.m. Confuciu$ ::.>::tid. "~uppo:;c ;:J man whh lhc J.:nowl'-'\.1!-<c of Z.ang
\Vu.l,ong. the fr~cdom from (..'OWtousness or Gong Chno. !he brovcry (lf Bian
Zh\l~utg_ Zi. fnld the VW'IOO laJ.:•nts of Ran Qiu. ndd to these !he aet()ll'lplisluncuts
of the rules of propricl}' and music; .such :1 one might be n:ckuncd o. complete
m:m ... (:fuc,feciJ 1-1.12) (279}.
 ,\/u.rlc:/)1tt'/ m Clo.t\'ICtsl Cdnfuc:umiMt

Martin Hcidcggcr in 31\S\\Cring these questions. They took ethical approach

to consider !he artistic \aluc of " music" and " musidan", In the J.; J ; (1J1e
Hook o.f'/Utes). it was said.

All modulations of sound wkc 1hcir rise fmm the mind of

m:m: and music is the intcrcommunicalion of them in their
rc.la tiQn~ <Jnd dirfcrc n cc~. Hence. C\'Ctl if beasts know
sound, but the~r know not its modul:ttions; and masses of
t.bc common people know the. modulations, but they do not
know mu!lic. "It is only the superior man who c.an (really)
know music. (Hlwk o/Rtte, \'OI.ll. J:1mcs Legge )9(,7; 95)

l11 Confucian thought. music should always go along with pmcttce

of li (ritual, propriety). Anyone '' ho is good nt musical sounds, bul no1
famili.ttr with li, won't deseroe the n.:tme of a good mac;ici.ttn. Lh:tt is, n
musician us a complete person. One SIOJ)' told th;u Kui \\US reputed til the
pr3ctice of musical sounds, but there was .3 mmor that Kui had onl~t one leg.
Duke Ai of lu doubted about it and went to nsk Confucius. Confuc ius
explained that Kui \\aS not a person with one lc~. but 3 m<ln who \\ilS
capable only of playing sounds, that was insufrteicn1. or one-legged in
mcbphor. for ::a good musician. Thai's why it is s..'l.id th;u Kui has one zu
(leg/enough). (Han Fei Zi. 465)
In a dialogues on the virtue of Ji, during Confucius' leisure time at
home, Zi Gong asked n question suspccti.l)g whether Kui is a good musician.
Confucius explniJJ<:d. "To be versed in the ceremonial usages. and not
\'Crsed in music. \\C call being poor!}' furn i);hcd. To be ''ersed in mus:ic, and
not \Crscd in the ceremonial u~gcs. we call being onc·sidcd. Now Khuci
(K,li) \HlS noted for his :tC<1U:Jinlanc.e with mus ic. and not for h is
acquaint3ncc with ceremonies, :1nd therefore his name has been tmnsmincd
with the .-ccount of him (which ~·our question implies)." Book of Rite,
vol.ll . ( 275-276)
II is clear !hen. ror Confucius. Kui was a man who knew enough
music.ll sounds ;~nd performed music well. but his one-sided knowlcdgt
\\AS not enough for him 10 become a good musician i.n 1hc sense of ho\'ing o
rc:tl kno" ledge of music ns completing hunun personal it)·.

QfN(j AS THE AESTHETIC FOUNDATION Of CONFUCIAN

MUSIC

Titc purpose of learning music was not merely to know musical

sounds. btu r:Jthcr 10 cuhiv:uc the c:tJX,ttity of rc:Jiizing human D::ao in its
completeness. TI1c humanistic meaning of music based on Confucian tllCO I)'
of self-culthntion no" g.radu.1H)t lOOk more significant role- than its
religious func tion
l.n Xmg Zt Ming Chu. the cultiv:Uion of music as ru1 ar( should go
tllonc with the cuhiv:uion of It (rule of propriety), :~1J i (J>OCU)1), and s1w
70 .lolrmmo /..;u

(History). c-onsidered os the son sfm (dtrcc :t.ns}. constituting thereby an

intc:Qr~ucd nay orientated to the human Ono. By learning .\·Jri. shu, li, yue.
the t:tpacity ofpm;i would gmdually dcn:lop under tltc 1c:1ching of the
~1gcs. "hich tonsist<:d in the fonnntion of human capncity or uni.(,·iog all
things by ana logy. teaming lessons fmm observing the sequence of things,
measuring hum::m activities by cxomin ing the righteousness of will, ::mel
ordering human fc.-clings in cxprc:ssing tlu:.m o ut and in tccci\ ing them in.,.~,
T he capac.ily obtained front the training of .~·lu. shu, fi ym: functions as a
\\'hole. " 'ithout neglecting one or the other. no matter b~t way of san sh11
(three ans) or liu yt (si:o.: arts). It makes sense that in Xmg Zi Mmg Ow, the
emphasis on music·s vahK: or sclf-cultiYating did n01 neglect at all its
relation with pocny (capacity of lrutguagc). with ritual propriety. and with
history.
According to Xing z, A~ttng Clw, the realization of human Dno
should starts from c:ulth·nting the C!lp.lcity of feel ing (qlng). Xing Zi ,t_,fJ'ng
C/111 soid: ·'The Dao b<;ins in qing (Dao shi yu qincr '\7MC: 17?). As
Tang Yi·jic has \\Cit JlOintcd out, .. it mates sense to s.ar ·Dao begins in
qing' rathe-r thM ·&o arises from lJing'. bcCllusc 0:1o exists from the start
o n occount or humon qmg rather thM cmergin:,: o ut of qmg:· ( fang Yijic
2003: 27l)Tans Yi':jic explains in h is notes that. ..This is not to say that it
cannot emerge at all. tbr it can nlso emerge out of nuiona1ity or study."
(fang Yijic 2003: 27?)
Most of schoklrs · discu)-sion.s on qlng in Conli•ci~m cl:'lSsks focus
on tt!c sbtus of qmg. referring gcncmlly to the p.sychological fo m1s o f
emotion. such ns the SCH'n tJings (joy. anger. sadness. fear. lo\'e. d isliking.
liking) in the 1.1Ji. u or the six qlng ( lil.:c.s n.nd d islikes, delights and lln£1!(S,
griefs And jo~ s) io Xun Zi. in the eoutc:d of their ethical discussion about
16

the relatio n lx.:t\\Ccn human miJtd (xln) and human nmurc. Zlwnx Ytms(s
explanation of the moral function of XI , nu, n;,Jc (pleasure. anger. sorrow,
joy), 17 o.nd Zbu Xi's annolll.tions o n the concept of zhoog he (Equiljbrium
h annony) in his long Ytmg Zlumg .lu. (Z hu Xl. 30) ha\'C \\CU pro\·ided us
whh the eth ical model of interpreting the meaning of human :.ffcttivily

.., r ~vtAU:Jtmrr·i(~ffz . CV.l tz;f;i'iff;;;lilz . ~nJt )aimf:iiJJrz . l'i(

JCTrrtfTitllAZ. . ?l.il!11):H:.t:/ i. fl. fli"liJ.~tW+ 1 • t·tl! . J (.I'Z.\/C: 17<JJ
u "\Vlutl me the fcdintz~ of 111\!'111 Th~.-.r arc jl'Y· ~ngcr, $:1\lne;s~. fct1r. Love.
i.hshking. Iikins These S(.·ven feeli ng~ belong to men wtthout IJH:ir learning
tht:m " ("T he L1 Yun.·•. Hfl()/wfWt~.f: 379).
16
"'The hkcs :wJ dishl:cs. J chg.hts aod ant;(,·s, ~rid's und joys of the
1.utw-c ore cnlkd cmotiuo:5."' ("Rcctifyio:;. Namc:s". !J.qm l'w(Xunll). (l)urh)ll
WatSc..llt 1% 3: 139).
,. -whtk then:: :.n.:: no shmngs of plcMmrc, anger. sorrow. or JO)'. lhc
rntnd moy be s:~id to be ill 1hc sttnc of Equilibrium. \Vh(1l 1bose f(x·lu\g? have
been sltm:d. nnd they acl in their due dcgn:c. th\.'JC ensues whnt mny be co1kxl
I he stat~ vf Hannvny. ·· Cf.. 1'he Doctruw (if tltc Mt:rm, Cbapl.::r L (J~n.cs
Legge 1991: :<84)
 ,\/u.rlc:/)1tt'/ m Clo.t \'ICtsl Cdnfuc:umiMt 71

(qin:~). but they lcfi t11c aesthetic dimension of focling untouched. But tl\is
aesthetic dimension agit;uc-s alw:1ys in the c.rc;ati,·ity of pOetry and music.
nnd exists \'h·idly in the daily life of people.
The interpretation of qiug in Xing Zi Afing Ci111. follo\\ing Zouf.:
J'i:) ng. h:~d :~ lso laid the foundation of feeling (tJing) on hum:m n:uurc
(xing). 16 but its emphasis "'OS put on the aesthetic function of qing in its
cxprc.ssion through yucllc (music/ pleasure.) and li (rituaVpro1Jricty). In .Xhtg
Zi J\1mg ('hu. the tcrnl .. qmg" is understood as the beginning of openness to
the other in terms of " allthings~, and ')•r as the ending, the final fulfilment.
toward which hwnan feeling tends: and those \\hO w1dcl':stand feeling can
express it properly. and those who understand )II can realize it in oneself
properly. r:lfl~.i!!to'i. t'! 'i.:·.i!! ~. 1<1llit H;e lli:t . ~~~~ '/.HieA:t . J
(XZWJ: 179).
In short. according to the Confucian trndition. the learning of music
ru.d ritual propriety is to cuhivatc the-cnpac.ity of~ complete person as 10
his,:ber acslltetic feel ing. \\hich is rooted in human affc.:tivity (qing), to be
intcgr:.tcd with hislbcr moral feeling and religious sentiment which arc
C:<J)fc.sscd through yi and /i.

TU£ AESTHETIC DIMENSION OF VUEILE IN

XING Zl MING CIIU

Aport from its ethical function in Confudan culture, music,

together with rituul JH'ot>ricty. has also 0111 4tCsthctjc dimension as \\CII, Tilis
consists in the pl~asur\! (/eJ mrained by a s~rmp:uhetic feeling that is able to
shilfe the world of others b}' npprchcndins \'ntious 3ffections commtmicntcd
through sounds produced by others.

Sounds (IIJd Alusi~. Musi c 1Picasure 1md Rifunl Propncty

The /look t~f" Musit· said that " music produces plc:LSurc~ •• \\ hat
tl1c nature of man c.nnnol be without". (Hook ufRit~.:, rol./1. 127) Enjo~·i ng
the l'lrt of music '' ith pleasure by sing_ing songs. ))laying insuumcnts. or
enjoying n bc:tutiful melody just b) listening. is the common oesthctk
experience of music among people. A famous story about Confucius
sutd~·ing Chinese-lute under Shi XiJng tells that fo•· Confucius. the aesthetic
pleasure of music an docs not consisl only in the rhlthm and melody, or
pktying on the matbcmotic su·ucturc of sounds. bul in the exis tential
meaningfu lness con\'cycd through the sounds of the music. undt'f'Siood in a
humanistic way. This docs not mean Confucian theory of music has
neglected the embodiment of music in sounds. On the cotltro.t:'-'· it clnims
that only those \\hO kno"' sounds nrc-able 10 tnlk bout music. TI1e Book(>/
.~1u.wc said, " Hcnc.c with him \\hO docs not know the sounds we cannot

tt ··Qins 3rise.s from xinQ(tJ!ng shengyu xlng)" (XZ.lfU· I79)

71 .lolrmmo /..;u

speak about the airs. and wilh him \\bO docs not know the airs \\C cannot
SJ,lCak about Ihe music." (Book ofRrte, m/.11. 95)
By ncstltctic feeling. human being is acc:cssiblc to \"arious kinds
of pleasures in sounds as well as in music. and CJljoy the c;~pcricn cc of
bein& rC\'Calcd through 1hcm. Xing z,
ftifmg Clw has: \i\ridty dl'Scribcd the
variety of plcosurcs in the acsthclic: experience of listenin g, suc:h as
listening to tl1c- round of laus hing that m.ake$ o ne lhcly h<~ t)J)) : in hearing
the b.1llad, one feels contented and cxc.itcd ~ in listening to the melody of qin
and se. I) profound feeling or praisin~ is inspired: in \\lltchins lhc d3ncc or
l..ai and tlu: dance of Wu. there arises 3 reeling of being arranged in order: in
watc·hing the dance of ,')'h<uJ and the dance of Xur. 1hcrc arises a sense of
beauty of simplicity. ' 9
The pleasure obtained from sounds can stny no longer than 1hc
vibration of laughing in the air: whereas the pleasure obtained from music.al
melt.:xly " ill prolong as long, !lS it resounds in one's mind. 'Jltc cxpcrlence of
Confucius in llCUri.n& the music: or Slum in Qi State Md tJlCII ignoring the
taste of ncsh fo r thr~!e months (Annfecrs. 7: l4). is a typica l a esthe1ic
experience of musical cut.
Conccminc the rcl:uion between the aesthetic pleasure of music
and the sclf·cuhi\'ation of ;~. jmm. the Xmg Zi Mi,g Chu pointed out that
learning 1hrough music with 01 spiritual pleasure would be the faster w:1y 10
rtfom1 one's heart !I) The longer the mind keeps the spiritual pleasure of
music. the more serious it would be in r~l uming 10 its original go<>d nature
:md i1s st:lrti.ng qing. :md the more SOlootbly it would be in c xprc-ssi.ng
oul\Htrd and in n:cciving in\\nrd. This is lhc Wil~' of rca l i~ing onc·s "inue.
r JCM~ttll~. Jt&ml1!41 1kb'l. JC:JL~>.tlli.ill <JWD, •;JJC~ tll . J
(XZMC: I80).
One of the meanings of connecting ft with J'lle cons ists in the fact
thnt tl1c prncticc of ritual propriety should be rc:~lizcd with spiritu ~l pleasure
in mind. &iren that the true mcnning of U is based on the feeling of rcspcc:l.
In daily life. a sincere smiling is enough to display the pleasure of heart in
tl1e friend!~· cx~;h;m sc of ugrccnblc wonb. As 10 the diplomatic mee-ting,
;:unong na tions, a conccu in the- ll<ltional banquet rcprcseniS the
m:'t&nifieencc of the diplom:uic rituals. No need lO mention asain 1he pious
feeling in We pcrforntanee of ritu:tl music dwing lhe sacred offerings in n
temple. "111crcfore. it makes sense ft)r Xinx z, M inx Clw to cl:tim that
··smiling is the superficial side of ritual propricry, whereas music/spiritual
jo~· is the deep side of ritual proprict~" fft, ilt:ti~i!¥!t!!.. ~. IIIZ.iA:f.l!.
ll!.. J (XZMC:I ~0).

~ f~R~ I DI.~····~·~·· · •n•iliME.m < •l

euz.• c ~~ · •~•ili••·~nK.m~ •ili•~ · ~•u . m~
!.tJl!!.J>r({.•. I ~l'l.MC: I 80).
"' r JL.fl!.?i*Jt:.c·?.H;t . lftJtffrt.). i!!tJ.t~ . :f!411;(ii!\Z.J:J! b , J
~I'Z.I/C· I SO)
 ,\/u.rlc:/)1tt'/ m Clo.t\'ICtsl Cdnfuc:umiMt 13

Confucius once described tl1e prcscnw.tion of music in diplom:nic

cmmcsr and C:'IOplnincd lhc symbolic fu nction of music pcrfonncd in the
diplom:'l tic ceremony during the \'isit of n mler. This happened in
Confucius· leisure time nt home. aficr he hi!d talked lo his disciples Zi
Zhang. Zi Gong and Van You. on the \'alue of li.

\\>'hen one l'ulcr is \ isitiog another. they bow to C;tth o ther.

each counoously declining to tnkc the precedence, and
t.ben cn(cr the sate. As soon as lhcr hzh'C: done so. the
instruments of music. su.q>c.ndcd from their frames. sui.kc
up. They 1hen bow and gh·c plncc 10 each other again . and
:tsccnd to the hall. :md when they have gone up. the music
stops . In the cou.rt below. the dnnccs Hsiang (}(itmg} and
Wu nre perfonned 10 the m usic of the Outc. and that of
lbia (Xia) pn.">Cccds in due order \\ith (the br3ndi~ing of
feathe-rs and) fife s. (:\Ocr tbis). the stands with their
offerings arc set out the 'n.rious ceremonies llnd musical
performances so on in regular order. nnd the array of
offictrs prO\'idcd disch3rge ll1cir functions. In this way 1l1e
superior man perceives the lo,·ing regard (which directs
th e entertaiiun cnt). They ntO\'C forward in perfect circles:
tlte~ return nnd f'o nn again Lhe square. The bells of 1l1c
equipages :1rc umcd to th-e Klwi-khi (Cm-Qi): when the
guest goes out they si.ng the J'iUJg(Ytmg}: whe n the th ings
ar c being lakcn nwa~·. they sin¥ the Klum-yu: nnd thus the
superior mM (sees that) lhcre is- not :1 s ingle thing for
' ' hicb there is not its proper ceremonial us..ogc. (Book af
Rile. \ 01.11. 17~-2 75 )

In reading Confucius' detailed d escription of the d iplom::uic

counc.sy and music p.crfomwd in the court loday we still can feel the
m3gniticcncc of II :md yue in Ancient China. The focus of Confucius was
the symbolic function of music in showing their cuhh·atcd good feeling.
' irtue and historical kno" ledge. as the text goes on to sa)'.

the striking up of the instruments of met:tl. when llu.')'

enter the gate. serves to ind ica1c their good feeling: tl1c
singing of the Klung 1\fiao (Qing A11no). when they hit\'C
gone up to the l1all. shows t11c \'inuc (they should
eulti\'alc): the performance of the Hiumg (Xitmg) to 1l1c
fl ute in ll1c eoun below. reminds 1h em of c\·ents (of
history). Thus the superior men of antiquj(y did not need
to set fonh their \'iews to one :mother in words: it \HIS
enough for them to show 1hcm in their music and
ceremonies. (llo(lkofRiu:. \'ol.ll. 274)
7~ .lolrmmo /..;u

[t was by the aesthetic feeling. e.g. the sense of beau~·~ and the
moral fcx:ling. e.g. the sentiment of rcspc~l. th;~ t J. superior man of antiquity
could set fordt tlteir vic" s and communicate with e:.ch other without the
necessity of using vc rb;~l l:mguagc, Just as the .rmg Zi Mlng (:lw said.
''Being in trust without words arc: those ''ho ha\c the scnsl! of beaut)·· - ~
o:i rfrjf;l, -rf')I IIJ,r,'l!! J (XZMC: 18 1)
T11e ICmporary pleasure brouglu aboul by the musical sounds
would not be enough lo C:lll'}' on the fon:nntion of individm1r s virtues ::md
people ·s ethos. There is no need to say it is not good ~nough for the good
b'twcmancc of 3 count'). Confucius· criticism o n the sonJ;,S of Zhcng and
Wei wns in the context of his reply to Ynn Yuan's question on the
b"C.WCnlmcnt of a St:'ltc. ·For Lhc purpose of scn•ing as Music of 3 Sl:ttt:.
Confucius recommended the dance of .'Wwo and alerted rulers to keep away
from the sounds of Zhcng. due to the latter's cxccssh·c indulgence in the
pleasures of sounds. which \\3S unqlllllificd to sene in tltc ri1ual ceremony
inn temple or in the courl {Analea~ IS: II) II seems lhat Confucius didn'l
deny the cogniti\·c ,·~luc of sounds of Zheng that rcYtalcd local pc:oplc·s
ethos. WluH makes Confuc ius discontented was the mixuuc of court music
ofya with 1hc popu l~r music or Zl.eng. (Analecr.~ 17: I R)
Altbough purctr melodic aspect of music is not enough for ~ing
pctfonucd in the sncrcd ritual. as music-or ya is, it is still quite t)ractical f01'
the lraining of musical skill of an instrumemalist or ''ocalist. That's why
Xit11: Zi ;\lil1g Clm s:tid. '"Tite :tncient music is good for mind. :tnd the new
sound!i arc good for the fingers. botb arc for the culti\'ation of the people."
r)i:o1o!l!liiJ.G•. 1,1*il(!Jfi. \lffJI)t)l.-ti· I!!. J (XlMC; IMO)
Alan& "ith its affirmation of ac-slhctic \"nluc of music. Xing Zi
.~ 'lmg Clm didn't ignore the acstl1ctic quality of the ftc ling or grief. In this
5cnsc it is quite differen t from Zi Zh.:mg who took grief and joy as
bell'!n~ing to l\\ 0 scp~rate categories of cr~ ing and music: "to grief. lhct'e
belong crying and 1c.vs; to joy, soncs and dancing" (7Jmo Z/mnn:70R). By
corUttlSt, Xing Zi }.Jing C/111 considered pleasure ::tnd s,rief as a pair of
feelings duu produc.c each other: -The extreme dC\'clopmem of
musicfplcasurc accompanies itself certainly with grief. Ctying. will be grief
r
too. All of ohcm routh human feelings. K.3')1l)!:JZ•;1!;. Ji:ifi'!lt. l'i5Dttli
·Ill. ] (XZMC:: I 80)
l l1e aesthetic pleasure produce.~ a sense of being tlpcn to other's
joy. whereas lhc feeling or grief produces 3 sympathetic feeling up:.m
other's sorron·. A sound of crying cxprcs~s the fee ling of grief as well as
th:tt of plc.."lSWC. It is only in the highest fom1 of music cndo" cd wilh
highest pleasure thnt would contain a comprehensive feeling of symp.11hy
cnpoblc of discerning ,·nrious S.l31C-S: of mind from sounds produced by
others. Humnn mind tends 10 play with various kinds of sounds. in nhic::h
cry ins is but one kind of dcdphernble sounds among others.
 ,\/u.rlc:/)1tt'/ m Clo.t\'ICtsl Cdnfuc:umiMt 7j

CONCLUSION
[t is a t ommon sense 10 s.1y that, in general. Chinese Confucinn
culture. reputed as 01 li yu~ culture. has ah,nys put its emphasis on the
cducatior-ll function of music on the formation of indi\'iduol moral
tharactcrs and. furthcnnorc. that of people's ethos. Most of the discussions
on music. in ;~ ncicn t Confucian d~JC-umc nts focused ah\ il) s on t11c rcligklllS
meaning or ritual n1us ic and its cduc.1tionat and ethical cOCci. especially by
emphasizing the lellt'nins of the gcnndiosc music ol'yn. In this historic:U nnd
ideological contc~ l the newly disCO\'Cred XiiJX z,
Mi,,~ Clm shons us a
\'Cf)' inii:TC'Sting case. in which we find n continuity of the same Confucinn
stcrcotypic.tl idcn in co11sidcring music as one of d1c ducc ans (san shu). as
essential ways of rcalil.ing dtc human Oao. \\ hich apparently bad followed
the s:une cl3ssical Confucian tradition, On the other hand. Xmg 7J ,\-fmg
Chu hos pr<widcd us with sc.m1ethlng new, that is. the aesthetic \":'llue of qing,
the nnistic vnlue of musicul sounds. and the di:alecticnl rclution between the
fl!cling of ple-asure and that of gcief in music. It considet·s the quality of
musical sounds out of other sounds. both physical and human. and relates
thc111 to the irreducible aesthetic and affccti\'e din1Ct1Sions of hum:tn
existence. all in promocing them with ethical and religious \'illucs. In this
sense. c\·en if the XiiJK Zi ;\;finK Chu may not be tnkcn as grc:u as other
Confucian classical texts. nc, crthcless. it can illuminate us with n
rcm:.rl.::.blc aesthetic of music-:'lmt the nourishing multiplicity of Confucian
music culture i.n the Prc-Qi.o Ertt.

REFERENCES

Book of Rit<S. vol. I & ,·o J. II . tronslated by lames Legge (New

York: Unircrsit_y Bool.:s. 1967
The Chinese C/m;s"·~· m N•·e Volumes. translated by James Legge
(Taipei: SMC Publishing lnc .. l991).
111e Collected Annutolions ry· l ffm Fei Zi. \'Ol. 12. Chapter 33
"Waichu Shuo Zuo X•o",cditcd by Wnns Xiang Sheng (Tnipei: Vi Wen
Publisher. 1983).
H sun Tzu(XunZJ}. ltanslalcd by Bunon Watson (New York:
Columbia Uni\'CI'Sil)' Press. 1963)
Studies on Guo Dian Chu Bamboo SJip.l' (Shcn Yang: Lin.o Ling
Education Publishing Co.. 1999)
··transcripts and Annouuions or Xing z,Mmg Clm~ in (iuodinn
})amboo Slips ofCim ]Qmb. edited by Jing-.1\·Jcn Muscmu (Bdjing: Wen-Wu
Publisher Co.. 1998)
?Jmo Zhunn'', in The Chin~.r" Cla.Q·irs m Ptrc J1J/um ~.f. V.
UnltSialcd by Ja1.11Cs Legge (Ta_ipci: SMC Publ.i.shi.ns J.nc .. 1?91)
76 .lolrmmo /..;u

.Wcomlar Rc:.wttrce~·

Roland Barthcs... From Work to Tc~:l'' in Jmn!{e•:\1u...,·tc--1'cxt1

trans hued by Slcphcn Hcnth (GinsgO\\ : Fontan.1ICollins. 1977).
Roland B:ttthes, " Tiux>r~· of the Te-x t... in Untymg 1he 7ftrt, cd. By
Robert Young (Boston: Routledge & Kcg;an P;~u l, In I).
f\·li.lrtin H cidcg~;cr. "T he Origin or t11c- Work o f ArC in foc:lrJ~
l .nngrragc. TlwugiU. translated by Alben Hofstadtcr (New York: Harper &
Ro-v. 1971).
Jiang Guang Hui. - Guodi:tn Chu Bamboo Slips and E.arlr
Confuci3nism" in H1:.·tory rij'71umghh· in Chine,,·e CJm:s"·~:. Vol I. Chapter 4
(Beijing: Chinese So.:i:tl Sciences Publisl1cr. 2003).
Julia Kristcva. -Lc mot lc dialogue ct Jc roman:· In Rt:~:Jrerches
pour rme sbntmnly.se (Paris: Editions du Scuil. 1969),
Julil Krisrcva. .. Word, Dilloguc and Novcr, in 1he Kristc1·ts
llctwk r, edited bJ Toril Moi (Q,, rord: BliiCk"cll. 198<.).
Li Ling. Records ~{ PrrHljTcadlng fJn 7hrtt• l'lecc.\' <?f'Cim Ramboo
SIJps Published by Shanghai Mltscum (Taipei: Wanju:mlou Publisher.
2002).
Li Xuc Qin. -z; Si Zi to Jln Men (iuodian Chu Bamboo Slips·· in
Sfudit:s Qn Guo D inn CJwiJn.mboo Slips (Shcn Yang: Liao Ling Education
Publishing Co.. I?'J'J)
Li Xuc Qin. '"lmpon:snl Disc-o \'cry on th e Pri:"-Qin Confucian
Writi.ng,s- in ,\'tmlics on (juQdian (,'/w Bamboo Slips (Shcn Yang; Liao Li.ng
Edue<ltion Publishing Co.. 1999)
Lino M ing Chun. ''Jing Men Guodian Chu Tomb Bamboo Slips
and Prc..Qin Confucinnism.. in S1mlie3' on Guodian Chu JJam boo Slips
(Shen Yilng: Liao Ling Education p,•blishing Co .. 1999)
Pang Pu, ''Between Confucius and Mcncius. On Confucian
Theory of.'(;,, Xing in Guodian Chu Bamboo Slips" in Studies on Guodion
Clw Bamboo Slips (Shcn Yang: Liao Ling Education Publishing Co..
1'1J')).
Tnng Yijic. ··Emo lion in Prc-Qin Rui.st r-.·l oral Theory: An
Exp lan:uion o f ·Oao Begins in Qing .... tmnslated by Brinn Oruy:-. and
Hai-m ing Wen , in Philosophy Eas1 mul We:.:, Vol.33, No, 2 (H3\\tlii :
Uni,·crsity of Hawaii Press. l OCH)
Zhu Xi . C~.~tlectc:d Amrotdfirms t?/' Four II<Joks f ,)J Shu .h ZhttJ
(Chang Sho: Yuc Lu Shu She. 1985). p.JO.

GLOSSARY

D(lc} ~111 yu qing 5i1 MjN~ t.~

gu mcmg ~-:U.S
funz/1'1'1'
l ai nud Wn f.{ ill:
 ,\/u.rlc:/)1tt'/ m Clo.t \'ICtsl Cdnfuc:umiMt 77

II Jlll?nl~
lm Yi~if_~
qtngM·
(Jing ,\·hettg ,ru xing ti7'1~.0~i't
san shu _: W r
.\1wo :md Xw MJ.l
Jlt<f/e ~
Xmg Zt Mmg Chu it l~'lii'i i.U
x~tui'" t.rm tuu:.a
 Chapter IV

ls Menci us a Motivationallnternalist?
Anh 1ium Ntf}~n

INTRODVCfiON

According to many c:o nuncnt~t ors. Mcncius is a motin1tional

intcrnali sl. someone '' 110 holds that if nn agent believes a <:Crtain nc-lion to
be mornlly good or riGht. thl!tt nectss."U'ily he or she is moti,·mcd to
pcrfom1 iL For i.nsta.llcc. Xiushc.ns l iu claims that for Mcncius.
j ud gments of nm :md .vi arc " imernar· in thot they both "necessarily
im•o h·cfsf motivation... (Liu 2002: 101) Liu ch:1metcrii:cs intcrnalism as
the ,·icw that there is :1 "'nocc.ss:uy connection between mornl judgment
and mothation ..... {lhid.:l02). Given thai ren and yJ are ·'internal.. in 1hc
sense that they ··nc<:·CSS.1rily invoh·c)sf moth·:1tiont" ''there is 3 necessary
conn~t ion between :a judgment or n:" (and p) and a motio.cotion to act in
ace.ordancc with such a judgment~ (lbid.:ll S). Mcnc ius is thus a
moti\':JtiOn:"ll intCTo:tliU thcnc<:forth, the qualifyin£ "motil':ltioml'' will be
dropped). Setting aside the fact th"l Liu 's arf:jumcnt for the claim Lh:tt
Mcncius is :~n intcmaliSt is problematic. one particular problem \\ith
:utributing intcrn:Jiism 10 Mend us is 1A:7 of the Mmtius. In this passage,
King Xuan :tcknowlcdges that be is nwo.rc of the suflCring of his people.
th:.t it is ~n to alleviate their suffering. am/lhat, yet, he docs not feel
motiv:llcd to do so. Many commcntntors haYc tried to tK'commodatc IA:7
within the iutcmalist reading of Mcncius. but I will show tll..11 their
attempts fall short I will argue tlmt IA:7 shO\\S that Mendus cannot be
an intemalist as strictly understood in the contcmponuy mctn~th i c;~l
debate. I will further argue tbal for Mcncius the connection between a
mornl judgment nnd moti\ mion is no1 contingent as c.xtcm:dists hold. I
will sho" ' thm there is 3 position in the contemporary mctll.cthicol dcOOte
that is beh \ ccn internal ism and cxtcrn<llism. "hich can best capture
~'lcncius · \icw on moral motivation.

TIIE KING AND DIS COMPASSION

[n JA:7, .King Xuan :~sks Mc:ncius i.fhc, the king. is competent to

loYc and protect his people . ncknowlcdging tlnu hjs people arc rit;]u in
com]Jiaining of being it:norecl. Mcncius rctJlies thou he is. citing an
incident in which the king once splrcd the life or an ox. Hll'ing once
bees~ told th<Jt the k ing had s<1id that he cc.)uld 1\QI "bear fthc. ox's )
frightened appearance. as if it \\ere an innocent person going to the place
of death." Mcncius says that he knows the king was not grudsing the
expense of an ox in ordering the substitution of a sh<..~p for tl1e ox. as
8(} Artlr1ium Nt~y<'"

others had tJ10ught. but r:nhcr -rdt pained br its being led ''ithou1 guih 10
the place of dcalh." 1 Mcncha.s goes on; "Your conduct was an :utifice of
benevolence."' The fact that the people ore not lo,·cd and protected is due
only to ·)our Majesty"s no1 exercising the royDI S\\Oy. ... because you do
not do it, not because you are not able to do it: ·
For Mcncius. compassion acts o.s the motivation to nllc,·i~tc
!iurTcring. If the L:ing doe.s not lun c compilssion then the l~ck of
compassion is sunicic-nt to expl..1in why he ··docs no t do i t:· In IA:7,
£\·lencius tries to convince the ki n~; that he is ll compass10nate pccson and
hence is ..able tO do il .. i.e-. tO aiJC\'iatc tl1C suffering or his people.
Mcncius · tasL: is to explain to the king why he is " able to do h.. :md yet
..docs nol do i1." why th e king fails to show compassion in this cnsc. If
imcrnalism is true. the king cannot fai l to be moti\·atcd. 1ndccd. if strong
in1c.rnali$m is true, the judgmtnl thm h~o: ought to nllcvi3tc suffering. n
judgment of rtm, is alone $ufficicnt to motiv:ttc without the ~gene~· o r tln
nffcc1h"c state such ns C<lmpassion. Mcnc:ius might be a weak intcrrtDlist
who holds th:u a moral judcmcnt can only motivotc throogh an afTccti\'e
state such 3S comp:usion. in which C3S:C the problcnt is why the kins is
able to make-:1judgmcnt of n::n about his people. and ~· ct docs not feel the
com passion that similar judg.m cnts of nm gencrntc (as in the case of the
ox). and hence is not motivlttcd. l f this is how I\>lencius diognoscs the
king 's J>ro blcm. he cannot be an intcrnalisl weak or strong.
What then might support the c:,sc for :lllributing intcm :~lis m to
1\·lcnc:ius'? Liu believes that there is te:..:tu:tl evidence to support it. A$ we
h;:n·c seen. Liu attribulcs intcmalisrn to Mc.·ncius on lhc bnsis that for
Menci u~ ren and Ji ore- '"internol.- Liu gi"C'S ns h! ~tua l evidence 6A:4,
where l\.·lcncius agrees with Gaozi thilt rtn is ··internal" bul disagrees with
him onyi. \\'h ich is '"c:~ te mal- for Gaozi. in s istin~ tlmt it too is .. intcrnili.-
Howcver, 3 closer look a1 this possagc reveals that the sense of "inlcmal"
and -cxtcrno.l" here is nol the srunc ns that in intcmalism and C:\icrnalisw.
Here. "inremal'" means the moti\'i11ional force. or the explanation for the
moliv::uing :JO'ccth-c state (e.g. comp:tssion). lies within the agent and
docs not dcpcod on ~xtemal circumsttmccs. The lo\'C for a brother is
·•intern:. I- and does nol depend on the fact that someone is a brother. for
otherwise someone who lo\'eS h is brother would h3\'C to lo,·c someone
else ·s brother. By c.onlJltSL my rcuction to o white objc<.: ( is '"external''
because it is the whiteness that m:lkcs me so react, :md react in the same
way ro anr "bite objecl not something .. in.. me. All this is
s1rai~;hlforward enough but it docs not make Mcucius tln intcrnalist At
best. GA:-1- mcrcl~· ~ys that if one is morcd to acl benevolently or
righteously then the moth·:lting for.;c, or the explanation: lies in o ne's
0\\11 psychological make· up. including one's tendency to j udge what is
benevolent or righteous. It docs not s.--.y 3n)'thing nbout the connc<:tion
 Ill

between n judgment of l 't:tr or yi und tJ1c motiv:nion to net. let nlonc saying
that the connection is one ofnc.'tessity as stipulated by inlcrnalists. Indeed.
nn C)I."Ccmalist can accept that whnt is required to moth-ate an ngcnt is
.. intcmar in the sense stipulated in 6/\:~. sud1 >~s the desire to ilppcar
bcnC\'Oicnt or righteous, ot the judt;mcnt that one ought to be so. Such
furaher moti,·ating factor is external to the connection between a moral
judgment and moti\ation \\ hile slill " intcrnal- to the agent in the sense of
6A:4.
Apllrt from 6A:4, other textWll C\' idcncc is hnrd to come b~. In
the end, iL seems thm the strongest case for attributing internalism to
r..lcncius is the plain fact th:n he c:mnot be an cx.tcrnalist. Gh·cn wh:lt
~knci us has to S3Y about t11c ..four sprouts" and bjs conuncms on the
behaviour ofpas1 s.1gts. such as King Shun m 4BI9. Mcncius cnnnot be
an extemalist, someone "ho denies any nec-essary connection between
judgments of 11m and yi on the one hAnd .1nd motiv:uiCJn on the other. But
\\hatc,cr tbc reason for attributing intcrnalism to Mcncius. I A:7 has to be
contended wi1h. In his ea1·lier r~m:uk on it~ Nivison claims that whlt
t>.-tcncius is trying to do is to persuade tbc king to extend the comp.ilssion
that he once showed to the ox to his own J)Cople. (Nh ison 1980) Since
ther~ is no relcmnt difTcrcnce bccwccn. the sufTcring of the ox and chc
suffering of his people. it would be inconsistent to hm·c comp:lssion for
t11c former and not for the Iauer. Howe\ cr. Ni,'ison himself admits thm his
uc\!otml is pu;o.7.ling. for the followi ng reason. Nivison t.1l.:cs it th:·U there is
C\"idcncc tO show t.h;at fi.·Jcncius diJfcrcnti::HC$ between having 01 Sood
reason to ha\'C compassion and actually having com passion~ If so d1cn
Mc-nciui> should know llult his strategy " ill at best get the king to sec. that
tltcre is a good reason \\ hy he should hnvc comp3Ssion for his people.
How docs Mencius get fro m there to geu i n~ the king to R'CI the
compassion itself! How does one co from getting the king to sec that he
should extend contp:lSsion from the ox to the people. to getting him to "·do
il' \\hen it is clt-.ar that he is '":Jblc to" and yet docs not dn it11ndccd. if
intern:. !ism is tmc. why is there a problem for the king at :.II'!
TI1crc arc-other problems with Nh·ison·s reading of JA:7. For
one thing. his account makes the ruther intlllaus iblc assumption that
Mcncius tnkcs the k ing 's reasoning ability to be so defecti\'e ~ not ro see
Lhat he should extend cc,)mpa~sion from the ox lo his people. Aflcr aU. the
p.1ss.agc mokcs clc:tr 1h.at the reason \\h) the king fe lt pity for the ox is
precisely the fnc t tl1l t he extended, to the ox, lhe compassion for an
imlginary innocent man being led to the plocc of death. The king is
clearly caiXJblc of the kind of extension that Ni\"ison says l\·fcncius is
trying 10 ctTcet with his strategy. Another problem has been noted by
OJ\·id Wong ond Shun Kwong-loi. (Wong 1991: Shun 1991 ) Thus. even if
Mencius succoods in getting the f..ing to fed eompassion for his people. by
the strntcsy identified by Ni\·ison. lhc king's comp\i..<;sion will be seen as
being justified by the rcqui_rcmcnt of logical con.sistcncy. ruther thon b~·
the actual suffering of his IX"Oplc. and as such it is not true c-ompassion.
82 A rtlr1ium Nt~y<'"

Shun. in particular. suggests that to O\Crcomc this problem. ''c ha'c to

interpret Mcncius us trying to get the king to ncquirc the desire to
nllc\iatc the suffering of his people. n desire simil:u to that which
motivated him to SjXli"C· the ox. for Shun. i£ dtc king is rcnll)
compassionate, he mllSI desire the ullc,·iation of suffering.
In u more rc<:·cnt account of IA:7. Nivison seems to h;m:
o:~bandoncd his curlier reading (namely. ''hut Mcncius uics to do is to g~t
the king to be consistcnl about how he one~ rch about the ox and how he
should feel obout his people). In this later vcl'siotL Nh·ison ncc.cpts lhm
the king docs h:t\'C o Cdntp:tssion for his peOJ))C (thus he is not
inconsistcnl) and that he is moth•:ucd to relieve the suffering of his people
(wb.ich follows from an intcmalist re3ding). Gh·cn all this. the k.ing's
failure to act is due to his mistaken belief that his moti\':Hion is not strong
enough. that h~ (the king) lacks tl "suffi cient strength of disposition" to
tlCL (Ni,·ison 1996) IL is a case of "I:)Ck of will" (act•dia) (o.s distinct from
""cnkl1CSS of will"' •• aknuia). Howc,·cr. while this 11C\\ read ins is closer
to the marL::. it is not clc:u how it can be reconciled "ith tl1c internal ism
th:tt Ni\'ison attributes to l\'lendus. lf motil'ation is linked to judgment by
ncccss it~·. hol\ c.au either ot.•t:dia or ah•trlua possible? Funhennorc. the
reading docs not quite explain how f\.-tencius manages to solve th~ moral
problem for the king. unless one assumes nnhcr implausibly tltnt tbc mere
recognition of a lack of will somehow restores in the agent the requisite
will. Twealdng the l.:ing's cognith·c mcch:mism alone d(X-'S not S(.'Cm to be
what .Mencius tries to do. As we ha\'e seen. Shun Kwong-loi suggest$ that
'' hnt Mcncius tries to do is to instill in the king the desire to nllc\'ialc the
suiT~!ring of his peopl~. th:n is, t\\Caking the &.ing's: alfeclh'C mechanism.
l llis is still problematic-. Judccd. 04\'id \Voug docs not think that
this is \\llat 1\tcncius tries to do. If the. kintt·s desire is the justifYing
reason for his comp..1ssion. it is still not true compassion. Mencius·
strategy '"would still be inconsistent with the pcrspccti\'c of the ouly
compassionate person. because fMcncius''l a.rgument would identify 1hc
rc:tSon to aet as lying in the King's ileSire. and not in the suffering he
desires to allc\'intc~· (Wong l99L: .J2). For Wong. the correct rending. of
IA:7 requires us to auribute t() Mcncius a \icw about moral moth·ation
th:n departs 11om th~ Humean position lhnt only n desire (or pMi:iOn) can
m()ti\':ttc. a po$ition thut as-sumes a distinction bctwcx:n reason and
emotion. On Wong's reading, there is no place for the distinc.tiOtl between
re:tSon and emotion in Mencius' philosophy. An emotion ha~ a eogniti\'C
component, and in the case of compassion. it is the p<::rccpt.iott of
sulTc:ring. It is tJ1is togniti\C compon.:nt tll~ t functions to SUJ)J>Iy the
reason to act - .. .compassion typically in\'oh·cs at least implicit
rccognjtion of n reason to act iu a certain WJY ... ·· (Ibid.: 32). Thus. if
nsl:cd '·Why did y0t1 do it (i.e. acting co~npassiona tely)T. the
compassion3tc person ··would identify his perception of the acm..1l or
possible su(fcring of another us the cause rmd us a jU$!i{"i.n g reason for
\\hat he does.- (Ibid.) With this in mind. says Wonc. ''e c.1n sec thai
 8.1

Mcnciu.s's strategy in tA. :7 is (I) ··w bring before (the king's) mind a past
acti(ln of his 1hat conslilutcd a paradigm scenario for compassion." (2) to
help 1hc ··the king to verify the emotion thou moved him to spare 1hc ox."
(3) to idcn ti~r " fo r the king the ox·s sutTcring ns both the c.ausc and
justjfying l'eason for his netion.. (p.37). and (4) to gi\ C "the L:ing a \\'a) ' fo r
the motive force of the instinc.tunlly compassionate response to enter into
practical dclillC;r.uion.- (Jbid.: 39). The "instinctually c(nnpassiofl.;)U:
response.. is one of the four innate tendencies, or instincts. or impulses,
that Mcncius identifies clscw'bcrc (2A:6). no.mcly the scnsitivily to otherS·
suOCriug t11at is the beginning of nm (the oll•cr three being the instincts to
feel shame. to feel modesty. and to feel rightness and wrongness. which
3J'C t11c beginnings respectively of yi. li and C'hi). The crucial step in
Mcncius·s str~ucgr is (4). the showing of .. 3 way for lthc king's)
eom pass i onaH.~ impuls¢ to 1>1! channeled into practical deliberation: ·
(Ibid.)
\Von ~:s rcadio& of IA:7 c.an O\ Cf'C-Omc the difficulties in
Nivison ·s and Shun ·s readings, bot :u a cost and not without some
questions. The w.ni1t cost for Craig lha.r.:t. is t],at Wong's rending -goes
considcrabl) beyond the C\'idc:ncc of the text- (lham 1??1: .J5) lhara
seems to be right in claiming that Mencius' str.ncgy as Wong understands
it requires the king to come to o high feYcl of abstract undcrst::mding
before he can feel c.omp:assion for his pcoplc (Jlart i cularl~· in terms of the
fOur slcps I identified :.bo\'c). He seems to be right in his claim that "lhcrc
i:i no e\'idcncc th:~ l Mcncius thinks t h;~C the king must co me to thi:i
nbSinl<'l lc\'Cl of understanding.- (lbid.: SI), As for questions. lhnm asks.
quite reasonably. \\h)' the king did not need to be shO'i\'n ···a l:\ay' to
·channel' compassion.. f(OJU the imo.gin::uy innocent man to the ox. a.nd
ye t hos to be shown a WJ)' when it comc.s to his l>eoptc. (Ibid} But the
more imponant question that lham asks is how it is possible, on Wong's
acc-ount of emotion. for someone to net on o. ocrtain emotion (e.g. jealousy)
without thinking llHU the cognith e component of it (e.g. the perception
that one's spouse is unfahhful) is a justi l~· in g reason for so ncting. (Ibid.:
41) Jn any c..Jsc. to auribute this view of emotion to Mcncius is also to ··go
considerably beyond the C\'idencc: of the text." Nowhere in the M~urciu s
con we find :1 word "th:~.t c:1n translate diree1ly as 'emotion·: · ( Ibid.: 4M)
~'lenciU$ only speak:; of the four instincts. or impulses.. in xln (hc.:trt·mind)
but they arc not emotions and do not ha\'c il cogniti\'e component that an
agent can recognize as a reason for action. lhnrn points oul, coJTcctly it
seems. that the action of t11c. compassionate man in the C.'<:l.mple of the
child about to fall into a well is an ·' instincti\'e sympathetic" response:
.. Ccnainly there arc no cognith•c emotions in l,this j cx3mplc ... .. (Ibid.:
SO)
Jhnn)s o" n reading of IA:7 is alarm in g!~· simple:

Accordi.ng to r..·tcucius. nil human bci.ngs ha\""C a " mi.nd-

thal c.annoc be.a r 10 sec 1hc suffering of others. The king·s
 Artlr1ium Nr'Y<'"

doubt t.hm this is ttuc of himself is sltO\\ n to be false

through Mcncius' c.-.:planation of the king's bch:wior
townrd the ox. At tl1is point all Mcncius is doing is
u:Jiing the king to look ngnin nl himself. to sec thnt l1c
has s·uch tl mind ... and urging him 10 experience the
suffering: of his people ns vividly O$ he did the suffering
ofthcox (lbid.: 5 1).

What is so nlanning: aboul lhls reAding is th:n it ouributcs to

f\·fenci us the belief tllat the king is just l:1cldng in imagination and Lhtttthc
cure lies simply in getting the king to sec surrcring more "vhidly." lf this
is t.ruc then we can still safely attribute intcrnalism to Mcncius. because
the problem with the kjng then is just that he has not fo rmed a j udgment
of ren about his pcop&e, Ho"e,·cr. the p.1s:sase ma k~s it clear enough that
the ki.ng knows lh::.t his people an: not b:1ppy, th:.tt they fed unlo\'c:d and
tmprotc:ctcd. :1nd that he ought to do somcthin& nbout iL. This is prec iscl~
why he asks Mcncius whether he has what it takes to lo,·c and prolcct
them. His problem is that such perception somehow docs not -evoke
feelings of eomp3Ssion·· in him. Docs he have to "experience the
suffering" by suiTcring the suffering itself:~ But this is certainly 10 go
further beyond the e\idcnc:c of the text than lham has accused Wong of
doing. AJso, in his response to Jhara. Wong points out. correctly, that
lham's reading docs not L1kc account of Mcncius' cmphasi!i elsewhere
(e.g. 3A:7) on the process of mornl development. from the primitive
stining,s of the four impulses in the hcurt-m i11d to u millurc display of re, .
)'I, II nnd chi.
l l1cre docs not seem to be any wa~· of getting orouud the f.oclth:n
there is somcl1ow a discormcetion between Lhc king·s j udgment of n·n
about his people and the motin11ion 10 3CI accordingly, which is not
possible ifin tcmalism is true. But ifMcncius is not an intcrMiist. must he
be an c~tcma l ist'? On lhc surface. this conclusion seems inc\·itablc.
insofar as either there is or there isn't a ncccssal}' conncc1ion bclwccn a
mor;~ l judgment and moti\'3tion. As mentioned abon. it is probt~b ly to
a\'Oid landing Mcncius in the cxtcmalist camp tkal many commentators
attribute intcmnlism to him, for it is much more impbusible to suppose
that for Mcncius the rcb tionship between 3 rnornl j udgment and
nrotin'llion is purely contingent. TI•c evidence so far suggests that
Mcncius takes it to be lhc case that there is a wry suons connccrion
bctw«:n the t\\0. but not so strong as to rule out the possibility of
someone. such 3S King Xuan. who judges that it is rc, or )'i to do
something but is not motivated 10 do it As it happens, it is possible to
.1rguc that both intcma.lism and cxtern\llism t~rc false. 3Jld that something
in between is the corr«t \'iew of moral moti, ation. Such a view has been
defended by E\'an Simpson. (Simpson 19C'J9) In wh:1t follows. I will show
th;rt Simpson's uccouot ha$ the best clumc:c of capturing Mcncius·
posilion on rnornl motivation.
BETWEEN INTERNALISM AND EXTERNALISM

According to Evnn Simpson, both in tcm:~ lism and externalism

nrc- fn lsc. He docs not directly show thnt they nrc false. Instead. he
defends an account of moml motivotjon 1hat. if tl'ue. entails that
intcrn:dism ;md cxtcmolism :uc false. His account i11vokcs a logical
relations hip that he calls "logi<.:al dcpcudcnc) .- which is \\cakcr than
logic.:ll necessity. Some kind of things. A. Jol!ic.ally depends on another
kind, B, lf it is logically impossible fot A tJtings oh\ays to occur without
B things. but logicall~· possible for tltc lir.a sometimes to occur \\ itltout
the second. ",.iltgcnstcin has argued that h is impossible for pain always
to occur without pain bchm·ior. but logically possibJc for it sometimes to
occur without pain bchn.vior. If this is right then pain logi call~' depends on
pain be-havior but it is not logically requ ired for every· instance of pain to
be mtmifcstcd in behavior, which would be tbc C:: -O.Se if Lhc:: two .:uc rcltucd
b>• logic.11nc~cssit) . Simps01.1 then c laims lhnt :.1 moral considcrntion of a
certain kind logica ll~· depends on moral moti\-'ation: the [WO arc not
eomi.ngeotly rda.ted no r arc they rc:::l3tcd by logical ne<:cssitr. If this is
righl then internalism is false because it requires the two to be related by
logic.1l necessity, and e~tcmal i s m is false because h claims the 1\YO arc
only contingently related.
Simpson defends the claim that moml beliefs arc logically
dcpc-ndcnl on motin$ by giving :l psycho·scmantic account of m0r:1l
dispositions. He obscn ·es thnl many aOC.ctivc slates have ;a cognitive
content \\ itlt a dispositional propcn) . For example. fear <:ontnins in it the
belief in impending d:mser " hic.h disposes 1he agen1 10 ~c 1 so as 10 :hoid
tltc dangct. 'l11c relaoonship between the belief (in im~nding danger) and
the moti\•ouion to act (to a\'Oid d:lngcr) is one of logical deiJendency: one
can somctimcs recogniJ..c the situation as dangerous without being
moti\'o.tcd to :1ct to a,·oid the danger. but it is not possible to rcoognil.c
danger without C\'Cr being so moti\'atcd. WithoUl the (danger-.a\'oiding)
disposition. or in the tot;al absence of the motivation (to ~1.\'oid dangcr).lhc
ngcnt indeed c;mnot be s;~id to understand the conc.c pt that C.\prcsscs the
belief in question (1l1c concept of danger in the example here). The same
thing is true about moral emotions and the beliefs cont.'lincd in them.
Simpson ·s example is pity which et.lntains the belief dw.l $0ntC<.lnc is
suffering :1nd that it is :1 bad thing. T his belief in turn logically depends on
the 11gcnt being moth·:ucd to act to relie\'e the suffering: to htJ\'C such
belief the agent must be (logic..11ly) sometimes motiv:ucd to act to reliC\'C
tlte suffer ing. Without sometimes being so motivated, the agent cannot be
said to understand the meaning of the concept of sufl~c rin g. hence e:mnot
believe that anyone is suffering. 1111d insofnr ns such belief is p~rt of the
emotion of pit)'. cannoc be said to be cop.:1.blc of feeling pity. Like'' iS¢.
one C·:tnnot properly lcm11 the mc.:ming of danger without cxpcriendng
fCar, as the "fearless l'geot docs .not uodcrstnnd why one should be
concerned abom danger.- (Ibid.: 207)
 Artlr1ium Nr'Y<'"

Ho,,c,·cr, since the relationship between n uonnathc reason and

its moti\:Uing counterpart is one oflogic:il dependency r:uhcr than logtcal
necessity. it is possible that on occnsions. a person who sees :1 normative
rcJson is not mothatcd. Whnt happens on those occasions is thut a ccrlt'lin
"defc.ating condition obtains:· (Ibid.: 20-*), the sor1 of thing that motinltcs
cxtcm:llists to cbim that the rcl:uionship is only continscnt. In the-cosc of
pily, the :l!;Ct1l ma) have been owr·c .~ poscd 10 sulfc1·ing and may h;:l\'c.
become i1\s.cnsiti\e . In 1hc case of danger, an agent may succeed in
training himself or herself ro overcome fear (as Simpson bclic,cs the
ancient Stoics tried to do). Ho\\C.\'Cr. w1likc extcmali5t'l, S impson insists
that the relation of logical dependency presumes that a motivation is
psycho·scmantically induced by a mor:tl judgment rather than just
comingcnd)' occurs with the latter. Like the intcrnnlislS. Simpson rakes
the moti, ation tO be "necessarily present" with a norm:UiH! bl!lief. but
unlike them. Simpson ncccpts that it is pOS.."iiblc for "a defct~ting condition
[to') obtnin(s). innhich c~sc d1c presumption lofn motin1tion) is fnlsilicd
in that instance but not gcnc-mlly." (lbid.:204)
What is interesting 3bout Sitnpson 's aeeowtt is the idc3 tluu a
moral judgment has an anCcti\'e comcnt, and a moral affection has a
cognith·c content Logic31 dependency arises from the psyd'lO·scmantit
intcrpl3y between the cogniti\'C 3nd the affccti\'C in j udgments ond
emotions. This fits in pclfcctly well with the Mcnci:u1 notion of xiu.
typically transi:Ucd as "'heart-m ind." As if' well known, and as SITC$Cd by
Wong in his account of IA;7, Mcncius docs not sec n sharp dist.i.nction
betwocn the cogniti\'C and the affccti\'C, The mind in xin hos an nffccti\'C
content. and its heart depends on cognition. Indeed, il is ft) t this reason
tl1aL in nuributiug intenuJis m to lo.'lcncius. man~· comme.nt3tors do not sec
the mcta·cthic:'ll )Jroblcm that Miclloel Smith u ies 10 O\'crcomc in his T/rt•
1Hr>rall'roblt'm. (Smith 1995) According to Smi1l1. common sense tells us
tb:tt (1) the j udgment -It is right that I 0" expresses :t belief about an
objccth·c matter of fact about what is right for me to do. (2) if' I jud~c that
"h is right th3t I 0.. then. celcris paribus. I am motiYtUcd to 0. :md (3) I :.1m
moti\'i.llc:d to 0 just in co.sc I hO!YC ;m otppropriatc desire (nnd a me;~.ns ·cnd
belief for the auainmcnl or 0). (Ibid.: 12). These thrc:c propositions arc
"placitudt-s" !Mt ore diO'icult 1o deny. The problem is that the three :uc
mutuully inconsistent (2) says tltat :some beliefs arc ncccssaril)' conm.."Ctcd
with moti\'ation :111d (3) says that whm motivates is il desire. Yet
following Hun1e. beliefs ond desires ore distinct entities and so the-re
c:tnnot be .m~ noccss:u1· connection between them. T he moral problem is
how to reconcile these three propositions. Smitl1's solution to the problem
lies in the aoccptanec of the following principle: .. Our 0-ing in
circumslnnces C is right if tUld only if we would desire th::~t \\C 0 in C. if
\ \C were fully rntional. \\here 0-ing in C is ~n 01tt of Lhc appropri:ue
subst.1ntial kind.'' (Ibid.: 184). Thus. what we lx:lic\'c is the right thing to
do. we will hu\c the desi.rc. or wi.ll be motin,lcd, to d<l if \\C nrc fu l~·
ra1ionaL Ha' ing dtc belief without being moti\•atcd means one is not
"filily rational,"
In tcmlS of IA:7. if Smith is right then either the king docs not
stc that it is right to lo'c nnd protect his people or the king is not full)
r:uion31. The Iauer possibility seems consistent with Nivision·s earlier
rc:ading of lA: ?. according to which Mc:ncius' strnlcgy is to point out to
the king a l"olilurc. of ratit)nality, namely the failure. to sec that there is no
rclcv:mt difTcrencc between the ox and his people. HO\VC\'cr. ns we h•wc
seen, rending the king 's problem ns one of fo.ilurc of rationality (of
\\hatevcr kind) ha.~ many diOicuhics. The altcrn:uh'c is ttl re-ad Mcncius'
strategy as gcuing the ld ng to sec th:H lo\'ing nnd protecting his people is
the right thing to do. The motivation will come by nceessit)'. gi,·e n tluat he
is fu1ly rational. Unfortunately. this nhc-math'C is nlso troublesome. As we
have seen, there is textu:tl C\ idl!nce to show lh31 the king knows well
enough th:n his people are not happy :1nd knows nell enough thattnking_
core of the J>eoplc- is the riglll thing to do. that it is part of the mi:tndatc of
Hc:n en. Wh:n encoume,cs commentalors such :'IS Wonc to attribute
iutcrnnlism to McnciltS. in ,·jew of these difficulties. is the fact thnt
i\·fencius docs not sec n distinclion between reason and emotion. between
mind and hcan, wedded as he is 10 the notion of xm, which is both hcnn
and mind. Indeed. with xin. rc.:~son and emotion. or beliefs and de-sires.
arc not distinct existences. and so there is no reason why " It is right th3t I
0" c-:1nnot moti\':'Ue, so Ions as it is a product of the hc:art·mind, With xhl,
there is no .. moral problem·· of the sort Smith tries to rcsol ,.c.
This is not to sa~· that. with xin. \\C C·an unproblcmalicully
muibute intcrn:tlism h.) Mcncius. ll1ctc is still IA:7 to explain. We h:t\C
seen that Wong's expl:tnntion bas many difficulties. Rctutniug to
SimiJSon·s <'Iecount. anot11er nuracti\'c feature is tJ1c llSycho·scmantie
process tJ1at underlies tJtc logical dependency betwee-n a moral j udgment
~d moti,·ation. The trouble with intemalism is that it sees t11c link
bctwei:n moral judgments and motivation as a matter of Jocic:d entailment.
hence 35 3 mallcr of logic. But as a critic. James Dreier. has put it.
··cnttliling isn't alw:ays ex.planing:· (Dreier 1996: 364) \V1uu we need is nn
·•anal) sis to help us to understand how a moral belief C·Ould moti\'atc
essentia ll ~·. r:nhcr than merely in conjunction with a complemenwry
desire.'' but, Dreier complains. ''(c) x~c tly what else is require-d is nom; too
clciU'... .. (Ibid.) With his pS)·cho·scmamic :u:count, SirnJ>SOil can explain
how ..n moral belief could motiv:ue" : it could motiv:'ltc because be-ing
moth·ntcd is pan of tho process of acquirinJ;: the belief. Tills fits in \\Cll
with the Mcncian idc:J of sclf-cultiv;uion. As mentioned earlier. Mcncius
claims that moral judgments. of rt>11 and JY for instance~ originntc from
ccrroin innate tendencies. or instincts. or impulses. rcfencd nt 2A:6 as the
"four Sprouts.- or ·'four beginnings.- But these "sprouts.'' or
"beginnings." need to be nurtured. \Vc need to learn to associ~uc
appropri.tuc judgments to feel.ings rooted in the four ..sprouts.'' We need to
learn to dc\'elop xm.
88 A rtlr1ium Nt~y<'"

For nllthc reasons abo\'C. \\C can build on Simpson's accounl of

moral moth 'ation to gh·c n reading of I A:7thatavo ids the difficulties lhat
other rcndings focc. The first thing to notice is that between :1 ccrmin
cognition. or n t:crlnin nff~li\'t stining. nnd an ac;;tion in response to it
there is a whole chain of occurrences. C\'Cn 1hough the :'ICtion eon be
immediate (as in Mcncius· example of a m.nn ::~cting to S;J.\'C a child the
moment he obscr\'tS that it is about to fall into a well). Indeed. c:Ycn a
cognil ion c.nn be nnjX\cked i nto a chain of occurrences. As is well known,
there is o difT'crcncc.between -seeing.. and ~seeing AS'' or belwecn ..b.1S1C
seeing'' and ..~ognitivc seeing.·· It takc.s some cogniti\C ability to sec tho.t
the images depicted on th e tclc,·ision screen arc images of people ~JOins
wilhout food having no sheller and being mcdic31Jy neglected. h takes
somewhat more cogniti\'C input to sec that hunger. homclcssncss and
neglect arc being dcpicced, and C\Cn more 10 see tluu ahe people depic1ed
are su1Tering. Cognitive seeing just is the process of learning concepK As
concepts &CI .. thickeJ.- more fcnmin& is f'C(Juircd. Conccpls like suiTeriH&
arc ''thicker· lhan concepts like h ongcr and homclcssncss. which in IUrn
arc thicker than conccplS of lnck of food and L1.c.k of shelter. One crut sec
that some l)COplc li\'c under ccrt.1in conditions without S'-"'Cing hunger or
homelcssness. and one can sec hunger and homclcssncss without seeing
s uffering. Mornl cognition is C\'Cn thicker. Thus. it 1nkcs much more 10 go
from seeing suffering 10 socing that one ought to help Lhc JX."Oplc suffering.
or to rclicH: suffering, In most cases, 1hc "more" just is 1hc
psycho-scm.;mtic process th~t Simpson speaks o f. 'Th.i s process. a.s we
h:wc seen. \\ ill lend to thkk notions that cntnil motiv:uions. \\here the
.. entniling" is not j ust 3 logic.ol proce;ss, but one that depends in turn on
tbc ps~c:ho ·S-emnnti c process of lc:uning. Finally. C\CU when there is a
motiV<1tion. mttn)' steps muy ha\ C to be tron·crscd before an action i$
undenaken. As Simpson has pointed out the fuct that someone has a
motive to commit murder is not sufficient proof that he or she is the
murderer.
Thus. many things happen bet,,·ccn certain basic seein g.s. or
ccrt.lin emotional stirrings. nnd nppropri.11c actions. The relationship of
logicaJ dcpcndcnc~· holds bCh \CC11 many pairs of occurrenc-es in this long
chain, Since n "defeat ing condition·· may exist between n pair of
occum:nces related by Josical dependency, i1 is possible fo r the
motin'llion to take il momlly justiliable ae.tion not to exist (and indeed. for
the action not to be pcrfonned even when dtcre is a moth ·mion to do so ••
greed may moth·ato someone to murder his or her rich uncle but
cowardice oficn defc;~ts the :~cl ion). It follows that to motivate someone to
take an appropri:uc action, we ha,·c to do more than convincing him or
h er of a nonnnti\·c reason for ac.ti.ug. \Vc ha,·e to undcrstru1d whnt
conditions might d~:fcat the moti\nting j ud ~m en t. or the moth tHing
affective st~tc . th~ t we m ~y presume co follow n norm.1liYe reason by
\'irtuc o f the relnlionsh.ip o f logkn1 dcpcndeocy nod $0tnchow neutr::tli~e
them. We c:tn now sec that this is what underlies {'"fcucius' strategy in
IA;7,

KING XUAN'S EDUCATION

The key to Simpson ·s account of moral motiv:uion is the

p$ycho scmantic cxplaMtiotl of moral j udgments and feelings. TI1is
4

explanation, in tum. assumes that :1 j udgment (e.g. of danger. or surfcring)

has an nJlCcti,·c content (c.s. fear, or compassion), and eon\'crscly. This
assumption is taken to the c;-.:trcme in the Mcncia.n c.oncept of .\'ht, \\ hich.
as we haYc sctn. is b01h cognitive and affective. mind and heart. 1'his is
what mnkcs Simpson's oe<:ount pat1ieularly appropriate for rc:tding IA:7.
lndced. "e c;tn argue thnt Mcncius operates \\ itl1 something YCI)' much
like it in mind gh·cn his emphasis on defea ting conditions in par3sraph 8:
..... the superior m:tn .. . hj,\·ing seen (3nimal~>) :.li\'C, . .. C:lnnot beat tO sec
them d ie : hu,ins heard their dyin&cries.... cunnot bear to cat their ncsh.
Thc1-efore he keeps 01way from his sl:rughtcrhou5:c and cook-room ... In this
p3ssage. Mcneius t..'lkes it that the scc:ins and hearing animals suffering
will, Ci\'en xln. make a person feel compassion for them and rcluc.t:mt to
cat meat, but since •'the gentleman" has to cat meat ( prtsumabty
\'Cgctarianism was not rut option tOr Mcncius). he has to block his own
compassion br keeping out of slaughterhouses and cook-rooms. The
nature of the heart-mind, :rin. is mystc:riou10 unless we t:'l.kc it that the
gentleman bas learned to recognize the cries of animals bci.ns slaughtered
r.s suiT'c;ring. to rclau; sutTcring to his own feeling of pity. and to i dcnl i f~
in the feeling of pity the tend~nc.y to net to nile\ imc the suiTI!ring. C!c:uly
tltcn. something like a relationship of logical dependency. which is btl.sed
on ., psycho·semuntic JHOCCSS. is nssumc<l by Mcncius to st;,nd bct\\CCn
the gentleman's hearing the cries of anim:.ls and the recognition or
suffering. between seeing suffering and feeling comp.:usio11. and between
fee ling compassion and acting to a liC\'iate the suffering. Clearly also.
t\·l cncius b<:licvcs th3t the relationship of dependency of the judgment of
l'tm for animotls ;md the ftc ling of pity for them is dcfc:u;iblc.
tf I nm right then. gi,,cn Simpson ·s account of moml moliv:uion.
or r.uher my \'Crs.ion of it, we can rend Mcncius, in I A:7. !ks simply trying
to explain to the king the defeating condition that prC\""t'RlS him from
acting 10 rclic.\'C his JlCOplc.'s sunCring. From the episode of the ox, it is
clear that 1he tins undcrs1ands the meaning of suO'cring. H:wing
identified "hat he S:l\\ in the ox as suffcrittg. there being no defeating
condition. lie felt compn.ssion for the ox. and again there being no
defeating condition. he was moYed to s:t\"C the ox and took action. We
know ll1..1t he identified whot he saw as suffering and whJt he felt BS
compassion because he <'Xplicit1y compared whnt he sn" nnd felt "ith
whac he would fee l if he h:1d seen an innocent man being led to the plate
of deuth. One pu7.7,lc that. this rcuding soh·c;s is why he ordered a sheep to
be sacrificed in the place of the ox. Oid he not think the sl1ccp would
<)(} Artlr1ium Nt~y<'"

SltlTcr just as much. or did he ha,·c no compassion for it? On Nh,ision's

reading. Mcncius tries to get the king to be consistent between the ox and
rus ))<X')plc, bUI th~t ICtl\'CS the kjng inc.onsis-tcnt between the ox and the
sheep. But \\C ~an now soy that between the recognition of the sheep's
fate and the cotnpassion for il. there stru1d some defeating conditions. One
of them is the fac l that the s.acrifici.nl cere-mony t:ould not be :abandoned:
" 1he kmg said, How can (the. consccnuion of ahe bell with blood] be.
omitlcd? Change it for a sheep.. (paragraph 4). Another explicitly
identified by Mcncius for the '-ing is the fac t that the king ..Sth\ L11c ox
and had not seen the sheep'' (par3gmph 8).
On my reading. the ldng's problem is. lbr Mcncius. that he docs
not know what defeating condition stands between his re<:ognition of the
suiT'eri11g of his people and the motivation to take appropriate actions to
allevime it He l.;nows- whnt s-uffering mean$ :md by 1hc rehllionship of
logic.ol dependency. he expec-ts to feel c:omp :~.s.sion tmd to be doing
somet.hin& about his people ·s surrcring. Since he docs not feel ahe.
comJ)assion. he has doubt about his hean-mind. asl:ins rvtc-ncius " hcther
he bas what it takes (0 be benevolent to his people. ~·lencius assures hint
tbal there is nothing wrong \\ ith his ltearHnind. citing lhe incident of the
o~ . Also~ gh•en th:u eomp3ssion psych<Hemamieally depends on action.
the king fears that his inaction might indicate his inability to feel
compassion. On lhis. Mcncius assures tl1e king that his inaction is merely
n case of " not doing a thing" rnther th:m " nol being able to do it:' The
effect on the ki.ng is immediate: once the king uodcrsw.ods what d efeat~
his feeling of compnssion. on "hich his undersumding of the sum:ring of
his people psycho-scmantittdl)' depends. he begins to f~el " 'h.tlt he- had
expected: "When you. Master. spoke those words, the mo\'cmeuts of
comJ'assion began 10 work in my mind- (JJDroll:tftlph 9).
Why w:~s the compassion not tltcre before the '"Master spoke
those words"'? Why docs the king's understanding of suffering not lend to
the feeling of con1p35sion. which in turn would h:ad to action? Til is is a
pu1..zlc for the ldng precisely because the Jdng implicitly undcrst:mds what
is cxpcclcd to follow from wh.11 he knows about his people. b~· tltc
relationship of logical dependency. The fact thcu Mcncius undcrslands the
king ·s pu :~.:z l emcnt indic3tes th.'lt f..·Jcncius h3s in mind something like the
relationship of logical dependency between the rccOb,'lliLion of :;utTering
and the feeling of compassion and between Lhe latter an Lhc aclion to
a l h~\ri nte suffering. For. if the relations hip were one of logical necessity 3S
intcrn:ilists insist L),cn the king 's lack of compassion and his inaction
\\Ould be an uucr mystery. and if the relationship \\Crt one of mere
contingency 3S 1he cxtcmalists insist then thero would be no reason for
tile l:iog to be pur.1,.led. The only thing that would mnkc sense of the
king"s puzzlement is to take the relationship to be one of logtcal
depe-ndency. which is defeasible. This l c:~ds n3tu:rally to reading what
Mcocius says to the l.:i.n s as poi.nti.ng out to the kint; n defeating condition.
11.1mely lite king·s l>reoccupation with lerritorial conqucsls (parngraplt$
 91

14·16). Mcncius' sumcg) then. is to identify for the king the defe-ating
condhion so that he cnn reconnect h is cognition of suffer ing with his
feelings and the npproprintc action. This of course will not be sufficient to
t,«::l the king to ::1ct: the dcfcnting condition has to be rcmo,·cd. The nc,xt
part of Mcncius· stratCS) is to sho\'' the king th:u the condition thought to
clefcal the king ·s action to help his people rc:~lly docs not do so at ull.
Mcncius then tries to con\ incc the king t1lill his dcl)irc to secure his
kingdom would in filet be met lf he we re to oct on his compassion for his
people (parngrophs 17-lg). lnstcnd of dcfe.:tting tJ\c nppropriatc action, on
''hich the king"s compassion and his cognitjon of suffering logic-ally
depend. his tcrri1ori.al desire calls for it Once the king has understood this.
3.11 that rcm:1ins for Mcncius to do is to spell out for the king w b~t h~s to
be done in order to enrich his pooplc (paragraphs 19-2-t}.
In h is response to lhar.t. Wong claims tht'l t lhJUa's rcadins of
1A:7 - dnes nothing LO moke sense of the pl:'tnt metaphor.. lhm Mcncius
cm plo~s to c;.;.plai_n the prOtcss or moral dc, clopmcl.lt. (Wonz 1991: 57)
Wong is ccrl3inly right in clainling thm Mcncius pl3ccs a great deal of
stress on moral dc,·elopment. 3nd that an~· cxplicntion of f\lcncius' theory
of mor:1l motiv3tion h:2s to gi\'c the idea of morol tlc\·clopmcnt :2 large
role in the theory. Howc\'cr, h is not cntirel~· clear how Wong's
'"distinction between the innate begUmings of compassion and a fully
dc\'clopcd compassion with the cogniti\'C dimension that enables rel i~1blc
helping helps to spell out 1hc sct..-d-:md-stalk metaphor." (lr how it
"illumi.n:uc(s) the woy thot the seed of comp0$Sion can c:ont;~i.n the
contours of ilS full dc\'clopmcnt. and yet need tultivation: · (lbid.) On my
reading. rvtcncius · ide:1 of n1orttl de\'clopmcnt c:m l>t:: cashed out cxplic itly
in terms of the psycho-scmruuic process of teaming n\oro.l concepts such
c:tS pain and suffering. of learning 10 recogni1.c moral fee lings such :'IS
compassion and pity, and of le:Jrning to conneet concepts with aOCets and
dispositions to act As pointed out .:tbovc. I sec this process as the
thic-kening, through cdue:uion. of cognition and aiTcc.tion. from the bare
seeing of ccnain images to seeing them as depicting. for example. hunger
nnd homeless. to seeing suffering. to seeing thou it is b.1d. to seeing th;lt
one ought to do something about it: and from eert:,in primiti\'C anCcthc
stirrings to, lbr exAmple. fee lings of symp:alhy, to feelings of comp.:tSsion
or bcnc,·olcnec. to desires 10 help. In the ~kuciun frmncwork tl1e main
ingredient that thickens COgnition. the mind, is liiC an'ecti\•c ltiO\'CnlCill.
the hC':trt. nnd the main ins,re.dicnt thatlhtct.::cns affection, the hc:'!rt, is dtc
eogn.ith·e, inpul the mind. Thus, "hat mainly thkkc11s the scc:ins of
hunger and homeless Lo the seeing of suffering is tl1c hcau-fclt tcndcnc}
to help the hungry and the homeless, and what mainly 1hickcns the
heart-felt tcndcn c;~· to help to the feeling of compassion is the cognition
tbat ltungcr and homeless ore bad for those who ha'e 10 endure them. The
ultimate aim of moral dc\'elopmcnt is the dc\'clopmcnl of the heart-mind.
xln, thot sees and feels in harr:nony.
 Artlr1ium Nr'Y<'"

If I am right what King Xuan has learnt from Mcncius is nol a

lesson in hO\\ to be logicnHy consistent ~s Nivison suQgcsts. nor in hO\\
to let tltc -moth·c force·· of the primiti,·c stirrings to do its work in
pmcticn] rc<1soning. as Wong tlaims. nor in bow to be imaginnth'c . ;tS
lham belilwcs. Wh:'tt the king has le.:)nU fmm Mcncius is th e u·ue nature
of the heart-mind. o.nd how :a dc,·clopcd hcan-mind 'M be out of bal::mc.:c
<:~nd foil to sec through t1.c: conditions lhul defeat t11c mo' cmcnt fro m o ne
.state of the hc;ut·mind to tltc next, on which the fom1cr
ps)·cho-scmantico.lly depends, or from the normati,•e rc!lson to wh.·u it
logically depends. the motivating condition, in the contemporary
language of moral moth·ation.

REFERENCES
Dreier. J:llllCS, l'.>'Xl, "Review of J71~ ;\luru/ PrtJblt:m,'· Mind.
\1:>1.105: 363-367.
ll1:'lm, Craig K., 199 1. .. D:n·id Wane on Emotions in Mcncius,..
Philosophy J:.i.·m and U'Cst. Vo1.41 : 45 ..53.
Liu. Xiushcng, 2002. ''Mcngzian lntcrnalism," in X. Liu and P.J.
lv3nhoc {cds ). Hs:ury$ lHJ the> J\lornl Plulosophy of Mcng1i, Indianapolis:
Ha<k<U. Pp.IO I-131.
Ni\•ison. DavidS .. 1?80. "Mcncius nnd Moti,·ation.'' .foumalt~{
the AmuiLYm Acndemy afReltgum. Vol,4 7; -117-431.
Ni, i.son. Da,;d. S .. 1996. Th~ Jt't~w of ~·m!fUcianism. C hic::~ go:
Open Court.
Shun. Kwong Loi, 19tJI, '"The Self in Confucian Ethics.- Jmmwf
ofChinese PhiliJsophy. \bi.IS: 25-35.
Sirnpson, E\'iln, 1999... Between hucru:Jiism ;,nd Externalism in
Ethics.- '/1Jf1 Phi/osoplnca/ Quom·r~v. Vo l .4~): 20 1·214.
Smith. Michael. 1995. 1Jre t\foral Problem. Oxford: Bl:sckwcll.
Wong. Oa\'id B.. l'J?I , "Is Tiu:rc 3 Distinction Between Rc.ason
and f..motion in McnciusT' Plulm;nphy Ht~SitJml IJ·b·r. Vol.4:3 1·43.
Wong. On\'id. B.. ··Response to Crn.ig Lh;un·s Discussion: ·
Philosophy Ea:ft tmtl West. \ bl.41 : 55-58. AI p.S7.
 ChaptcrV

Xunzi and the Essentialist Mode of

Thinking about Human Nature
Kim-ch<mg Chmrg

INTRODUCTION

In his essay "Philosophy of Human Nature.~ Antonio Cuil argues

th:.t the tcnn ·' bad.. in Xunzi"s statement thilt ··Human nature is bad•. is to
be t:lkcn in a conscqucntinl sense. This goes against a common tendency
to read Lhc Xunzi in whtn I refer to as the csscnLialist mode of thinking. Jn
this paper. I show how it is th:!t the consequential reading of " b.1d" and
other features ahat Professor Cua de-scribes offer a sif,'llificomt
understanding ofXunz.i's position as u non-cs:sc n ti~ l is l one.

TilE ESSENTIALIST MODE O .. TIIINKINC

Historically, Xunzi's statcmcm thnt ··Human nature is bad (r m

: l•i :dng cAZ. tt:l§)'" has been regarded as the opposite of Mcncius's
,;cw ah:tt "(Human) nature is good (.nng .\·hanf.£~).'' It is Mcncius's
1

considered position th;ll huma.n nnturc is inherent!)' sood. Thus. ghcn

Xunzi's opposition to 1\·t encius. it has seemed natural to take him to mean
tb::ll human narurc is inhe-rently b.ld. Howe,'Cr. it is wrong to think thnt if
Xunzi denies an inherent goodness. he must therefore be com milled to the
belief in an inherent badness. The mode in which Mcncius thinks of
muurc or xiug rl: rcn.mins deeply entrenched if one w.kcs th.i s 10 ~
Xunzi's considered view. In his criticism of Mcncius. howen:r. Xunzi
targets not onlr the idea that x;ng is good. He also ~mcmpts to undermine
" hut I shul.l refer to ns the." csscntiilli!>1" mode of thinking ;~.bout x;ux.
11 is imponant to spell O\Jt "hatlhis essentialist mode of thinkin&
is n.nd whnt Xum•J's position is in rckttion to it ln this rc g:~.rd , the 1c1m

1
Fu r the ~li.lh:mcnt b}' Xunzi. Sc.:'c John Knoblock. XwiSi: . l 1i-rmslation
ami Slmly of rh.: ComJ,fde Jf{lr/w· (Stanlbni: Stanford Uni\"(.'niity P~':Ss. I994).
\\.\lumc: 3 . 1~ 2 3. "Man ·~ Natu re •s E\''11 .. L• Oishcng. Xtm:l.llt hi .:w =r·M~
~ ('f:~ibci: Xucsbcn11 Slmjo. 1994). Xittg H Pi<m. The slntcmcnt j$ repeated
.:ie'tcn•l limes t hmu~hlllll Oook 2:1 F\•r lh~ st:1h.:mcnt of Mcnciu s ·~ position.
sec the p:IS:>.agc GA'6 m the bilingual cd•l•on \"If D .C. Lau. •Ht• ttthJ~· (Hong
Kon s : 'fh(: t:hilltsl· Utu\'l·r":tity Press. 1984 ). I shall folio'' Knobi(J(~k ·s
pa:;sagc numhcrings in the. rcli:rcncc.s to the .\ 'uuzi and Lau 's pllS:iagc-
m.unbcring.s in 1\:L'crcncc:l lOlhc .\ feucnu.
lJingtW pla)S a pivotal role. With reference to Mcncius·s usc of the term
fJing i.n rcspoosc lo :~ qucstioo about what be mcoos by m ;~ n 's xmg being
good. A.C. Grah>lm has given Ihe folio\\ in ~; deftnilion; ..The t(inx of X is
what makes it a genuine X, \\ hat C\CI)' X has and \\ithout '' hich would
not be an X ." 1 We mn~ bre:tk this dO\\n ns follO\\S. Ta.kc .1n entity c~Jlcd
''X"" (in this in.stttncc, - man·· ). l11cn: is some. essential ("'genuine- )
ch3ractcrislic of X 1ha1 ma~cs it what it is. This characteristic is
-css.cntial" in the sense lh:ll c01ch and C\'c rr member of dtc class ··X"
ncl.ics.sarily possesses it An cntil)' that lacks this characteristic is not "X".
According to Graham. in the J\fencm3· and the prc..Qin philosophicalce;'\IS
in gencr::tl. the tenu fJin;: refers to this essential c-haracteristic in the way
j ust defined. 3
Let us sec how this esscn1ialist mode of thinking nbout humnn
nature applies to Mencius by referring to p;u-t of Xun~ i · s :tntt.lysis of his
\'icw that human nature is ~ood . According tO Xun01.i. underlying this' ic"
is a tendency to think of human nature as an original unadorned state "ith
a bcnefiein.l resource. in the way th::n eyesight belongs to the eyes (Xun;i
23. I d). ·n te eyes and eyesight arc inseparably linked such that "ithoutthc
forme r, there would not be the Iauer. In other words. the eyes arc essential
to the ZJ.bility to sec. Sim.iln.rly, for Mcncius. the resource of goodr:lcss is
inseparably linked to each and e\Cf)' person at birth. The I>OSScssion of
this resource is inscplr3ble fro m and thl!refore essen1ial to" luu a man is,
l11i$ is indeed tl.1 c \\11}' Mcncius thamctc:ri~c:s rcu A or " man-.
An~r the example of the child obout to foil in1o a \\ell (Mcncius 2A:6) he
cnumennc:s c.:ach of the fo ur sprouts of the he.ll't·mind (compassion.
sbamc. courtc:S) a.nd modesty. right and wrong) and says that whoever is
dC:\'(1id of :my of them is not a mnn UCi ron yc ·11~)... t!!). Thus, for Mc:ncius,
tlu: possession of ench of the follr sprouls is I he distinguishing fea ture of
each man qua man. As he soys in 46:19, "Slight is ll1c differcnte belwecn
man and dH~ brutes. The common man loses this d.istinguisbinS feature.
'' hilc Lhc gcntlc m <~n rcuins iL- We need not go into the sense in which
some people arc said to "lose" this distinguishing fca1urc, and c-en3inly
there is n philosophical difficulty here for Mcncius. But consistent with

: /\. C. Gra.h:un. '·'01e Backc;round uf Lhc )..kncinn Th(."\11}' of I Iuman

Nalurc." in SllldH:J' fn C/dnr:u Plnlo:wp!~)' {.t: PltJ/QJO/l hitxll Lfla(:furt
(Singapore: The hlslilulc of EO\st Asi:m Phikn;nphies. 19&i). p.33 I h:we
:o.·ubs1jtut00 tJing ftl l' ch 'iug.
·' Gf!th:un. " Tik' Uu<:ktz.rotmJ... ... Ibid. pp.59·66, " APP''lldtx : The
Mcotoins of <:h'ing." ln 311 cxuroinution o r the \' Ur iu u;o; USC$ Qf qing in tlu:
Pn:-Qin 1~1::1. ""l.ln~· l'.ti Shun says - 1 mn indincd w agr\.-..: with A.C
Gmh:,m's inh:qm.."'3110n of ch 'mg m tcnns of what a thing is genuinely hkc "
llowc\'('r. he cautions :isainst limbam's trunsl:ttJou ( l f llu~ term us ...essence"
bccnusc of iL'i Aristl)ldum o.ssocinticm.'>. Sa: Shun, .\I..•Jtcius (tlld J::a,.Jy
('Ju,est- Tltougltt (Stauft.tl'd Uuin,,·sity Pre:is. 1997). pp. 184-185.
 Xrm:1 ot11f11mtm N~tltlf\' Y5

Lhis way of rcg.11ding the distinguishing feature of man. Mcncius \\Ould

s.1y of someone who fails to c:>iprcss nny sign or the sprouls of goodness
thnt he is not a ren or man.
We lut\'C described what I h;l\c referred to ns the csscnti<1list
mode or thinking obout human n:uure and how rvlcnciu:fs \'iew of hurnan
nature bclonss to this mode. The question to be considered is: Docs
Xun~i think of humon natUI'C in this mode'! F.lsc\\ here, J ha\'C argued th:at
Xunzi's view of xmg amounts to the second of the (our positions
mentioned b~ Mcnc ius ~s disciple Gongduzi. that it Jw the cnp3city to
become good or to become bad (ke yi 11 e; slum iif tj. .l;) W. ke J'l wei bu
shnnfiJ l;.l!~..f' 1!i). A.C. Grahtun has 3S.Soci:~tcd this position with n
4

prc·,.,·l coci:'ln figure n3mcd Shih Shih who is s.1id to have thought that
"there is both good and bnd in m.:m's nature. I[ we pick ou1 wb.:n is good
in man's nature ttnd by nou1ishing dc\'clop it. l11c good grons: if "c
nourish and develop the bad in our n:uurc the bad grows... According to
Graham. this is "clearly a justification" of the second position mentioned
by Gongdu1.i.:. I( this means that botJ1 goodness nud bndncss arc inherent
in the nruurc of each :md C\'CI)' person IJIIfl man. then this amounLS 10 lhc
csscnti3list mode of thinking about human n011ure.

ANTONIO CUAAND TIIREE FEATU RES OFTIIEXUNZ/

Ignoring the question of whether it would be coherent to talk of a

person ·s nature being both lnhei'C'nl~v good and bad at the same time, 1
think that h would be a mistake to attribute this mode of thinking to
Xunzi. ln wlmt follm\s. r shall rtrer 10 some fcmurc.s ofXUJui's position
on human n:uurc th:-tt would not fit the csscn1ialist mode. 1'hcsc fc:nurcs
ba,·c been clearly described b)-· Anton.io Cua in his CS&:l)'. "Philosophy of
Human Naturc." 6 (n the bcsinning of this essay. Cua 5a)'S that the
concep1 of hum:tn nature is n " Ouid" notion. lie is not me-rely reminding
us of the C\'idcnt f::.ct lh:lt there arc \'ntious .:.ceounts of hum~ niUure.

1
In tl1c ch~(llcr "'S&Il!::tling Xunz.1"' m my hool:, E(lr/y r fmjitr.unt t,'il:lc.t
(t'hic~tgo: OJ'Cn Coun. forthcoming). Sec aiSll my PllP'-"'1' (i.u Chu1csc). "Xunz•
und tJtc Four Vicwl' on Jfuman N:.tun:."' XCCU f>ltilosophical JmmKJI I I
(lXccmbc:r 2003) ISS-210. Th~.: four positton:; rncntion...'\1 by Gongduzi in
;\ f~lll"lliS GA ;(~ arc th:n ( I ) xing 1$ neither ~ood nor noi·BOOd. (2} ,;ing ha:> the
CapJCit~· h) lX'\:OJilC gooJ 01' h'l bC..:OmC bnd. (J) dlO::fC arc ;r;ug lh:'U :l((: S()l)(J,
t'\tld tlux-c ru\1 xing tluJt are bad . and (4} xiug is good. l'OS1b0n (2) h:as to be:
ch:orlr d i st in J;ui~h ...-d frmn (3). ·n1c IaUer· sbtc:> d.l<lt some people W"C by
n,11urc g.._•<Jd. und $01llC by mmu1.: b~•d Tht: f'..•nn~:t .st~tcs th~tl pt:opl&: h:I\'C the
c:lp~City to become good, ~nd 1 ~ e.apacuy to lxx.-omc bad
!- Grol11tm. "Tltc:: Uatkgr·ound ... " Ibid. p.21.
6
Antonio S. Cua. "Phllosqphy of Humun No.turc,'' m !lrmwn Natttn:,
Rlluol. am/ llt.Mory -· Studtt-S lu Xrm:r (md ('ltir~eM: PhllosQphy ( W~•shin gt\'ltl .
D.C: The Cotholic Unl\'.:r:>.ity of Amcnca Press. 2005). pr..'·33.
96

Instead. he ho1ds tJuu an~· particular account of humw1 nature rcOcc1s a

ccrU'Iin moral ,·ision. idcnl or nonn. This is demonstrated in his analysis of
Xunzi's thesis that -human n;uure is bad." What Xunzi means, according
to Cuu. js that 1hcrc is n moth·a tiona] stnltlUll: of desires and feelings that
would tend 10w:ud strife ond disorder if len unrestrained. This is a
••quas i ~mp i rical .. claim.
and it is , ·nlid:ucd by the implied mornl point of
view that strife and disorder arc unrlesir.:1blc. In other words. i1 is ahc.
consequences oi such a situation that would be bad. For Xunzi. there is
nol11ins intrinsically b3d nbout desires and fcclinys. As Cu~ ~ys. ··To
eharactcrit.c man ·s nmurc as ' bad' is, in cfTcct. a sho-nband \\ ar of
asserting the nature of these conscqucm::cs.'"1
To those f:nuili;ar with d.iscussions on human oalurc ar:nong lhc
prc-Qin philosophe-rs. 1hc \\Ord .-:flu id.. might bring to mind the analog)
that Gaozi uS&o."S in his description of human nalurc. According 10 Gao'i.i
(Mc:m:iu.l· 6A:2). nature or xmg docs not distinguish between g.oodlbOO in
the "llY thDI \HUct docs not distinsuish bch,ccn cast/west. The.
i1nplic-ation is th:n n:~ture is mor:llly neutral :.md conceptions of n:uure as
good or bad ru'C imposed by indh•iduals or communities. Cu:t docs not
refer to Oaot.i here btu to a similar analogy or Xunzi 's l>Cl\\ccn 1he
acquisition or rhual principles and the molding or clay: "In a way, man's
ruuurc. tUldcrstood in 1cnns of his basic motivational structure. is not bad
in itscl(. but it is bad in the way he tCJJds to actualiz.c this basic nature. and
this from the moral point of view. Xunzi. throughout. is inshacnt on man
as a raw m::ucrial for moral tr.msfonnntion. Mom is. like a piece of cloy to
be molded inlo a proper shape. to be transformed b~• /i-mornlity." 8
lienee. according It) Cua, the.~ arc 1hc thtcc m:.in f~-ltur\::s or
Xunzi's account of human n:Hurc:: ( 1) His st:~tcment lhat ~Mo.n 's xmg is
bad .. refers to the consequences of indulging its motiv:uio-nal :muclurc of
desires and feelings~ (2) There is nothing inherently b:td about man·s xmg
•• it is utomlty neutral: and (3) Mnn 's 1·fng consists of a basic ..rnw
material" that CM be shaped or transformed. In liJC rest of lhis paper. I

' Ibid p ~.
8 E''Cn if Xuu7.i <kx.--s f~f~l' to 11 s.1utc of n<'lturc. tlus could. as Cua notes.
be 3 Lhuught cxpcrm1cnl nboul the (.'Oflscqucncc:~ of the absence of ritua.l
J:t"inciplcs ami other ~ia l nonn$ On p.2S of hi~ CS.')liY C.ua rdl.!rs to a
(XIssag.c in 23.3.-. \\here ''hal Xtmzi says ts "n.>tniniS\.-enr· or Hobbc$'s
~•ccou nl of the smte of ruu-ure: ..Now. let u.s try to unogutc a situatk"'O wb.."t'c
m:.·. do awa~· Wtth lhc :authority of lords <tnd superiors, do without the
trao.iftmning inOut."IJCC uf rituul and •uor.llily ... b1 :,;uch 3 l:'i luatioo 1hc :..1roog
\\OUitl inflict hanu on !he \\cttk and rob th~.,n ... thc pc.1·v.;rsit) und
r.:-boelhmBncss or the whole world would t)llickly ensure their mutual
destmction If we ('(lnSld(,. !he l.mplicatjous of tlt~c focu . 11 is plain that
hum:m nature is c\·il and thot any t:tood in humans is ncquircd by con~i ous
c.:~crtion... (K tX.lblli'Ck ·s ttmlt\lati()n)
 Xrm:1 ot11f11mtm N~tltlf\' Y7

shall do the following. FirsL I shall build upon the first ''' o features that
Cua describes throuQh a reading of relc\':mt passages in the Xun;1 , Second.
I shall discuss the third fconurc •• the so-culled .. mw material" of luttu.rc
nnd ils trnnsfom1ation. This would im·oh·e o distussion of the rclntion
between cJhrg and xlng in 1hc text and hO\\' tronsformation is possibl ~. IIIUS
lc:tding to a fu ller de-scription of Xunzi's non~s5cnt ia list position.
In the course or discus!;ill£ lhc three fc.:<~lurcs 111CIItioncd ilbo\·c.
certain questions will inevitably arise. For instance, if \\C argue th:u fOr
Xunzi nature is lxld only in a consequential sense, hO\\' do we account for
the f:tct that Xunf.i constantly talks about the 11ec.:d for transforming one ·s
nature ·~docs not the need for lr3nslbnnation assume that man's nature is
cssenti:tUy bad in the firs t place'! Funhcnnorc. what is this ..raw m:ttcrbl"
th:u man is said to possess. even if for the s..'lkc of argument it is granted
th:tt ic is not inherently bad in the first plx -c ·! Surely, this "raw material'"
must rcCer to Lhc contents t)f one ·s nature qua m:1n and thi!> would mean
thnt it is cssentio.ll)' possessed by man - hO\\ then <;an there be an~
reading of humrtn nature in a non-cs:seJ1tialist mode'! Titcse questions
iudicotc thtlt the css.cutiolist mode of thought is not etlsr to shnke oJJ' and
will rend 10 (fOJ> UJ> throughout the discussion. TilliS. discussing 1hc
fc:~turcs of Xunzfs position would :tt the same cime inYolvc unveiling
essentialist tlssumptions. The response to the questions posed will
ultimately hell' us to dcYclop " hat I think is a proper :'lc.count ofXunzi's
posicion and 10 undcrst:md how there can be a nQn..csscncialist conception
of human nature.

TilE M EANING Ot" "XIN(i 1.~ HMJ"

P:1ss3gc 23. la of the Xing E Pwn t-b~ i:l of the Xwm begins:

Tite xing of man is bad (e). His (c;~prcss i ons ol)

goodness is (the result oJ} tonslitutiYc :teti,·ily (wei f4).
The xing or man is such thut he is born with a liking of
benefit (Should this be allowed 10 be) indulged in (.~hun
shi AfiJ.i!). suifc will rui.sc and titu:tlistie deference ( t.'l
mng ii:Hi'l) wi ll be lost. (My '"'"'~Ilion)

II might ()!! held that suictly speaking. since the context of

discussion is xing and wh:tt m3tl is born with, Xunzi is not entitled to
speak or the J'Uics and bc-h a\ ior of ritu:llistic dcfctc nc.c being .. lost- if xmg
is indulged in. But this. assumes that in this passage he has in mind a st;uc
of nature where ritualistic rules arc non--existent For in such a state of
nature. rules of ritu:tl cannot be "losf' since Otcy arc non-existent.
Howcv\:r. Xunzi mentions t.hc loss of the niles of ritual as a c:onje<.:turc
about the consequences. -- what would h:~ppcn if people do not conduct
Lhemseh c-s on Lhe basis of ritua l and instead allow Lhclr naiUral
dispositions to h~wc free rcin'!Q
Titc aboYc pnssage c-ontinues:

(Man is) bom with ( the tendencies IO\\:.ll'd ft.!eli ngs or)
envy and hate. (Should this be allowed to be) indulged in,
violence and crime will utisc and loyally <1nd
trustwonhiness will be lost (Mnn is) born with the
desires (FU 'W-:) of the cars and the eyes. havinG a liking
for sounds and colors. (Should this be aiiO\\cd to be)
indulged in. dissoluteness and disorder will thus arise
"bile ritunl principles and culturnl fonn \\ill be lost
(1\i y uansl:uion)

Although tl1is i$ !timilosr to the initial sc.ction quoted <~bO\'c, it

adds the tendencies toward fi'~lings of envy and hate and the sensory
desires to the (fesill: for benefit :~.s wh:u man is born possessing. Again.
the sues.~ is on \\ ltat \\Ould happen should the desires and feelings be
given free rein ~~ there WOIIld be disorder and the lOSS ol' ritu:;d principles
and -cultuml fonn·· (wen li )C~If) that constitute the soci::.l order. Xunz.i
says next:

Tims (wantonly) following mosu ·s Kinx a nd indulging

man's qing will inevitably result in strife "hich amounts
ro uansgrcssion of soc ill divisions (ti:n ~}) and disorder.
uhim~ltcly ending up in (n sitll..~lion of) l~'fannic:~1l
Yiolcnce. (My tmnslation)

We shall be discussing in dCiail the rchn ion between th-e tcnns

xlng :md qmg loltcr. But note the scp:mttc mention of xlng and qing in this
section of tl1c pass3ge. n,is indicates that they arc not used
interchangeably here. Having men1ioncd the wanton follm' ing of xh1g.
there seems no reason for Xun:d to rcpc.nt himself by mentioning tlte
indulgence of tJfllg if it is interchangeable \\ ith xing. And Xwt7.i docs not
seem to be using qmg in 1hc sense of wh:lt is ''genuine" here citl1cr. It is
therefore prob:ablc that qmg rctCrs to the feelings or emotions (of e m ) '
and hntc) that Xunzi had mentioned carlicr. 10 Xun1..i is say in:; that if

9 Cua tmta..'ibtcs xltrg :s " n:tturc" and qlng a:~ ... t~"Ciiugs". &:<: Cuo.
"Phi loSC~pb)' of 1Jumon Natun:.•" p.7. KrNblock hns "iobnm .nature'· l(n xiug
and ~ nu lu r~ l i11cl in~lli un ~.. for t}urg in lht~ pas:,agc J folluw Cu:,·:; usc of
"ft.....:hngs" for 'Jiftg Bll1 both conflml that xl!lf.: :.nd qurg arc two scp;1rmc
items her.;.·,
10
On p. 31 of his cs:s11y Cu:1 notc:s thnt '·Xun:~_j thus may be rceordcd .:ts
I~Pl'sing a ,,,ucdy for the hum~m p1 t.~l icl:lmcnl bcs..·l by m..a.n·s b:t:,ic thlturc,-
He ;uJds the inu.:rcsting rcm3rk that ··xunzi could agree w1th Hume 'th::H if
 Xrm:1 ot11f11mtm N~tltlf\' Y9

people ;.ue allowed to gi\'e free rein to their scnso~ desires (xing) and
dispositional frc lings (tpng) this would result in the consequences
mentioned. The pass>Jgc 23. 1 :~. conclu-des:

Therefore then-: must be the rrnnsfonnation (lwa ft )

brought t~bout by tc::.dtctsJ1aws and the- way of rilual
principles before there can be deference. conlbnnicy to
cultural fomt and ultimately orderly so,·crnanc.e. fro1u
this pcrspccti\'C it is clear that man's xillf:! is bad and (the
expressions ol) goodness is (the rcsull oQ constitutive
aclil'ity (w et). {My t.r:mslntion)

Xunzi is careful to say th:n it is .. from this perspective. . th3t rmg

is b:~d . What is this pcrspcctivc't This must refer to wh:~.t he has rcpctttcdly
s tressed throughout the passng,e, namely. tl1<1t Otc indulgence of tJu: dcsir<:
fOr benefit the sensory desires and the disposition to feel en\'y and h-ate
will rcsuh in disorder :md the loss of cultural form and ritual prind plcs.
An impon.anl corolla.ry is t11at ll1e structures of cultural form and rituo.l
principles arc not inborn. Instead. they have been constituted to rein in 1he
desires ;md ICclings -- both to con.trol/rcgulatc and to trooslbrro tbcm so
as to ensure social order. At the same time. as Xunz.i says c)SC\\ here. the
human prcdtcament i ~ ~:uc h that resource-s are ~:can:-e . and
eomprchcnsi\"e:ly speaking there m<1y not be enough to s.:tlisfy the desires
of C\ el)•onc. TI1us. the social divis ions instituted b~· ritu:.l pri.ne-iplcs ore.
necessaJ)' to a llocate the rc-so\ue.cs :lccording to diffe-rent f.1milial and
social mnl.:inss and other criteria (Xun:i I0.1, 19. la). 11
l11c above connrms Cmfs ano.lysis -· Xun:d's statcmciH - nature
is b.1dwin 23.1a stresses the consequences of allowing the indulge nce of
man 's nature. "badness·' being rcgordcd from the ,·iewpoint of the morn I
idcalisti.; norm of social order.

MORAL NEUTRALITY OF XING

In passage 23.1b an analog)' is made with the process of

suaigbtening a piece of \\OOd. Xutl)'.i s:tys that ruan:s xing is bad and can
be "strnightenedw (jiao shiit6li) or made upright (ZI1t'Hg jE) through a
process involving tcochcrs/laws and ritu31principles. Following the tlbovc
anal,> sis of 23.Ja. we ntn) say that the same conscqucntiolscns.c of " bad-

mi-'11 were supphcd " ith e\'crything m the same ttbundam:l.', or if ("\'Cry one
bad the some :~O'C!.1io.o :~nd 1codcr rcgnrrl t'()r CYCIJOOC as for blm~lf; ju5tic:c
;.Inti in~usttcc would be CtJll<llly unknO\\Uamt>n,g nKul.. ind. ·-
1 Jn fii.7 lhcre IS <~IS() a r~t'l!f1.'JlCC to jura shior to ~orrect one's ,,;,,gxmg.
·1he qm~trius iJ otk'll JCfcrrcJ to M something Otnl p~o.·oplc mdutgc (: ons ~t
fur in~ ancc, 6.2) and that J)t'OI)II! nc..-ed to restrain (ro:u if.. fo r ins.1ancc. 6 3)
100 J..:mr-<:llf'Jng Chong

npplics here too. Tlmt is. xi11g needs to be ··straightened'" to PfC\'CJII soci:.tl
disorder and it is from this perspcc.thc that xiug is txtd. n
But we should consider an ahcmativc reading. There is a c:tsc for
saying that if x;n~ nccds to be ·•str.aightcncd·· it must be inhcrcntl)
undcsimblc. Gi,·en th at Xu n ~i repeatedly mentions the need for xtng to be
trttnsfonn cd. isn't this a pc:5simis(i<; view of :rmg :and docs not this imply
that it is inherently bad after all'! At the end o f 23.1b. Xun:r-i distiu:;uishcs
bctw\!Cn du~ gentleman (J'tmzi ;H -f) and the petty person (~imm:n .1j' }...).
The assumption is thnt both sh are the same Xing or fJingx;ng ~IT tt.
However, the fo nncr ha s uJ:~dcrsonc lhc. tr:m.5fort'(l:l.lion brought about by
tcacl1crsll::tws and the tlccumuhuion of cultural form und ritual principles.
The l:mer has wantonly c~prcSk"'<< his qfngxlng. ac ti n~: indiscriminately
:md ' iolaling ritll41 principles. Xunzi ogllin concludes: " From this
pcrsp..:-ctivc. it is clc.ur tlmt man's Niug is bad, and his (expressions of)
goodness is the resuh of constitutive ~ct hity."'
Suppose we 1ake this last suucmcnt to mean thot xing is
inherently bad. This \\OUid menn dJtH the gcmlcman has. somehow.
managed to break S\\ ay from this xmg. But there is a difficulty here; hc:m
is it possible to do so. given the assumption of inherent lmdncss'! Xunzi
s hows he is om arc of the problem when he postulates the o~iect i on in
23.2n that " If m:m ·s ."<in g is bnd 1hen hO\\' are tiru11l principles
est:.blishcd'! '' ·rhis question o.u umes th:n xirrg is inhcrcntlr bOO sucb tho.t
it would be impossible for ritual principles to be c.stablisllcd, It also
presupposes tho.t ritu.,l principles can be established only because man
posscssc.s oo inborn goodness in the first place. We bLh"C seen hO\\' Xun1.i
qucs1ions Lhi.s presupposition in 2J.l d by relating 1hc ··so-called goodness
of xlng (suo 11'('1 xing shan :he 1Ji~7H~~~tl')'' ton tendency to think of it
as on orsnnic re-source inscp:mablc from birth just as cycsi&fu is
inSCJ>:trablc from the eyes. l11is comparison lhrows doubt on 1he existence
of suc:h ;m organic: resource and Xum·j dismis5Cs the idea by s:.yins that
the-moment t.mc is born. one \\ Uuld ha\ c 1110\'cd aw:lr from any supposed
unadorned stale in which such a resource is said to abide. The assumption
of an inherent OOdnc.ss tlnd the. o.llcgcd impossibility of cst.:lblishing rilu:ll
principles arc comucrcd by an analogy between a sage's estabJishing
ritual principles and 3 palter's molding a clay \'CSSCV in 23.23 and 23.4a.
We would not assume that the \"'CSsclidish is part of the potter's xing.
Sim ilarly. we should not assume that rilual principles jnhcrc in the stlgc's
:ting. In other words, lh.erc is a ~mcturc 10 rilutd principles th:u ctmnot
(logicoll>' speaking) be s~id to belong to ma.n·s ~.-mg. If goodness is
somclhint that is con sti!Uii\ cly structured, then people must howe the.
capacities th<'lt would :.llow lOr this (and i1 does not follow either that
these must be inborn moral capacities).

t: Sec my full discussion of this in <·Xunzi'lS Spilcmatie Critique of

t\fcueius: · 1'/,·tu.wpl~·,; l!ft.st tuu.J ll~·t S3:2 (2003). 215-2:13. :Hid in Early
Gll{fitCIOJt l:.lhiCJ.
 Xtm:i rm //unum Kn111 ~ l ot

\Vc therefore team that for Xu.n.d. xi nf{ is neither inltercntl~· good
nor bad. For him. xmg is :a biological concept consisting of ccrtJin desires
~nd foclings. HoweYer. for the same re-ason chrn there is nothing
inherently ( morally) good nbout these desires and feelings. there is alro
notlting inhcremly (motall)) bad about them either. Xunzi argues that (the
goodness of) ritu:al principle has a ccrbin comstilutiYc struclurc that needs
to be worked U1)0J1, <md it "ould be falludou~ to assume that :;uch a
stnactur~ is inbom. As he S:l) s later in the Xmg E P;rm (Xrmzl 23..5b),
c\'cryonc has the cnpacity co become a sage, ahJtough JOt \llrious reasons.
not C\cryonc trMsl:ncs Lhis into the ability to do so., ' If goodness is 3
constitudvc stmcturc. then badness must be the undcsiwblc consequences
of failing to csmblishlmaint:lin such 3 smtcturc.

XING, QING AND THE POSSIBILITY OF TRANSFORMATION

\Ve hu,·c so far confirmed the firSI h\O fc<lttucs ofXunt.i's 'ie''
on humnn nmurc that Cu3 h:tS ml!ntioncd: ( I) "Man·s l 'lng is b:Jd" refers
ro the cotLscqucnccs of indulging its motir~uional structure of de-sires and
feelings. (2) There is nothing inhcrcntb bad about man's xinx -- it is
morally ncutrnl. We shall now proc~d to discuss the third feature: (3)
Man's xinK consists of 3 basic -raw material.. that can be sh3p.cd or
transformed. The foli O\\ ing questions ha,·c to be ans\\ creel. \Vhot is this
'"raw material?" Jn oth<.:r words. what :.rc: the contents of:rmg, nnd in wh:u
sense can they be sttid to be transformed'! Here. there is a tendency to
think that if tl1c contents of xiug are e~·J't'lllitJ/to man. there must be a
()rima facie incoherence 10 the-idea oftrans.forming m:~.n ·s n:nurc. In otdcr
to nn.swcr these questions "'c sho.ll ha,·c to clarify the terms qmg, xmg and
the rclmion bet" ccn them.
Xunzi onen uses qmg in st~ad of xlng when talking or the nature
of man. There is a lso the binomial qin_ping. In the :.bo,·o discussion of
23. 1a. I maintained that xi11g and qillg arc not used intcrch.::mgc-abl) \\ lu.·n
Xun:zi s:~ys: " 'rhus (w;~ntonly) following man ·s xmg 3nd indulging man's
qiug will inc \'iWbly result in strife ... "' Following the mention of the desire
for bcnefil nnd the sensory desires on the one hand. and the disposition 10

u In '1.9 Xunzi ~ays: .. ,\II Jnt,.'U pos~-:~s fSt.•m¢1hin!! in commi.llil \\hen

huugr:·. th ~-y d~.-'Sl rc food: when cold. they <ks irc to he Wi tml ; \\hen ~s luu•~tcd
fi·om 1011, they desire to l'l.'Sl. and thcr ~· II Jcsu·e l~nct'1t tl1X! hate hllrm Such
is I \\h~•t man is borut posscs...'iiiug. 'l ite)' do not ha\'C to .-.wuit d<..·\'clopmcnt
~fore they l>~.."C(,)lOC so. It is the :;amc in tht: cre:;c oru Yu and i.n lhat of 3 Ji\!.''
lh.tu~h the tcnn h~ noc m cnti on~o.'\1 we knV'' that Xuru:i is n:f..:tTing ,..._, xmg
because he :;;1ys thm all persons ha\""C something Ill ~ommo n .. 'he sensor)·
tlOd app<1ttl\'C dci"ircs. und the <le:iit\'. fol' bcntfat :ul\1 U\\."!'!JOn t(l bonn. I ic
add:; thai lhc:9C ru-e whot they arc born po:\sc.ssltt!! instc:td or something lhat
t'lwaits d..:,..;lopmuu. '11li:; is the t \ ll)' Xunzi <.ll.:fin-.':) ;.:Jug elsewhere \\h~.o·n h..:
C(>ntrnst$ it \\ilh u-d o r what I ha\'e tr.msla.h.'\i as ··..:<,nSitluth·c ••cth·ity•·.
102 J..:mr-<:l lf'Jng Chong

feel en' y and bate on the other. I suggcs1cd that it is best to think of lJinx
in this passage as rcrcrring 10 the feelings/emotions. B.-..scd upOn this. the
binomi~ l qm,~'l.·ing can sometimes be regarded as n more inclush ·c
reference to '·cmoliOnill nnd sensory nnturc.- However. qingxing seems
a lso to be intcreh:mge:tble '' ith xt~rg. In the first sentence of 2J.Ie. for
in sbncc. afte r referring. to the conten ts ofxing ~ the de-sires (1,;11) fo r: food
(\\ hen hungry). Wilrllllh (when feel ing co ld). and rest (when fc:clin::; tired).
Xunzi says: ''l11csc arc man's qmgxmg.- But it docs not m~lllcr very
much \\ hcthct we Llkc xing ot qingxing as intcrchangcnblc or not so long
as \ \ C bear in mi11d tbat their contents include both the scnsc.wy desire-s and
certain dispositional feelings/emotions. r•
Howcn;r. unJi.ke Knoblocl.:. I wo uld hesitate to trnns late xing as
"essential mnurc·· or (JI)rgxing as "csscnLi:JI qualities inherent in his
nature". '~ These lrAnslasions 31'C line i f we remember all that Xunzi hos
11 In a J)\.-'fSOn:•l corrc:>JX111d.:r)(..~. Anh1nio <.:u:r h:t." not"-d lh:tl
Ku(lhltlCk's IJ'<tllslotion of qmg ns ·• cs~"'tlhal u:muc•· is "mtsl ~!ad in g"" . He
rcf(.T S lo 1.1 D ishcn~ p.46 (Knoblock 3.SJ. Cun would him.o;cU' tronslutc the
cxprc:5.'>1on found hen: rcn :hi qmg no l l"l$ ·'the c::;:scnliul nalun: t1t" humons''
hut ~•:; "thl.! w:·~· hum:m:; :\rc .. :tnd t(U~•I ifk,t by ··~·s we k11ow frvm ubs-..'1..,1i n~
hum.sn bcha,·ior" or "nonnal bch:.ln or" or for shon . " hum :ln ..:-cmdilion ,,.,,:In
cltau~ qiu:: A.Z.W;•fh". In J .S. we ha\'c - that tmc who hus j u:st wasltcd his
bOO)' will shal.:c ,)ut his robes and thai out who ha:c j ust waslh.il h is hair will
d o~t ofi his C}IJ) IS lx."'I::J USC o r !he ~S('tll i nl n:uurc (qmg) M hum:m!i .. f.t
Dishcng and .hnns ct.ol. rcg.1rd qiug h ere o~ rc11 :hi cho11g qiug or "the
common cbamctccistic (bctaa,·ior) <.,f man.·· (n J 10. \\'~ h;wc "l'hu:~ . the
~ en l lcn lan llt.ll-x.l 1101 k U\'C
his (l'\\ n lt\IUSC. yel lhc essential nature (qinJ.!) of <sll
lh:u is \\ ithiu the :;eas tS c~l ~blil>hed ami ~r ccu m ulated lht."fc " l.1 (l'iutslau:s
qill!! here .:.s qit1g :titlg fflll~ or ..the circum:>tnnoc:c'' and Jt3ng ct :~I. tr:mslotcs
it as shi qm g m·f:i \ll" ··ao·aitl>". ):or llll ("<tl'licr (IC.;IIrr;;:I\CC' M qlng in :u o.
JiiJ_ng ct al. has qing kutmg tf1-Hl or -situation". Sec l.i Dishcng, .Ymd .li.vhi
(Taihei. Xuc..-;llcnp. Shuju, 1994), p.41 note 3 and p 51, note 9. Jians Nanhua,
l.uo Shuqmg :md Yang H:mqing, cds , .\'rm:i QumrJ-'' 1'h-f 3!-~ ((jmzhou
Rcwnin Chub:mshc, 1995), p.40 nnd p.-13. Because Qf the JioUtcd purpose Qf
tlt b~ cSSOJy. I howe not di :~cus:;cd ulhcr <J.:ip¢cts (l f lhl.! term q iu[!. . For tt full
discussion S(o;: Chen l.haoy1og. Ruj/(1 Jl/cJ.rue .w .Ji,gdian Q1J011sM (Ta1hci
'1'111\\'!Ul Uaxuc Chub:m Zhong.·~: m, 2005), <:hl'lph."f :\ Chen tr:li::..$ the
dcvdopmen( of lhc tcnn from Confucius 10 Mcncius <Jnd Xun.zt.
h lo S. ll . Xunz.i say:;: ..It is by fixin~ the mind CIII lh!.! 1-'\)!11. dc\·i.sing
\HI~ ~ and mc:ms to rc~r hzc it. and cflbctuating. 11 through lh..: habitumkm o f
~u stom t b:u the u\ OOOit\:11\lf C is lt::msfonned (lnw xing H:.tt). J3y w\it)'ins ;~ II
these Jkcr~ clcrn"·uts and p.. : nnittlng no e.l uulity of goals: m d1c mind.
accurnulak d dfon is p<:rfccccd Tile hobituatifJn of custom modiftc:S the
d cn.x:ti<m Qt' wrll ::uhl, tf c..'Ontmn...'l..l fur a f(mg time, \\ 111 :1hcr it~ very sub~1 am:c
(,,;:hi '{~ftl) ... \Vc Ol)tc ft\)()J thi. -c tb"t for Xunzi ¥inj:. is :-..."~mcthins tlHil can be
hll(l CJI ll"t'ln:,ft..~rm l.\1. ~·nll l.h<.~ l~L.'il swtcmc nt swtes 1h3t thc.: ''!iub:~ t ancc- CJ.~l be
alh.:rcd But JUSI as one shN1ld be e~rc ful abo4.1t treahng .\·lug as "CS.."'-'flli:Jl
 Xtm:i rm //unum Kn111 ~ 103

in mind "hen tall.. ing obout xing or qiugxiug is Lh:tt lllc desires and
dispositional f\.-clings arc wh:1t we nrc born with. and that these arc
morally ncutrnl. But the terms -essential'" and ..inherent" tend to
contribute to the idea tht~ t there is something deeply untlmngeablc and
SL:ltic about xlng or fJingxfng and gcnemlly speaking this is not the case
fOr Xum::i. 16 This is espcci:llly clc..'V \\ hen Xun~.i refers to (Jing instead of
xing. Tltus \\hilc .\'iHg and qing:~.·mg, may be interchangeable. we would
need to be more cautious :tboutthc relation bc1wecn 11mg and xmg.
Consider the co~luding section of passage 4.10 ' ' here qing is
rcfencd to. but not xinx. B.eforc this section. Xunzj first refers to man's
being born petty, lo,·ing benefit a nd being concerned with satisfying
appctitire desires •• more or less the standard e.ontcnts of xing. Nex1, he
says th:n once they ha,·c gone beyond t11c barest necessities. people "ill
not be content \\ith anything less th:m "hat 1hcy h:wc leorncd to .sa, or.
X unzi is not merely tllluding LO the fact th:tt people desire or want luxury
nnd wcahh. but also to their copatit)' for refinement Lu~ucy and \\cahh
:uc only possible llm:>ugh rerincm~nt But significantly, this r~lincmcnt at
the same time reflects the encompassing categories of rituol principles
(1VII yi zhi lmrgf=ld2.~t).
11
Referring to these-. he asks: ·• Arc they not
the mc:.ns by wh.ich we li\'e together in societies. by which we protect and
nurtUI'C cm::h other. by which '' c hedge in our faults and refine each other.
and by \\hich together we bccoma: 1ranquil and securcT Thus. people
who bch:t\'C like the tynm.nical Jic and Robber Zhi arc said to be /ouru!! or
uncuhit'atcd. and i1 is the task of the humane person to trnnsfOrm them.
Xunzi concludes:

But when (the wise and benevolent L:ingsJ13ng and Wu

)j, ·cd. the world followed them and order prcYnilcd. and
\\hen ('the cruel and tyrannical kingsl lie and Zbou Xin
Ji,ed. the \\OI'ld foliO\\'cd them and w3S ch:\C.ltic. llo''
could this be if such were conLro.ry to the (qing or mo.n)
(nm zhi tJi"g )...1_ t/i} bcc.:msc certainly it is as possible

n:1turc". I lhink the l<.11Tl ··sub:lt3no:x;" :as J transl:111on r,"r zhl migh1 lx~ 100
::.1n)ng since 11 tmplicii :;;(nnc:llun;:; unchan~cubl c. Perhaps ..quahtte~i' mc.y be
bcucr.
16 I mguc lh:H J'f. n yl f:.:& uud h yl It, ~~ ar~ c..:quin1h:nt as .. ritual
tyinapko..-;" m l?nr~' Crmji1cmn l·':thicJ. ··F.nc(,mpas...;;mg c~1K-goncs'" folkms l.t
Oishc.:nl!'S~plnnctiou •..lf n:n )'I :In wng ''s It .v• :ltltou,:: lt:i lG~Z.m~. Sec
Li . p.67. note 17 lllu!llk Antonio Cu:.t for thi::~ rcf~;.•rctlcc l<.l U .
, . T h is SC\.'fllS to tl1lly w tlh whJt Kwong.Jm !\hlm So'I~'S in his discu:;«:lon
(lfqing iu the pre-Qu\ h:.~xls, thut "'SlC!mctimc.s l11<: lqmgl of X's can be t'ctttt.ux:.s
lhnt obt:~ in of x •:; 0:5 11 dU$s but not of eoch nu...'mhl:r of the d o.s.s. os when thc-
t.lifl!.:-r~.1lCC in the abilitic:1 ,,r lhc Cl..llllln..m p..::oplc is d~ri b<\l tas the fqmx) of
1hc common pcnp1c.'' Sec Shun. ,\/entm( rmd £ar(v Cinnt~\·~~ Thought , r.185
/OJ J..:mr-<:llf'Jng Chong

fo r a man to be like the one as like the other?

(KnoblocL: 's translation. except for the bra<:kctcd words)

This question c-art be p<lr>tphrascd thus: ··How is it possibJc for

bene\'Oicnt or tyrannical kings to innuence people into being good or bad.
i f this were contr.ti'J to the qing of manor• Gi, ·cn "hat was s.:Jid earlier. the
tc.nn {jill)], doc.s not refer just to the conu:nts of xmg (pe.Uincss. IO\'C of
benefit and basic scnsoryfappctith·c desires) btll also to other fncl,>? about
mt'ln such AS the Cllp:teil) for refinement '' hich is at tJtc same time
intimately linked to tJ1c c.ap3city for tmnsformation according to riLuo.t
principles. 'fhc tpng of man is such that it is equally possible for :myonc
to be<:omc good (cuJti,·3tcd) or to become b3d (uncultivated). Gh-cn the
possibility of going either '' ay. <Jing in this sense c:umot be said to refer
to soml! essential quality that is static and unchangeable, Consider :\ISO
the next pass:1gc, 4.11:

ll is ll1c f.qlng of manJ th:u for food he desires the meat

of postured :111d gmin ·fcd oni.rnO:ls. that he desires
clothing dC(omtcd with JXltlcrns and brocades. that 10
travel he wants a horse :md carriage. and even that he
wnnts weahh in abc fom1 of surplus money nod hoards of
provisions so that even in lean periods su-ctching o,·cr
ye-ars, he will not know in!'uffi cicncy. Such is the lqing
of manJ. (Knob lock'~ trnnsl;~(io n except for the
brnc~c l cd 11 ords)

In mentioning the qing of man. Xun1j refers 10 the desire for

food. clothing and so on. :Jnd these seem to be ahc same M tl1c sensory
and appetitive desires of xing. Howc\'cr. this is nol the case. Notice that
the items mentioned nrc rcrwcmcnts tlut Xun1j has associated with the
establishment or ritual principlc.s. In addition. Xumd mentions the desire
for surplus no& as moth ·atcd by ~;reed but pmdcncc. ·rhc remainder or ahe
p•.1Ssngc follow ing m;~kcs it clc.1r thou prudence is not a universal trnit
because there arc cxtr;wagana individuals who fail to think long tcnn and
impoverish themselves as o result i '

1
~ In sornc pl:tct~ (4.12. 11.4. 11.7ll} X1.uw l<tlks aboutqmg m tcnns of
what men ~u·l! (nr) 111 001nmott. These so tx.:'ond tl1c hZ'lstc ne<:(."$:Stltcs :md
in\'(•1\·c o JugJ1 )C\'cl of svpht:i-1temiou :ami tcflll\'mCnt Utat it WOldd bot
t.lCCI::!i:Sctry to tnkc the prop-e-r :tiCJ)!::i tll ~urc ( II A). The list o f dcsi_n."';S or
\\~Ill::> is much IJn,,t<.k.' f th:m what I h:n·c h~h.."\1 in lh;,: discu:;sion. I " '·mid
prefer to usc " wants" here to d istinguish lhC.'fll from the haste hi;.)logic.-.1
dc~ircs. Fot iu.~IO.nce. 1>..-~de wcuhh. d1is could include honol' aud power
(-U 2). Further items mdudc wonting the existence of rcgulntion:1 nnd
*'and~1rd:;, \ti..W~nllllC1li~I.J (ln.liJl31lC~~
tllld cdict:t. puni::.-IUll~'lll i'~)C llCgligcnt
offici;TS and r~bclho us statt:s. for rt:pu1alion. at.!..:ompllstlmc-nl and
 X tm:i rm //unum Kn111 ~ 105

\Vc can nO\\ summati1..c the relation between l.:in}! nnd qing with
reference to Xunzi's ,·icw of human nature. Xing is :t biological t ()ncept
in that it refers to whilt aU men arc born with. That is. it refers to the basic
sensory and appctith'e desires. ln conjunction with tbcsc desires. Xun:t.i
says thnt m:tn is: bom \\'ith a lo,·e of bcncfia. fee lings of e nvy :md hate.
::md is pett-y. The tcnn IJing could! :as we h:aYc seen. refer to these-desires
<:~nd ft.·dings. fn this rc::;unl. Xunzi 111ight usc 1hc more inclusi' e qingxilrg.
Howe,·er, ..the qmg of mmf' also refers to o tJ1cr g~ncral f3cts about
people: tJtcy ha,•e " 'ants and ca~citics tbat go be~ ond the bosk scnSOI)
and appctiti\e des ires and feelings. ll•at is. people want surplus items of
wealth and luxury. 1'hc~ wants imply the need for security. and the
capacities for prudence, rclinemcm and hence for establishing rilUal
principles. 19
The content~ of xing arc essential only because they arc basic to
biological life :utd !rurvival As ~um·j ~ys in another c.ontcxt, without
these desires we would be dead."0 lllCJ. arc not essential in the sense of
bcinc "hat is distincti\'c about mO\n qun n1:ln. l11is biologic:.! .. raw
nt3tcrial" can be uan.sfonncd because in addition, the lJing of man is such
that people possess the capacity for refi nement. Howc\'c r, some people do
not succ~d in refining and cu hiv~ ti ng thcmsch·c s because or a lack of
teachers nnd models. or bcc.ausc they do not work hard and cumuJativclr.
Nc\'cnhdc.ss. there is no inherent or essential badness that would pre\'Cnt
them from transforming thcmsch·c s.
This is wbcrc Xu n ~i cnn be cnsily misunderstood if he is read i.n
the e ssentialist mode . For instance. some '' ritcrs hn'c claimed that Xunl.i
is inc.onsistcnt. He is tJllcge-d 10 h:we held on the-one hand thai nature is
bad or that people ILB\'C a ~lowly characte(' but on.. the other band th:n
people arc born with ..an inmuc moral sense (ri:i)." • 1 But we haH; seen

:u~htc\·cmcnt s, :md so on ( IJ .7b). The qiug of m~n rcfcfli 10 w:mts lh ~l cxtcttd

~u the wa.y to oomforts t"u\d lu:-..1tri\.'S cuj(•)''"'d by the kms. llowc\~cr. to lutw
.:all these, rcg.u1;:~ttons u.rc n...-cc.,.sruy .
1
~ S<.1: 2:Z.S:a Xunzi ::.:ty$ tlwt '"1 1:1\'in~ ~ll!sirc: and h:l\ in~ no d~irc.,
these :trc diOCrau c:.ncgoncs •• (the difference hchn:cn) Jdi.: nnd death. no1
(the dafrc,·c::ncc bctwi!'Cn) order ~md di oordc t~·· This 1S 311 ~pp ~lfCnt Cl)ticism of
Song X ing \\ ho held that it is Lhc iJIIIg o f m:m to ha, ·c few dc:;ircs (:sec I 8. 10).
l'> Oon:1kl J, M•.mro. ..,, Vill:tin in the Xmr:J... in l'hilir J lvun11oc . ...-d .
C/Ji,t'$t: l.fmgwJgt·. Tlumglu. nmi C'ul111r.:: .VIwsor~ a nd ill~ Cr#llt:.fi (Chi-ca gw
Open Com1, 1996). r . t 9::(, Munro :if SUC!I that Xun7J W:l.:S nl(l((! COCl CI(."I"IICd
with ll1c JUC-ilsurcs to pc'CYcnt social chaos t\nd his J iscussi(,nS obout human
1.utw'C were scetmdm)·. In thj:s regard. I think that in principle Munru ..x1uld
agr~'\: wuh C u:f~ anu ly~i~ lh~1 1 "bttd" for X \Jn.~_j is lo li~,: lal.cn in "
consequcnt1::11 sense. But I \tXMIId disagree w1th Munm ·s rcmari;: that Xun7.t
lclt hi$ d1~.~ol') of humon nul\u'c in ..~ ruCS$... on the oontrcuy. I thin~ that
Xun~i w"s rcmarl:ohly consistent in his remark!' 3bout human n.:tJun:.
l'l I ha\'c JiS\.'\IS·~~'d Ihi~ (!Lnd <
.llllcl llli:,.Ulings or y i) jn Jll(.l f C <.kl:iil !U l_h..:
ch ap1 1.~r \m '"Siluallng Xunzi" 1n my £nr~l' Conji,t:fmr E l illt'S
/()(; J..:mr-<:llf'Jng Chong

Lh:u Xun~i 's statement tlU~t ~nat ure is bad'' is to be w.kcn in a

consequential and not nn inherent sense. Although Xun1.i docs s-1~· that
people nrc born with a liking for benefit. pettiness. ru1d feelings of ctn-y
nnd hate. there is nothing essential about these such th11t n person cannot
00 tr:msfonned. The belief th:u Xun~i is being inconsistent must be based
in part on the tendency to ahink that the "badness" and ahc '' lowly''
<:~spcc.ts of c-haracter must be deeply essential such that it would b<,:.
inconsistent to S:lY th:1t anyone can be tr.msfonued . Therefore. the charge
of inconsistency ' vould stic.k only if the essentialist mode of thought is
gl'3ntcd.
1'his charge of inconsistency is :lbcHcd by a mist:skcn reading of
what Xtmzi means by .vi in t11c present context. He docs not think of it as
M '"innate moral se-nse." Instead. for Xunzi. yi refers to an ability that the
human spcci~ has in controst to other animals - 10 make social
dist.inclioos ttnd to institute and :.1pply ritu:'IJ pr~ciples that constitute the
•oencrul struC-Il(rc or society nnd social rclt1tions.· 1 I sh~ll say more 3bout
this Spc'C-ics ability sl1only . 11u~ t'e3ding of XunJj in tl1c csscnti:'llist mode
is also evident in the nrgumcnt tb..at Xunzi would hoxc great diO'iculty in
explaining how i t is that the sagc·kings could ·'h...a\'C created morality
unless mornlit)' were already a pan of their na1urc.·· :l

A NON-ESSENTIALIST DEFINITION OF TilE HUMAN

There m :~y now be nn objection th:ll if we t;~_kc Xuo:ti '~

con~idcrcd position to be thilt A'mg has tJu: c:1paci1y to b<.:- g<Jud w1d 1lu:
cap:tcit)' to b!!- bad. this would be 100 loose 10 qualify 3S o. theory :'lbout
humo.n n:llurc. There arc otlcost tlucc elements tlt.at any thcoty of human
nature must CO\'C.r. In tltc :.ccount of Xun1.i thiit I hol\'C given so flU'. I seem
to ha,·c cmph:~csizcd only two. Firs1. tJu~rc mus1 be a discussion or the
biological f:~.cts nbout mrut. Second. d1cso f.1cts must be w1h·crst~ l. Thus.
although I hm·c referred to the unh crs.1l contents of ).'illg and tJhlg
(remembering that ccn:~in W:lnts and c:~ pacitics may not be univcrs:tlty
rc01li:tcd). n third clement needs to be brought into the. pkturc. Thott is. we

~l ]),,vid B Wt,ug., "Xu1rt:1 ,m Mor:•l Moliv:tlion: · in Pit•lip J. lv~mlu'll:,

..:xl , Chim•.w l.nnguugc. Thoughl . nnd Cullum: Nn 1.ttJII nnd /Ju· Cn'li(',f
{Ciu..:·Jgo: Open CoUJ1, 1996). p.2«>. 1k, 'C. he i:t citint;:. 0~\ id Ni\'ison. "IIS.On
Tzu :md Chu.un£ T~. " iJt Chiltt•u. 1'L•xts ami PhU<)cStJpltic:tll CmJfa u : IJ:;stl)'.f
dr:tltCllletllo Angus C. Gm/I(Jm. u.l Henry Ros-..'1110111 (L<i Sullc. Jllinoi::\: Open
COUI1, 199 1), pp 129·42.
ZJ 1:ur 1hc duw d<.·mcniS fn any d1scussion of lnnnon nature, S('\: 0~1\'td
J. Buller. A JapliUJ! .\finds: Er•(J/utitmary P:s)··choloJ:y cmd lht• P~l'$lsum Qu£'.\1
/Qt' lhunmr Notm-.: (Cambcid!-'C. Ma~chu~1ts The MJ"r Prc:l:;, 2005).
pp42 1-42l
 Xrm:i rm //unum Kn111 ~ 107

nc.:d to consider what il is that constitutc.s the humaJI. :<~ It would be

insufficicnl for Xun1.i to talk about human nature: wilhout any mention of
whnt it is to be human. And in fact. when I s.1id that in referring to yr
Xunzi is not talking obout nn innate mornl sense but to a species nbilh~·. J
h;we ad milled thlll Xun?j docs define "hac it is to be h uman. nms. it
could be obj ected that contrary to what I h ;~,·c said. reference to what
constitutes the es senc-e of human nature-is una,·oidablc after 01ll
My reply is lh:n although Xnnzi docs define the human, there is
an impontlnl s)hik>sophical sense in which this is not an csscntiallst
definition. FirsL 110tc d1at the defmition ii gh·en independently of the
concept :rwg. fn the passage :iA. Xunzi ~ys :

What is it thnt makes a mnn human? I say that il lies in

his ability to draw bound:lries (b ian >$'~) . To desire food
when hungty. 10 desire warmth when eo ld. to d esire rest
when tired, and to be fond of \\ hat is benclici:tl and to
h..1tc wh:1t is h:1nnful •• these charoctcristics man is born
possessing. :t.nd he docs not ha\'c to wait to de,·e lop them.
or
1"hcy arc idcntk al in the case a Yu and in thn.t of a Jic.
But even so. what roakcs a mao rc;~lly but:non lies not
pri m :1r il~ in his being a ffaciall)• lmirlessJ biped. but
rather in his :1bility tn drow bc.'ltmdaries (Knoblock 's
t:rnnsla.tion)lS

Here. Xunzi denies th:u the biologic:ll contents of xtng constitute

the humrut even though they :l!C uuh·crso.Uy sb:l!cd. £,·en the ape has
these sensory :md 3J>JJCtiti\'C desires as well the desire for benclit and the
aversion to harm. Xun1.iJ like Mcnd us. goes on to mention 3 difrercncc
bctwet:n hum:m beings ond other nnimnls. Howe\'c r. Knoblock's
tran.slatil)R of rem zlri .nta y l wei ren :he he )'I ye J...LtfrliJ.l,~,A..X fiif C 12
::.s " \Vb.:lt is it that ma.kcs a mon humanT hides a.n important diO'c rcnce.
Xun1.i doe:; tlot ask. "What maJ..cs o mow lnnnanT' In other words.. he.
docs no t refer to thlll which each and every person is alleged to possess
before he/she qualifies to be hwnD.n. As we ha,·c seen, for Mcncius. what
is disaincth c about eoch person tJUlf nmn in thi.s regard is the possession
of the four sprouts. Lad; ing :my of th~. someone "ould not be entitled
to be called n ..m:m··. A more literal transl:~tion of Xunzi 's question would
be "What mal:es 1.nan "man"' ? The (\\O occu.rrcnccs of "'man"' in lhis
<(ucstion are U$ed in a eollccth·c ~c nsc. :md there is no reference to any

:• Th\'1\! ts 3 tcx1u al prC~bkm here Sec the e:..,l:mahon m Knobkx:k 's

trmudol!on (If tbc .\"rm: 1 Volume ( (1!lSIS). p.297, n\"•tc 54 (nstcad of
Knoblock's "' fc~tht."fl cs." bir)(:d'' l hove "fncia11y hoirJcss" to mokc sense of the
$imi l :!_~i ty bt;J\\'~;c u man and 3JlC ~m~;c I find "'I'C:.uhcrks:i bip(,."\1.. nllbcr odd.
·' Cua, "' Philosoph~· or Hum;~n Nawrc," 1h1d pp.2 1·22
/OS J..:mr-<:llf'Jng Chong

indi,idual person. In otbcr words. Xtuvj is asking ''hat charnctcri1.es the

human species as a'' hole. as distincl from other :mim:lls.
His :.nswcr. in o word. is bion or the ability to ..draw boundaries".
Xunzi goes on 10 gi\ C two examples of \\ hnt lu;. mcnns by hitm, First.
there is the 4Jin N between father and son. This docs not just mean
··nutural nO"ct:tion- (Knobloc.k's translation) but implic.s rhc relation of
filial piety and the ritual bch:wior that constitmcs, including the du1ics
31\d obligations gorcm.ing the rclntionship. Second. although rutimals
rccogni1.c sexual differences. they lack nmr nn zlli bie VJ kZ.JJtJ or the
"distinction between man and womao.'' ln other words. fo r tbc species
hum>ln being. the diiTcrcncc between progenitor :~nd orrsprins and
bcm·een the sexes is not simply biological, but sociall~ constituth·e.
Xunzi also talks of this socinll~· constituti\'c :tbility in tcrna of the concept
of yl. To rcpc<JL tltis h:1s been wrongly eoustrucd as the Jnuscssion of an
innate moral sense. Instead, it is the spcctcs ability to make social
distinctions and to institute and :1pply ritual principles t1111t constitute the
general slructurc of society and social relations.
In one sense. this could be referred to ns no "csscn1i.11"'
eh:mtctcristic because it distinguishes man from other ;1nirnnls. However.
this species ability to make constituthc f\llcs and to struc.ture hunum
rel:uions opens up the possibility of t11ere being dirrcrt'nt social struc.turcs.
C\"en though Xunzi himself emphasizes ccrtnin riwalistic fonns. In this
sense therefore, this species ability is nt.'H "c.sscnti:~li sr•. With reference 10
Xm11:i's emphasis on the tcnu ~·e1 as opposed to xmg. it is 3ppropriate to
call this species ability a -conslimth•c " ability, or the ability for
..connituti\'c acth·ity''. Although the ~bility to const.itule the general
;1m<:l\lrc of society and social relations dislinguishcs the species man
from other Mitu:Jis. it logically docs not preclude the possibility of there
being different fonns ofuansfommtion and diffcrcm social struciUrcs.

CONCLUSION

Let us conclude with a question that has disturbed many. In 23.2b,

Xunzi says that -Man desires to do good because his nature is b3d... He
cotuinucs:

Those with ,-c~· little think longingly aboul ha\"ing

much. the ugly abolll being beautiful. those in cmmpcd
t)U.1rtcr!' about Sp.1cious ~;urroundin gS. the poor about
wealth. the base about eminence -- indc.c d wh:tiCYcr a
man 1~<::1\s within himsclf he is sure to desire from
"ithout. Thus, 1hosc '' ho nre alr~ady rich do not wish
tOr ''nluablcs nor do lhc eminent wish for high position.
tOr indeed \\htUC.\ 'Cf :1 person has within he docs not seck
l"rom without. I_From this pcrspecth'c man desires to do
 Xtm:i rm //unum Kn111~ 109

good bccouscl his nmurc is lbodl. (Knoblock"s

tmnslation except for the bracketed words)

To J.lmost every render of the Xunzi this is extremely pu1..:ding if

not absln'd, HO\\' can it be said that man desires to do good because his
nature is b.:td'! Xunz:i b:tSC>S this statement upon a c;.omp::trison with the f~ ct
that "Those with \'cry liulc think longiusly "bout ha\'ing much, the ugl~·
about being be:mtiful.. . the poor about wealth ..... and so on. And
con,'erscly. "those who 4rc. ::drco.dy rich do not wish for \'al.unblcs nor the
cminenl wish for high position ... .. and so ou. In his analysis of this
passage, Cua has noted that these examples arc plausible although not
wth·er531ly Lrue. Ncnthclcss. Cua obseroes that d1c pass:sgc "'appears to
em bod~· a conceptual poiut about the notion of desire independently of
" hether Xun'Ti h:.s successfullv defended his thesis thai man's nature is
b::~eJ.'. 16 Cua notes that there is~a difference between the conccptunJ point
nbout desire. namely. th.nt it implies wantios somcth in~ tl1at one )i)CkS.
and the nlOr~ subst:mtive claim that man's nature is bad. The fonnet• docs
not establish the latter. Tilis is right and luckily. XUJt7j's stntcmcm thn.t
··nature is bad- does not rest on this conccpiUal point <'I lone.
Nc,·cnhclcss. the idea that ··man desires to do good because his
ruuurc is bn.d'' is not absurd. It is th0\1ght 10 be so only because in an
essentialist sense or what human nature is. this would be
sclf·eontr.tdictof)·. If a man is b.1d in the essentialist sense he c:mnot
intelligibly be said to desire somcthi.ng thai goes agOJinsl his nature. But if
"c U1l..c "bod .. in the sense of the unwelcome consequences of indulging
the desires and fee lings (xlng) :t.l\ C ua h:t.li suggested, then the idc:l that (in
contemplating these consequences) n mlll \\Ould desire to do good is
intelligible. l11is is CSJ>CClally so if in addition we rcncct upon "hat (for
Xunzi) C\'Cr)' person has in tenus of his or her qirtg- the w:mt of things
tb:tt go beyond the basic sensory' and appctiti"c desires. dtc nocd for
security. and the capadtics for prudence and refinement These desires.
wants and c:~ padties prov1dc an intelligible framework for the idea that a
mom desires to do good bcx.;~usc his n;uurc is b.:ld. In other words. he
comemphues thou it \\Ould be good to rnasimit,.c his wonts and cupjcities

M Sec AotOOJQ $ . Cun, Etlu'cu/ ArttwteltWII(m: A Stut(l' iul/Jr1u 1''!rt ·~

.\lora/ /£pi,ttemaluxy (IIonolulu: Univcr.5tlr of tlawaii Pl'c~. 1985). ,,.26.
'' hl·rc Cml C~Jdtu n:; his usc of " t.:1tiouoJe" for h 11:, (II' whirl sinolc•g1.stS:
commonly tr~u1shr1e ::~:t " lmtt<:m'". Eric llutwn, " Moo·al Rcu souin~ in An.'U(ltlC
J.nd Xun:t..i." Joumal of CMttt:.\'L" J>hilos<Jphy 29.3 (2002), ha$ quc.-.tionc:d
Cu~t's us..: o( '·ro.uivrwlc... llc s~t)S, lOr in~I!Ulcc. tlud •·it tx~::>i l l\cl)' ob~u-cs
imPQn:tnt aspccc:; of Xmtzi ·s thought rather lhan illuminr~tmg them ..
llowcv('r, I thm.k thot thctc OJX: "'illl!X-' r1ant US(X:cts of XlUl7.t 's lhougbf' whCJ'("
·•rationale'"' is n most appmpnulc:. h:nn to u:;c. Sec the di:;cu:uion in note. 9 of
I he ~}j Ht pl cr •.m "Xucrt:i';; Criti<IUC of Mend us:· in Et~r•ly Ctmfuctcm thought.
anti the ··Appendix" at !he end Clf 1h1S: chapter.
1/G

rutd he realit.cs that this would fail if he makes no dTorc and instead
a11ows lhc indulgence of his basic desires and rc'Ciings.
To round up the whole discussion. the following points and
qunlilicntions should be made. First if it is agreed that Xunzi's
considered positio n o n human nature is the second listed by Gougduzi.
namely. that :ring has the capacity (O beco me good or to become b:ld (;md
tltc.rc is cvidc.tJcc to :tffirm this). then Xunt.i \\Ou1d entertain ahc.
possibility that the required tr<lnsfonnatiYe struclllring might not h<WC
succeeded. [n other words. there is no guarMtcc that a society must
succeed in building 3 ··good- structure. :md also that panic.ular indi\'iduals
may fai l in transforming thcmsch·cs. 'This would be consislcnt with what I
hare referred to as his '·non-csscntialisc position.
Second. Xunzi refers to the cumul:uh·e cffons of earlier
sagc:- kings in establishing riuml principles. It is. hO\\C\C!r. difficuh to
1\cc.ept th:ll :llly plrticul:u individual or individu3IS came up with the ritual
principles. But c.onsistcntly \\ith Xun~i ·s pos ition. \\C can uudcrstand lhc
constituti\'c establishment of ritual principles O\W tinlc. Tltcre is no one
set of well dcfmcd principles that can be drmm up. In the Li l.tm Pian nnd
in the rue Lun l'itm. \\'C find 311 ~xamination or different ritual prac-tices.
Xun'l.i talks in detail about the principles of division and h.1m1ony
iovol\'c d. nnd this include-s pass:.ges where he describes the aesthe<:i7.ation
o f the feelings and emotions. Clearly. Xw17j is reading backwards. He is
not saying ahat these arc ahc actual principles ah:u were firsl d rawn up and
th;at gayc rise to :m ordered society. Instead. st:.rting from the ritual
principles nnd the ideals that ltc \'i:tlucd. he u ied to deduce \\hat Ctk1 has
referred lO as their "rmionalc". n
l l1c Lhitd point I would like to rai1c is not o qualific:uion but
more a ttucstion for further cxplor;;ttion. In addition 10 the regulative and
supportive functions of the ritual principles or li ~.tL Cun has also
memorably n:fc:ned to its "ennobling funcl i on ~ and he has offered us n
\-cry gO<Jd explanation <Jf what lhts is in his work. n Briefly, we can say
tl1;at the rites tmn.sfonn emotions such as joy and sorrow through
conceptions of whm is (c.on$idcred as) aesthetic and moral. In this rct;ard ,
the raw emotional capacities do not thcmschcs dclerminc \\h:n i5
t~cs thctically appropri:ltc or morolly proper. 'l11us. the emotions too con be
stntcturcd differently and t.'lkc different fom1s. But arc \\C ju.sl talking of
rcsaraining nod s tru~turing lhc emotions 3ccording to ccrl:~in fo nus, or arc
we suggesting th:~ t 30 emotion c.1n be trnnsfomtcd to the extent Lh t~t it is
no longer the "same" ? The possibility of ·'ennobling" the feelings and

- St.!-c fhr tnS~ an<.·c !he essay , ··The Elhical and the Rchgious
Oimcns.ons of L1 (l'ropm.'-'ty)," m J/umnn A'nsun.t, Uitmrl, cmtiiJiswrp. Se-i:
:also ~- oosic Conc~~llii of Confuci.m Ethics: · in Cua' s .\lortll l 'i.\·imt and
TIYuhllun - £3J tf.l':t i11 Clw:es~ J)Juc;~ ( Wa~hingh.m, ]) C . Th~ CMholic
Univcrsi ly of J\mcn.;a Pn.:ss, 199N)
 Xun:i tm llmmm N t llllrt' I ll

emotions tends Lo suggest the Iauer. and an exploration of this qucslion

should l:tkc funhcr wh.al Cua has said aboullhis function of lt.

CIIINESE GLOSSARY

bla" .i:li
ci rmJg at·~\!!

Ji:i ren ) '< 'II' At!!

jfn ~~
Jrua ft.
hua xmg 1t f1
} IlK) J'IJI ~rtf:
} IlliZi ;n7·
J.:cylwctbushan TIJ~ l-~.-f'l!f
TiJ !;1. 7...\ .W.
krt- )'i wet shan
li i!!l
It J:l!
Jiyi t:~~
li )'t :lu tong !t:i i1J.~t:LJJ;:~i
lou Wi
nan "'' zhi bie 9~ }£ Z ~J1
qiu ttl
qtng M
qinx kuong f~Hfl
t]ing xing fr'l m
qiugxfng mn
ren A
n•n .t}..
r<n yl f::,&
rcn yi ziti tmrg t:'i!iZlJ'l
nm zlu' dumg qing A L ',iji;-jf!i
n:u zM qing A Z m
t\'n zf1i suo yi we i rcu :lh.' he yi yc .A2..J}fl:.l /4A "t'iM C. 1!:!
'~" zhi :cmg ~ )..2. t'f.fiD
.viii qin;: tjif~j
~·hun shl Jf-iJ~
SilO we1 ,t mg shan zhe JY i:,l lt.f.{{f..r.·
· ·d f/.1
WCJJ /i )£. J~l{

XUI()f'efl "''A
112

~·ing fj'
Xing E Pimt 11:1£l1~
xing slum 11-:i<:·,
Xunzi Jislri t;J 7·-*l~ff
XtuJ:J Qutm Yi fij -f·~ ~li
.1'1 ~
yi zlli ;fj; 11
)11 h1~
zlu:ng if:
ZQI/g ~it
 Chapter VI

Do Sages Have Emotions?

Altm K. /.. C/um

INTRODVCfl ON

Conlcmpornry diSJ;ussions of Confucian philosophy mny tend to

pri\'ilcgc ecn"in key ethical concc~lts such as ..bcnc, olcncc" (rcu { :) ~n d
·'filial piety- (:a.·iao *). but in u'adilioual Chinn much or the Confucian
hcrmcncutic:ll and phiiO!i<.lphical cnu::rprisc rcvoh'Cd :nound the figure or
tl1c idcol <-sage"' (~·lrm~rt:n ~A). Vit1ucs arc neither abstract nor
self-existing; thC}' arc seen 10 cohere and find profound expression in the
being of the sage. In this context. .. s.:tgchood" lhus emerges as .:t critical
concern in Confucian self-understanding. Can Silgch()()d be olt:Jinet..J Crut
the .. 3\'Cragc person- (:hongrcn «JlA). indeed. become like Confucius, the
sage JUit enellence. who embodies tl1c height of "inuc? Would i1 not seem
more likcl) th;~t sagchood is dctcnnined by a sp~.:cia l inborn "nuture·· (:wng
tl:) lhat is c.ntr:soricnlly dinCrr:-nt from that of lhc common people'!
In this discussion, 1 propose to explore the noture of the sage and
spccificall) the pl:tc.c of the emotions (qing t~n in it Docs the sage share
1he same nature ~ · taking nng in the more restricted sense as rcfCrring to
hum:~ n 11.1turc •• ns ordin~· human beings'! Despite Mcncius' c.ontidcnt nnd
1
rh.ctorknlly powerful claim thnt "the sage and l nrc the: same in J..ind.-
prior to 1he fisc or Neo..Confucianism probably the nujocit) of Confucian
scholars would tind it difficu h to im.:~ ginc that ordinary individuuls could
motch the cxtmordinary attainment of Confucius. In pauit!ular. tlle " ''cragc
person seems to be always 1rnpped in a web of desire and emotions lh:11
renders cthic.:ll progress at best a p::tinfully slo"' :md uncertain proposition.
'Otc s:~.gc ideal reaches deep in Lhc Confucian imagination. but sagchood
iron i c;~ ll~' seems an unreachable goal. unless a. person is so "ordained" by
..heaven." tlwt is to say. endo wed with a "sage nature" th:lt is - mmquil" or
""still- on accowu of its -purity'" and thus free from the conupting stinings
of de-sire-. It "ould ncu be an oversuuemcnt that questions and de-bate on the
oaturc of Ihe idc<tl SZJS.C helped slt.1pc 1hc course ofConfuci~o ph.ilosopby.
The tiOIICCplor qing, :.s is \\Cit k.llO\\U, si~n i fies both the emotio ns
~nd t h ~ "e-ssence- or "fac-C of :'I thing or st~ t e of a ITa irs. Lc:t\'ing :'lsid¢ the
relationship bct\\CCn these two senses of qhtg for the moment. it is clcru
that qirrg is understood generally a.~ form ing a part of human nature.
According to the Xtmll. for c.xamplc. "The likes and d islit.es. pleasure ~nd

1
.\fcttcilt:J GA.7. us tr:tnsltllr..'\1 in D. C. tau. M~'".,,,,,. (11~)11~ 'K(Ing. 11l~
Chinese Uni,·crsaly Press. 1984), 23 1
IN A /on A.'. 1.. Chm1

nngcr. and sonow :md joy of human nature arc ''hat is meant b) qing:· :t
This suggests that all human beings h3\'c likes and dislikes and other
emotions. If these arc seen to be an obstacle to sngchood~ one possible
solution ,,·ould be 10 argue thtlt the sage is ··without emotions- (wuqing ,tf.li
tN). Though some rn3y find this logic.Uly oompc:lling. it is not "ithaut
difficulty, for wuqmg, :11 least in modem Chinese. implies thai someone is
..hcanlcss" or ..unfCcling.." By definition. the sage epitomizes the highest
good and brings order and pc:I\:C. i low could he be nnmo' cd by lhc
sufferings of the people or be unresponsi,·c 10 their needs? Is it conceh·able
th::at the s:agc has a mind th;1t is un.moYtd by passion and dcsi.rc and yet at
the 5'1mc lime pos..sc.sscs t1 heart that knows compassion. loathes injustK:.c
and delighL;; in rightne-SS"! -Jt is ahc-consm.ncy of the s:.gc-," Cheng Ht)O Ul
~~~ (1032- 1085) once wrote. in reply to :1 qucstjon raised by Zhang Zai
•.:tU!< ( 1010 •· 1077), that "he uses bis t}ittg to enable lbc flourish.iog of
phe nomena, but llc is without qmg·· (!fl.A...L·,?;. W.lttliJUi/JHtJffiJ~Uf).;t
At ftrst glauoc, this appc:1rs self--contradjctory. Doubtless. Cheng Hao \ \ QS
trying to rcsol,·c the thorny issue of the cmoti\·c nature of the s:.gc.
Nevertheless, the question rcm:~ i ns : docs the S3ge h3\·e qing or not? Perhaps
Cheng Hao was exploiting the duJ.l meaning of qiu:.: here: but is he saying
that the sage is toutlly unliL:c ordinary human beings? If so. how is the sage
:thlc to bring aboul human flourishinff! If not. how is he :~.blc lo ri:;e :tbovc
tl1c nppurcntly inherent parliality uod licklenc$S of the humun hc:ut-Jni.nd
(.tm ·C..)?
To pursue these questions. l begin by roconsU\Jcting a
hermeneutical context. focusing especially on the L.tmyu and two of the
Guodinn "b:Jmboo texts," in which the dhidc between Ll1c naiUr~ of the
sage and that of the anmgc person tomes to the fore. Ag.1inst that
~1ek~round . I will briefly discuss lhc debate on 1he qing of the sage in
Wci-Jm (220 -- 420) phi lm•oph~·, before coming bxk to Cheng HaQ's
influcntinl '"Lcucr on stilling oncls nature.. (Din:;xing shu). Cheng Hao·s
argument can be shown 10 be. indebted 10 lhe earlier Wci-Jin dcb;.lte. More
imponantl)', whn.t I hope to achieve in this exercise is to reconstruct some of
the questions. assumptions and aJ'gumcnts that underlie the Confuei.:U1
discourse on the sage's xing and qing.

: .Ytm:i. ~haptcr 22. "Zhcngming" rr:.p.. in Xwm zlmzi .nro;:m lH 7·1!1!'j-=

~·;I , the Chmcse Unh•c.n:;,ty ot' HJ.)ng Kon.g, ln.'>llrutc of Ch1ncsc StuJ1cs,
Ancient Chine-se T~t.'l Concordance Series (lJon~ Kon~. Commcrciol Prc.'iS.
1996}, 107; cOnl l~u·c .fohn Kn\•htod; trans, Xmr:i, \'<'1. 3 (Slanfotd· Stonltwd
Univcrs11y l'r(.'Ss-, 1994) , 12 7. Tr:m:;:lalJOns :1rc my Q\\11 unlr.:~s sl:tlcd. otherwise.
J Cheng ll:u>, -Letter on stillmg one's n31urc.. (DbtJ!Xl"f!. shu ~tl: f!n. in
Song J'11(m .\lt e ·fm :.+! J\:~~~KjttOII 13 (f~tip..:i Shijic.: shuju. 1966). 319. .:f. lhc
$li~.htly lon~ocr vcn;ion 1.11 J::y C lh!IIJ; p .=·et.:m (Hci;in~: l hc.mghuo !)hu;u,
1981). 4C{J.
 //J

TIT£ SAG£ AND T i lE AVERAGE PERSON

The Lunyu presents :a hermeneutical and philosophical challenge to

later schol;us in its ponrnyal of human nalurc and c:.apm;ity. Ahhough the
disciple Zig\)ng -=f· fi intim:uc-s that Confucius' view on xing cannot be
''heard; ·.! there lli'C instances in the J.rmyu lhat s.eern IO suggest otherwise
and \\OUid compel r.::ncctions on it f\•losl conspicuously. Confucius seems
to hold t.b.at people :uc simil:u br nllt1u·c nnd thnt it is pr.~cticc thnt sets them
apart (LY17.2: l1#1l!C 1!!.. l!.'l ~II.iii 1.\;). Further. Confucius distinguishes the
highly intelligent (slwng=IJi J ::)ill) from the most foolish (xic~t ~ JJ:\)
(LY 17.3). This seems to ::~ li gn with the distinction bctw\:cn - those who arc
born with knowledge.'' whom Confucius ranks as the highest. nnd -those
who do notlcam C\Cil \\hen they arc confronted witl1 difficulties.'" that is 10
say. even when the)-· ha\'c a pressing need to do so. Bet" cen the9'.! two
groups ar..: ..those who ~qui r~ knowledge through learning" and -lhosc
\\he> learn \\hen t he~· nrc confronted with dim,uhics"' (LYI6.9; ~l_:ff-i ~JZ.
•r.-J; I!!; >j\ lluJllZ. ti u~ ·Ill: IJ:Ir~i ,' iiZ., .X Jti}~ 1!!: IJililu' -!;·'}\, !1\Wi 7~ f
~). We should also not forget lhat (or Confucius, ..One can speak to those
\\ bo nrc abovc D\'Cf3£C about things of thc highest ordcr. but one cannot
~1)1!3k ubout these thingS 10 those who are below average'" (LY6.2 J: ~~· A t;J.
l ·.. ii'J 1)_1 ;m J: lh: *!1 A 1.').1::
1~iifW,~gl·. L!!).
TI1c possagcs cited abo\'C can be read in diiTcrent ways. For
example. whereas Huang Kan .2 Cit (488 ·~ 545) surmises that the "ord
..xmg,.. in /.WJJ1t5. 13 refers to Confucius · own unique nlture. Zhu Xi *£{
(1130 •• 1200) explains lhiit Zig(.lllg actuiliiY got to hear Confucius' \ "iC\\ on
xmg and was .iust making 3 poinl about how wonderful ttl at W:JS. 5
Regardless of their pr«isc meaning. three preliminary obscr\'ations may be
made. ]':irsL in tl•e light or these ll3S~gcs, it is undersLandn.blc how
questions aOO.ll xing would enter into the Confucian interpretive l:mdscapc.
Socood. lhcsc p;tSSttb~S r:u;cd to be irucrprctcd coosistcnd)·. T hird. their
pcrceh cd menning "ould impact on intcrprctalion of other passages in the
l .tm)tl, For example. if one bclie\'es that fo r Confucius 1hcrc \\CI'C people
who \\Cn: ..bt._)rn wilh knC>wlcdgc/' then one would have 10 :1ddress
sensiti\Cly Confucius" discl:1imer that he wus not one \\'ho \\aS born wiah
knowledge (LY7.20), lest one ends up branding hint second·ratc. Gi\'cn
these hcnncncutical parwncters. ns one enters deeper into the text nod more

" l.m1>"' .$, 13. 11lc numbering ol' the /..wrpt followte tbnt of Ytmg Dojun
H.~ !11 tJI~. /.JJnytt J'I:Jm .~.. ~li :.11 i V. (B<.·•jing. ZtlonghLw. 19S2)
Subsequent
quot:lt!c.'ns from tbl! l.rm)m (:.bb-rl!\'i:)tOO as 1. Y) will 00 cilt'ti m the
body of 1hc
text.
" See Huang. K:m , l.uny u ,1ijit: yi.11m ;(tt;,•HJ~W1~t.(i, Slli.wuyi,g dmslm
. :'. llihon (Tuip:.·l: Sbijic. 1!:163}. 45; nnd Zhu Xl, Sislw :lumgprjdm I~!H!F ~i: {>J~
H; (Beijing: Z.h(lng_hua. 198J), 79.
/IIi A /on A.". 1.. Chm1

generally 1hc received 1ca.chings of Confucius. at some point one \\Ould

llCcd to decide whcthl.!r the Sage held a doctrine of l'ing ,
Perhaps in the eyes of modem scholarship it would be prudent to
conclude that the LrmpJ nlonc yields insufficient e,·idencc thal Confiu:ius
setiousl) considered tl1e question of :cmg and still less dc,·c loped n thcorr of
i t However, in prc·modcm Chin::t the conscmsus is cle-arly lh.:lt the concept
()f !lUman n:llurc is fundamental to CtJnfucian teachings. Tl1crc is ample
evidence lh:u xmg did become a maucr of philosophic concern durinl! the
\V:trring Strues period. In that conlcxt. one can envisage o degree of
irucrprcti"c pi'C iSUJ'C to find a plnce for xiug in Confucius· thinking. as the
followers of the Sage sought to prcscrYc, 'odi~'. dclinc and defend his
teachings. TI1crc ru·c two mo.in options. if one. judges lhnt Confucius held t1
consistent \·iew of ,xing -· (l) affinn a threefold or fourfold diYision of
human beings and allributc the difference tO one·s inborn nature, or {2)
pursue .3. non·diserimin:ttory vic" of hum.1n n:Jture :md cmphnsizc the
constituti\'C andJor rcguhnivc effect of Jcnrnin& and pr:.ctic.c,
Wl1crc:.s a threefold division sinl ply draws a line- in the middle.
raking the lead perhaps from Lrmyu 6.21. cited nbovc. a fourfold
clas.,~i ficat i on rc.scr\"CS a special place for those who arc ··bom with
knowledge·· (LYI(•.? ). i.e.. the s.1ge. ::~part from those who arc above
average, u,·crnge. and below :t\'cmgc. Under option (1). whether one adopts
a th.rccfold or fourfold class ifac~Hj on . one would han: to ossumc on the
principle of consistency tltat Confucius was referring to 1hc ··:w\:ragc,"
presumably the m::~jority. when he spoke of the $i.milarity of inborn noture.
ln "onlmst. if one :uguC$ th1Jt human natun; is sintilar or identical under
t)ption (2). one \\Ould sec Lan)'ll 17.2 inn di!Terent lif:,hl as referring 10
hum.lnity :n lar-ge. Th:u human beings tum out to be diflCrcnt :md mny
therefore be grouped into three general bands is due to the ciTcet of lcarn in ~;t
nod pmcticc. From this angle, it is inconccirable 1hat anyone can be - oom
with knowledge•· : what Confucius meant in this instance wns that some
were able to nHL~ imi#'.c. their capacity to learn. which is common to all.
When he s.,id that he was nol born with knowledge. he was but m:lldng a
rhetorical point to cmph;asizc the c cntr.tlit~· of lc:aming. In 1hls \\'3y.
coherence is achK:ved. " hich is also to say that as the interpreter makes the
necessary c;.onncctions. supplies justiftcntions and brings out the Confucion
ricw of sing. the hermeneutic merges with tltc philosnphicul into n single
inlt'rprcth·e venture.
l11crc nrc- other possibilirics. Pcrhnps Confucius was snying that
\\hcrc3S tho sage is blessed with a speciaJ inborn nnturc. ordinary men ood
\\Om en share a common nature and the differe nc-es among them arc due to
teaming and practice. The suncment in the l..unyu (7.26) that Confucius saw
ljuJc hope in c\·er meeting n sage bu1 only a cultured rutd morally
accomplished gentleman (jwm J:l·=-f ). for example. may be read in this
\\11~·. Allcmo.tive~·. Con(ucius mi~hl be deploying tltc concept of xing in
din'crcn1 senses. mctat)hysically in some instartc.es aud concrclcly in tcnns
of \'af')';ng cnpacitics in mhcrs. Nevertheless. dte two opuons outlined
 Il l

above should suffice 10 gh c a sense or tltc dynamics thm characterizes lh~:

dcTelopmcnt of early Confucian philosophy. Conc:Ci\':tbly these \\tre
nmong the options considered by the ··eight schools"' of Confucianism that
emerged aficr Confucius' de-ath and vied fOf legitimacy and dominancc.6
E\·idence for both opproaches may be found in some of the bamboo texts
recently rcco,·crcd from Guodi:m. Although studies on these texts arc still in
the-ir infancy and di£T<..·rcnccs of opinion abound on c.,·ctr front the-Guodian
m:Jtcrial seems 10 agree that all human beings arc endowed by heaven wilh
an inborn natu re, as distinguished from values and dispositions that arc
acquired :utd intcrnoli1.ed. 111erc is also disa~rccmcnt. On tJtc one hand, the
tc~t th::at has been n:~mcd Xmg : 1 ming dm tE 1':1 tr; th seems to emph:1sizc
tlu: commoual it~· of ring, On the other hnnd. 01 section of the text tlmt now
be:us the title ChL•ng ~M wtn :hi J&.Z t.;rf .Z. ma~· be si!Cn to uphold an
cssc11t.ial difference bch,ccn the nature of the sab'C 0\nd lhut of the 3Ycmge
person.
TI1c Cheng :hi WC:'It zhi sccn\s to suggest

1/A.i:. ·tlc ~>!'I' A.<:tt . JC1tl:oi>I<WJ•J .i:.. l!flJi'dM~. fll

ft\Je ~- ~~·m~ :ffi' il11!!.. M! I1nl!!l:ii!V. f~ Ill. ZH~ WI ~
illiJ":I::klll, lt'l11A-1' "f1M'i!ll!<Z. ~t!V.l"l:!i1H.t, 1ti1!
A :;r, ..rell!.
At birlh. Lhc ruuurc of the sage and the nature of the
ower:tgc person arc difficuh to distinsuish. However. fo•·
ordinary indh·iduals, their nature. remains wh:u il is despite
h:wiug 1'CC:civcd insLructions from their masters. Even the
way o f the good cannm guide and change them. For the
sage. his n::nurc is inl1cront1~· great and profound; it is not
something that tl1e: 3\'erage person c.o.n follow and imittuc.
This is the reason whr all.houk!,h nil arc endowed \\ ith an
inborn muurc. it is nol possible to emulate the sage.

This follows the re:1ding of Li Xucqin. 1 The J>nSsase has also be-en
re:td in the opposite direction as testifying to the unh'crs:Jlity and
eonmtQru~l ily of human nature. Under thut interpretation. us JHOposcd by
Guo Yi. the text is saying that at binh. there is no dis1inction between the
n.11urc of the s;~gc and lhat of the ::t\'CI"ab'C person. The difference between
Litem is due to Lhc fact that ''hcrcas Lite fo rmer is dnmn to and grows wilh
the way o r the good. the l:tner remains \tnt hanged dcspilc ha,·inc n.::ceived

6 llu; '·Xmn.w c" ~1.:.;~ d wptcr of the Umt/dzi it.lcutifics ·'cil?hl sclhml:s"
t'l!' Con fuci ani~n nfh.'t the MaSJ<.' f's death·. ::c.~ Cht!'n Q 1)WI 1
* 1iftV:. J/tJnfol:l
jishi ~!l~I: Y.~ 'fJ: (Shangltai Shanl!hai rcmnin<::hulmn...Jtc. 1974). 1080.
1 l.i Xuc,tin 4"-'i~I'}J , "Shcng.r.:.'1l ~'1.1 7hongn.'n •• too Clwng :ht w'm :hi

;d1ong yitlutm w~1tti" 'YlAJ! .-p A - tl~ ¢J£:<:JWZ ) (11 _. f)I:)C!;~ . publi::.lt'-XI
oohnc :11 hllp/lwww.j Hmtm C'rg!\V~fiLIXUeqin him . August 2:9. 2000.
118 A /on A.'. 1.. Chm1

instructions from their teachers. Thus. ahJtough inborn nature is the same.
the avcrngc men and women c:mnot hope to learn to become 3 s.1gc.'
Titc two readings pan company not on philological grounds. ;t$

Guo Vi accepts most of Li Xucqin's textual rcconstructioo:9 rnthcr. the

diYcrgcnce sterns from the hennencutical issues identilie.d abo,·c and rcl:ucs
specifically to the pcrtcivcd doctrine of xlng in Confuc ius, If for Confucius
the highly intelligent and the most foo lish "'do not chau~c- (LV 17.3), and if
the (flrng zh1 \.fWJ zhi sccl\s to de\'clop Confucius· tcachincs. as Li Xucqin
s:ug~es1s. then surcl) there is a b:tsic difference bCh\CCn the nature of the
sage :tnd duu of the common. ayeragc pe-t-son. For Guo YL however. the
nuthor(s) here went beyond Confucius :~nd introduced for the lirst time in
the history of Chinese philosophy the idea that hwu3n nature is unh·crsaUy
the same.
On logical grounds. l i Xucqin oiTcrs a s tronger intcrpret:uion,
'lbere i..~ no disagreement oo the text's c.onc.lusion: th3t is, "'lhc people all
have xmg, but the sage cannoc be cmui.Jtcd (mu ~). - ll} Til is bess the
question. why'! lf one argues thill human nmurc is csscntiall~· lhc same, h
seems diflicuh to explain \\hy tltc sage alone is dr:m n to •• or ··is fond or·
(xt'ai 'tf, };2J. according to Guo Vi - the way of the good. The Cheng =hi
wen :hi. it should be no ted. seems to indicntc that the people not only do
not ch:mgc but more fundamcntollr cannot be uans:fonncd b)' moral
instruction. Funhcrmorc. if learning is dccisiYc, it is unclc:u- ,;,hy the
<wc.ragc person should uot i.1Spire to follow in the foot.SICJJS of the sat;es. 11
The text's strong conclusion, in short seems to point to a c-ategorical
diff'ercnce •• a diJTercocc in kind :md not one in degree •• between the
nature of the sage and th:u of the average person.

8 Gnu Y1 ~1:m. Guodimr zlmjitm yu xwn Qm Xtll'.~llt1 m:itmg ~:J,I{1'ffm:

.!)'Jj>\';~ l}\ IFi .{t~!lt CShauv.lmi; Shan~h~i jit'O)'Udn1ban.sh.:. 2001). 218-221.
'.:1 'l'her.: IS one d1fli:rL'flCC in pun~-lullllon. \\'h(·n::as 1.1 XuL·qin reads., ..ufllJt

lkWii!l!!., 3l'J)m·t:o·mr:.li$l!!.." Guo Vi ha' --UilJH~ O!lii! l!!.3l'Jiol. '(JfZ, f>j

~ fsJ: tE.." Guo Yt nute..;; lh(tlthc word ")•f' f~ foliO\\ s Lt Xucqin 's rcmftng, but
Li indicates that he td:cs the-word here to he.: "=t•"' ~l(.
10 'l'hc same rc.a."'mg a:; 3li00 sugs~o.-sh..-d by Qtu Xigm ~~:i± m Guod1a11
llmmu :lu!}lmr Wr.t; ~ >t~1'f f:t:i, cditOO b)' 1hc Museum of Jingmcn City
(Bc1jmg: \V(•ml'U chuh:miih(·, 19t)S), 170, n.2K: :md h~· Li Lmg -~~ . Guoditm
Clmjianjioodu j i $Ur.ti:f~i:;j.~;fl;~ (Rc.ij ing: Rcijinv. Dasuc chuban.l>he-. 2002).
122. Thi' Shtmgslm. sccttcu) 23 . .. Jun Chen"' ~:fl;q! . olso see m~ to s:u_£~!1.~., 111~1
the sogc c.annul be e.nulatcll. s.t."C Shtmg,,Jm ;h(wgyi t'.'•H'nr:ii~. Slrb'tmjing
:lm:tlm cdtllon ( fa ipcc ShiJiC, l9G3). 18.173,
11 Li l.mg tukes: lh is to lllC-an tl1ot C'\'(..'11 the s:as..:: crumot "adJ .. to tht'S(' who
have bcc:n trnn:s-fomtLxl. through Jcaming. I fowevcr, he docs not quite explain
\\hal distingui~h-cs th~.~ s:1ge from the ~1\'Cf~lg~,: p~...'f~)n Sec Li Ling. Qp. ell..
127-128
 119

TI1c Xing zi minx elm. in contrast is clear!~· or the view that

"within the four seas. human nature is one. That human beings appl~ lhcir
heart-mind dilfcrcntJy is due to the cLTcc-t of instru,tion'· (I!Y~ZJA:J. Jtt~
- ·1!!.. J~)i) ·t:.• ~ Y( ~1:1!t~t!!). " This scrYcs to ( I) draw out what the text
considers to be the correct conclusion of Lhc general :md probably
non-contr(wcrsial ~scrtion that "'xmg issues from life. and life slcms from
heaven" (f.l '.fl {o~f±l . 6,1 fi ;IC~lJ:" and (2) cxploin \\il)' humon beings tum
outlo 1x: dirferent which is ph,:nomeno l ogic;:-~11~ ap(Xlrcnl
Although !Ill human beings :trc endowed with nn inborn n:U:urc by
hc:wcn. b~· itself tlu.u docs not spcci(,· wheahcl' Lhcy have the sumc nuturc.
Indeed, coupled '' ith the obscr\':ttion th:u human beings are different in all
sorts of wnys -· Lhc sage. for example. ccrttlinly filr surpasses the overage
person in his pcrspicacily and spiritual :mai.Juncnts ~~ this m3)' casi l ~· lead to
the opposite com: lusion that inb<>m ll.3turc is not the S3me for all. Howc,•er.
~ccordi ngto the •.tmg ~' ming elm. what is dccish·e is thm

Jt A!ill:·li-tl:. •C·t':,!l!! .o:;. litt)Jtli\t:W, l·~'ln ti,ii!Hf. tit

~ifri ffi~.
n.hhough all human beings have xmg~ t11c heart-mind docs
not haxc n. fixed direction. nhich is fomtcd ilflcr it has
come into contact "ith ph!!nomcna. aroust!.d ancr it finds
the coorlitions pleasing. and tixcd .,ncr i1 h as sonc through
rcpcatcd pmct1.cc. t<

Whatc,·cr else the heart-mind mt~y be, it is the locus of xing. Put
diO'crcntly, inborn nature. whatever it:s content c:m be realized only tluoug.h
the physical. cognitive and afTC"~:.ti\'c processes of the hcart·mind. A strong
rc:tding of xmg would sec it as s.ening the direction of the be:tn·mind. As

t! Gum/ian Clmmu :lwjian, 179. The bnmlx>o h:xls t:ollcch.'tl by 1l1c

Sh~m gh :1 i Museum includ.: a \\'ork tlwt is :;ubs1:11111ially ll~ same us lhc Xmg 11
mmg elm a!'nJ h::tll- l'k::cu giH.'I:\ the 1illc. Xmgqi"g hm ·tl t,';5((. ~..:: M:l
Chcngyuan !!}IT!. if&. cd.. SlumkiWi /Jou "f!.uan cans: Zltlmg11o Clm :lmslm l·.if~
tfj ·ttJ~Wii.l\'!.X~~ft:M' 1~, \'Oinmc I (Shru1gh:.1i: Shan glt:~i guJi chub:tn~c. 2001}.
215-301.
13 GuiNiian Clmmu :huJI<w. 179. Miug rcflf'S It) tbc dcci\.'"C of hea\ cn. bul
hl.'l'e i1 m a~· be taken 10 mea11 luun:ul hft.". see flu1hc-r dt~U~ !Oil on 1hc C.flllCCJ)t
b::-low.
H CimNii<m ClmtmJ :ltll)iw•. Ji9·. cf, Li 'fisnbt)ng 2$S J~!I. Gut,trliuu

:hu;um Xing :.t mmg elm .ranjw ~llJ}i1'fffi\ 1•tfi 'J:iH~ I~ (\Vuh:m: Hubd
jinoyu clmhoosbc. 2003). 133. 1\ bclpful aonly:;i~ of the Xi11g :i miuJ? elm is
l.iang T :ttt ~r;.;. "Xing Zl mtng elm yu t.:;~.>.:ti Rujh1 ~mxiug. lun.. { f.E tl ®:H )
9'! tM~I fm*·C.· r.tUi. p :tn;o; I and 2. in
hHpJ/W\\ w j i:utb0,4.lJ!!/W&··fiL iantthJU 10-0 I Jum
i3ntl<l or~/Ws~lil. l angl;l010..()3 hiRl.
120 .-1fftn K. L Chan

Lhc Xing zi mirtg ~htt s:ccs iL hoWC\'Cr. the hcan~m ind is subjoct to cx1crnal
influences. lflhis is true. il c:mnot be said that by nature the sage is blc-ss\.."<1
with an nnwa,·cring heart-mind that is immune to cx1cmnl influences: i.e ..
thJt the sage is born with n special nature thnt steers the heart-mind in
certuin inl1crcnt directions despite \'t~ry i ng circumstance-s. This suggests 1h:u
individual difTc-rcnccs :uc not due to xing: consequently. learning emerges
<:~s the- only c~nd i dutc that can account for .such d ifferences. This. then.
prov ides sufficicnl reason to conclude that inborn n:uurc is the same :tnd
that it is learning thm sets human beings apart \\hich in this reading.. or
course. i."> meant to brlng out also what Confucius ·'really.. meant in f.tmyu
17.2. rhc question is on what b~si s can one assert that the heart-mind docs
not hm·c on) inherent -'direction·· (;hi ~)'!

THE CONTENT OF XING

TI1e Xing z i mmg l:lm makes another point: .. Dao begins with qmg,
nnd (/in,g is born of x ing- (it!~fHktN. t.~i~M tl:). u Moreover. the text
defincS.)'iffg cxplicilly as .. the tt i of pleasure. anger. sorrow. nnd grief' (>!.f.
-,·~.t•,"'(l~Z.~·~I:l!!.).16 TtJkcn together. a c.asc can 1>c made that ( 1) tflug is
tutdcrstood to mc:111 the emotions: (2) the qing~motlons nn:: constituted by
vital "pncumas'" or "energies" (tJi): (3) xin~ is constituted b) tJi. among
'I'
whk:h arc the of the emotions: and (4) in this scn."c the emotions arc born
of :l'ing. This would c~-plain why the hca.rt·mind is ficldc, for qi can be
aroused and expend in different d irections "hen they come into contnct
"'ith Jlhenomcnn.
The 'onccpt of qi. of c.oursc! has a long history. Lca,·ing aside the.
origins of the concept. one-may safe ly (:Onc:ludc that by the Wilrring StatC$
period q1 \\3S widely understood as the basic constituent o f the cosmos <'nd
the dynamic energies that make. life possible. Life (shcng 1:) may be seen
to ha,·c :triS(.."fl from hca\'cn 's "'mandate" or as forming part of a nalural
..order" (mi11g 'lfi!) : but whether tl1c concept of mmJ! is totkcn religiously or
n:uuralis ticatly. it docs not quite tell us " hat li fe is. Thm is tlte \\'Otk of xwg,
which scr\'CS to define life, articulating its j)C'rcci\'ed contcnL purpose rutd
direction. ll would be simplistic to as~umc dmt the concept of xin.t: yielded
only one meaning. Nevertheless. polysemy docs net mean anything goes.
,.\'in;: may imitc di\'crsc in tcrpn::i;~.tions. but i1 c:m hardly be di\'orccd

1
~ (;umlian C:lmmu zlmjiim, 179 El~C\\hcn:, the .\'ittg ::i min}; e lm ~llh:s,
" tf1118 ISSUt.'S from :rmg" ftitl lh'H~I:. I :SO. Anolhl·r (iuo de:m texc. J'ucong er· C.lf
m= al~1 afli nns, ..,,;,g i~ bom ~.~r xiug'' 1;$!th'H1:. r;,wdiun Clmmu dwjia11,
203
1
~ Gu~Hiiau Clumw :lmji(m, 119. -J}..·t' J!': sigul.fics not only grief but
.at~, p it~· tuld i n d i gn~:£l i<.ll\ ,
 /)ri Soge.s /!trw Emotlrm.t? 121

completely from the concept of (Ji. which brc:tJ,.s down phenomena to their
underlying processes and constituents.
From this pc:rs)X:ctivc, with the concept of qi in the b:~ckground ,
tbc llrtWIIKZi thus defines .\'lng as l.hc "subst<~nc¢" (tid) of one·s life ('t~;?i·
1:.Z fi I!!). 11 lf xing defines life, "h:.ll. then, constitutes ;,.·ing·t The Xuu:i
explains. "'iJmg is the subs1ancc of xing·· (f& l ld'l:2. fllli).18 lnsofbr as qmg
issues from xiug. il can be said to be csscnti;al to xmg: by c:x-tcnsiou. qing
thus si~ n ifi<.-s \\ hat is "genuinely so" not only of lhings bul also su~ t cs of
nfft~irs. 11 As cognili\'c-affcclin:: mun~ments of lhc he3rt-mind. however,
qin;: translates into specific emotions sueh as plc;tsurc and ttn~cr. Recall the
dclinilion of qing in the Xwtzi cited earlier - likes and dislikes, ple3surc
nnd 3ngcr. and sorrow And joy nrc specific emotions ll.nd can be said to be
cssC11tial ingredients of xin.~. The Li.fi makes n similar poinL albeit \\ith n
dill'ercnt soning of the emotions: '·What is meant b}' human qmg'? 1-lcasurc.
~nge r. sorrow. fear. lon~ :1\'Crsion. and desire ·~ these scnn arc wtlnt humoo
bcin&s arc naturally ,;apablc of \\ ithout hn\·ing to acquire through learning·~
o~~r n~'l }. . ttn .g: ~ .f~ t~ f! illtfit ·t::·fi· ~~~;~ riu' !!~). ! o)
According Lo the Zmdwtm. "lltc common J'coplc ha\'c likes nntl
dislikes, pleasure and anger. and sorrow and joy. which arc born of the six
qr ( l~ 'fi AI· :iii Xt ;:t .R !'.!! . ~ IR ~ Ji( ). " Setting :tSido !he c\"idcnt
numerological interest. there-cnn IX! little doubt thnt the emotions nrc seen
to be t ·onstituted by qt. Because the people ~uc dri\'cn by these emo1ions,
the. luo:lumn continues. the mlcr should carefully regulate the ..six
dire<:tion.c;" (lw :zh1 J\;~) - or ":u.pinuions,'' in its mol sense of "'brc.:uhing
upon'" and b}' c~tcnsion seeking to reach something~· of the bcan·mind that
stem from them. On Lhis passage. Kong Yingda il ·Uh:fi {574 ... 648)
c:ommcnls. -These •six :/ri~ ircc:tions ' nrc identified ns the six qmg in the

1• Xluumg~i, ch:tpCer 23. "(ft:ng..c;:m~ C:hu~ U!~M.; in GUtl Qmgf:m $1~J.fl

t~. 7./urrmx:tJhfu' JiF. 7·-!~Hl! (Dcijint;. Zhonghu.1, 19$5). 810.
111
Xmd, "Z.hengming," inXtm:i zlltm ,, uori''· Ill
1
~ On !.his us:~gc of qwg ,
S<.'C ;\. C. tir:.~h~lm, "'l'hc Mcnci:m Thetll)' o f
lluman Nnrurc: · rcpnntcd in Gn\ham, Studh•s in Chim:sc 1'/ulosopll)-' nml
Philllsophimllih•nllurc (Singapore: [nstitutc (If Ea:sl Asion Phifosoplucs. I?86.
unJ Alban~' : State Uni\'('1:-it)' or New Y\)!'k Pt-cs..;. 1990), $9-60 Sec :tlso 1hc
r{'(.-cnl stuclu:s- by Mich :u~l l' ueu, ''The Elh1cs of Responding PropL-rly; The
Noti<'n of QwJ; in E<~rly ChiOt..~c 'fht)ught." and ChristOJlh llarbsmcu!r. "The
S~;."tllillltic~ of (ling in )1Jc·Ouddhi!!1 Chirlc-.sc.'' in Lo~·t• mrJ /.£motions iu
Trrulilitmal Chine.t<' Ut~roture , cdilt-'d hy Jloh',,r Eifring (Lt:illen and Rtl:->tHn:
l3nll , 2004). 37~~ and 69-14g, respc:,ll\''ly.
z.> Ujr, ch3ptcr 9, ··t.iyun" r.'ll!i!: in Lfji :h~m~;J·i ?n~l!tE -ii. Jmm 22,
Shi.w11ji"g :/m.dwcllitil'ln ( r;.Jil'ci. Slujic. 196J). 27b.
71
luo:l:mm, Duke Zh;,o, year 25. in C'huuqiu Zuo:lman :Jwugy1 ..{~ .fXJ,:
(#iE:i (Ikijing: Beijing dasuc dwh.:msbc. 1999). j tum 51. 14;4: cf. Duke..:
Z.h;to, year I, 116)- 1167.
122 .-1fftn K. L Chan

Book of Riu:.s. Within ones<::lf. the~· arc ~lied qing: "hen the <Jinx arc
act1vatcd they :~recalled :hi. Qmg and zh1 ~rc one" (~t7\:t.rno~:i1'i..L~tt
·1'EL!.lW1. !ll~il~:.!;. tli;t; ·ill)." Tite tcxa c11titlcd Min t ill jim111 ~;t
XN in the second series of the Shnngbn.i Muscmn bantboo texts. witlt
parallels in the L~Ji and the Kong:i jwyu ?L-f'·;~hli . likewise Jinl;,s the
:hJ-dircctJon of the hC;trt·mind to tJ1c cmotioos and to the forces of q1. !.l
The reason \\h)' the Xing :1 mftlg t:Jm considers the hcan-mind 10
be without any inherent direction thus seems dear. The heart-mind is:
indeed shaped by :ting. but the important point is thot xing embraces the
emotions. which :trc formed by ql . ln Oi)er~t ion:.lterms, ple:'lsure, 3ngcr and
other emotions nrc particul:lf conccntr::ttion and movement of qi: the
Zlmnngzi. for example. charnc.terizes o.ngcr in tcmts of concentrated qi
·'rising up without coming down: · l J Rising from xmg through the
bc:~rt·mind nod in reaction to extcm:.l i_ n.n\tcnecs, the emotions c;m '\':1~· in
strength nod bc::c::omc ''c.'iccssivc.- rcgardlc::ss of the ethie&~J standnrds :~pplicd.
whether they ste-m from ccnain intcrnnl mc-cuurc or c....:tcrnal conu·ol. T he
LiisiJi clwnqlu .·1 1k:(}: V\. for example, seems to suggest thnt there is an
intern:~ I mc01surc (ju: fijJ) regulating human "ap-petites.. (tnn -(t ) and
'·desires'· (1'11 f.k). \\hich rue naturally endoncd and common to both
s:tgc:-kings and t)·ranas.:f> In contrast. the Xmg : I mmg c-ht1 seems to mla!
ritual and moral in.<~~truction to be the stnndard. In either case. the wtdctl~·ins
argument is th3t because lite emotions :ttc constituted by ,,,., tJtey can m O\'C
the heart-mind in different directions.
If inbom nature is cssc.ntially the same for all. nnd if it c.onsists of
(JI<onstitutcd emotions. the c.ritic<ll role or
l~rning and instruc.tion seems
evident HoweYcr. should oot the s~gc be considered differently given his
cxlraordinory J.thicvem<:nls. which nrc clc-nrly bc::)ond the C\lpDcity of the
average pcrson't Tltc bamboo tC~tS or Guodian indicate that the (ltiCSiiOn
:tlrcttdy tlttr.Jctcd significant :ntcntion during the W~rri n g Stntcs period
among Confucian sc.holnrs. Pctf1:tps the Confucian text entitled Wuxinf:! Ii
tl found in botlt Mawangdui and Guodian giv<:s :.1 sense of the challenge
that the question of s:.gc nature has presented. Whereas the Guodian \'Crsion
of the text singlc!i o ul "Slg:'lcily·· (Sheng :\'!) :~s diJfcrcnt f'rom bcnc, ·olcncc,
rigluness. riiUal propriety and wisdom in that it remains an "inner.. \'irtuc
cren \\ hen it is not ftJIIy fa nned within the bean-mind, the Mawangdui

:!: Clmuqiu Zr~ <J:/w(m :lti'"KJ'i, 1455. 'J'hl! ZuQ:/mwr olso indic-:tll!$ thnt if
the "si,'i qr· \\ere in c-xc..::ss. !he people would l o~ thdr "n:uun;- (xwg): ibid .
1449.
ZJ Mn Cht."tl).!~'u3n, ecl., Slumglmi JlO'I'IIlgll(m cang Zhanguo C/w : lruJ/m.
volul)lc 2 (Shaoghni: Sh:t.ngbni guji, 2002). 169, 172-173.
:.• Zhmmg-:1. chJ1ptcr 19... l)as.hcng" i:E4:. Zhmmg:' Jil hl. 650
:J /..1i.5hi d umqiu, choptcr 2,. "Qi.ngyu" Ml'ik; S<.'C Jo hJl Knoblcx:k and
Jc.fl'r..:y Riegel. trans . rft(; .·l t~n(l/~· {}/ La /Juw.:t (Stu.nfon.l: St:~nJ'ou.l Unin:r.:!ily
Press. 2000). 84.
 /)ri Soge.s /!trw Emotlrm.t? 123

\'Crsion sees all fh·c as equal in thm depending on whether they are fully
formed in the heart·mind. they may constilule vinuous chnractc:r wilhin or
find expression only in morally commendable conduc-t without. Whereas
' 'ittuous eharnc.ter (de tt;;} is u matter of the ·· oao of hca\'cn:· moral
conduct (!,·han i!ii) bclonss to the - olo of bum3n beings:' :<. There is no
need to adjudie:ue which is 1hc "correcf' or .. original" nrs io n ~ wha1 is more
impon:mt tbr our purpose is that they may reflect difiCrcnt thinldng
concerning humo.n tultW'C in gcnerol nnd sage nature in p.uticular. The way
of hcn\'en seems 10 point to an inborn nature. "herc.ns the '"lY of human
beings suggests lcarni.og and effort. Ag..i.n. altbough it is clear 1ha1 ordi.n!lry'
indi\'iduals require leamins and elTon 10 become one with tbe. wuy of the
bl()()d. the Sil&C prcsems a more challenging problem 10 Confuci:ln
philosoph~rs . The \1ltious auempL<; nt resolving lhe problem helped shape
tile development of Confucian philosophy; but it would be ru1 o,·crstatcment
to say that there was an ··orthodo~ " solution accepted by all. at Jeast prior 10
the ascendancy or··Chcng·Zhu" Nco·Confucianism.

HARMONY, NATURAL NESS. AN II T H E W ORKINGS OF Q /N(;

During the-H:m period (20(, BCE -· 220 CE). to be sure. there was
siguilic-nnt de\'elopmcnl in mopping out a comprehcnsh·e picltlre of the
hum:111 being hosed on " ' h3t may be loosely C:llled the yin·yang; fh·c·phasc
cosmology. Howe\'cr. ll1crc is no need 10 rchco:u·sc that dc\·e lopment here, so
long as it is: recognized th31 human beings 3rc seen 10 embody the yin and
yang qi&forc.cs of the uni\ CI'SC. For example. Wang Chong's I Tc (27 ·~
drc.n tOO) ' icw that xmg is constilulcd by tji is well L:n0\\11, : 7 During the
c:uly yc:trs of the Wei dyn:l$1~· (22U •• 265). n fresh dcbltc on the qing of
the s.1ge cl\lptcd bet\\ CCn He Van (ii(J.(:. (d. 249) nnd Wang Bi ~r:~r·; (226
·- 249). As the Stln~uo:hi relates.

fo>J/f.i !;l l~!'ll Jdl\"~~ ¥0~. Jt;.~.JH'I. l.1l (~ ~Joillz. i'ti!

o;!FHfiJ. !M~!P. A i.~ L~ A ;!l·1•!"~1 ll!.. fii!V~ A.:r.· Ti.fi'1 !!1..
f.ll19JJ'X, ~~f~)fl 1 .fillj,.il!j .Y,t . :/itl/(iiJ. t&~~ff.qfcJti~l;l.
le.\<l'-1. ~t, !!'! J\'! A 1::tli. ~·l~!Tifi.~!; Jt: liNn r.· W.. 4' liJ. Jtiff;
It'
n~ • i;li'
I)!.,; l"'';'jili"'"
It I 'I (~1~17J , ,AZ.
..• "'fi~
:V~•

:os Sec Pang Pu Ji:lHJL 7./mbo Hi,xi"K piau jiatJ:1m ji yv:mjiu 1'f M1i.1i1;;'i
tn!lUJf·~~ ('l'a ipc•: Wan,iunnlou tu:shu, 2000). I. 11 un~l 29 The Mnwangdui
\'CT>ion ""'~'- r:m T· fllilfl:t ('!J:t If. ::f'IIH·Ji.l fif/:t If ... ~'lli 1' i.\JiJJ:tW
-':. ~~ . ~'JfFJ.:.IJ:I ,'S(2.ff The Gulxli.m \.'-1'ston, lh'l\\'t'·cr, hn~ f.'Vf.:.T!J.HW~
(.{ tt. tT. 1~1t* l~ Jo'>J~Z tt:Z. fi: tlw.t i~. ''h!ug is wu\lu..: m tiHtl 11 is •llw<•~·, an
"umcr" \ inue
:· Sec, tOr C\:::unpk MOll Zong.~an iJ~.;T- 2. Ct1ixi11g y u.wum/, ;:;J·tt~\!"?f~
11~ (T:.ipd: Xu ~sht.•n g shuju, 199.1), ch;•ptcr t.
/U .-1fftn K. L Chan

He Van bclic,·cd that tl'c sage docs not Juwc pleasure and
:anger. or sorrow and joy. His mgumcnt ,,·as extremely
cogent Zhong Hui and others c"-poundcd it Wang Bi
offered n contrarr ,·icw. He bclic,·cd that the sage
sutp3sscs 1he common people i n his di\'ine perspicacily.
but he is the $o'l mc ::u; cYcryonc in hoving the. fin: emotion$.
Because o f his deep spi1it·likc pcrspicac.il)', he is thus able
to embody hnnnony and reach the state oJ' not h~wing
Mything (such :as sclf-in tcccst or pani:tl it~ that ''ould
negate harlllt)ny). BcC3usc he shares the same fi\'C
emotions. he cannot but ha,·c sorrow and j oy in response
to phenomena. 1-Jowc,·cr. although the affccth ·c capacity of
Lite sage responds to things. it is not fcucrcd b) them. Now.
if in view of the foc t thtn the s.:.ge is not fi!Ucred by things.
one concludes th.lt he does not respond to them n.t :'111. then,
indeed. ooc f:.1r misses the mntk.2$

Titis is nn important debate which has a direct bcllting on the

dC\'Ciopmcnt of Nco-Confucianism. Studies on Wci·Jin irucllcctual history
onen make the point that '' hercas He Yan was arguing that sage nature is
··emotjon.lcss·· (wuqilrK). Wang Bi defended 1he ..affccth ity·· of the sage.
This ma~· be easily misunderstood.
As- I h:lve addressed thi!' issue in some detail elsewhere. I will onlr
give n brief summnry here.;:? Tberc is little disagreement that He Y~
c.on~idcred the 0010 3S the wurcc of 311 be ings. l1 is also s ufficiently dear
thtn he acc~ptcd the then pre' oJcnt view th:u ~mg is constihttcd by qt. Three
poilus follow fmm this latter claim. f irsL \\tun tJUs means is that xing is
understood conc.rctely as a kind of qt..constitutcd ··subst::mc.c - (zlu' {1),
which in tum mny be e;\:piOlincd in terms or n person's inborn "cap.'lCit:y'"'
(Uti ;.1· ). understood broadly as en"ompassing phy5ical cndo\\ment.
intelligence, morol and communic:llive competence and the c.opocity 10
-.tencrutc entoli\1.~ responses. Second. indi\'Kiual nature lnd c.op~cil) em:
csscn1ially dctcnnincd by qt, aflhough Je.aming :md pmc1icc, including the
usc of certain drugs. m:ty nugmcnt one's capacity to some c~ICUL Third. the
sage is categorically diflCrcnt from the an:mgc person in that he is endowed
with the finest and richest tfl possible. Simply put. sages arc born. not made.
He Yan thus works from a basic fourfold classification of human
beings. i.n d.1c. stnsc desc.ribcd abo, c. WJutl complicntcs matters is that He
Yan is aiSt.l wcl!.known co ha\"C chnmp10ned a new appro~ch to the Oao as
wu, "nothing:· Viewed u1onJ;$ldc his thesis thot the s:~ gc docs OQl

~ Smzguo:hi.JIIIIII 28 ( Hcrjmg· i'honghua, 19g2). 795. n.I.

~ I l1aw cx:unmcd th(~ i.SSU('S tn nn ) s.::parutc ,-.,uuys. "'Stlgc Nut\u-c aod
th" L<.l£ic. of Nomclc:)Sflcss: R.:.:onstruc:ting. 1k Yon '~ Exp1ic.ntion of O:~o.., unc.l
·'Ttk! N'aturc ._,!'the S3~'\! and the Ett)l)ti~.ms in Wci-Jin l'hilosophy.-
 /)ri Soge.s /!trw Emotlrm.t? 125

experience pleasure and anger. or sorrow and joy. it is understandable why

llc has often been credited \\ ith the view that the sage embodies the
..nothingness- of the Dao and is therefore -"ithoUI emotions·· (wuqing) in
tl1e-sense th:H the nature of the sage is ··empty.- like a stone pillar. as it \\ere.
de\'Oid of emotifc sub.swnce and cnpaciw. On closer inspection. hoWC\'Cr,
He \';m seem$ to hold u \ "'CI)' d ifferent conception o f lhc Dao and the nature
of the sugc.
From the surviving fragments of He Ymfs ''Discourse on Dao.. and
.. Discourse on tJ1c Nnmc.tcss.. .. it is clear thlll he defines Oao as wu not in the
sen:1c of absence or negation but in \'iew of its ..completeness.. (q mm
::i?:) •.io) Because the Dao is " undifferentiated and C·ompletc." as the l.aMi
puts it (chapter 25). it is nble to bring forth all phcnonu:nOJ. This. to He Y:m.
is but another way of s.1ying lh3tthe Oao is the source of qt. Furthennore,
the Dao·s complclcness dict:ues llult it mu$1 remain n :~mclcss. Names cntnil
dislinc(il)nS: the Dao. in CQrtiJ'a$1, lo~;;.i c<l lly Ci111111)t have distinctions. for
otherwise it would not be able to bring abou1 the dilferemituion of ti and
consequently the processes of creati,·c transtbrntntion. The ccmt -o4to''
ser\Cs but 3 heuristic purpose and docs not dctrac.t from the essential
namelessness of that which gh·es rise to fo rms and names.
In saying tb:u the sage docs not e,\:pcriencc pleasure aod ongcr. ::mel
other emotions. He Ynn is lhus not suggesting that the sage lacks ecnOJin
cogniti\'C and affective-capaciry. Embodying in ::tbundance the purest qi lh.tn
('manates from the Oao~ lhc sogc enjoys an cxtroordinnry nature that yie ld.~;
optim<ll cap.1cit> on nil fro•lls. As sucl1. the sngc canJlOI be l uc kin~ in nny
way. The. asscnion that the sage- remains unmoved by cxtcmal influ ences
thus reflects a conception of so..gc n:iturc thai min·ors the Dao in being
undiffercntialod ~md complcle. This agrees with the po rtray~ I of sage nature
as integr:~ Uy "hi!rmonious" (:Jumghe 111;111) in the third-c:-cntuf)· work.
Remmzhi A111.~( (An Account of Human Capacity), As liu Shao ~H!I>.
autJtor of the Rt nll'uZIIi argues. the substance of h:tnnouious nature is
neccssa.rily "blnnd,- i.e., without distinguishable-lla\OIS_;H This is a logical
poin1. for only what is undi flCrenli:~ t cd and com piece c;m gcncr.uc the .. five
tastes." i.e .. the bosis of oll spcdfic- fl:~vors. Simi larly~ it is the sage's
hannonious and absolutely imp:tnial nature that enables him and bjm alone
to :\ceOmplish the projc.'Ct of ideal order (w iping ) .;. ¥ ).3:

'c'.1c:rvc..l in Zh~ng Zban·s 'l!Hi!

)<) lie Ywf s IW(I "OJ.scotu·S\:s.. :-.rc p1

Ct)mmcnlaJ}' i'n the LI~·:J; see Yang Bojun. Llt':l pshr ~lj-="'(·!J!f~ (Bcijmg:
l bongbuo, t985), tO- ll , ond t21.
~~ Rt·nwurhl. ~.:haJ>h:r 1. " .ltuzhcng" h. W. Cou~.1lm jich~:ng xiubUm
cd1l10n {Taipei· Xmwcnfcng, 198.t), \'OI 20. 443.
\VhC!her 1bc :kt£C utonc could rc;Liizc "'greut pcucc'· w:1s the subj,-ct or
J:.
intense dd :xatc during the lion-Wei transition. I considered this quc~i on in a
~p~n•tc :tl1iclc. ' ' Wh~tt nr~ the ·Four R(,•) ts Qf Capacit}' tmd Ni•tun.:··r · in
Vmccnt Shcn ~nd Wdl:mJ Oxtoby, (.'(Is . fl'rJ·tlom In Clthta m1d riN.· 11'..-.rT
126 .-1fftn K. L Chan

From the Sanguozhi account citctl abo\C. Wang Bi rcoogttii..CS tbat

" nothingness·· should be understood in t.;nns of " hannony"' on He Van's
,·icw. Without going into any dct;)il here. W:mg Bi was concerned primarily
with the cthicnl and politkal implications of He Yan·s argument. \\hich
rule-s out the possibility of :ntaining sagehood. If He Van was concerned that
human nature is driven by desire. Wong Bi ~ountcrcd that human beings
lllil)' itt !<lin a profound d isccnuncnt or c larity of ahe hcart·mind t11at "ould
enable them 10 exercise their qmg in response to things and niTairs without
bcins tied (lei ~{) to lhem. in the sense that they do not bcc.omc a burden
that weighs them down. a burden which turns natural. nurturing bonds into
cnslowing bondage. If this is possible. then one no longer needs to defend ;~
special soge onturc that excludes spcci(k interests and quillities.
Wh;n sets He Yru1 and Wang Bi apart, then. is that \\' here.:~s to the
forme r, the s:t!;C is Q SJlCC:iaJ kind of being bct.:tUSC Of his C:CtCpfionaJ
qi-c.ndowmcnt. to tl1c latter. Lhc sage and tl1e a\·emge person share the .some
essemial nature :md the difference betwee-n them is a mauc-r of attainment. a
dilTercncc in degree. Altl1ough He Van is not s:1ying that the S3gc lacks the
cap.acit)' 10 gcncr.ue cJh rg in people and aObirs. be cannot but maintain that
sagchood is not 3 genuine ethical option. Thus. on Conf,tcius• call to "set
ooc's roiod on D.'lo- (Llm)7t 7.6). He Yan comments: "Selling ooc roiJ:Id's
on somellting means to aspire toward it TI1c Dao c;umot be embodied (for
ordinary indh,iduals): ahus. one can onl~- set o ne's mind 30er it.''t~ This
cnlls to mind the argument of the Guodi3n Cheng :hi wen :hi. Although He
Yon udmits "' <Jspi.rin~( towtud the Dno. in denying the possibilitr of
"embodying.. it he is emplo~ ing b3sically tJ1c S:lnlc reasoning - i.e .. sage
nnturc. tJ1c onto logic31 crystollizntion of the D:~ o. is inborn and cannot be
attained tlnough learning and elfon.
To Wang Bi. however. it cannot be admiltcd 1hat sagchood is
beyond the rc..1ch of the 3\'Cragc person; otherwise. the common ontological
ground that unites the S.l&C nnd the people would be SC\'CJ'W and as such.
the sage's ability m rcachmg the people and ciTcctmg genuine ch.Mgc
would be called into question. D:.o. indeed. must not be rcificxl, but humM
beings arc endowed with a nature that in its 3Uthcntic mode ll:nds toward
stillness ond C0111a ins sufficient rcsourc.cs to :lllBin s3gCI)' illuminntion. So
long as one's emotions nbidc by the ODlural Q(fcctivc 01-de:r of ),'ing. they will
ntl l become devi3nt or exc-essive: thus. to \Vang Bi Lhe key to sagchood lies

(Wnshiu~ loo . DC : Council for Rcsc:.roh in Vnlucs nOO Philosophy. 200-1}.

143- 184 .
•:J Jhm Yan ·:i Lw1)'U .liJi? ;~JtiSU:ft-¥. i.s :1 c:Qlll'Ctiv.; cfli.m , but thc1\! is
some ugrecment Lht1t those. comm..:nt:> not :JSCriboJ to !Ill~' author m the
collection reflect He- Yun's own vi~·w. Oo the pluus.:. -zld Y" tla(i ' ~J.~~~ jfl in
the l.ml)·1t. He Y::m 's c.ummcntOI)' rc::~ds:· " :&:, ·£l l!!.. ill •F11/t'O:. l'tl. :ol~ L I(U'C " ;
in Lw~L'U jijit• .~·islm . with 1Iunng Kan':s :mb-commcnllll'}'. 64 (sec note 5. .,bo\'c).
Subscqucnl qu'.Ualion:l from lie Y:tn ·s IAWJ'll ~vnuucnt al}' .an: li'(JIU this ~.:d i t i <lfll
anti Will be cued in the text
 /)ri Soge.s /!trw Emotlrm.t? 127

in ensuring llmt onc·s lJing confonn to xi11g (f.f.~t1tf). 3"' This should n01 be
c:onJbscd with any :1r1ifieiol attempt to rci.n i.n ouc 's emotions, The s:.gc is
mUum1Jy free from lhc burden of desire because he rc.1lil..CS full~· his
original nmurc, and in this sense can be said to h:wc embodied
·•naturalness.. (:iran !:If!.\) and returned to his ··roots" iu D:~.o.
No doubt, He Yan and Wang Bi would each have their supponers,
but one may also assume that to some. neither position seems entirely
satisfactol)·. Where:ts lie Ynn's view cffcclivcly remo\·.:s the sage from the
ethical and political::.gcnda -- 10 be rcplae.cd by a class of "abo\'C :werage"
individuals. like Yon Yu.:tn .iHW~I. Confucius' pri~ed disciple. who by virtue
or their superior q/-endo\\ ment ,·is-il-\1iS the common people c.an and
sbould be entrusted with the t:uk of S,O\'Crnment - Wang Bi's faith in a
simple o.nd ttanquil xi11~ core may appear far too sanguine in d•c face of the
oflen brutal contest of p<)\\er and desire in human aiTairs. From another
pcrspccti\'c. although it ~ppcars reasonable that no ordinary pc:rson could
hope to become like Confucius in ever) respect. it seems counter-intuitive
to assert that Confucius did not e;>~pcriencc plcast1re and sorrow. In this
regard. Guo Xiang ~UMt. (d. 312) offers un nllcmntiYe to the problem of the
(Jing of the ~gc .
Like He YD.n. Guo Xi<1ng also argues from the premise that the
limit of one's nature and c3pacity is determined by 'fi . Thus. Guo Xiang
affirms tl1al there arc those "ho arc born sages by \1irtue of their special
inborn nature . .l.' Howe,·er, Guo Xiang also cmph.asi~.cs th:'ll indi,;dual
muurc. though diffcrtnl. is "--nth complcle and self-suffic-ient in its own right
The unchangeabilil)' of :r:lng and 1hc auainnbilit)' or s3gehood :uc not
mutually exclusive. Harking back to the Guodian Cheng :lu wun :lu, Guo
Xiang could there fore soy that it is pointless to emulate the sage. Yet
sagchood can be auaincd because ··sage" is but the name we give to 1hosc
who bn,'c realized fully their inborn nature. 36 He Y:tn is right in
recogni1Jog IMl one's qi·constilutcd nature may be ·'thick" or "tltiu" and
conscquenaly that indi'liduals differ in their capacity: but. this docs not
cnt:tiJ that s;~gchood is the cxclusi\'c prcscn ·c of a- sclctt few. Wang Bi is
right in maintaining t11..11S3gchood is an auainnble goaJ. but this docs not
\\arrant reducing the diversity of xlng to a common core, The rc•al issue is
how one c.ould realize fully one ·s indl vid u~l nttture and :mnin libcrntion
from I he tynmn~· of desire.
WlH!n Yan Yuan died. Confocius was inconsol:tbl\:: (/,unyu 11.10).
This could noi be explalncd s::ttisfactorily if one relics on He Y::m's account

;\I Commcnt!lf) to the: l.w~u, 17.2~ in Lou Yulic t!Ji ~j!fr.t Wang Hi Ji

jilM).t lli I~liJUH·;n~ (JJ.-:ijing: Z.honghua, 198()), 631-632.

-" Gun Xt::mg, lluumg=i :flu }lF. -f t l: , ch:-.ptcr 5, m Guo Qmgf:m~
5

2htttJJIK:i j ishi, 1 9~. n.4. All quot11tions from Guo XiMg ·s llw aupi
("ommenU'l)' ~11c from this \\ ork.
'\IS Zlmlmgzl Co~mmmtlll)'. ch I . 22. n. 16
128 .-1fftn K. L Chan

of the ideal sage. To Wang Bi. there is nothing lo explain here. for
Confucius is no difTcrcnt from CV\.Tybody else in cxpcricncing sorrow at the
passing of n fritnd or loved OOC·. nlthough he is DOl burdened by it rutd
remains true to his nature. On Confucius' show of emotion. GtlO Xinng
write-s., ''Just as C\'Cryonc c •icd, Confuc ius also Cl'icd: just as C\'ei)'One wns
deeply soddened. Confuci us was :also deeply saddened. This is the way in
\\ hid 1 someone wl1o is wuqiu~ ( i.e .. Conrudus (jiiU sage) changc.s with
tbing;s:·n Similarly. this is why Q in Yi ~~*· 3 friend of Laozfs. only
gave lltrco perfunctory cries at the latter's funeral: ..The people ntourncd
and he also mourned: the people w:~ilcd and he also wailed." u Needless lo
Slly. deception cnn be ruled out It is nlso not the c.asc that the Silgc lncks the
c;~p.nci t'' to feel sorrow. Rnthcr. ~s Guo Xiang gms on 10 sur. the SJgc
recogn i~.cs that ··sorrow aud joy are born of a sense of toss and gain," Life
:md dc~ th. rcspecti\·cly the most cherished of 311 goins nnd loJscs. arc but
moments o f nalur.lllransfonuotion. Titc s;Jge understands the proccssc.s o f
change and conseq uent!~ docs not attach an~· \'aluc to or im·cst :tny emotion
io them. ln this sense. the sage crut be said to be -witbout emotions'" (;hin:n
"wqhJg ?a~:J... J!..r,Wi).w
What m11kcs this kind of di,·cstmcnt possible is not rut assumed
unity or .t:i11;:. but a dc<:p understanding of the workings of qing. The
emotions Ill:'!)' be m:'!ny, but thC)' arc derived from one's likes and dislikes.
The luozlwnn, for examp le~ has ::tlrcndy noted 1hnt -pleasure ls born of
likes. and anger is born of dislikcs.-Vo Being of ..one heart" (l ixin Tt,C.·)
with !mother person. the luoziJuau ~so obscrYCS. means th:lt one's .. likes
and disli~cs arc the same as the other's.'''" One of the Guodian bamboo
text'i., the litet)t~g )'1 F.thll - stotes, "When there is life nnd conl\ciousru:ss,
then likes and distikc<S nrc bom.-"': Another Guodian frat:.mc:nt points <.lUI
that dislikes arise from one's nature and ~i\·c rise to anger...!1 The Luny1~
:tlso seems to rc~ogn i ze the importance of managing one's likes and dislikes
•• as Confucius is repo1tcd to lt.l\ e s3.id. only a person of bcne,·olencc could
like or dislike someone, presumably in an ethically responsive and
responsible m.aM.e r."" One could further specify. ns the Xun:i docs. thn1

J" Comment~· to l.w');" 11. 10. Js c i!C'd mlluans. K:m. l.tii~J'1t jijie y ishu.
J1 Z/tu(m~:iCotttm{:ntmy. ch 3.127. n.l.
9 l lttWIIgtf (\mtmcllf(l")t. ch J . 128. n. I
"> l "(>zlnrim .l)uJ.:c Zhao, yr. 25, C lnmqiu 7.utdwtm :hen~·1, 14:)5
41
ibid., 1461.
4! aumli(m Clmmu :lmjhm, 193. The lc,'-:t J\:ad~; 1'Et1.0m ffiif:{C~~fM~t.
The Xwg 11 mmg elm put' il mor¢ succinclly · ';'l.•ke:; and thslikes arc (JX•r1 of)
xll•..t('(~f:it~t.'t ill): G uotlltm Clwmu :lmjttm. Ii9.
11
Gmxlion Clmmu;lmjum. 204. The t~'-:1 n:;•ds: miJ.k!tt-t ~~.6~~ .
4 3. 'J'herc 3JC different intcrpri!t:llions or lhis. A<.-cording 10 the
... Llflf)'lt

1/Qu 1/mtJim ~f~ l~. jlt(m ;O <Odjin~- Zhonghu". 1'>82). 167;. n.2. this
mcttns dt:lt the likes ~nd d1slikl'$ <'f one ''hl' v!'llucs bcm.."\'Oiencc h1t the m:~rl::
 /)ri Soge.s /!trw Emotlrm.t? 129

hwuan beings arc panial to honor and profit in general and arc a\crsc to
disgrnc.c and harm: J.~ but the basic assumption remains that human
~ffcc,thity is moti\'atcd b~· likes and dislikes. \VIuu Guo Xi:mg did was to
probe deeper jnto the basis of tJittg nnd troce one's likes and dislikes to the
vnlue distinclions dull one makes.
In Guo Xi3ns ·s intcrprclation, the l.huang=i makes dear tl1al
hu1nan ~mo tions nrc derived from ''hilt one likes w1d dislikes, whK:h in tum
arc fonncd by cogniti\'c distinctions of "right'· (shi ~~) ond ~wrong" ((C'i
:1~) as measured by one ·s self-interest J 6 Without such distintlions. likes
::md dislikes do not :trisc nnd the emotions do nol c:au.se any ripple in the.
hcan·mind. In this slate, the hcart·mind may be fil.;cncd to "dcud ushcs:·
according 10 the Zlwrmgzl. which Guo Xiang imerprets as H'IUJfng in the
sense th:n the s3gc "obidcs by his naturtllly cndO\\'e d nat'urc Md forgets oil
cogniti\'t discriminations" (([ l~t'!.~mt~;lil~l=) ..!? In this sense. Guo Xiang
also speaks of 1hc "qing of wuqmg" (~li'ti$ :Lf;¥) thnt docs not tmnsgrcss the
Iinti IS of OtlC ·s nmure and forms the basis of sagely "non:.clion: ·"'s

TilE STILLNESS OF XING

The above nnalysis. though brief. should gh·c an indication of the

wa~ in which Wci·Jin philosophers tried to come to terms with the issues
occasiom.'d by the discourse on xing and tting. cspc:ci:~ll y as they apply to
lhe ideal sage. which by the third century had become deeply embedded in
tl1c common intcllcctu:JI frame. He Ynn. Wang Bi nnd Guo Xiung might
h:H't! been l:nown especially for 1heir contributions to xu(ln.wtc ¥_-l}\, the
"lcitming of the my~tcrious Duo:· but they wc.rc ccrbinly not partisan
" Daoists- who opposed Confucian learning. XmmXU(' aims at bringing to
light the profatUld uutb of Dn.o . ll truth that, it is bcliC\'Cd. Confucius ;md
other sages of old nJI recognized and embodied -· llccording to some. by
n3lurc. and according to others. in \ arying degree - in their being. In any
event little is explained in simply nssening that He Yan. \Vong Bi. or Guo
Xiang mode usc of "'Daoisnr" to interpret '·Confuci;mism:' Lubds mny
scn'c a useful fun ction, but they arc not sclf~;~o;planator~ and musl not be
allo\Yed to llke the pl:..c.c of interpret.:uion. All three considered Confucius
to be the highest sage. wol'ked on the / .rm,)IU, and hnd in their own wa~· tried
to tlrovidc a col~rcnt account of Ihe recch·cd teachings of Confucius, Lao1.i
and o1hcr sages and ncnr·sagcs. They were cquaUy concerned with the

:l~ cit\ll.l in Y:mg Boj un, l.mQ'Il J i: lm. ;;(i He Y~n•s ..:ommcn1ary in thi~ inst<ii'ICC'
adopts the cxpltmation by Kon~ Anguo .fl.~~~. which takes this to mcnn that
the bcnc\'Oh:nt person i~ ohfc t<l J i:"x:rn the like..., and di$likcs ,,( Olhc.:.•J'S.
tS Xmr:i. chapter~. -Rongm~ =*)ij,, in .\'m d ~lw:r.tuoyin , 14.
4oS
A'
Sec cspt.-ciallY 2 /mtml!,:i
~ .
Ct)Jitlllt:!llfm'\1. ch. S. 222. n.l.
,
Zlt11 tmg;l Comtti{:IIIM)!. ch Z. J.J. u.l.
~ Zlmm•gzl Co~mmmtlll)•. ch 6. 24.7, n, I.
l.lO .-1fftn K. L Chan

central issue of sagchood. tltc -one thread" •• to borrO\\ n mc.tophor from

the l.wryu (4.1S) - that captures the essence or 0 :10 and nms through the
best that tmdi1ion hos to olfcr: but in cngngins it they pmtcd company o n
philosophic grounds.
AI the cthic:sl level. to He Yan. be(ausc the sngc is out of reach, the
best model is someone li.kc Y::m Yu:m! who is ..close to the way of the sage''
(conuucntary to l.un;,•u I 1.19). Moreover, He Yru1wriac.s:

)"1.1.1\.' ("J.:'UJ ....·~·, 1.!!:;.

·"·, -M- ... ,., "".!'1
~±,. UH'i ·" " •C'
nl );Jti. •• 'I".lfd
.c ·' i"'H !W"·j•·
.. . ·~· •u
1'!\ • ~ J:t..
Generally. human beings allow the emotions to dictate
their nc1ions. nnd their pknsurc :md 3llgcr deviate from tJ1c
nom1. Yan Yu;m abided by the Dno: his anger was ncYcr
excessive lbul] accorded with what was d ue
(commcnl:lry to Ltmyu 6.3).

Striclly speaking. Yan Yuan is also 3 special ea~. for even among
Confucius· disciples few c.ould match his ~ttainrncnts.<~Y for He Yan. it
would be foolish to e... pcct that the. mwagc person. with bis limited
qi--cndowment, could become liL:e Y:m Yuan. 10 W:mg Bi. all tll.1t one needs
to say is that Ynn Yuan aspires to become a sage (mu sllcm;: .lltlli!)'~ "'"d so
should C\'Ctyonc, especiall)' the l'ulct and those in c harge of go,·emment,
rccogni~dng lhat sngehood is al.rcld~· present in the authenticity of being. ro
Guo Xiang. of course. there is no point in emulating Yau Ymltl either, f01'
imilation inevitably dc-tmcts from the proj ect of self-realization. I mention
tbc case or Yan Yuan here because it seems to bear on Cheng Hao's
examination of xing and qing.
According to the Song )'tum xm! 'rm. Cheng Hao 's nmg.n ng .·lm
.
seeks to nddrcss Zhang Z:.1i 's concern tlmt human JUllu.rc cnnoot but rcm;1i.n
tied to the cxtcmnl world. no matter how h;ud one tries to still iL The text
reads: .. In stilling one ·s nniUre., one canno1 render it unmoving, for it
l'cmains burdened by cxtcmal things. llow docs one deal witlt thot" ( i.£t1~
li~~~·1!J. \~ .W. ·f- ~H~J. ("I ~IIYI ·111e ideo 1hn1 emotions pose o "burden· (M
M"{) that nffi icts ·'virtue'" figures in the Zlruangt i. 5l Both Wnng Di and Guo
Xi.ans h3,·c made use or the idea to highlight the danger of being entangled
und tied do''" b)' de-sire,
C heng Hao begins by 3UacL:ing the implied d iv ide between the
""inner'· (nei I~ ) 3nd the '"outer.. (wai ?'~) in Zh:mg Z3i's question. TI1c
stillness of xmg. if attained. pcn·adcs both mo ,·c menc and quietude and
admit$ no d iJ;tim:tion between the internal world of the heart-mind and the

t> On this poml, ~--c. f(l r c.xsmplc, He Yan·s commcnt:•r:· to IAn{rtt 6 .7.
9.20.
~ C'omm..:ntruJ to tl1c l.u11yu. 1 1 . 1 9~ in Lou Yuli<.·. Wcmg J)i ji jior·Mh i.
629
~~ For cs!lmplc, sec the Zhu(Urg:J. ch 23, 810.
 /)ri Soge.s /!trw Emotlrm.t? /J/

c.s.tcmal world of phenomena. Zllll Xi is ptobably right in suggesting tbat

by ··xmg." Cheng Hao mc~1ns the heart-mind.$l Jn any c:1se. this sets the
stngc for Cheng Hno's main thesis that the sage may be likened to "heaven
and cntth-: ··Now. jt is the constancy ofhcovcn ond c::nrth thou they usc their
heart to benefit all tl1ings but nrc " 'ith out self-interest o r p:uti:~ lity~ (in the
s~mc way) it is the con.st;mcy of the S3gc that he uses hisqing lo cnnblc the
nourishing of all things but is without qtng- (.X I~Ukl.:~Y;. L.;J.Jt·C.·~71;~J
lilii!\·G': :f!.A.Z'iii'. VJ.Jtb'.'!Uilll''i111flif.I·h'l). The question is. of course.
how one should iuterprcr wuqi"g in this contc.xt Whereas the reference 10
the "hcort'' of hcon;n :md carib is lnrgcly mctnphoric. o litc-rnry con\'ention
intimating their "seJOess- nurturing funclion. the. rcrcrcnc.c:: to the qing or
the sage demands closer philosophic scrutiny. Is Chen~: Hao thinking of a
special .. honnonious" sage n:aturc: Lho.t is unditTcrcntintcd nnd complete, or
is he nppcaling to ru1 authentic u:Jturc th:tt is inherently still. or tot\ kind of
profound understanding of the workings of t}iflg that would free the sage:
from au-right and wrong" (sltije1) distinctions'?
'With the sngc idcaJ so defined. Cheng Hao goes on to say that
"therefore. in the leaminQof the gcntlcm:-m, thcre is nothing more important
th~n being open and absolutely imp:utial. ond in responding to things nod
niTa irs accordingly as they come·· (~ 1-Fi:;Z. t~. ~;t!in·H-siiii.k1~. t1UtHfJ
~rt!~). The ntcruting of the lo.st phrllSC is not inuncdintcl~· clear and 1 will
come back to it later: but following this the learning of the "gentleman'"
(jmm) is contmstcd with piecemeal cffon in tiJing to set rid of this or that
desire. which is endless and ultimately futile. As Cheng. fino fromcs his
ars,umcnt in terms of "lcarning·· (.rne-), even though he c.oncurs with He Van
thnt impartiality is ccntrnl to the s:agc idc:al. it seems unlikely that he was
r.lcfcnding a special sage nature thilt is catcgorici!lly dirrcrc::nt from that or
the an~mgc person. Although as we shall see shonly a later Confucian
interpreter made the case that thcjwt:i ideal should be distinguished from
Lh:u or the sage. so far lhc. text seems to point toward a non-disctiminaLOI)'
\'icw of :rmg.
Human beings 01rc uMble to abide by the Dao •• i.e .. mlllblc to
accomplish the learning of tl1c jwtzi and attain sagchood •• because for
dilTcrcnt TC.a$ons their qmg arc c louded. Cheng Hno nexl obscr\'CS.
Gcncr;~lly. the problem lies in the it: being selfish (: i:;i (] :fl1) and in their
application of intelligence (J·ongthl IU ~•') to pursue prh'ntc ends. Ac.ting
o ut of self·intcrcs.t. ordinary human beings arc unable to align their action
with the " trac<"s'" (Ji i!l:) of the sages •• .1 metaphor that Guo Xinng
Crcquently mnkcs usc of in his Zlmun;.:zi commentary. n Concentrating their

~ Zlm:1 yul.-i *Tilfif.(i,;mm95 (Ocijin~: ZhOnfhua. 1986), 2441.

!') UrooJ.: ZapOr)·n h(IS drscussod the couct-pt of "IJ'uoc-s" in Guo Xmng ·s
2htttJJIK=i CrmJJJ!i.'lltmy ot som e length in his recall book. 1'11~: Pc.•tmmbtu
Unbouml: tlu: .Vt:o- 'fcwiJI PhlloJup!ty (ifGm1.\'i<mg (Aibl:lny. Stole Unin:r.:!ity
of New Y(lrk Pres-;, 2003). 3to· Howc\'cr. .-.ccording lo Zhu X1. ChcnR H~o lS
H2 .-1fftn K. L Chan

imcllcctual c-npacity on sclf.g:.in. tltC>' arc unable to sec tltings as lhcr arc or
discern tile n:uural course of cn:nts. In stilling one's ntllurc, as Cheng Hno
ngnin cmph:1sizcs. the point is not to ht~· blame on th.ings nnd circumstances
or to keep out external inJlucnccs. but to underst;utd "h~· qinx nmy be
clouded,
HowcYcr, this is not to s~· thnt one should 1hcn devote oneself
cxclu~ivcl) to cuhi\'uting the inner rcollll of the hc.:trt·mind. "'Rilthcc than
rcpudiming the cxtcmal and affinning the i nternal. it would be far bcuer 10
for&« botlt !be inlcl1lal and tltc cxtcmal" (!i>!J~:U:11-iliJe i'J, +?"'r-'I ~~Z
w~.l!:i li!). Once they arc both ·'forgoucn.... it is as if a \'Cil h:JS been lifted and
the ltc«rHnind is no longer troubled by any stirring of desire or external
influences (N~.\!.HlJ tllK~~f, •JC~). This kind of - rorsclfulness.. seems 10 so
beyond any dclibcmtc disregard. Witllout selfishness and without any
mcnl31 cxcrti.se directed tal sclf·grati fical ion. the hcan.n1ind bc<:omcs still
(din}! Ji:!). In stillness. the hcan·mind bcc·omcs clcJr and perspicacious
(mlng l§j ) . With such cbtity, there should be no concern th:u th~
hcnfl·ntind would become burdened (lei g{) by things \\ hen it responds to
them.
TI1e idea of -rorgctfulncss·· is reminiscent of Guo Xitmg's
conception of the sat."¢ ideal. TI1c reference to sM and.fef also suggests some
recognition of the cogn itiYc basis of qing. Nevertheless. in tracing the
stillness of xing to a kind of s.ugcly illumination, Cht.--ng Hno mtry be closer
to Wang Bi th3n 10 Guo Xiang. Although the noun phrase shenmmg f*t!J-j
docs appear in Guo Xiang 's Zhuan}tzi commcnuvy. miug 191 is used as a
\"Crb - to elucidate:. make c;lc:tr · · in the majority of t-ascs thcrc. If one
assumes th::u individual nature is complete and sclf·sufficicnt. an awareness
:md acceptance of the processes of chant,oe :.1nd a sense of uucr e<Ju:mimiry
would prob:tbly be more imporL'\nt than a "spirit·likc ~rspicaci ty;· in
which the hc:ll'l·mind functions like il dc:1r tniiTOt in rcOct!ling the ttuc
nature of thinss. To Wang Bi. mfng"{)CrSJ>ic:teity is crilicnl because it
charactcri1.cs authentic nature. Is that what Cheng H3o has in rnmd :lSwell'!
The pleasure and nngcr of the sage. Cheng Hno continues.
inYari;~bly accord wilh what ousht to be the case ( ..~~A.LW~1~~.L1:~:ff-:
~AZ .I[6t:).4~Z ·,:;~ ~~). For this ~son, the pleasure nnd anger of the sage
arc not tied to the herut·mind bllt rasJ1cr 10 things (.M:~A..t ~~. ~~JH~
•!:\1~1l 1{H~fnlk). This rules out any suspicion that the sage d<X."S not n."Spond
to phcnomenu und should address Wong Bi's concern O\ 'Cr He Yan·s
conception of the sage: but it a.lso ntJLes clearer tl1e objc.cthe dinu;u.sion of
qlng. The immediate conc.lusion here is that ns the. sage ·s qmg is

h<."TC simply I'Cf(..'l'l'iog to tht· tl'ue<:.;; of things cnKl (lfJ'~)II':S, ~c /.lm:i ptlci. 95.
2-143. As ,ii seems to p::m1llcl -nalurnlnt:$s" in the next ~nkncc, 1 take it in o
~J'tm ~cr. t XI~i tin: sen~ 3S :'.tllg~c::;ti ng the tr~..:"-~:1 of the :;a~..::;.
 /)ri Soge.s /!trw Emotlrm.t? IJ3

other--directed. there is no ground to renounce the external and seck stillness

solely in lhe hearl·mind. The S:tgc 's cmoaions have nothing to do wilh
sclf·intc r~st and thus do not dccci\'c or manipul:nc. Yet. how docs one
{lStcrtaiu when ought to be the c~sc in mailers of the hcou·t How c.:t.n one be
sure that one is responding to phe-nomena in lhe ri s,ht way? lrue,-cstinsly,
like He Y3ll in his nsscssmcnt of Yan Yuan. Cheng Hno s in~,;les out ::anger as
the most dinicuh emotion to deal with. Anger is quick to rise and dilncult
to c.omrol, Cheng Hao says. What is needed is that one ··rorgets- one ·s
nnger (:!ii;l t.~) at the point \\bCil it :uiscs nnd CXAnlines lho principles of
the cnsc (I'OI!~!.l:.J~1b). lhc w.~sons th:H caused the hc;lfl-mind 10 stir in
anger. The sage ahus certainly experiences e-motions. bul in discerni.ng the
rigluness of things l1c responds in imp:,niality and is in this sense. wuqlng.

CONCL UDI NG REMARKS

Perhaps Cheng Hno was concerned with ccnnin Buddhist or Daoist

teachings on interiority. Perhaps he '' as inOucuccd b~· them. The Ding).'iug
slru \HIS wriucn when Cheng Hno w:1s about twenty-two or twcntv-threc.
:1ccording to Zhu Xi::;.: perlmp5 it docs not rdlc.'(.:t his mature ,·ic~,·s. My
point here is not to offer on m;-count of Cheng Hno·s philosoph)'. Rather. the
point is more simply that as Confuci::mism unfolds, ecnain critic.ll issues
demand c.ont.inual rcne<:tion ;10d fresh interpretation. Cheng Hao was
wrcs.tling witl1 the same i ssu~.s. " ithi11 \'cr~ much the same llcrmcncutical
p.1ramcters. th:u captivated the world of thought in early medieval China.
Once it is recognized that xin~ plays a key role in understanding the tmth of
Dao. the question whether sage nature i.s distinct from t11:tt of the a' cmgc
person must be interrogated.
The Guodiao material helps us sec more cl c:~~ly the \·ibrancy of
cruty Confucinn philosophy. The persistent interest in the place of qfng in
the sage ide:.l reflects, no doubt, deep conce.rn 11botll the potential
dc:structh·e power or desire:. rcsru-dless or\\ bclhcr it is understood in te.m\S
of deviation from onc·s ;authentic nuturc or as affceth'e excesses urisins,
from self-oriented Yalue distinctions. At the same time, lhc evidence shows
th:ll there is strong resistance to eradicn.ting d1c emotions from the S3gc
ideal in the Confucian imagimnjon. The contested middle furnishes fcnilc
ground for philosophic inno,·;uion.
He Van offers essentially n reUgious view of the sage. ''hose
ham1011.ious nature docs not OOmit of p;utiality. In tuldng the emotions as
ditTcrenti:ucd tJmg. the pmblcm of desire is kept well <)utsidc of ahc being
of t1tc sngc. However. while the proble-m of dcsin: mJ.y no longer be
pressing. in defining sagchood in 1erms of an inborn sage natu1c. J-le Van
eiTcc ti\'el~· renders ih¢ sag<: ethically irtclc ,·om nnd shifts attention to the
model of the nc.o.r-sage. rcpn;scntcd espcciattr by Yrut Yuan. To W311g Bi.
this is probably 100 high a price to p:t)'. ·nte problem of desire can be

" Zlmzlyufd, 93, 2359

H-1 .-1fftn K. L Chan

resoh'cd. if one tocogni.t.cs thot inborn nature nt ils core is c-haracterized by

stillness. From Guo Xinng·s perspcctiYc, this imagined J.'ing core h:~s little
basis. for the reality of qi is such that order is lbund in plenitude nnd
divcrshr . To someone ll!.:c Liu Mia n .tiP ~ (d. ~05) in t.he T:mg. abe whole
idea th.nt the S.'lgc docs not h3\'C emotions is simply nonsense, for qing is
part .,__
n rJ pan.:cl of life endowed b~· hca,·c:n . .. Both sages ~nd \\Orlhic.s ate
within the rc:JJm of cntotions·· (5:H'i"J 1t f£1J'f1fZ l>.f). Nor is il true,
uccording to Liu Mian. lhat tl1c sage .. forgets,.. his emotions: thus. Confucius
could not but be-sad "hc.n Van Yu:.n died.s.~ To Cheng Hao. this probably
misses the fmc r philosoph.i c31 poi.ots thnt need to be addrtsscd. Thc-
susgcstion is not th iU Confucius d id not c,\:peric-ncc sorrow. bul mther that
his arrccti\'C responses are never panial o r inappropriate.
Judging from the JJlngxing shu, lherc is :1 sense- thot stillness
belongs to origjnal nou un::. Confucius and Van Yuan share the same essential
na ture, though they may take o n different appearance ·· whereas the former
is like the ..origin.:.! qi.'' as Cheng Hoo or bis brother Cheng Yi :Ut11 is
reponed 10 h:lvc- ~-.id , the laner rnay be likened to the fi rst signs of life in
spring, 54 Yet. there- is olso o. sense th:n self-interest -- 1hc likes and dislikes
of xing ~· CQtncs \\ itb the o riginal Jl"lCkagc. It is this w hich Icuds to the
applic<ttion of intelligence for self- gain. w hich in turn inc urs the burdens of
IJmg .
'l11c rcpeatc.d udmonilio n against tepudi:uing the .. ex tcnta.l ~
suggests that Chene Hao sough t to present a balanced account of xing. The
likes and dislikes or xing c..'Ulno l be eradicated. but they should accord with
lhc interest of lhc people. Thus. something is pleasing not bccnuse it
S.11isfi cs a p:tn icul:u pcrs.onal intcrcsl. but bec:mse il c-OntribulcS to the
c ommon good. The assertion th:t.t the :t.ngcr of the s~ gc ::tlw:~ys acc()rds wilh
" hut is due similarly implies a unhcrs.ali,ing principle dmt em i s;~:;cs o
certDin common sense of j ustice. This seems 10 ndd a new dimension to the
earlier Wci· Jin discourse on xing ::tnd qmg. In the linal <tn alysis, original
n:uure alone may be insufficient fol' sagehood. t.>ccause in 1\ teucian fashion
xmg requires eulti\11tion. The foc us of culth·<ttion cannot be on the
·· internal" alone. because qinK is realized through the interaction with things.
Onc.e Lhc ··e:oacmal" is brought inlo the ethical picture. it \\ Ould cnmil some
objccth·e principles th:n form the basis of rituals and o ther fonns of ethical
measures. The le:I.Tfling of the JWd thus in\·o lvcs not ol'.l ly culti\':ati_ng
openness and impmtialit} within. bul also an undcrsttmding of the way in
\\ hich things and afT:~irs come to he \\htlt 1hey :ue, \\ ithout which one
\\Ould be unable to respond apptoprinrc.ly to phenomena in concrete
si1u:uions. In this rc:,;;ard. Zhu Xi offers perccpti\ Cl) 1hnl the kind or

$> LIUMi:m. - 1):1Jint!n;m f'e:i Slumgshu Junwcn ~hu .. rr-Ail~l~ lM1!lilfr..·t

~. i.o 1img Wct~c ui J:tf)C H". Jrtalt 84, lfi!,'}1Wngl! J iJtll tJUfrJJ.~Im, 'I' .:tiwan rt.'Print,
\'(lhnn~1344 ( raipci. Shanpwu. 19"83-1986). 276.
~ Er Cf~ttgjl, 16: nloo n::pc:Hcd m 1233
 /)ri Soge.s /!trw Emotlrm.t? IJ5

stillness Cheng llao speaks of represents the end state- sage hood •• where
the dislinclion between the inner and the outer has been "forgoUen." i.e .. no
longer a fitttor in the opcr.stion of the henrt·mind.~ 1 To get there. however.
tlu;rc is much nork to be done. not only in rectifying one's hcnrt mind but 4

ulso in discerning the objccti,·c principles of things.

This is bu( a sugscstion. appf'0.1Ching Cheng Hao's Dingxing shu
from Zhu Xi's i>Crspccth·c. According to Liu Zonifll10U SrJ~~ll'J (1578 ••
16-15)4 the J)ingxi,g slut emphasizes the centrality of tranquility (jing ljf ) .
which nonethelesS; docs not exclude mo\'cmcnt (tflmg !f)J). The way of the
s.1gc docs not sr:ck u-anquility by shuuing out the extcrn11l world. As the L{ji
.states, "When human beings arc bom, they are uanquil. This is the nature of
hc:wcn. When mo,·cd by thinss. they become aroused. 11lis is the aJTcct of
xing.. CA 'I'.W1i!ii1 . /<411 l!l . ~ O~~~ilii;)]. t~Zi'.ktl!.). 51 Perhaps Liu
Zongzhou was also thinking of Guo Xi:mg. who dtcd this pass:»gc in his
Z/ruanJ,::i c-ommcnw.ry us weH.~ ln nny event. the st~gc is limlly rooted in
trllJl quil i ~· and in that state irucr:.ets with the \\Orld, \\hich ensures ahat he
rcm:.ins impervious to the inJlucncc of desire.
During the Jiajing rci~n period ( 1522 •• I 566) of the f\·1ing dyn<Jsty.
Hu Song .VH1~ (1503 •• 1566) Jcctnred on tJu~ /Jmgxmg shu in tl1c Capit:ll,
which :mrnctcd nn audience of O\'Cf 5.000. According to 1-Ju. Cheng Hao 's
nnal> sis addresses the stillness of ;l'ing at fl'>ur different levels - lhnt of
btaven 01nd e:nth. that of the sage. th:Jt of the gcnth:m:m. and that of
ordin\U)' indi\·idunls.00 Perhaps this ncc<l not be t;~kcn to mean that the
r\aturc or the SJgc is C:ltegorically different from that of the oweragc person.
h is enough to observe lk'l.t the discourse on xing nnd qing eon1inued 10
draw attention during the Ming dynasty. There is little tcason not to hclic\'C
that it will continue to play a critical role in contemporary rclkct ion~ on
Confucian inlcrcsts nnd idemities. The idea that qmg informs ~·ing stands in
direct opposition to the asscnion that emotions arc a product of cultural
constmction and should conuibute to a wider cross-4;ultural examination of
htun:m n;uuro ~md the emotions.

5' l lntzi J'Uid, 95, 244 1 utld 2445

~ l.ijt, chapter 19, -Yucji"' ~~ifi!, :t.'> c1tcd in ,..,'ong J'um1 :ru.• lm , 13,
319 - 320 .
!<'.1 ChaJ)h.:r 6. :no. n 7.
ll> .YJng rumr ,Yuc 'on. 13. 320.
 ChaptcrVll

Locating the Moa·al Self:

Emotions anti Human Agency
in Song Neo-Confucian Thought'

Thinkers, in both East and WcS1. han philosophized about the

emotions for millennia, and they continue to do so to the present dly. J\
I:~Tgc palt of the attraction of this topic is its clush·cncss and ambimlcncc:
the emotions seem to represent purely subjeeti\'C experiences, but gi,·e us:
1\cc.ess to some objeclivc criteri.:t o f ,.3luc. They seem to cman3IC from
within. but oncn they n.rc involunl.i1Q'. arising from cn~nts in the external
world. They seem to be unique- 3nd individual. but can also link us to the
l:1tgcr hunl:ut community. The emotions. then. scrn as nlcind of interface
between the self and the world. and they C3n represent both our passivily 10
the world. as well as lhc expression of our abilhv to assen our presence and
our will upon our surroundings.: .
TI1is ontological ambi\'alcncc has been an intrinsic fcmurc of early
Chine-se discourse on qmg ·W -- the Chinc!C term that is m 0111 closely
nssocjiued "ith the bfoadcr cutc&Ot1' or the emotions. As sinoloyists hm'c
frcqucndy pointed out, qmg has possessed a dual meaning since earl>' times.
referring both 10 ··situation" and ··rcalil) " on the one b::tnd. and -emotions··
on the otiiCI'. TI1is dual mcaJling was potentially \'CIY useful: it could cxpl3in
our indh·idual emotions :~s objective and coherent responses to the world,
and thus as fumishing a Jjnk between the su ~jcc th·e and objecth·e realities.
Such a conception achieved its classic formulation in the Yu~Ji ~:rt'.. or
u,•,·o rtl ofMusic. where it is wriucn:

A. :li.t~il'rii, 7C2. tl til. ~~ Jl~ ~!l 1fli ~JJ, ij;Z1ikill.

TI1at man is still at birth is his Hca\'Cn~ld owcd nature.
Thai he is set into motion ha\i ng been stirred by things is
the desires of hi$ nature. (f) Ji m:OC Ch. 37)

1 lhis cssoy Jcwtops ;tUd sh~tchcs out some pOinls I h:1\\: mode in mr
Jis:-;crwti()ll. ~· "That Wh.i.;b Enc<,mp~"ii!-s The Myaiud C:tn.:~-; ': Subjcctivitr.
KuowlcJgc and the Ethie8 or EmotitJn in Tans .:1nd Son~ Chiu:a: · (l h•n ·<m.l
University: 2004)
z R<:c1r1ld de Sousa dL'>CUSS(."S some llf tlacse ornbivak1tt uspcc1s of 1hc
cmotion.s in temts of a gotic.-; of "nnlinoolt(."S" : the untinomy of rationality, the
antinomy of l)bj ..'Ctj,·ity. the ~~n ti ll(lfllY 1..\f ~ct i \'l ly 1111d p:.tssi\'il)'. the antllllll11)' <'f
inl c~nty. and the antinomy of dctcnnm,SJn &:c de S.)usa 1987· 1·20.
H8 Curi~ J(r(ig

1l1c carl) Tang commentator of the Wl!imJ: 7JI<~n&,\i ?l.f;;\HE.~

cl:tborutc:s:

;!;· .A.JiJ~. :>ldif,'; lll;, JJJ~r.?~l/d1t.-!\, M'ktH!!.

)Vllhen man is first boru. he docs not yet possess feelings
(qmg iN) and desires b~rt ?it). This stillness is endowed
from the st;1tc: of what is so of itself. nnd this is his
Hca\cn-cndowcd n::nurc. (Kong Yingda 19"")9: 1084)'

Tl•c 3SSUIUJllion here is that the xlnx fl:, or the 11101'31 nature. is
originally still. and that the: emotions. or qmg. represent the arousal of this
nnturc into .1 state of motion. Motion and stillness thus represent distinct
and mutually cxc.tusivc aspects of human experienc-e. connected either to
the natun:: or to the realm of feelings.
The idcu thnt emotions rcprtsc:ntcd the self roused into motion by
things and C\'Cnts in the wor-ld rcnl!'cts a dualistic vision of tltc cosmos. in
which the inner nnd outer worlds are corresponding rcoJi1ics. The political
appeal of such o. world picture is clear. and it \\ as in\'okcd in co.tly time-s lo
lcgitim:uc the authorit~· of statc·organi:i'.ed ritual to shape the minds and
bodies of the. subjects. But from 3 philosophical pcrspcc•h·c. tltis vision is
somewhat problematic. for if nil motion and chan~c emnnatc from the
outs ide. how can \\C account for the possibility of human agency and
self·dctcmlination·?
The Nco-Co nfucian search for an objcc:ti\'c ground of morality was
based on a kind or nnalogy bch,cen the human world and the cosmos. but
thinkers like Zhou Dunyi )I,J >f<l!ij ( 1017-1073) nnd Zhnng Zai ~Jz d~
(102?·1 077) attempted to do away with the d ualistic pcrspccth·c of earlier
aesthetic and cosmological tlteorics.
TI1cy sougltt to eliminate such dichotomies as inner vs. outer. rutd
motion ,., . stillness in accounting for human experience. They explained
our thoughts. feelings, and actions as emanating from within. not from
without. In so doing. they opened thcorcti<;nl possibilities for en\'isioning
human beings :lS agents. and for explaining how human morality was a
m:uter of inner sclf·cuhil•alion.
In the 7fmg Shu iill ffl . Zl1ou Dunyi dc.scribcs the properly
cuhh·:ued self. not as being in a state of stiUncss (fins ii~ ). but 3S
encompassing both motion (tkmgg.)J)and slillncss. He makes his point by
using motion and stillness DS criteria for defining two other con(,:-cpts: .. wu
'In,.. thing, 3nd ..shm l-ft:· spirit. As Zhou explains, ., thing is th:ll \\ hich
crumot be still when it is in motion. and cannot be in motion when it is still.

.\ AU 1ransh•ti on~. :K~mc of which i•ppcar in •») dtssctwtion. :ve m~· O \\ n.

For the l\\.'0-Ct,nfucian thinkers di!:lCUSS<.-d hd ow 1 h11vc cunsuhcd the
t ran~IMitm~ t'l' WiJtg·l~i l CbtUl. A &mrvr: /)41Q.": In Chil~<.~·c: fltilo:J(IJJh.v.
Pnnceton· Pnn..:..:too Unm:rsity Pre:>:;. I %~
 / .(JCt1l lfl$ the .\ (rmri.'W!i 139

For mere 1hings. motion and stillness arc mutually exclushe. In conlrast
spirit lhc dacmonic •• th ai "hich is ,\hen •• posses~-s both motion and
stillness within itself: it is still while being in motiOIL and it is in motion
''hilc being slill.'' The assumption seems to be· that humnn beings arc
si1umcd some\\ herc in·bctwccn lt1J and j·ht,, nnd that if they culti\·ate
thcms.ch-cs to become s.ugcs. they can be siren. The perfectly cultiYatcd
individual thus cmbodic.s OOth motion and stillness •• in contrast to the
myriad ..things". wh.ieh can only embody one state ~• :l timc. The practical
impliclltiOn of tJ1is is that the indi,•idull is autonomously capable of
virtuous :tnd proper action wil11out being mo\'ed b~ contact '' ith c.\lernal
things. People arc agents or tr:msfonnation. and not the objcc1s of
tmnsforutntion by things.
One of the implications of such a conception of the human is that it
ten liule room for the emotions. Zhou had liulc to say d•rc<::dy concerning
the realm of emotions, but what he d id soy suggests th:tt he saw them QS
posing a Lhreat to the moral henllh of the i.ndi,·idunl:

f~Zl'lit!l. lMMii~ :t~?J~fiJJI:. :{' 11:J1'Jib!!M:J!Idib .~ .

•~ fJ)~Jii.( it..
When peopJc prospe-r. tl1cir desires arc SCI in motion and
1heir feeli n&s dominate. Sec.-Lase of their conccm for
self·interest. they :m:::.ck one 3nothct. If this is not stopped,
it will lead 10 destruction omd the Joss of III'Opcr human
rcl:uionships. Thus. they receive punishments so thac they
may be governed. (Zhou Ounyi 3(J38).

If Zhou provided the b:asis of :a theory of human :agency by

rccosnixi.ng motion as i.n tcrnolly generated. the problem still rcm.ai.ncd as 10
how to m~magc the emotions sons to hannoniLe tl1cm witl1 a Jifc of \'irtuc.
Zhang Zai pro,·idcd :mother JI<)SSibility for explaining how motion
3nd change could origi.tutc from within the self. This wos Zhnng·s fam ous
yl tl.--b.'lscd philosophy, which cxploined a ll phenomena in the universe by
\\'tl)' of a single conc.ept qi, or or ,; tnt force. According to Zhang. qi \\':lS
the dynamic substance that pervaded C\'C.f.\' thing. and 311 being and all
change were
n;uu.ral ou.td sponttmcous dcYclopmc~:~l s :arisi.os (rom the collcctiou
and dispersal of tJi. This theory could provide an account of the emotions as
well:

lil *2.J,1f.D.ilil~ 4>: '-'.\ JJ}.

f:l\ iiii '-IJ!I)Ill illiiT 1$. .11&i.Ji'i1 (I'!.
N:) ;[·JxJt t.\. WxJili1i" IlL. Ul.·lZ·#Irt!l~~- !'(jl\ :1§2.!Iii"!

' • f~11N ;e,. ill' ,oY

r Jill ~ 'ill~~; tl!. ;~; 1f1i .qa JV!fi rlu~~ g,; i'l'i!!. ~IJ nii !!\ 1!J!J~ rrj
.~ffp .~ /f~:fl!J ;r~ f.)lli ·~m~J /f~Uli t•;;;1.1\'~J:·zhou Dunyi: 16/l-'.
NO Curi~ J(r(ig

ll.l lk;l,J,\\ilii'i< ~~/a~fJ;. ~Jiilii 'i'.~i'iJ&. ;;r;:fFf.iT<i~Z

I·,"J. Jr.·llr7
.. '-"'....
In its origin:Jl slate, tJI is \'3euous. c.fcar and wit11out fonn.
When there is stirring !lnd coming into being, il collects
together rutd there are images. If Lhcrc nrc forms. there arc
.-.Jso Iheir Of)posites. and rhesc opposites in\"'lriably oppose
what 1hcy do. lf there is opposition. there is strii'C . and if
there is strife. there is imari11blr harmony Jnd resolution.
Tltcrcfore. the fcclinss of IO\'C and hate emerge together
lfo m the Grc:~l Void. and in the end th~· rttum 35 the
desire th~ t is bound up with things. They cmcq;c: suddenly
and quickly come to completion. without 0\dntitting of tl1e
slightest interruption. This is how mar\'clous it is! (Zhang
Zai 1?71!: 1/ 10)

As Zhang explains here. the feelings of Jo,·c :md hate represented

the collc-ction of qi into forms. Since whm possessed form inuuiably
[)OSSCSSCd opposing COUnterparts to Which they \\Cre dromn intO connict.
they were a source o f contention and strife. both within the self nnd without
At this point they constitulcd the realm or··dcsirc th<~t(wasl bound up with
things." While this was all part of 1he natural condition of things, the
linking of qmg \\' itb strif\: and ''ulncrnbilit)' to -things~ meant that the
fcc.lings posed a constant danger to our ability to exercise mastery O\'CI'
o nrsch•es.
for Cheng Yi !¥~! ( 1033·11 07). tltc conflict bct"ccn morolity
and emotions wus C\Cn more direct. Cheng Yi's most importantlhcorctic.al
contribmion was his elnborntion of a concept duu would bc<:omc the
comcrstonc of Nco--co.nfucinn _rhourhc: II ~ . M was the n~nJHUi\.'c·
coherent paucm undetly•ng tdl thtngs. ··All thmgs under Hem·cn. he s:ud.
"c~m be understood by \\3)' o f li. If there is a thing. there is in\'i'!riabJy a
standard. so each thing must ha,·c ils IC (Cheng Yi 2004:181193).
~torco\'cr. h is the basis of tbc uo.ity of :til tbiog.s: ~hh ough c~b thi ng b:ss
its specific li. in the end nil is one /i, Such an idea had n dramatic impact on
the <:onccption of the self. for it mt~ml thnt humnn beings poss.csscd an
idcntifublc normati\'C structure in common with the rest of Lhc cosmos. It
\\liS this structure ttuu Cheng Yi equated with the 1101ion o f xing -- the
n:uure. For Cheng Vi, the nature itself was originall)' and \\holly good. In
conunst, the emotions and desires represented the realm of qi. and as such.
could be l:lkcn as categorically aa>atl from the realm of ti and XutK.
Once the go.1l or self-cultivation became dcrintd ns the rcali7ntion
of the li within oneself. the emotions become mnrgjnalized ns irrclc\':mt for
tltc-achievement of union with the world. But in fact th ey were \\Orsc: Lhtm

$ r·\lf It hist<"ric:;l V\'l!l'\';1;\\' of the l;(lfli.X:pt of It :il...~ Will:ird Pct~1'SCI1.

'"Another Look al It .. Buiii.:Jtn t)j'SII" 8 anti 1'11<m Sr,dij!3 1S ( 1986): 13·32.
 / .(JCt1t lflg the .\ (rmri.'W!i IJI

irrclc\'anl: the~· \\CCC posith'e h harntful lo the rcaliz~uion of one's moral

nature. Thus we S(.'C in Cheng Vi's early <.:ssay. ·'On nhat Yam•J lo,·ed lo
learn
(J'UFH9r~Huf ~~ a~r 1he r:ubcl' contemious stmc or affairs bct"~.:"cn
the ruuurc and the fee lings, in '''hich c:.ch side is engDged in a struggle to
dominate over the other:

:;!CJI!! fit.tlr. r-1£. h'Z. f.N'i1-\ A JPI' 1!!.1~ nii I!~. Jt;nl
1.!!., :liff.JL~. FW:/H~m' fif. IJ}IiJtililt. JI·~Jfl\i lt l~
- "'··'*
lltJ ,.i'JJJ~ '1' "'
?;::. :oo:

tli~W{r'•W•~ rtr.H'l~
I' ~··
:1 \; ,." I · ·l:; I''
~J -ru Ht.·IJ.":,;;;J
' " . "CI "' ~' "'l"l
"M" •w• '* 1
..(<.'X: ,:.(. •~'II,

J.Ht~·t ~·r.mtli>lf;. -t.-.&~·1'.

"' "'· .

iE Jt·~·. -lfJCtL ltH-rtUt ·lo'J. f.!.\ ./H!IJ'f' !Air ~.oJ L, Jo!Jt

t·l;--z<J""fl'"
fiU .::1:.~~ "l 1-:-l , M•
m ·jpl·-fj · ~~
.. ; u :11LZ.. "' = l"1f.•!
nx LI FJ•,.. • J. ••
Hca,·e n and E.-mh is a collection of refined essence. and
man bns rocch·ed the most cxcdlent of tbc Fh·c Elements.
fn his origin. he is genuine and tranquil. and before he ha~
s1irrcd into acth·ity. the fiyc m or;~ l virtues arc ~omplcte in
him. These arc hu.mancnc-ss. righteousness. ritual
propril!ty. wisdom. :md tmstworthines.s. Whl!n his form
c.omes into being, the esternnl 1hings make tont..'lCI with
his form. nnd be stirs within. When he stirs "ithin. the
SC\'Cn feeli ngs emerge. These arc joy. :u1gcr, sorrow.
ple-3surc. lo ve, hn.tc, :md desire. When his fcclinss become
agit..1tcd nod bccontc increasingly numerous. his nature is
injured. This is why one who is enlightened restrains his
feelings so as to confonn to the state of equilibrium.
rcclif) his m ind. ond nourish his nature. 111is is /(J inrfJOSC
1/u: naturt: upan the feeliflgs. One '''hO is stupid docs no1
know to contrc)l lthc fc ~l ingsJ and lets them rcnch the
point of dcpr.-,·ity and o ne·sidednc$.5. and so fcucrs his
nature :tnd loses it. 11liS Is w impose tlut .fi!eling,,· upon the
notur~. (lbid:l:U577).

Here we sec thai there is a more or less absolute conflict bctwc.cn

the n:uurc and the fCi:lings: one either succeeds in o\·crcoming his feelings
with his good nature. or else fnils and o.llows his feelings to tnkc o,·cr and
ovcrpowcr his nature. 0 \ler time Cheng Yi's views would become more
moderate. and he· would later admit that lhe nature and the feelings wcro
interdependent ruthe-r tlmn mutually exclusive. but he never succeeded in
formulatin& a theory 10 fully CXJ>Iain their relationship, J:uscly because his
,·ision of rc:.lity could not really :.ccount for why the emotions were
ncccssru·y.
One thing that Cheng Yi did insist on. ho" C\'cr. was the agency or
the moral subject. We, cnn sec Ibis in his theory of xhr •C.•, or the mind.
According to Cheng Yi. the mind in its pcrfcc1 state of original .stillness was
N2 Curi~ J(r(ig

something like the muurc. As he c.xplains. -The mind is originally good. but
" 'hen it issues forth in lhoughts. there is that which is good and lhnt \\ hich
is not good. Once it h:t.s issued forth. it cnn be called qing; it cn.nnot be
coiled xin .~ (lbid. :IS/ 17). As for desire. Cheng Yi discusses it in \ario us
ways so as 10 distinguish it fro m the nlind. One way of defi ning the desires
is in terms of its movement to .. pursue things··

IM: A -lr' !~~Jl!•C.· ~.<... ~t·!

El: ·C·!l'I Af.:IIA!Uit;JJ.i!~k
Question: '"When people pursue thiogs. is it tbc mind that
docs the pursu i n~;;'l
Answer: ''Til e mind docs not go out or come in. What
pursues things is desire.,. ( Ibid: 22oJ297).

C heng Yi provides an even sni crcr criterion when he posits that

c\·cn being stirred nnd -inclined" towo.rds tbinss is dctrimcnml 10
sclf-culti,ation:

I~·Mf!.NI< 'itlik. ;H.kl!>J';f-1.;\\. trr1iX~;,r,:.;;tiiJi . Jl'!.-fli

fi•J. f~ /t W: .
In culth ating l11c ntind. nothing is better than lessening
your desires. If you do not desire. then you arc not
deluded. Desiring isn't necess:uily abou1 indulgence: it is
j ust that there is something one is inclin ed towards." ( lbid :
1511 ~5).

In nccord;mc;e. with h is qi·lmsed thl!(wy , C hen;; Yi alro maint<Jins

that the cmottons arc not derived from the outside, but arc
intcrnllly-gcneratcd. In tcspons.e to the question, "How is it th:tt joy and
anger. S3dncss and joy come from the outside'?" Cheng Yi ~tatc.s: They do
llOI come from the o utside. They arc stimulated from the outside but issue
forth from within (~J; fli.!Hk ~8 ~~$1fotili ~~ '1't!JJ (Ibid: 18il).'' For
Chcns Yi, indi,ichuls possessed the means to m;~kc e th ical d ecisiorlS, :md
should not place themsch·C$ :.t the mercy of things. His wos a theory of
victue that stri,·cd towurds the climin:.1tion of dc,x:ndcncc on the- o utside
world .
·The porticuhll' problem that the emotions posed for the c-wly
Nco·Coufucinn tl1inL.cn•. then. \\3S tl1at they signaled our \'lllner~bilit~ 10
forces beyond our conerol :md undcnnincd our moral agcnc.y. .-\nd it was
Zhu Xi's * .~f ( 1130-1200) philosophical ochic,·cmcnl 10 fonnulol< n
theory of the human moral subject that could reconcile the iden or human
::.gcncy with emotional experience. T he mosl d irect way in which he did this
was to ehuify the rclaliom;hip bcl\\ccn the nature and the fee lings, the xing
and the qmg. in such a way that there was no ncccss.:1r)' opposi1ion between
 / .(JCt1l lfl$ the .\ (rmri.'W!i

Lhc (\\0. In his scardt for a solution he can1c upon the fo rmula of Zhang
Zai:

·C.·. !iHWi 11tl!..

The mind is wh:n unites the n:nurc and the feelings. (Zhu
Xi 1985: 5/15).

As Zhu Xi hintsclf would later recount this phruc crunc to him

like a rc\'c:lation. since rather than conGci,,ing of the rcl3tiooship bct,,ccn
the xing and t}mg m; one of opposition. it placed qmg within :t uip3rlilc
stmcturc. with tlte mind medi:uing between the two. Zhu himself realized
\\hal a brc:JI.ahrough this was. for it expl;~incd how the rmturc nnd feelings
were distinct :~nd r et could be joim~d together ns Jllft of a single moral
identity. This me-ant that the feelings we~ ;a necc-s.so.ry component of the
moral life. and not simply a J>I'Oblc:matic aspect of our lmman constitution
that we had to contend with in our quest for scJf.cuhi\"ation.
But the ,·crb. umg tlf.. that chnrtu::tcri:t.cd the activity the mind. or
also had a more specific meaning than simply to encompass or unite. II also
had the more ac:ti\'c: sense of ruling. nnd referred to the mind's role as ruler
of the self:

·C.·:t:~ .:<: :1~ ili. J~Jm: \!i':t':VJ. .ll'h~ ilf.D!H!I/)i Jll. &.5!¥11
11/Ui.fd ; * ·IlL if.,!.;W:$!11il!t.! iliG !.Il l~ {EW +1• ·Mil till
tl' !;'/. :11, ~ tM !rwr t..) ·1tl fl'i1-5rJiIll!..
Xin is simply the n:lme we gi,·c to o ruler. In motion :u1d
s1il1ncss there is always :.t ruler: iL is not thtlt it docs nol
func tion in a Slate of stillness, and that onI~· when it is in
motion lhcrc is a ruler. When 1 speak of a ·ruler. I refer to
ils bringing together and full~· em bod~ ing C\ crything
within iLsclr. The mind unilcs and joins together lhc muurc
nnd the feelings. But this docs not mean thnc it is a row.
undiffcrenti:ll.cd mass togcthtr "ith tl1e nature and the
feelings, \\ ith there bcins no distinction. (Zhu Xi 1983:
5/20)

So here we sec that Zhu insists on lhe moral agency of the self,
achie\'cd by the ruling Md controlling function or the mind. lu fhct,
·'Without the mind:· O$ he claims elsewhere. t11e self \\Oufd ha\'C no ruler.-
(Zhu Xi l'J85: 1211).
But if tbc mind :~ets as tbc ruler of ahc ooturc a.od f~l.i.ngs. wbat is
the relationship bch,cen feelings :md ·•things- ( M'U ~ )7 Is qing still
esscntiallr passhc. indie.utins 3 lc,,l!l of humtm \•ulnc.rability to the dictates
Qf things. and thus s<unething thilt undermines the possibility o r moral
agency'/ If we examine what Zhu Xi had 10 Sil) about other imponant
dimensions of the self •• 1hc mind motion and stillness. ecntra lit~· :md
 Curi~ J(r(ig

hannony •• "e sec th:u Zhu succeeded in fom10 l:uing an ethical theory in
" 'hich the emotions were not si mp!~· ambh·alcnt. bul necessary aspects of
the mor.-tl life •• o life that moy be dircc.lcd from within. but oriented
to\\ords the \\Orld of things and of the larger humnn c.ommunily.
One wa) in which he did this was to open up a space of meaning
fOr the mind il$clf. For Zhu Xi. the mind W:l.S u space in which :~II the
normotin: principles were present.(' But it was noa simply an empty \'Csscl
that could cont:tin things~ it was characterized by a const:tnt movement
ro"atds the \\'Orld through the acthitics of pc.recption, thought 3tld
wtdcrstanding. h wo.s this. r.uhcr than things per se. tlult cndo\\ cd the spxc
of the mind with a wondrous. divine qualhy. And it was through its
pcrecptu:.l faculties dun the mind mediated between the self and the
external world.
One of the implications or this "as that the things of the world no
longer rcprcscnh:d objects lhttt ntlnleted or repelled us. ttnd subj~ted u.s to
their iJlJlucncc. rnstcnd. they were tl1e objects of our perception. our c.1rc.
::md our respon s i\·en~-ss. They arc whm cnsagcd our faculties and thereby
made these fhcultics come alh·c. The goal of sclf-cuhi\'ation was thus about
being able to respond properly to the things and circums1anccs around us -~
something th:u depended on our capodty to have f~ l ings as well. A tmly
cuJth·t~tcd p-erson wn.s not one who escaped in the world and meditated in
silence. but one \\ho could still possess an underlying calmness while
uctivcly engaged with the people and lhings thai made up his world, T hus.
Zhu defined 1hc \·iftuc of '1ri!!,htncss.- or yi ~-as "Being uble to respond
when things arri,·c, and bcinc nble to make decisions when situations
3fisc." (Zhu Xi 1985: 12/28). He also cmplwized thnt tbc true st3tc of
calmness •· tling li! •· was one thai did not exclude activity and motion.
but· th.at was c:-tpoblc of coc:omp:assins these both these st:ucs.
These ideas could be seen in Zhu's ancmpt to articulate the
relationship among lhc nnture , the mind, and the feelings in his "Frrsrteuer

(. :\:; Zhu ..:.~pl ainuJ ·•E,'I..'rythin~ Jl():)S~&'i4.~ ~t mint! :md th~ ~p:u;-.: \\ ithin
thl:; mmd mm;t be empty This '" like 3 dish ~o.'llmt:~ imng ch1ckcn he1ns or t>is
hca.rH. O!lC¢ you cut into 11 you can K-c thcrn. "I he human h~-an is :abo hkc this.
But this empty plucc still cucumpa."'-Ses .:md store:> the numy morul pnnciplcs
lh:u fill Jh.:~m.;n tliXI Earth 41.nJ 1.'tnbr~.;c past ~ml pr~:~cnl. 13Mcnding this cwn
rurthcr. nothing in the world - be it m J-1(.":1\'\..'fl (If flU 1-:..u th - d<X-"-' not come
from this Tlus rs tbl! m,u·vc!ous thing known as the human mind! Th~~
t:rin<:tplc.'i that reside in the mind :m: c:lllod 'the nature.· The n !l1\ll'C is like the
minJ· ~ ftcld: it lill:s it~ :-.-p:tcc. wu) then: i_s nothiog. bul thc~c priociplcs within it.
l 1tc min\! is th..: llwdling JJf{tCc of th~ d<Mnonic iru cll i~l!ll CC, and cunSlilutcs th~
mlc.T over the cnttrc self. The nature IS then the m~nr m(lrnl pnnciplcs; t h t~
tlrc J'lXtived from 11('{1\'(.'tl and ftrlly cuntain(.-d in the mind. Wh<., l they issue
forth in the 1\:ahn of wisdom. l.:nowkd~c, rcco1lccllon and conlcmpl:tlion. tl1t:y
arc ~11 fc.'\:liut!~ Thcrcr(lrc. I ZI~;u1g 7.aiJ said. ·'111.: mind unih.:s lhc nalurc :-uxl
1hc ti:<lings, ··• (Zhu X1 1985·98114)
 / .(JCt1llfl$ the .\ (rmri.'W!i /JJ

to the gentlemen of Hunan concerning ':Jrmrg' and '/rt .,. (!li! iU! rf.j~r.·i~ ·;~'~'
;fll !:£1 - i!J). Here he critiques Cheng Vi's understanding of the central
p:tssagc of the Zhongyong which elaborates the meaning ofwe~{n ~ {~ and
yifa B {} --the states before nnd after the arousal of dJc feelings:

TI1c state before joy and anger. sadncs.s nnd happiness.

have been orouscd is called ·:!long ( 1~_Jr . and when they
h..we been aroused and all hil their proper measure. it is
called 'I>< ('.II)'.
rt .~ :ml!::t.:li ~;;ri;t 'I' . f:l ifii tii•l··11il'o:'o1 ::i:..fll. 'I• l!! ~ .
7i: I';:t;J;:;t;ill. .fill!!. 'fo':K F;t;:fil! 1!!.

According to Chcny Yi. the mind represented J ~/(_, the state al\cr u

the arousal of the fee lings •• while the ll3ture represented we(/0 •• the state
before their arousal. Zhu Xi rejected this reading. hO\\C\ cr. For one lhing. it
equmed the mind "hh the feel ings and thu.t; fa iled to recognize that the
(ccling:s did not simply arise liom within. but :uosc in respOnse to our
cneoun1e1' with things. Such a vic"' suggested that it " 'as possible to
understand the fc!elings by obscrYing the mind itself •• an ::telh·ity Zhu
considered to be quite absurd. 7 It \\'a s only while engaging in the \\Ofld of
things that we could both understand the feelings and experience the
opcrnlion of the mind.
Anolhcr problem with Cheng Yi's t'Co:.diug wos thnt it defined the
t,tOOI of scl f~uhi,'ati on as returning to one's original nature. something Zhu
did no1 cH:n think was possible. As he declared. "The state before the
feelings nrc 01rouscd cannot be sought."' for Zlm Xi. the truly cultivated
indh idu31 wns one who was enp.1blc or babncing :~nd ntedio1ting inner rmd
outer realitie-s. Only by ::tc hic,~ing -underst:lnding in the C-Ontext of our
intcrnetion with Lhc world of things could \\C hope to rcnli1..c our moral
potcntinl: " As to self·cx:~min:uion \\hen 1hinss occur and seeking
undcrs1anding throug.h inference "hen we come into cont:lct with things,
Ibis must nlso serve as the foundntion."
1l1is openness to things did not mean that \\C would lose our sense
of rultonomy: since it did not compromise the csscnti:tl \i rtuc the mind to or
net ns master not only of the S(:)f but also over the things we encountered.
As Zhu insists:

1< ·l~' :r,·A::tffr l;l. ' '" :;'·!l./!i Ill. ·1'i::t: =mlli. 1..1.,,1ia~;
~yii:-r.· IJl 6ir1!11iu':.Ff.1/~'i~ ·r.l!!. i/( 1;/. •t:.'/8!~. li'Hn::i:.
PI[ lfJ.

' l hu work:> out h1s rcnsooing 1.n his " Discourse. on o~rvmg lhc mind"
(Gmm xln shtw l l1·C.·fiQ). in ZJm )(j 2000 6? /3389.
J./6 Curi~ J(r(ig

TI1c mind is that by ''hk h man rules himself. It is one. not

two: it is :.1 subject. not an objccl: and it commands things.
rothcr thnn king commanded by things, Therefo re: if the
mind obscn'cs things. the principle of things will be
auained. (Zhu Xi 2000: 6713389)

But our minds cndow..:d us ' "ith mor<1l agency in yet nnolhcr wa~·.
As Zlm c laboroucd in the opening PMS3gc of his ··oisooursc on
hwna.ncncss.. ~- the /((•n Slmo i=ffi -- the mind was a force of crcotion:
"Hcavcn and Earth takes its production of things as its mind. and in the
production of humans and things. Ct);h rcc~i,·cs the mind of Hca,·c n and
Earth as its own mind.'" (Zhu Xi 2000: 6713391). By 'irtuc of its original
endO\\'mc-nt of rt•n -- the \'irluc of hum:mencss -- the mind p.1r1icip.11ed in
the c~·dc of production and crcat.i\-c trMsformation (.lheng ~) that that
was constantly at worL: in the cosmos:

;x;, r: :tt..\iil. m<Jil! Lf'ln:t ·CA~~J>Jiii:ff.. til<:. ~'~liliidt

naElJ l. tlizttH:!Iti JmFFr.1. a<~t~itll.1iu ffz. li'J;lt,!t-
.vm. fi Ii .<:. 4'. .>FME !~
Now. ns for humaneness constituting the Wa}·. it is the
mind of Hea,cn and Earth to produce things being present
in ::sll things. Before the feelings h :~,·c issued forth. this
substnncc is already complete: ;~flcr the fcclinJ;S have
issued forth. its opcrmions arc inc:dt.1ustiblc. If we arc
i ndeed able to embody and preserve it. then the origin of
oil goudneu and the root of all action would alwa,ys be
present (Zhu Xi 1000: 6713391 ).

Here Zhu brings up a distinction that is crucial for his moral

thought. that of substance n . function. This distinction was the basis of
Zhu's cl:tim thnl qing was inseparable from t11~ realm of xin;: ~- that it
rcpr-.:-scntcd another aspccl of xin;: - and it was also the bJsis of his
interpretation of rm. Zhu ·s :u gument was ehat the substance of n:n, like the
moral nature, wus inherent within :~ II hum;m beings. ::and that their moral
task Wi:IS to 4111ow this n:.n to function in the \\Orld, Thus. rather th;;m
retuming to an original state of perfect goodness. we should stri\·c towards
the praetic3l relllization of this rt.•n through our feelings of lo,·c ::md C3ring.
and tJuough the fostering ofhum311 nourislling.
for Zhu Xi. then. to be open 10 emotions did not mean that one was
subject to the dctcmlinations of the c:-\tcmn.l world. It was, in fact. :m
imponant part of what i1 mcruu to be n moral subject. since the \CI)'
reali:t.:Uion of our moral muure depended on its operation m a discernible
lcYd - in other words. at the lcYd of its cmotiontll m3nifcstntion. fvlorco,·e r.
the hum3n potential for ;:oodncss could onl~· be trul)· realized when \\ t:
\\ere in aCii\'e cng:1gcmcnt wi th the world and with ahc larger human
 / .(JCt1l lfl$ the .\ (rmri.'W!i /J7

conununily. Such nn engageme nt expanded. mtbcr than compromised. our

pcmcr of moral :igCncy. In conlr:tsllo his Nco..Confm;ian predecessors. then.
Zbu Xi s.-aw no inherent contF.I.diction between emotion:~! experience nnd
tl1e- moral life. between openness to the norld of tl1ings tmd the task of
shapins o urO\\'n dcs1iny. In this \\'ay, Zhu Xi's \'ision succeeded in shO\\'ing
that our emotions, fnr from confin i_ng u.s, could toke us beyond the borders
of our own ~I\'C·S into a wo1ld that \\ liS col1cren1 a nd fi lled with mcilni n ~;.

REfERENCES
Cheng Vi f.~!!Ji. Yi.,·lm i"!l~l} in J:.'rc/Jt'ng .II -'. .f',!U.L Beij ing;
Zhon£hua shuju. 20<l4.
Ronald de Sousa, 11Jt: UmwnttiiiJ' of l!mDuon. Camb1idge. Mass.:
The M.I.T. Press. 1987.
Kong Yinyda .J'Ljj()j; (li Xucqin ')'-!j!o;WJ series editor). 1./Ji
Zlwngyi 1~7iic!iE tl . Beijing: Beijing Daxue Chubanshc. 1999.
Zhang Zai •jfi il;i, Zhrng Meng 1E;i!. Beijing: Zhonghu:l shuju.
1978.
Zhou DunyiJM.?kl!.ll 7iJug.'~ihu il!l&. in Zhou Yuan gong j i lo'·i ]t~
·~t Siku Qu;mshu cd.
Zhu Xi *tC Zlm:i )~, lei .$4~ -f i,fj ;b'L Beijing; ZhOf'lghllil shu
j u, I9R5.
··-··· ··· ·. Zhu:i Jf,~nji. Chen junmin li~! {fi l~ ed. Tnibci: Ocfu
\\cnj iaojijin hui. 2000.

GLOSSARY

Cheng Yi U~ft
ding <' •
·~
doug j}J
he 01
j ing f:1
li £11
uJi ~nc
qi :lll
qing 'IIi
rcn f •
Rcn Shuo r-···t
-liJ .

shcn i·~
shcng '-1~
xin ·L·.
xing ·tl;
tong !ft.
1-18 Curi~ J(r(ig

Tong Slm iill ill

wcif3 *~
fY1ying ZhenJJJ'i 3.it,~ 1f;Jq
\\U ~
yi :t'.ia
yifi1 e~t
} 'U Iii\
Yucji ~fie
Zhang Zai 'JI<i£
Zhou Ounyi (r.j:;:t~ii
Zhu Xi .*:l'~
 Chapter VIII

Is Wang Yangming's Notion of

Inn ate Moral Knowledge (Liangzhi) Tenable?
Jhng 1/utmg

I NTRODUCTION

In this a.nicle. I shall cx.:uninc one aspect or Wan~ Ynngming"s

idea of litmgzltl. There is no doubt thm /iongzlu is the singular most
impon3nt idea in W::mg' s mature philosophy. He himself c laims th:.t .. since
Longchang rlhc tuming point of his philosophy!. my idea has JlC\Cf
diYCT1cd from these two words liang z.hi" (Wang: 11 33: references to Wanu
hereafter in this :tnidc wilt be indicalcd with page numbers only). He oficn
compares his cnlightcnnl(:nt to li<mg:hi \\ ith Ch eng Hao·s to fianli
(hea\'cnly princ iple) (46 1). Cheng cbims that, ''hilc h~ has le:~ rncd a lot
from carliel' Confucians, the h\O words titm Ji nrc from his 0\\'0. inner
cxpcricnc.c (Cheng & Cheng; 425), Won:; mal;cs a similar cl;~im about his
liangzhl. Of course. just as Cheng docs not mean that h~ is tlte rirst to usc
the two words tfonU. nor docs Wang me:m that he is the im·cntor of the idea
of liangzhi, Aficr oil. it is Mcncius who says tho.t ·'\\ hat a person can do
without lc:1ming is litmgmwg !innate moral ability I. while what a person
knows witbout thinking is liang=lri, Tbcrc arc no d1.ildrcn who do not know
lo\'ing their pnrc;nts. and, \\hen CJO\\ing up. respecting their elder brothers~
(!vlencius 1a l S). W:mg himself clc:trly acknowk"ttgcs his debts to Mencius
when hi! St::ltes lh.:tt "Jlang=hi is wh.:tt f\,len ei u..~ regards as hC':'lrt/mind that
C\'eryonc has to make distinction bct\\eCn riuht nnd \\TOll&. T11is hc;~,rt/m i nd
or dislinguishing between right and wrong is C:'llled liangzhl. be.c:tusc one
knows il \\ ithout thinking and is able to practice it without IC3tning" (1063).
HowC\'Cr. Wang has a unique unllcrsmnding of lifmgzlri :md regards it ns
representing 1he most salient fcnturcs of Confucianism. In tile following. I
shall first examine Wn.ng's idea of liangzht as moral knowledge Uu~te in
C\'el)·onc. in C·Ontmst to non-moral k11owlcdge Lhat one lms to lcnm: then I
shall :maly'l'c \V:mg's \'icw of dis1inc.tion between sages and common
people despite the 13ct th.at moral knowledge is i.n.natc in botb~ fi.nally I shall
explore the issue of the credibility or WilnJt·s c-onception of moral
kt)()\Yiedse as innate. from :t Cl)ntempor::u:r philosophicol point of\ iew.

MORAL KNOWLEDGE (l.Jti,W;Zf/T) AS DrFFERENT FROM

C OMMON KNOWLEDGE (ZHISHI)

LhmJ;!zhilitcrnr> means the good or moral (liang) knowledge (zhi).

This is particularly cle.1r \\ hen Wang m.:~kes the analOg.) between Jiang :md
/50 rrmg 1/nrmg

slum. both meaning ·"good." in the fo llowing claim: ··because no IHumm's

nature is not good (slum). so no one's knowlcdyc is not mor-~1 (liang)" (65).
Of course. this word lumg :~~lso has the meaning of Rinnntc•· in the sense thut
Mcncius uses it. '' hich is also accepted by Wang when he says thnt the
henrlfmind or tiglu and wrong is enlied lumgt hl because it is something one
knows without th inking :md is .able to pr~cticc without lcaming. these
1

two meanings o f ll1e word liw1g can help us ha\'c a bcucr undctst.omding o f
linngzlli. On the one hand, Jrangzht is inn:ue in the hcan/mind, the great
bod)·· of C\'Cryonc. " 'hctl\cr o sage or a stupid man or ' ''oman (yuf u yt(fu)
(52). ln Wang's \'it\\. ··t..nowlcdgc is in the original state (bent1) l)f the
heart/mind. The hcan/mind naturally has lo..11owlcdgc: h naturally knows
fili:U piety when fnthcr is seen. brotherly love when elder brother is met
and commiscnnion when an infant is seen about 10 fall into a \\Cll.
Therefore. one should not seck lltmgzhi from 1hc outside.. (S). On t_hc o1hcr
h!lnd, bccttuM: it is only moml knowled£.C. the koo\\ lcdge necessary fOr n
person to bec-ome o morul person. Wm1t: m<~kes it c lear th~t no one.
including the s:.gc, is omniscient:

that nothing is beyond sages· kno\\Jcdgc mcruls that they

know CVCJ!'thing about the heannly principle (tumlt): that
noching is beyond sages' abilities means trot they am do
ever~ thing according to the hcan:n l~· principle. Because
s:tgc!' l"llOW this limdamcntal (htmll) , they l.:now the
hca\'cnly principle of C\'crythi.ng and thcn:forc can carry
this J)fim;iplc to its full. HowC\"Cr. it is not the case thnt.
"ith the Lnowlcdgc of hc:wcnly principle, s3gcs know and
can do C\'crylhing under hca\'cn. Things under bc~\'Cn,
such as names. ,·:uictics. and systems. as well ;,s &>lants
and animals, arc innumerable. Thus. altltough sages arc
clea.rb' aware or the fundamental how c:ut they know
everything'> YeL if 1hcrc i$ no need to L:now something,
sages will not bother 10 know il: and ir 1hcrc is something
to be known, s:~gcs com ccrtninly ~sk people about it For
c.xami)IC. ·'when Confucius entered the grand temple. he
asked c,·cry•thing" IAnalecu 3.151. A prc\"iOUS
intc:rprcution of it s:1ys that - the fact th<Jt ConftK.: ius as-k~
the qucs tiotl to ''hich he already has the ans \\cr shows
how serious and careful he is.'" TI1is intcrprct.alion is
uninlclligiblc. (101· 102)

So clearly. for W:mg. in nddition to Jumg:lu. the morall..'nowlcdge,

innate in c,·cryonc's heart/mind. thc:rc is otltcr zhi. knO\\lcdgc. not innate in

1 Tnns Jwtyi (Chun-1} MJ;UI.'S that, ctymo1Qgicn11y. the primury meaning

t>f hang ts ··orig.i1wl." with ''gCJod'' tlnly t'l$ i 1~ llcrh'ali\'C mcanin ~ (Tun ~ 1970:
10 1) In Wang, how.;:\"cr. th'-". :;c two mC<Jning$ :n-c ~c lease cqn;~tly 1mportan1
 151

nnyonc's heart/mind. \Vhcn l1c says that no knowledge is not good (lflw~) .
llc refers to the moral knowledge innate in our bean/mind only. The
non·morol (though not necessarily immorn1) knowledge is not wh:~.t we nrc
born with and hns to be lc<lmcd if it is necessary.! Wang sUites here that
sages nC('d to learn some, but n01 all. such l:nowlcdgc. The- criterion to
clctcnninc wh ;~t $:IScs need to lc>trn nnd wh::u sages do not need to learn is
\\ hcthcr such knowledge- is uc:ccssar) for moral knowlcd~·c to func tiun.
Thus. wh~-n asked "hcthcr moral knowledge of filial piety is enough :tnd
\\hcthcr ~\'C should also search for kno\\•lcdgc about how to get " 'arm in the
winter and how to get cool in the sununcr in se.r'\•ing p:trents. Wang st:!tcs:

Why should we not search for such knowledge'! We only

need to knot\ \\hat is cssemial (tmtmw). We only need to
se3r<.:h for such lmowlcdge by sening rid of selfish h uman
desifts and prcsenins the hc3,·cnly prineiple. For cx.1mple.
to search '' a)S to pnwidc wannth (to pmcntsl io the
winter. we need 10 apply our heart/mind of filittl piety to
the u tmost in case there is a sligiH sd(ISb dcsiro mixed in:
to search wa)'S 10 pro\ ide coolness [to parents! in tl1e
summer. we need also to apply our hc:nt!mind of f1lial
piety 10 the uuu ost in e~sc tbcrc is a slight selfish desire
mixed in. We only need to obtain this heart/mind. If our
he-art/mind is free from selfish desires, is in complclc
a.ccord with the hc:n-cnly principle, nnd is sincere i.n
serv in~ our parents. then. in the winter. \\C "ill n:lturnlly
be- concerned about o ur parents being cold tmd nnturall)1
uy to find wnys to pro,·idc warmtlt: in the summer, we
''ill n:uumllr be concerned \\ ith our J>arents being hot and
natur:llly uy to finds ways to keep them cool. Tiley ar~
detailed expressions of our sincere filial hc:utlmind. Only
if there is sud13 sincere and lilial hcanimind can there be
such dct:.lilcd expressions. As in a ucc. the sincere fil ial
hcn.rclmind is the root with m.nnr dctaikd cspn::s.sions ns
ilS branches and lc-:ncs. There mus.t first be rooc and onl)'
later can there be br:mchcs :1nd k-:we:s. h is not right lO
look Rlr br;u:u.:hcs and leaves first and only then ro pl;mL
the root. (4·5)

:z f~•ilurc
to u.:ali~i.! thi::; di::;tim~tion bclwu.:n lhc inn:1te mor~l 1\nQwkxl~~
and a c ~1 u •n:d
non.mol.ll knO\\Icdgc kads Fang Kch 10 clmm lhat Wang
OOillt(ld!Cb himS(:tf. ~·ft<.,· uu:.sa:iug (111 the im\at.:.·n(:;(S of l::nowlt:.-dse. by sayi•lg
lhnt -only after la~1mt; it con one- !.:non whether a food is t;ood or not" untl
·•only oftcr tnwdin~ t'll il l)m unl;! kntJw whether u m:KI is rough .,,r t\!Jh)Olh .. (4-ll)
(fong: 206)
/52 rrmg 1/nrmg

ln this example of filial pict~·. Wang cmphnsi7..CS the importance of

moral L:nowlcdgc. by \\hich we know not only lhat \\C should sene out
parents but nlso 1hat we should look for ways to bcucr serve o ut parents.
This knowledge is imullc in us. HO\\C\'cr. the acl\lal knowledge 01\J.out ways
to beucr SCI'\'~ our parents, for cx:un1lle, wn)'S to keep our' parents wann in
the winter and cool in the summer. is not inn:atc in us. It is something we
h;wc to lcam. Wh..:n he uses the term "'naturally .. in the above passage. he
docs not mc.an that our i nnat~ moral kno,, Jcdgc will naturally lead to such
non·moml knowledge; it n.lthcr mc.llnS thot auf innate moral knowledge will
naturally urge us to search for such knowledge. In this sense. r think Moo
Zongs:m is right when he says th...1t, for Wang. "Ihe moral knowledge of the
herl\'cnly principle dctem1incs one to serve parents and at the same time to
know parents.. (Mou: 178). as it is lmpossible to ser\'c parents \\ il.hout
knowing ptlrents (their desin:s. ide:ss, preferences. etc.) 3nd other related
thing.~. T:lllg, Junyi sees a closer rdtltionship between mn:lle mor31
knO\\Iedsc and ucquircd non·morul knowledge ''hen he comJ>:trcs the
inn:uc moral knowledge as :l (;ube, with the llOIHnoral knowledge
necessary for the innate moral J,·nowlcdge to function as one of its faces
(fang: 1993: 361). In his \'iew. such non-moml knowledge is not only
needed for the moral knowledge to function in the abo\·c sense, it is 31so
necessary to make a judgment when one's mornl knowlc.dgc issues two
conflicting comrnands. For example. by the innate kno'' ledge. we know we
should bi: bolh Jili:d aownrd parcnls and loyal to 1hc ruler, When lhc~:e two
arc in conJlict ond con.not be fu lfilkd at the some lime. we also need to hOl\'C
the non-mor.~l knowledge 10 mitkC a beltcr decision (sec Tang J993: 365). 3
So. in contrast 10 1hc- ,~iC\\' 1hnt Wang ignore~ or do\\ nplays
non·moml knowled¥.c. ~ W3ng recognizes the importance of such
knowledge (or moral knowledge. The only con1plaint that one can

l Cht-'11£. Chnng-ying also pomts out thai ..sc.-.rchmg for knowledge and
lmowlcdge f1.'Sul tm~ from thi~ scwdt must o.lwuys l)¢ ulstrumentat fOI' the
~rr~,rmuncc or nn actton or u type of nd ion which i:s cllnrtl.(.,1Cii:stic a:s \'i1 1uous"
(Chcu~ · 40G). P. J, Ivanhoe. l1owcwr. h!ls a diffcrcnl 1111\krst:lllUing In t1
cc)mmcnt cm a prcdotLS ,·c~ton "f lh1s essay. he states. ··w::mg i~ expressing
SIOmetbing h~c the dtll'cnmcc bt..'l\\\~ n a fa ...·ulty oc· $11.'1lS1bdit~· Md i1s cxpi'Cision.
So \•ision dc.1cs nnl include all the things we mi£-hl $CC in the world. but d cur
vision will rc\'..:.&tl :,ueh tl1i11t!-S in the course of C."iJXTit:IJ~.:oC, This iti "by I
1mn..;h•tc litmg:lti us ·pure knowmg,· It is ;m :lcli\'C f>lCUI1y that is free from
inlJ)UrihC..'- and hence I'CW;;lls what one should 1h"~ many spcc. tic c:lSc" ( ]Jti\'01C
001UJI1UUI('(l110ll)
<l Fur c~umpk, Mens Pt.:iyu:ll.l suy::_.: tlwt \Vu1.1g':; pbii<J:iVphy smacks o f
"~>hsc.:un•_m i s•n.
He rc.:j<-x:ls knuwh.xlgc. of l i tt.~r:t l urc :.tt' well as sctcuc..:: and
technology·· (Mcng: 315) Chen t.m has a s.innlar comphunt: 1f such thmgs as
"polittcnl t'llllals. sociol insh1utions. lk:ltJ'(luomy m:>d C~LkJid:~t·. (lnd l'l:hgious
sacrifice"' :arc ·'all con.sidcrod as the n.:~.turcl discovery.'' tltcn we-will be un.:.h1c
to maintain lhc uniH.:r~;dily nnd I.X'utinuit)' l.>f $l1Cb muller:..: (Chen; 29-:l(}, ~c
aiSi.'l< 44-·4.S)
 /53

legitimately lodge. as Lao Siguang actually docs. is that \Vang tells us tbat
llOn·mor.:d knowledge slloulrl not be sought aOcr if it is not useful for moral
knowledge nnd therefore docs not have nn independent role (l:1o: 39?). As
''C can S« from the abo,·c JXISSJ.gc. it is true that Wang docs not reserve nny
independent role for non-morall:no,,lcdge. He rcpcntcdly emphasizes that
we should only search for such kn owledge when it is necessary for the
moral knowledge 10 function and that we should seck s.u ch knowled ge only
under the guidance of moral knowledge. Howcwr, if we rcncct upon this
m:mcr, n'c rcalil'..c that nil the non-morol knowledge thnt nc normnlly think
''c should pursue today. includin~ the sciences. medicine. ans. history. and
litcmturc. is ncccss.ary for the moral knowl-edge to function better. So W:mg
rcolly docs not exclude from his scope anything that we arc actually
pursuing today. The o nly thing that he wams to cmphasit;C. which sct:ms to
me correct Md impor1.:1nt. is thAt o ur sc:.rch for such knowledge should be
b'llidcd by our mor.:~.l knowledge so that we co.n ensure th!lt such non·mOr31
kno'' led sc \ \ ill not be put to inunoml usc. Otherwise. people- '' ith such
knowledge may do more hnnnfulthinss than 1l1osc who do not h:l\c it For
this reason. Wang complnins :

the later sencmtions d o no t understand th31 the most

1Undnmcnta1 in adtic\'ing sngchood is to be in complete
accord with the heavenly principle. Instead they seek
s:tgchood through l.thc non·mOr.ll.l kno" ·lcdgc :md abil iaics.
They thought tbat. si.ncc sngcs know :til and 3rc ;able to do
nil. the~· h:.vc to firs1 undcrsumd sages' such f!bilitics to
know nod do thinss. Thus they do not direct their cffl)tts
toward the hca\'cnly principle. but cxen their encrg.,·. i.u
\'ilin. 10 scrutini1.c books. c~aminc the names and ' 'nrtctics
of things, and trace and imitate what is done lby sag~sj.
lltc result is that t.bc more knowledge acquired. d1e more
selfish desires accumulated: the higher their abilitie-s. the
more obscured the hcm ·c nly principle. (2~J)

In Wang's \ iC\\. sages ha,·e both the innate mornl l.:nowlc<lgc and
ncquirtd non·mOrAI knowledge. \\ ith the !:mer being guided by the former.
However. - I:Ucr generations·· do nor flfst make efforts to keep their moml
knowled ge :~s unobscurcd as sages do·. TIIC}' merely try to acquire sages·
non~moml ~:nowlcdsc. which therefor~ cannot perform its moral function
for lhem as its d ocs for 53ges. llws. \Vnng st..1tcs. without lhc guid:tncc of
tl1c innate moral knowledge. - broad mcmorii'..ations and recitations can only
function to increase people's arrogance. cxtcnsh·c knowledge can only
serve them in e\'il deeds: enormous information cru1 only help them in
/5-I rrmg 1/nrmg

quarrels. and rich toclmiqucs of Oowcl) composition can only assist ll1cut 10
co,·er up their artificiality" (~9).~
Bccnusc wh.11 people arc born with is moral knowledge, people
with such lnO\\ ledge. of course knO\\ how to act morally in a gi\'cn
sirumion. HO\\C\'e r, hO\\' 1hc~ will acwall) net dependS" upon " 'leu kind of
actual situ;~tion they arc in, which th ~· cnn only know through cxpcricnc:-c
(se-c Tang 1990: 339·340). For this reason. Wang 's inn:uc-moral knowh.-dgc
is not foreknowledge. People! "ith such knowledge cannot predict what
acrual tlctions they n ill perform. although thC) kno" tllat they ''ill pctform
moral actions. ·nms. when asl.cd wl1cthcr being a bso lute.!~· sincere can bring
out forcl.:-nowlcdgc. Wang replies:

Sinccrit> is a rc:tl principle. h is nothing but the innate

moral knowledge. When it acts \\ Onde-rfully in 1he world,
we rcgru-d it n.t; divine Vhtm). .. . S3gcs do not value
foreknowledge. TI1cy cannot ll\ oid cJhunitics and
happiness when they come. They only know the beginning
of things :md nrc good ot handling them situationaUy.
t>.foral knowledge is neither foreknow ledge nor
rctrospccth·c knowledge. It is knowledge about wh:n is
goins on. (I H)

THE ORIG IN Ot'THt: DISTINCTION llETWE!:N SAGES AND

COMMON PEOPLE

We h:wc- seen that \Vlng gets his idc-3 of the inn:uc moral
knowled~e. /iang:hi. from Mcncius. who tolks 3bout /iangncng, inn3tc
moral <"~b il i ty, in addition to lumgzhl. We may ahcreforc- \\onder why
IJangmmg docs not become a central idea in Wang. The ansncr is pcrtl:.ps
that for Wang. people who have the innate moral knowledge will
necessarily be able to act In his \'icw. to hm'c morallmowlcdgc and yet be
unable to acl m or:~lly is a sclf'"(;ontrndiction. ror knowledge and :action arc
one :md the s:;tme thing: -:.s long :;~s knowledge is mentioned. Jclion is
already there. and ns long ns action is mentioned. knO\\ ledge: is already
there·• (S). If Lhi!> is the ensc, howc\·cr. a nc'' question arises: since
according to Wang. cYcryonc is born wilh moral kuowlcdgc. 3nd t\'cryonc
who h.ls this moral knowledge will act morally. Ihen '' hy arc there momlly

3 lhu:;. '' b'-"ll compariog the ::;cicntiJic kJlO\\ k-dgc stn:.:s~ iJl the Wc.')tl"l1l
lradition m1d mond kfl(_l\\ J,:dgc .;;mph:tsi;AXJ in lhc Cnnl'uci:m trJditi<m. in his
d1scossion of Wang Y:.ngmmg and Zhn Xi's notlnn {If knowledge of/;:~ s ,·lnue
((/exi,g :IIi :Itt) in <Xlntrast to kuowlcdgc ofhe:.ring imd S('("1JI~ {v'('fljicm :hi : lu).
T ang Junyi point$ out, ..wilhoul knowlcdsc-uf/o:; \irtuc a.s the master. to<.by's
~ci~.:~uific knt,wh:dgc and tc;chnoll)gy m:1y ~~~J b;.:: liSOO l(_l kill JlC(.ll>lc insh;ad '.II'
pcrfccling hum:m hfc.. (T:1ng 1991· .l;(;)
 /55

bad people'! In other ''ords. what is the source of immorality? To this.

Wang's answer is;

The innate moral knowledge is tfno. T11c moml knO\\ ledge

is innmc in human heart/mind. This is true not only of
S3gcs and worthy people but nlso of common people. If
there ;uc. no material desire~ to obt;eurc the innate ~nornl
lmowlcdgc. which is followed and len to function in its
" .tl)', then c'crything will be inoccord '' ith <ffH>. Ho\\•cvcr,
common people :ue often obscured h) Jnatcrial des ire~ and
therefore cannot fo llow the innate moral knowlcd~ . (71)

In Wang's vic''· \\hilc moral knowledge is indeed innate in

c,·etyone. it e:m be OblOcurcd by selfish desires. just as the bright sun rna) be
bloc.l.;cd by clouds,-:; and 11 shining mirror m!ly be co,·crl!d b~· dLL~t. 1 lbu~. it
is important for common people to remo,·c such mntcrinl desires to regain
the lost sight of their inn:ue moral knowledge (:hi llangzlu). Thus zhl
finng;:lti bocotncs :1 key in WMg's philosophy. As a matter of fact. be even
claims th:u. ··teaching studcn1s to learn throughout my life, 1 ha\'C only
these three words: zhi hnng zhi'" (5,.3).
However. 1 shall lcaYe this importmlt topic of zM Unng;hi for a
difTcrcnt OC·C:tsion. In this section. I sJ1all instead explore a diiTcrcm but
cqu:tlly importrmt question; where do such malcri;d desires. which obscure
~op l c ·s in1~ tc morul L:.nowlcdgc. come from'/ While m.any scholars think
tbnL Wang fails to provide an adcqmllc answer to this question (sec 1-iou:
215 & 224. Ni' ison: 224. Chen: 81, and Cheng: 41!~). P. J. Ivanhoe •rsucs
tltal Wang accepts the ,·icw thnt "qi wnurally oocuts in \'arying degrees of
·coarseness· or ' turbidity' aud Lh:u the qu:tli1) of ll1c qi. whic.h different
p:!Oplc rccch·c at bi11h. varies" (h·nnhoc: 82). He lhnhcr argues that "most
nco~Confu cim1s bdicnd that qi ncccss..'lfily 'darkens aud obsc-ures' one's
pure Md perfect innate moral nature and that bcctluse qi occurs in varinus
degrees of 'coorscncss' and ' turbidity." difl'ercnt people arc 'obstnJctcd' to
va~· ing degrees JS a mntlcr of princ;iplc'' ( ibid.). Based on this
interpretation. Ivanhoe obscn·cs that. in W:lnJ.;'S \icw. "a gi,1cn indi,iduars
goodness or wid:cdness -- ~( ICY.l.st at birth -- is n wholly contingent matter"
(Ivanhoe: 87). For h·anhoc, this -pn;scnts problems for Wang ·s clnim that
everyone can become Yao or Shun and raises serious questions about how
much of the tad: of moral self cuhh'ation is truly within :to indi,·idual's
power to c.onlf'Ol'" (I\ auhoc: 82).

t. "The J.:now~dgc of the sage is hkc tllc sun in a clear day. the l:nowlcdt=:c
of th<.·. WOI'thy is hk(: the :imn in a d::.y with a few movu\~ clt)Uds. while the
know1cdsc-of the stupid people is hkc the sun m a cllludy Way" ( 11S).
1
"The ~g\!·s ht;mt/miJtd js lil:c a .sbiuing mimtr wilhout ~mr du:;t ...
while :1 cotnmt)n person· s }l(..-~rtlm ind is hke a mirror wil.h Illyen; o r dust'' ( 386)
/56 rrmg 1/nrmg

h is true thai Wnng follO\\S the neo.Confuciw1 tmdition to appeal

to qt to explain the problem or
evil. Howc,·cr. my o bser,·ation is lhat
Wang's theory is much more complicated. Wang docs :Jttributc c:vil to
coarseness nod turbidness of qi. For example. he says lhnt

the innalc- moral knowlcdb"C is o riginolly transpare-nt.

Tl1use " hose physical 'I' (tJizlu) is not excellent arc not
easily enlightened to it b('causc of the large amount of
dregs and heavy layers of obscuration. Those "hose
physical qi is exc-ellent ha'c few dregs and little
obscuration. Thus. with a liulc effort to regain the innate
moral knowledge. this i.tutotc moral knowledge bccontcs
unnsparcmto them. (70)

In ru1olhcr place, he lliS.O says lh:Jt

lhc physical 91 (qlzlll) is w hat both houses and obscures

the human n:uurc (xing). TilC physical qi \'aries and the
human nature follows. Human n:'llurc is like a ball. Jt is
bright when fa11ing into 3 dear pool. becomes blurred
when falling into turbid water. and becomes lihhy if
falling into filthy \Htlcr. The wise people abo,·e arc in tl1c
clear pool. common people arc in the turbid w:uer. :md
stupid people below arc i.n the fih hy water. ( I035-1036)

In s·uch pas:s:.ges, Wang seems to S.1}' that different people ar~

cndO\\Cd with di.tTcrcnt qt. which dctcm1i.nc \\hcthcr they arc oblc to sec
their i_lli\<\IC moral knowlcdb't! dc:ul)' or no«. nnd \\'llcther they will be moral
or immoral persons. They seem to conlinn wh::u h ·anhoc s:.ys.
Howc\·er. iu some other jnlSSAges. we find \Vang sa.ying that all
hum:ms arc endowed with the same pm-c fJi as their distinguishing mark. in
contrast to the turbid q1 received by anima ls. Such pure qi. in Wang's view,
is identicotlto humtm n;aturc. In n poem. Wnng expressed this idea: ..hum;~n
beings and other beings both lla\C: their endowments. Their printil'lc (/J) is
the same bul thcir qi arc different. To S!ly thm their tf l arc diiTcrcnt does. not
mean that they urc two different kinds of qi. There is only the diflCrcnce
between JlUCity and turbidness.. (I I03). From here. we can sec tll<\t the iJI
tbat all human beings arc endowed with is pure qi. He docs not mention that
diffe rent people ore endowed "ith qi of di.fiCrcnt degrees of purity {people
may be cndO\\cd \\ ith different amounts of such pure <Ji but this will only
rcsuh in the difference in their in1cllectual. :utisdc. techn.ical. physical. :md
other non·moral abilities but not in their moral qunlilics).$ Only bcxJusc of

~ h·nnhoc dis:~srccs with me on I his intcrpn:tation. In his view. -wlul he

(Want_:l is :..:~yin g
is llmt the cndmnnctll vf human$ is more pure :and the
cntl(l\\llltnl of ()!her nnimats ts mol\: hnbid The turb1d1ly of the l:tlh:r prevents
 /57

Lhis can Wang claim th:n qi is compatible" ith humnn n:nurc \\hich is good.
since "the good human muun: can only be socn rrom tft . Without t}l . good
htun:m nnturc canno1 be seen. f eelings of commiscrnrion. shame :md dislike.
deference ::md compliance. Dod right nnd \HOng arc all ttf' : commencing on
the Cheng Brot her~· famous stntemcnt duu " lo talk about human nature
without talking ;about qi is not comp lete, and to t:~ lk about tJi without mlking
about hun1;:m nature is not illuminJtin::· Wang makes a more r.Wical c.lilim:
.. human nature is (jl, and (l i is human nature. Originally there is no
distinction bch\'CCn llum:ltl n:1rurc tuld t)r (63-4). Obviously, Wang cannot
make such an identification bct\\CCn bwn::m nature and qj if human ql has
certain degree of coarseness and turt>idiry, as Ivanhoe argues If so. how
docs \V:mg explain the origin of e\·il in terms of qi'! Chen L..'li. for exnmple.
nrgucs that such a conception of <Ji can only c:...:plain tl1c manifcsuuion of the
four beginnings, but ''t_hcrc arc :.Jso vnrious 'I'
th3t arc not gond,·· which
W:tng docs not M.tll~·-ze. Thus. Chen thinks th3t WMg·s conception of
hcnn!mind with mori'll knowlcd~;c as its fundamental excludes the
possibilily of the arising of selfish desires and thtlS C011cludcs th:u W3nc·s
explanation of the problem ofc,·iJ is lUlsatisfo.ctOI";\ (Chen: 90).
It is possible 1hat Wang indeed docs not lta\'C a satisfactOI'Y
explanation of the cril. HoWC\'er. instead or ghing up on this issue too
quickly. I would like to present an C:\"J)Crimcntal interpretation. My hmtch is
that Wang talks about two kinds of qi in relation to human beings. One is
the tfi constiluti\'c of hum:m beings, \\hich makC$ at possible fo r human
bciJlgs to appc~r o.s ~ings witb shape (p:m xing). All hum;m beings art:
endowed with this same CJi thnt makes human beings different from animals
tlnd other beings. \Vans app:ucntlr rcfcts to this tJi "hen he claims thal
human qi is idcnlieal to hwno.n nalUrc. \Ve may enll qi i.n this sense the host

lhclll from ~..:ltmJ; !I .;,limps..: of ull the li :ls humans ~au . This JlTC\ 'Cills annnnls
in pnnciplc from undcrsumdang the l)~o ( J1lough the~· can nnd do m:mifc!ll
IUJ>CCB of it) ... . (.;(lntro.ay to \\1~tll son~ p(·ople t.h.mk. diff.:-r<:n(;('S m dcgr~c can
con$lilulc di OCrcnc~ in l;ind. We talk thi:s \\O)' ollthc lime. For c-:-.:omplc: John
is vc1y hea lth~·• .fuhn i~ not 100% hc:!ll_hy. John i:,: sick. wry ~ick. tcrmin:1ll)' ill.
'J'
dead .. In the same way cxlremcly pure is somcthmg tliffcl\.-"fll lh:m re.:llly
tmbid qi. Iutile s;2.nlC Wt,~' that we.~ thiok l)f p11~ Of po1t,ble water as somcthjng
diOCrcnl than po1lutcd water'" (privulc communication). This sccm:1 to be u!:lo n
pl:u;~ib k inh:rpr~Latkm Tb-.: pn.)blcm ''ilh this inlallfC.:ll.!lion is dutl :,c.unct im~
Wang. like many other Ct·mfuctnns bodl before and afk-r ham. llnnks th<tl
"pooplc who h~vc V10I:HOO the hc:t\'Cilly pt'lndpk: 3TC uo d•ffcrcr.t front bc:~ s.1s.
If 1hcy can stcul a liiC of hundreds or;, thousand of r (·ru-s in tlus \\otld. lh~·
simplr li\-c $Uch o kmg life of hca.,-;t:-;" ( lOS: :sec ol!')() 7S<i·7R7). llom.:n:r, in
W\tn{s \1icw. c\'Cn ~u~h JX"-IJ'Ic ~au ~1ill be..-c..lJUc ~ ~gcs :1s lvnt: :1.s th1..')' nmk..:
cff0f1s. However n dc!l(J person cannot be brong.ht back to hfc :md an snimi\1
cannot he m;~ck into u hUUlfn\ being. to say nothing of a mort•I p(·rson. whuten·r
cf(Qrt:s nrc exerted. Thi:s. il seem~ to me, shows thnL for W~g. the diOCrcncc
ll..!IW<.:cn human lx·lnpi ami (ltiwr ~mnmls is n~>t :.1 J it)'e.:n.:noc (lf d~gre..: bul ._,r
kmd, the kmd not rc:oult(.'d fmm !'ICcumul:llcd degree
/ 58 rrmg 1/nrmg

qi (zJw qt) . Titis tti obviously cannot explain the origin of C\ il. Being
co mplcccly pure. it is \\hat distinguishes human beings from othe r beings
nnd unites all human beings together. However, i1 seems that Wnng has in
mind a different tJi that is also rclntcd to human life. whic;h he calls J.licn or
gues1 tJI (wM qf), ll term thnt frequently :~ppc:us i n his (as well as in his
stud~nt Wang Lo ng:~: i '$) writings :md conversations. In Wang's ,·icw. it is
pred$CI)' this alien Of guest q1 th:tt aCC(lUill$ f(l l' the Qrigin o f t.:\'il. For
example. he: says: ··selfish desires and alien qt :uC' what obscure the hum:m
nature.. (71): -since \\'C ncm• all know the key 10 lcAI'Iling. \\'C do not need to
\\Of!)' ''here to get st.aned. However. burdened by the-alien (Ji. we arc not
willing to reach our innau: mo r;~l lmowledgc" (428): when one of his
students says that it is the o.licn qi that interrupts the origin1l .. joy (lc)
enjoyed by human beings togelhcr '' ith other beings. he replies with a
resounding '')CS.. (436).
While Wang h.:as neYe-l' told us clearly wh.u this alien or guest qi is.
\\C can be sure lhut it is not the q/ thnt he idcntilics with hunwn nnturc. It is
also clca.r that i1 is this olien oc· gt~ est q/ 1hat is responsible for hunutn C\"il.
In order to wtderstond what lhis nlieu or guest qi is :1nd ho\\' it couscs us to
h:wc selfish dc.sires tJuu obscure our innate mor<'lllnowlcdgc. it is helpful to
sec how this word is used by some nco-Confueians before him. To my
knowledge. this word bras been oceasion:.Uy used by Zhang Zai nnd Zhu Xi.
However. more helpful clues to its meanings can be found in the Cheng
Bn)lhers. Cheng H:1o uses the s:.me word. alien lJ' (ketJi) . saying chat " the
principle of rightness {_llili) and the alien qi conquer each other frequently.
The dislinclion bci\\ CCn superior persons (itmzi) nnd inferior persons
(xiMren) is m:1dc- according 10 the dcsrec 10 \\hich one is conquered by
another. ·n,e more the principle of ria;htness so.i.ns the upper ho.nd ... the
more the :'llien tti is cx 1 in~u ished- (Cheng & Cheng: 4-5). Thls p3SSC)ge
reinforces our idea t11at olicn qt is responsible for human evils. but it s1ill
docs not tell us whnt this nlicn qi is. This is made clearer by his younger
brother Cheng Yi, who uses a dii1Crcnt but sin1ilar tcnu. external qi (woi qi).
and clearly distinguishes i1 from the inlem:.l or host qi c:onslitudn· of
humon being. which he rcg_:~.rds ns the qi of genuine origin (:Ju:nyunn :Jti tJI).
or
In his viC\\. this CJi genuine origin

is not mixed with external (Jl (wui q1). but absorbs

nourishment from the external ql. l et us 1:2kc the fish in
"atcr as on analogy. Titc life of fish is not cou.scd by w:ue.r.
HoWC\'Cr, onJy by absorbing nourishment from water cau
fish lh·c. Human beings li\'c bci \\CCO he:t\'en nnd earth in
1hc same woy as fish li\'C in wa1er. The nourishment
humnns receh·c from drinkiug and food is aU from
c.-.:tcrnal qi. (170)

This pilSS:.gc i.s cxo-cmcly helpful. It I'J.Ot only clearly distii'J.guishcs

between the 1\\'0 iJI: (I) the 111 that makes i1 possible for a human being to
 /59

nppcar as something" ith shape (l'lm xing). the qi of genuine origin. and (2)
the tft in which human beings lh·c. the c:o:tcmnl cJI. MoreO\'Cr. it c;..xplains the
rcl~ti on.ship between these two kinds of qi: the qi of genuine origin is not
mi;'icd with the c:o:tcrnal q; (so they nrc scp;mllc) btll depends upon the Iauer
for nom·ishmcnt. Thus. if ahe cxtcmal cJi is not turbid, it may conmminatc
the internal qf by causing it to haYc in ::appropriate m:ucrizd desires (1m J-lt).
There is no dc"l' tc.:..:tual cvidcucc to show whether Wang uses ahc lcnn
alien qr in the same sense and whc tlu~r he means the s:~mc thing whcn he
s:~.rs that such lllicn qi c-auses people 10 lul\'c in.3ppropri3.tc desires. n bich
obscure the mor.tl knO\\ ledge innate in their heart/mind. However. it is 31
least not entirely unreasonable to assume thai Wang may indeed hold a.
simil:tr ,·jew, gi,'c n his f.-uni li:trity with and influence by the writings of the
Cheng bro thers. Moroo\·cr. il is at least also a plausible way to make
Wang's various discussions of qJ consistent with e:.ch other and "ith his
more general philosophic:'tl "iews. For extunple. it is in this context th.:tt we
can understand why he often uses the Lerm alien qi and mntcri:d desires
together (436) :'lnd somc1imcs crcn regard thenl as essentially one thing
(70). His discussion of M<ncios -night qi (Veq1) .. c:tn also be bcllcr
understood in this contcs:t In the famo us passage \\here Mcnciu.s mnkc-s the
an:llogy between people lcuing go or their true heart/mind with mountains
lening go of their trees. he d evelops his idc::l of night qt:

If. in sp ite of 1he respite people get in the c.by and in the
njght and of the effec-t of the morning ai.r on hi.m. sc;lrcel~·
any of their likes ond dislikes resemble those of other
people, il is bcc.nusc ''' hal they do in 1hc c.ourse of rhe day
once again dissipo.tes \\hat they ha\'e gained. If tbis
d iSSipatiOn happens I'CJ>Catedly, then the inn ti'CI1CC Of the
night air will no lonccr be able to preserve \\hat was
originally in them. and when that happens. they arc not far
rcmO\'Cd fro m an animal. {MCmcius6a&)

Whal is so good about the n ight t!''{ Wang points out "the moral
km')wledge arising in tile night cJi is its o riginal state. because it is not mixed
with m:'lteti:.'ll dcr.ircs'· ( Ill)~ nnd there is no mixture()( material desires in
the night IJi. bc<.:ausc people l:uJccp in the nightl .. s.ce nt)thins,. hear no thing.
th ink nothing. :Jnd do noth ing~ (120). Howc\'et. in his \'icw... Mcncius· talk
about · night qi' is ont~· imcndcd for those whose good hcanlmind has
already bcc:u lost. to point out \\hero this good hc:utJmind arises so that it
can be culti\'atcd and nourished from this point on. Today we ha\C alre-ady
clearly known about the mo ral knowledge 3nd .so we o nly need to nlways
exert efforts to reach it T here is no reason to tnlk about n ight qt"' (69: sec
:1lso 19). Th~ point is that. ''bile it is good to live in the nig.ht fJi. as \\C: \\ill
then not be cont..1.fllinnted by the :~lien q r. we cannot alw:1~·s live in the night
IJi. i.e .. nl"ays sleep. so thut we see, hear. thinL:. and do t.tothi.ng. Aftc:~: n.ll.
what is impammt is not to li\·e in separation from the alien tti. but to get
Jt;O rrmg 1/nrmg

nourishment from ami ) c1 not be C()UUollcd by iL Lh ing in complch:

separation from lhe alien '1'· of course we ''ill not have any sellish desires.
but lhcn we will h~,·c nowhere to get nourishment.
How is this possible? In Wnng·s ' 'iew. the most importJ.nt thing is
to take hold of ahc will (l'ln :hf): "'Bod thoughts come from populal' qt (XifJI).
while good thoughts c:omc from 1hc origin::tl nature. 1l1c original n::tturc is
t:·Onqucrcd by the popluar tJi because lhc \\ ill is not established- (24). Thus.
commenting on Mcncius· view of the relationship bc1ween qi and will
~'o;fenciuS 1a2), he SQ.)'S lhllt the qi is e.uh.iv3LCd by .taking hold o( LJ1e will.
bccaus.e (a~ Mcncius also S3)S} L11c ''ill should be the conun:tnder O\Ct fJi
(2.&). The imponancc of establishing the will is most emphatically
expressed in the following passage:

The" ill is the commander ¢\(~r q1, the life of a person, the
root of a trtt, and the: sourec: of w:tter. When the source is
blocl.cd. \\iller will cease 10 now: when 1hc root is nol
planlcd, a 1r~e will wither; when the life is not continued, a
pe-rson will die, o.nd wheo lhc wilJ is not cst:tblished. the qi
''ill make one lose cousciousnc"Ss .. .. Therefot·c. as soon as
a slight selfish desire arises. immediately blame the
non-cstoblishment of the: will and lhen the prh·a.tc desires
"ill rcctdc; as soon as a slight alien •Ji is hcnrd moving.
i mm edi~ lcly blame t_hc non-es.tablishmcnl of the will :md
the alien (JI' will be gone. When lazy. blame ahc will nnd
one "ill not be- lnzr: when ncgligcnl. blame the will and
one will not be negligent~ " 'hen ns ir:'l.t{'d, blame- the "ill
tutd one ''ill not be ngitnted: when en\'ious. blame the "ill
and one w ill not be cnviou$; \\'l1cn nnsry. blame 1hc \\ ill
and one will not be angry~ when greedy, blame the will
and one will not be greedy; when anog:ml bl:une the will
and one will not be arrogant: \\hen stingy. blame the-" ill
and one will no1 be stingy. (8?1)

IS WANG'S NOTION OF TilE INNATE MORA L KNOWLE DGE

TENABLE?

A contcmpomry reader is unlikcl)' 10 be easily c.onvinccd or

\V::mg's \ricw of the ino:uc mornl knowledge 3nd would perhaps also regard
his theory of lJi ns something merely ad hoc. In the Wc!.t. John Locke. who
dc\'Otcs the whole of Book I of his An Ess{l)t Om(.-.::ming the H11man
IJndcrstrmdmg to this matter, has made perhaps the mos.1 demstating att::tck
on the idea of innJ.tc knowledge. It is therefore interesting and importnnt co
sec "hcther Wong can withstand this auoct. In L(X;kc ·s ''icw. the strongest
support for the theory of inn.11e knowledge is thot such knowledge i.s
unh·cr&~lly held, As we have seen. it seems to be also the reason for W:ms
to regard moral knowledge i'I S innn1c. ror he thinks th:u all people naiUrnlly
 161

have filial piety "hen seeing their falhcrs. brotherly lm•c \\·hen sc.:·dng their
elder brolhcrs. and commiscralion when seeing an infanl about to f3 ll inlo n
wcJJ. ln Locke's view. howc\'cr. cnn if unh ·crs.1l consensus indeed exists
on such maucrs. it c:mnot be dircctl)' counted as a proof for their being
innate. ''i f c h en~ cnn be :~ny other way shown, how men m :~r come 10 that
univcrs;al agreement in the thing.s the~· do consen t in. wh ic;h I presume mny
be done·· (Locke: I. II . 3).
Yet. Locke's main elTon is to argue that no such consensus cxis1s.
While he ntL.'lcks a much broader theory of inn:uc knowledge, he also uses n
\\hole chapter (Locke: I. lfl) to 3rguc against the innate moral knowledge.
which is the concern of this article. Here. Locke argues thai there is no
wth·cr53l consensus 011 mornl nmtters by citing such immoral and indeed
cruel things ns people Iawing their children in the fields to perish by want
or wild beas1s. pc."'ple L:illing 1hcir p:uenas renching a certain age, people
cnnying the sick out and IJying Lhem on 1he ctuth ~fore they :lrC dc:1d.
people burying cl1ilclrcn alh·c or even CJiing their c.hildrcl.l , etc.• wit.hout ml.)'
rl!morsc (sec Locke: I. III. 9). In this :upcct, it seems th:u W:m{s 1hoory of
iun:ttc moral knowledge docs not fare much bcncr. As \Vu Zhcn points out.
·•some serious theoretical defects of Mcncius' aq;umcflt for tl1e ~oodnc.ss of
human natu.rc fro m children's natural feeling of lo\·c and respect arc fully
exposed in Wru~g Yangming's conception of rcady·made (xmnd Jcnf.:) moral
knowlcd~c" (Wu: 16). Wu further cites Zlmn Ruoshui. 3 COI11CD1 JXU'a~ or
Wang, that. in contrast to people kwing their p:m:nts, rcspccling their elder
brothers. and showing eommiserntion to people. there ore also people who
bent and ydl at their parents. \\'hO l\\ ist lhcir elder brothers· arms in order 10
scab their food to e:n (oris innlly in A4n1c.'iliS 6b l), and \\hO, loving their
own parents nnd respecting tltcir O\\D elder brothers, kill others· parents nnd
elder brothers (sec ibid.).
Ad,·ocatcs of innate knowledge. of course, arc aware of such
counter~xam p l cs. In their view. this docs not show that there is no such
inn:uc knowledge. In the wcsL Pl:uo argues 1hat knO\\Icdgc (in contrast 10
opinions) is indeed inn:uc :md is only forgotten when born. Thus. all people
'"know and osscnt to them. when th e~· come to tho usc of rcJ.son'' (Locke: I.
II. 6). At least in appearance. Wang taLes the same strategy. He argues that
moral kno\\ICdgc is indeed inn;-tte, but it i$ obseured by selfish desjrcs as
soon as one is born. Thus. there is a need fllr people ro regain the sight of
the innate moral knowledge (zh1 lh1ngzhr') by I'CtllO\'ing such sellisJ1 desire-s.
In Loc'-:c 's \'iew, however, such a defense is dcfecti,·c. One of its many
problems is tJull "'by this they Iinnate idc:lS] arc nor distinguishable from
other L:.nowablc truths"' (Locke: r. II. 13). In other words. if so. we cnn claim
that any knowledge, C\ 'e n such knowledge as ··it mined yesterday."' is innate
by saying thnt lhis L:.nowlcdgc is originally in our mind but is later forgotten
until )CStcrd"Y \\C discovered it As \\C ha\'C seen. Wang intends to nH"Il:c n
c lct~r distim;lion between moral l..'llOwlcdgc which he cbims is innate :md
non·mornl koow.lcdgc wh.ich he belje\'CS is learned. Now from the Loekcnn
point of' iC\\, since W:mg thinks tlu'lt pCOIJlc h<wc to clcM up their prh·atc
162 rrmg 1/nrmg

desires to see tl1cir originall~· innate moral knowledge . .iust as we ha\'C 10

dear up the t louds 10 see lhe sun. why crumot \\e maL:c a similar claim
nbom the non·mor;:al l.:nowlcdge (perhaps by rcmodng :J different ~· pe of
cloud)'/
Docs ehis mean thru Wang ·s idea of innme moral knowledge is thus
entirely untcnOJblc'! It would indeed be should W:mg inlcnd 10 provide on
em piric:<~I dC$Gription uf humun hca11/m ind. As we hon c- }ccn, us a
psychological description, such a theory may be disconrirmed., However,
it is my contenuon that Wang ~s theory· of inn."tte moral knO\\'lcdge is not on
cmplricalthcory. It is rather a mc.taphysic3llllcory. as it is obout the original
state (benti) of the hcanjmind. Moreover. it is not a metaphysical theory
th:u tries to tell us what hlm1an hcan/mind objccti,·cly is. The he~mlmind
described in such metaphysics. as n metaphysica l reality. is something. in
Richard Rony·s \\Ord ... ,,e c:t.n never L::no''' ourscl\'es 10 h~l\c reached. ::md
which we c:m nC\'Cf know we :"lJ'C closins in oo rnlhcr lh:tn \'CCrins on~
from- (Rorty 1996: 75), It is rnthcr to su.:~csl to us '''hot our heart/mind
originally should be. In olher words, wh:u \\C har e in Wang is prim:srily a
atOrmath·c. rntbcr than dcscripth·c. met:lphysics. It expresses Wang's
confidence in human pcr(cctibility. something simil:u to whtu Richard
Rony calls '·a faith in the fmurc possibilities of moral humans. a faith which
is hnrd to d istinguish from love 1br. and hope for, the humnn
commwuty·· (Ron~ 1999: 160). One cannot have such n faith in human
pcrf~tibility unles-s one also bclicn~s in the original goodness of human
hcartlmi.nd. On this poi.nL. David Ni,·ison h:as made an intcrcs(ins analo&•y.
A.ccordin& to Nivison. Pinto's theOIJ or recollection is supposed to solrc
this puzzle in cpistemolog)': to le-arn I must be :h \'are of wh:u it is- I om 10
Icam. and this implies that I already kt10\\ i L According to Nivison. Wang's
t,ttxxlnc.s s of human hcanlmind is supposctl to soh'e a par:allel puaJc in
moral cducalion: "Confucius· proble-m as 3 moral teacher is, in effect, this:
the cntcio.l clement in being moml is, ob,·iO\tsly. wa11ling to be. How can
one teach a person to be moral'? For to respond to the lesson the siUdcnt
must sec it ns :t lesson 10 be learned: and if the student sees that. he or she is
nlte4ldy m or:~l" (Ni\'ison; 237),

.-;. Evt:n s J. lht:r~ is ~till ;:,(.un~dtin~ in Wang th:tt is not squarely met by
1-A-x~ke's (.· ntu;ism. In w.-.ng·s \'i"·w. \\lulc one's scUish dcsnc c.1n ind\.·cd
ob5~eurc the itututc he:trtfmind, it can nc,·cr do so ~"\)lnJ'k'tcl;-. JU:!'t 11s the 4:h)ud
can ncn,. . lUll~· block the sw~:.'lhmc (however d a~ k u cloudy dl'l~' is, th<.,x: is s.1ill
some ~W.l!5binc. so iu~; through d oud!S)_ Thu:s. i.n O I.I C place. \\funs fX' ints QUt tltot
"the 1hk:vcs ~t lso know that th~..-·y oultbt nul to ~tc:.J. lf yuu c:all th ~n thi...-vcs.
tht.•y w tll blu$h·· (9:<) . ht ano1hcr place. he says; "thcrcfon:, although i nfi:-nor
JX"fSOns (xiaon·n) do i.nmor~ lthings C\'ctywher<.·, wb<..1t S(·<:ing superiot p\:t:iiOns.
lh~y will naturally CO\'Cf their immornl t1unf!S l!.ltd shClw the morul thing_!S. This
.sllO\\ ~ tlwt lite moral kmm le..lge has S(lntctbiug of which one c-:uuwt be
i gnoronf~ (1063)
 163

For this reason. Wang oflcn talks about belief or f.:~ith {\"in) in lh~:
innate mor31 knO\\ ledge. Superior persons ..do not worry about other people
lacking faith in them: they just nlwa~·s ha,·c faith in the inmate moral
knO\\ ledge" (76). In his 'ic'' · this is also the central mcssngc of
Confucian cl:usics: '"if you ha\'C fa ith in the inn::ue moral kno'' ledge, ~:md
make cfTorts only xco rding to this innolc morallmowlctlgc. then howe ver
m;Jny classic.s and canons there arc. they all conform to it. and all heresies
and incorrect doctrines wilt be seen through- (73). A question might be
raised !IS to hovi.' one cnn bcliC\'C or luvc faith in somctlling "hose c.xistcncc
is not first established. To tl1is. l bcJic,·c the. best ans,,cr is: pro,·idt:d br
Kane In epistemology or theoretical reason, our belief m the existence of :m
objecl is dctennined by our prior experience of the objctl 1-Jowe,·c r. in
morality or practical reason. the situation is diiTcrcnl:

By :t concept ot .tn (lbject of pt't)ctic.ll rca.wn I umJcrslhnd

the idc.n of nn objt.'<'t as nn-.:rrcct possible throus.h frccdon.1.
To be :m object of prac1ical knowledge :lS suc.h signifies,
therefore. only the rcl:uion of the will to the action
\\hereby it or itS opposilc is brought into being, To decide
whether or not sometf'ling is an object of the pure practical
rtason is only to disccm the possibili1y or impossibHity of
"illing lhc action by which a ccnain object \\Ould be
made real. provided we had lhc ability to bring it about.
( K:ml; 59)

Without going into the co mplicated dcrlils of Kant's ethics. \\C

only need to )Xl)' :mention to one lhiny that is intmcdintcly rciC\':lnt to our
current discussion: the objcc.t of mo•·al belief is not somclhin& that csi5LS
prior to our action according to this belief: it is rather the eiTcct of such an
:tction. So tho truth of our f:tilh in the innate moral knowledge cannot be
dctcnuincd indcpcndcnl of or antecedent to our action according to this
belief. Now. in W:mg's view. if we have the belief or failt1 in the innate
mor;~ l knowledge and ~ct ;~ceord ing to this f01ith. we wilJ sec this fa ith is
true. for one \\ill be a moral person. Wang thus relates his own experience:
"Now I h:1ve Chith in the innate mornl knowledge of wh:u is truly right nnd
what is rruly wrong. T hus 1 cwt :act nalurnll~· without any need to cover up
or conecal anything" (120). In his ,·ie\\, this should be true ofcn!I)'One: .. if
one has faith in tl1c innate mornl knowledge and is not disturbed by qi. one
can ah\ays be a person in the world of fu.~i or even better" (ibid. ).
his important to point out that. while Wang believes in the human
moral perfectibility: C\'CJ'}'Onc can bcc.omc a sage. he docs allow the
poo.sibility of people born with different non-moml capabilities (cas). The
former is so b-.:causc nil human beings arc endowed wilh lhC same pure qi.
which is the distinguishing mark of being human. The Iauer is so bcc::msc
difTc.rc~:~t people urc endowed with di.O'crcl)l umounts of the equally pure qt.
TI1is poinl, 1hat a ll hum:1ns arc endO\\ Cd \\ith the same qualit~' of tfi which
/64 rrmg 1/nrmg

makes it possible for C\CI) one to bcromc a sage. nnd yet with different
amounts of qi. which csplains different :tbililics p<..'Ople hmce. is made most
,;\'idly clear in the fnmous pass::age with the analogy of gold . When nskcd
\\by Bo~ i and Yiyin ore also called sages \\hen their nbilitics nnd strengths
c.rc far bciO\\' those of Confucius, Wang says:

Sa~cs arc $41J;CS bccnusc their ht:arllminds arc in comJ'Ilctc

accord with the hc.wcnly principle, not mixed with any
human desires. '11tis is j ust as pure gold is pute gold
bcc3usc of its peJfcetion in qualil)', 1101 mixed \\ itl1 any
copper or lead. People who howe reached the state of being
in complete accord with tltc he.wcnly principle arc sages.
just as gold that has become pcrfC4.'t in quality is pure gold.
Howe,·er. sages :uc different rr·om each other in tcnns of
:.bility nnd strength. just :1.~ difrcrent pieces of pure b'Oid
arc also diiTercnl from each Oll1cr ill terms of 1hc \\ci&fu ....
While dirTerCJlt in terms or nbiliry and strength, people- are
nll sages as long as the hc~xcnl r principle in them is pure.
just as different pieces o f gold nrc pure gold as long as
they arc all perfect in qualily, even tllough they weigh
differently .... Ta fc.:lrn to become sages. learners ani~·
need to get rid of human desires and l'rcscr,·e tile hc:nenly
principle. jusl :~.s to become pure gold. the gold only nct.-d
to be puri.ficd to be perfect in its quality .... Lotcr
generations do not understand that the fundamental to
b!t.omc s.agc is to be in complete accord with the hca,·enly
principle. Ju.stc:ld they seck to bocomc sngcs b~· merely
foc.u s in ~ UI'On s.,gcs· abilities and strcn&ths ... . IAs a re-sult)
the more knowledge they acquire, the mar\: human de-sires
they produce: the more abilities the~' obUlin. the more
obsc-ured the hca\'enly princ.iplc is. This is just like a man,
seeing someone \\i th a piece of pure gold or 10,000
pounds. docs not make efforts to rdinc his own gold so
that ils quality can match that of the other person's.
lnsccad he foolishly p:~ys attention to the weight so that he
will also have I 0.000 pOlmds. For that purpose. he mi:occs it
with pewter. lead, copper, and iron. Titc heavier it
becomes, the lower the degree of purity it h.1s. At the end.
tho gold is nowhere to be seen. (62: sec also 32)

ln this passage. Wang makes it clear that. while c\·eryone is born

wilh the innate mornl knonledgc. Md therefore can equally be a sage.
dim.'ft.·nt P'~Oplc arc bom n ith different degrees Qf physical. irnellectunl.
artistic, and other non-moral :tbilities. In :lPJXiar.mtc. W:.ng seems to say
that some people fmxc h.ighcr abilities than others. Wung ~s cmpltllSis i_s.
howc\'cr. clear: "hatevcr abilities they ha\'c, all sages arc momlly equal.
 165

\Vc should nol rank those with higher ubililics abo\'C those ''ho have IO\\Cf
abililics . A S3gC who has higher intcllcctu:ll. physical. nnd other non· moral
nbilitics can of course nccompbsh more things thnn a sogc who has lower
suth abilities . buc l\C cannol say that the fon ncr is a more moml person
than the buer. 10 Theit' mornl quality is c:<actly same. To usc Jolm Rawls'
tcnn. whether :1 person is born with high or low intcllcctu::al. physi ~l.
<:~rtis tic. etc., abililie5 is entirely a ''natural accident'" (Rawls : (,:t). I think
Wang w ill C\'Cn agree with Rawls that 1hc n.1tural talents of those lucky
people sho uld be regarded ns ..public :.sse( to be shared b~· those unlucky
people. just a..; the uufonunatencss of those unlucky people should be
regarded as something public 10 be shared by those lucky people (sec Rawls:
87).
In addition to the abo,·c-diS<::usscd dW'crc111 degrees of non-moral
abililies people are born ''i1h . Wang Also 3dnowledscs the l)<.'tS$ibilit) of
diffe.rtnt peOple born with ditTercnt kinds or non-mornl qualities. For
cxnn.1plc-some people tend to be flSHictin&(xin.t; Jt) . \\hilc some tend to be
slow in action (XItrg hunn): some tend 10 be fi rm (Xing gang), while some
rend to be so fi- hCMted (xing rmi)~ some tend to be generous (sht•). while
some tend 10 be thrifiy (ji(m), etc. (sec 894), While Wang doc'S not think
that such inborn tempcmmems cannot or should not be ch:mgc:d in ccnn s of
their partiality (pian). j ust as he docs not think trot one CtlMOt learn 10
incrc.asc the above-mentioned non-moral abilities. he docs think that there
is a limit to such change of temperament (a pcrsc.m born with the
tempcr.tment of being fusHtcti.ns c:m h.urdly be chnngcd i_nto "' person with
the lcmpcnuncnl of slow-acting). j ust ns there is n limit to the int~rc.asc of
the non-moral obilitie-s (not e veryone cnn obt.1in Einstein"s intellectual
abilities, ho\\C\'Cr hard one tries. although C\ cryonc co.n b<X"omc a sage).
We should instead P<"W aucru ion 10 two things. firsl. make sure that no
one·s innate moml l;.nowlcdgc is obscured by selfish desires, so that
whatc\·er temperament one is born witl1 can be used to do good things:
·'those "ho arc iiml. when doing good things. will ha,·c finn good (gang
slum) .. . while those who arc soO·henrtcd. when doing good things. wHI
h~wc sofl good (mu y/um)" (128). Second. people with different
tcmper:.ments art: good at different things. For t:xamplc. ··some are good at

° 1 Cornmcntin~ on tb~ :~lxm.: pa&~~-.: with th~.! unalol!r of l!Oid '' ith s.1gc.
h·anh(lc argues that t\•fcng-li ~1nd Confu~um thinkers in gcnt.-:ntl --rccogni,..cd and
~'d ''OC~hXI thc impor'UUJ<:C of n:nur:~l kmds. to them it was ob'-·' tous that, :ln)()ng
lnuuuu beings, tlt('l'i: wos a nill\u·:.l d i\'ffitty of abilities: physic.ul, mcnwJ.
urLi$tic. ond 11lllr:tl" {Ivanhoe: 51-52). bJ my \~ l"W. Jt lcasl in theca~ ,,fWong.
lhc idt::t lJf U;)ltlr;)l divcr::;-it}' of mQrol :1bilitic!i tunong hunwn bcilll!-S is
non-exi<:.H,.':fll. Th~ different :'IITh"~U niS of gold In the passage nrc mc3n1 to shl.'lw
that JifftlX.":lli Si1gcs h'1\'C ,.hftt:.·rent non-mon'll abilities. which of cout:;c. \\Ill
ufft.-ct how muny morn1thing..s n S.ll_!.c cnn do. llowcvcr. ~ Qiu.n Mu points t)Ut.
·•s..'lgcs arc judJ;!<.xt in tc11ns vi vi11uc ~mJ not in tenus ,1[ tlhilitics {colr (Qian;
21 1)
166 rrmg 1/nrmg

rituals and music. some m go,·cnunenl and cduc.::nion. some nt agriculture ..

('7·.58. sec also 23). So. wilh the hc~ut/m in d not obscur<."<l. people should all
work \It positions they arc best :u. Those who employ people should only
"consider "hcthcr people's abilities an: suito,blc to their positions. ''ithout
regarding a high position as itnJJ003nl and a lo,,· position as unimportant. or
a busy job :lS good and leisure job ~s bad.. ~ while those who ;~rc c mplo~·cd.
..if tile-i t ;~bilitics match their pos-ition. will work throughout their life- in
busy rmd heavy j ob without reg:uding them os toilsome and will be content
in doin~ IO\\ ly and odd jobs ' d thout regarding them as mean:- (57).

CONCI. UiliNG REMARKS

In c-oncluding tl1is articJc. instead of summnrit.ing whal I have

argued above. I would lil:c to mal.:c h\0 further points cssen1ial to Wang's
idea of the i.nn.tltc mor3.1 knowledge lhat 1 have not been able to discuss so
fur. TI1e first is his idea of inner experience (lirm) \\ ith the innulc moral
knowledge in our anempt 10 regain the sight of it (Zht lfangzhf) afier it is
obscured by selfish desires. So to regain the sighl of the innate moral
knowledge is nut an intellectual efltCI])ti.sc. It is rather an inner experience.
a Gestalt switch. in one's hcrutlmind. which .. means 10 rc:tlly get it in
oneself (;ide)" (461). The ~ond is his i de;~ of joy in acting according 10
one's moral knowledge. We ha,·e bricn>• mentioned that. for Wang.
whoever h:t..~ lhc moral knowledge will never f:til to acl in accord;~nc.c with
such knowledge. Howc\'cr. instead of urging people. as Kanl docs. lo
O\'t rcomc their n:uuml inclinations in perfonning such moral nctions. Wrmg.
arg·ucs that a uuly moral ~rson "ill L'lk~ delight in doing moralthinss and
hating evil things as one docs in .. ,o,·iug the beautiful colors and ho.ting the
bo\d odors- (6, citing the Crcmlng /,i:tiruinx). Or course. to go tO nny funhe r
detail on these h\O topics will be lasks of1wo separate :uticlcs.

REFERENCES

Chen. Lai. 19?7. 17rr: Realm bcfU"("('IJ Being nml Nonbem~;: 111''
Spirif of JV..r,Wi }'imgming .f l'lu/Qsqphy (}~u IJ'u llrf{ifm: Wimg }fmgmfng
7Ju::mc tit Jmgshen). Bc~ji n g : Rc.!nmin Chub:mshe.
Clu.'llg, Chung-ying 1991. .. Unity und Crc:~fiyit~· in WANG
Yang-ming's PhiiOSOIJhy of Mind.- In his /\"ewDlm~nsftm.s o/Con.fil('ifm
nnd Nco-C()njilcitm Philosophy. Albany: State University of New Yort
PJ'CSS.
Cheng. Hao. and Cheng Yi. 2001. Collect.:d JJhrb· of tlte 1ko
( 'lumg..;· (l:.'r Cheng .If). Beijing: Zhonghu~ Shuju,
Ching. Julia. J976. 10 t1cquirr: ll>i'.1dom: 111c Wny of JY,txG
>'ang-ming. New York and London: Columbia Uni\'crsity Press.
Fang, Kcli IY't)7. 17rl! Conct•pt <>/ Knowlcdg11 nnd Ac1wn fn the
History of C.:hint:$(' fh1/o.)·ophy (lJIQngguo Zht•xuc:;hi Shang cit: Zlm:mg
(;111111). Beijing: Rcnmin Chub;,nshc.
 167

Hou. Wailu, etc. 19')7. A /JisiOry <if M:o·Cmifucitmism: 2

(:S'ong1mng /,JXIU! .\'l;i; Xift) , Beijing: Renmin Chubanshc.
Inmhoc, Philip J. 2002. Ellucs in the Confucian J;nditu:m . 2eJ
edition. h1di::mnpolis/Cnmbridgc: Hnckcu.
K:tnt. Immanuel. 1936. lritlqu~ 1.~{ Prtlt:'llca/ RM.wm. New Vorl::
~·l:tc mil l.:m .
l..ao. Sisuang, 2003. A Nell' Hutory (if Chim:se l'hilfMupltp: lilA
(XinMw Zlwngguo Zhexm:~:hi: Snn S:lmng). T<libei: Sanmin Shuju.
Locke, John. (No Dtuc). Au l!.S.wy Cunccming Human
Umlc:rstamlinJ.:. London: George Roullcdgc :tnd Sons.
JHcmcms. 1970. 1'r.ms. by D. C. Lau. London: Penguin Books.
Mcng. Pciyuan 1998. 111e Evolutio'' of Nco-Confucianism ( LiJ,.ltl.!
de Yanbitm) . Futltou: Fujinn Rcnmin Ghubanshc.
Mon. Zongs::m. 2001, F'rom /.11 Xurngshtm w M11 Ji.~·htm (Cong l.u
Xkmgsh(tn tfOt) L1u JiSIJtm). Shang,h.ai: Sh.1ngb:1i Guji Ch u lxln.~e .
Nivison. D<t\'id S. 199<.. 17w Jf'ttys ofCotifild tWi.'-'m.' bm.:...-lig ttli()nY
In Chitw.re Plu/os()jJhy. Edi1cd wilh an lmroduction by Bl')lln W. Van
Norden. Chicago&!. Lo S:Uic: Open Court.
Rawls. John. 19'JCJ. A tlwory of ./us tke. Rc,•iscd Edition.
Cambridge: Harvard Unh·crsily Press.
Rony. Ric:hMd. l9'J6. -Ambiguity of 'Rntionalily ·... Consu:/Jafrons:
An lmemllti(JfJI.l/.luunwJ c)j'Criliclllttwl D.:ttux·rm''' 171cmry 3: 73·82.
_ _ 19'J'J, Phift,.wphy and Socinl Hope. London: Penguin
Books.
Tong_ Junyi (Chun-1). 1970. ·'The Oc\'clopmcnt or the Concept o r
Motal Mind from Wnns Yans·ming 10 W:1ng Chi:' In .)elf and Sm:u.>ty in
A'l ins tlsought. Edited by Wm. Theodore de Bary. New York: Colurubin
Uni\'Crtily.
_ _ 1990. An E.fSGJ' on tlte Origl, of Chmc.q~ P/ulos.oplty:
Original 1i:ac/Jblf: (lhongg11o ZlrcXIlC Yturnhm: )Jm,~jfan Pian). Taibd:
Xucshcng Shuj u.
_ _ 1993. An f.'s.my on the Vrigilr of Chmese Jllulo$fJphy:
lntrr.Hiudion (Z/t(mgjtli(J Zhcxuo 'Yunulunn: 1)(1()/un Pirm). T:2ibci: Xucsh-cng
Shuju.
Wang. Y:1ngming. I Y'J6, ("(Jmplt·w m,rl:s t~(Wtmg Ytmgmmg (IY,LV<i
)'tmgmmg fJ_utv!it) . Beijing: Hongqi Chulxutshc.
Wu. Zhcn. A Slru~ of lilt fJimg YtmJ(minf( Sd10(J/ (YtWJ!rmf1g
Htm:wc Yllf!Jiu). Sh:ms,hai: Shanghai Rcnmin Clmbanshc

CHINESE GLOSSARY

bcn•i -*~a
eoi :;j·
Chen Lai llii:.>l~
ChenG Hool~~fj
/I'J8 rrmg 1/nrmg

Cheng Yi PMI!
ch.i VIi l\1•1.'
Cong /.u Xwngsllan d.1o 1./u .JI:ofum'ift:!rn ~ l lr):IJ~•)l~t(ll l
dcxin&1.hi 1.hi !~ri!Z~li
J.:r Cheng Ji _: ,J.~:iJ£
Fang Kcli } j }•{. 1'r.
gang shru1l~j jfj
Hou Woilu {~<7HM
j ian (£1
junzi :U f
kct)i -~~t
Lao Siguang §'}Y~. ;t;
lc '!I!
li J!l
liang I~
liangncng ~~ rm
liang:~.hi 1:-l ~I
Uxuc de J'anbian F.U~t'f.JUi!~
~lei Pciyu:m ~l;l)c
Mou Zongsan fl!.;j~ .=,
piiUl !lol
qi 1;{
qi:tJli ~ti
rou shru1 ;;(.; 1!f
shan ff
she 17
sbcn ·1'1•
Songmmg Lislfc Slu: ..\'w~ I~]J1 R.l~ j,! : 1~
tircn ~m.
Tllttg Junyi J.!!.'H '!!
tianli /~J!I!.
toun.-!O !.!1U.e'i
\\'Aiqi ;1-~
Wong Longxi 'F httlll
Woms Ya.ngmi.ns J~ ~~t9J
JYmrg li'mgmmg Qumif1-EI;;;•YJ1:jli
\\Cnjian :d•i L.hiJHJ )l.Z~I
wu yu <Ill itt
Wu Zhcn f.!Jf~
xiaorcn ,j, A
xi;1nctlcng J:W,J«I~.!J£
 169

xin i;;
Xinbiwr Zhong_\"'1lO Zh,·xui!sht: :)mJ Shtmgd'i(.~J;1'1• ~i!t&.~~ : .=::1·.
sing ·l'.t
xinggang J<Hill
xingrou ft.stE
xiqi i"l jj'{
Jhugmilrg Houxue J~uy·iul;; l~ f i~lf.fiJf?'t:
ye qi 'f(~
yi 1i <iii f.l'
JOuwu Zhf/hm -{f JmZ.I::J
you xing 1f ~
yufu yulu !& A: !l!~ll
Zh:Ul Ruoshui iiH }lie
ZhM£ Zai iJt ~t(
.-J,enyuan :dti qi :fi.JeZ.11
>.hi 1'11
>.hi J inng>.hil~H!lll
Yltishi '}r~,;a
lJJ<mJ;ttO Zhl!rw:s/Ji .')1umg di,! Zhr.ring Gumr•l•~~f.'j.l'J~ ~_tii~J )UUK!.!
llwngJ,rtlt) Z/Utxm: Yurmllm: Yumril«n Nan•~,~'f!.l!!}.~_r.;;ft : j;i.J!l:~
Zl:t>ngj.,"lUi 7Ju:.tue l'ltlmlun: Duulun Pian rp ~~'ff l}! !.;i;(,; : 1!1- =6i ~·~
'l.hU qiJ, 1!;{
Zlm Xi ~If:
>ide ~ f.!
 Chapter IX

On Mou Zongsan 's Idea list Confucianism

In contemporary Nco-Confucianism Mou Zortgs:m ( 1909- 1995)

h t\S been identified BS .:t leading figure. His idc.alil'm became :t parndigm in
the modem dc,·c:lopmcnt of Confutinnism. Historically. such ru1 idealist
trend claims to succeed Mcncius. Lu Xiangslmn and Wang Yungming. \Vhat
is inno\'ath·c in Mou Zongs.·u,.s contribution is the employment of n
Kantinn theoretical framc\\ork. In tcm1s of the Kantiun ln:t.nsccndcntul
distinction or things-in-themselves and phenomena. he develops :1
Confucian moral metaphysics. In rca.lity, this results from his hcnncncutical
npplicntion of the ia/h((gaw -garbha S) stem. of tl1c A ll'akening of Failh. In
o ther \\Ords. " ;lou Zongsan's adherence 10 this Buddhist mo nist doctrine of
mind cn:1blcs him to transform Kant's transccndcnt:~l philosophy. As :1
rcsuh . it gives rise too new fonn of Confucian idealism which centers on
the no tion of pure moml mind, In p:1nicular. Mou Zon g~n's ~leonto logy
::.nd Jlh:ihung5·ethik srnnts a primacy to the autonomous will. In justifying
1
his idealism . Mou Zongsan criticizes Zhu Xi's rc:.11ism.
ll1is P<"~J>Cr aims 10 show how Mou Zongsan·s Confucian !)OSition
results from his hcrmcnculic:tl application of tllc A•r(J/;qning of f-'t,ilh in
transforming Kunfs tmnscendcntal philosophy. Reflceti\'ely. two
o bscrmtions will be made on Mou Zongsan's Confucian idealism. First, it
will pinpoint some csscntial3ffinitics between Mou Zongs.1n's nnd Fichtc"s
subjccti\'C idc3lism. Second. n.ficr highlighting ~·lou Zongsan's critique of
the Buddhist distinctive teachings. it will point Out thtll there is a conflict
between his idealist Confuci:mism :md hi5 praise for the Buddhist perfect
teaching$. As 3 result. Mou Zong,s;an hns to f:~c:c o dilcmmu. His way ou1.
howe\'cr, see-m s to rctJCill the position of the E~ncrnal School in Ti..1ntai
Buddhism.

I.

The origination of Mou Zongsan's idealist Confucianism can be

ilhtstrated in (t do ubt¢ mtmner. Ncgativ¢1)' spcnking. it aims 10 r:tdicalii"..C
Kant ·s tr:mscendcntal phj l osopl:t~· . Posith-cly spe3king. it represents a
reconstruction of Lu Xiilngshan nnd Wong Yun&Jning ·s School of Mind in
Sung-Ming Nco-Confuci3nism. Accordi•lg to ~~lou Zongs.nn. J.:anfs
introduction of the transeendcntnl disainction between thing;.~-i n -themscl"cs
and phcnomcnu signifies o ground-br~akin g insight. Kont himself

1
Cf.. M()u 7MiltNUl . .\'m tJ yu swx 1i (11w l\ ftml-5)ubJicmc:Jt om/ lhJt
:\'mult"...S'"bsuu..c.•)(Taipci: ZhCilSlhong. I968), Vol I. Jl I0511'.
172

nonetheless fails 10 appropriately aniculmc such an importanl insight This

is bcc.ause Kant ~\SSigns intellectual inluition only to God. As :1 consequence.
for htunnn beings thing-in·lhcnw::h·cs remain trnnsccndcnt. But insolbr as
human beings. "ith the sensible intuition. com never C\'idcntly grasp
tbings-in-tllcms.el\'cs, the Kamian transccndcn1al distinction lacks o s.olid
juslific::uion. l11is indicntcs that there is an apOria in Konl's philosophy. In
short. a n1ojor c.;;tusc- or suclt a limiloUion o f Kunt"s philosophy lies in his
.shaky doctrine of mom lily.· When addressing free will, Kam can only
concchc of it o.s a (oct of rc:tson. He onl~· identifies free \\•ill AS a postulate
for t11c possibilit~· of mornlity. Accordingly. free will can never become an
intuitive presentation for human OCings. 1"his is not o nly bccnusc free "ill is
lx:yond the rc3Ch of s<:nsiblc intuition. but :llso because intcllccnt..'ll intuition
cscJpcS human beings. In t.he face of such :m oporitl in Kn.nfs approach.
Mou Zongsln sees the granting of intellecaual iniUition to human beings as:
the onlr "~Y out Such ::a bold move ha.~ a double consequence. First. it
\\Ould make possible"" imuitivc prcsenuujon of free will. Second. il "ould
enable human beings to C\'idcmJ~r grasp things. in-thcmsch·es. While the
first is essential for n complete account of the possibility of morality, the
second points to an C\'idcntktl justification of the Kanlirut tmnscct~Ciltal
distinction. lftt1c first is primarily a concern in cttlics. the second is related
to the idea of moral metaphysics. In short for ~·lou Zongsan. our moral
consciousness represents a free. infinite mind. nnd hence should be
promoted :tS intcllcctu:'l.l intuition. As :t moral subject. the free. infinite mind
found$ the pO$Sibility o f mornlity. As :a m cbphysi~l principle, the free.
inlinitc mind cre:ucs things-in·th<:mstl\'cS. Uhimntcly speaking. t'IJNlrl from
t\Ssigning inlellcctual intuition to human beings;, neither m etaphy~ics nor
ethics can become genuine I~ possible.
Fronl the pcr~pecti,·c of Western cuhu..c. Kant's limil:ltioo of
intcllcctu 3l intuition to God is wcll·justiJicd in ,·jews of Christianity. For
the latter. it is onl~· God thai is infinite. 01nd lhc gnp between God ;md
hum:tn lxings can nc\'er be overcome. In comply ing with the crc:uh·ity of
intcllcctu3l intuition, it is logtcnllbr Kant to grant h to God-· the ere:~ tor of
the world. Com:lati\'cly. the b.ck of intcllcctu.nl intuition in hum;~n beings
should be understood as a sign of their finitude. At &his juncture. 1\'IOu
Zongsnn diSCO\'Crs on essential difference bet\\een \\.'estern and Chinese
philosophy. He claims lhat uc<:ording to the major K ·hooh of Chinese
philosophy (Confucianism. Dooism and Buddhism). in Sl)itc o f their
finitude, human beings cnn b~comc infinite. Th:lt is. i.h.erc is no
wlbridgcablc gap beh\«'ll the fm ilc .md the i.n.fi.nitc mind for the major
trends of Chinese philosoph). In paniculnr. the Confucian moral
consciousness signincs :m infin ite mind. Historically, it is in the hand s or
philosophers of the School of Miud. such as Lu Xiangshnn ;:Uld Wnng
YanQ.ming. that such 1:1 conception o f mornl con~iousncss as on infinite

1 Mou Zun~s:m. ..\'itm .n·ong yu '"'' :.t sl~n ( f>llt'li( HIIt:rJO (IINI
TIJiug.Jr~-lu.•rifJ (rmrJO:r Xucshcng. 1984). p 6ff.
 l l.i

mind is properly dc,·clopcd. In idcmifying our origin.nl mind as principle (It)

and nature (xmg). the School of Mind is able to simultaneously expound the
mornl and ontological significance of our infini te original mind. Particularly.
tlu:-Sc-hool of Mind introdu~s the follow ing l\\0 m<\iOr theses:

(I) '11lc universe is my mind. tmd my mind is the universe'' (Lu

X iang.sha n)~
(2) ·· Jn me is Qinn (He-aven). in me Kun (Eanh). I need not seck
clsC\\'hcrc ·· The tJtouso.nd sa~es pass as shldO\\S. Liang :hi alone is my
guide'' (Wang Yangmlng). J

For this school. it is the infinite original mind which grotmds the
possibility of morality as well as the cosmos. Confuci;u1s basically
tutdcrsland our cosmos a.4i moral. Accordingly. moral crc:uivity is tH the
same time cosmological crc:ttivity. In re3lity. in nttributlng intellc:c:tu31
inlllition to hu.mnn bcinss. Mou Dongs3n rcplnccs God witJ1 an infinite
moral consciousness.
Altbough Mou Zongsan 's idealism is Confucian. his thcoreticnJ
rmme\\Ol'k is taken liOJn the AwaJ:~:.ninx (~{ Paith. As is \\CII·known. this
popular but important text in Chinese Buddhism is a systematic articulation
of the doctrine or the tnJiw;:at(t·garblw.
Lei us Slart "ith an exposition or Mou Zongsan 's undcrsumding or
the Awokcnmg t~{ l·'mJh and then show how he reinterprets its- doctrine in
genc.rali.ng h is own idealist Confuc iaoism. In an ::1ppcndix of the Xm 11 ru
xing li (17u: A1iiiii-SubsJnncc nntl 1/r~ NtJiurc-.'}'rtbswm:e). ~'fou ZongSJn
points out:

From the beginning. the Au'tlkt'/11-"f:: l~{ Faith 11ic!i h)

'Cl) '
c~:plicatc thefundamental position of Mahayana
Buddhism in tenus of lhc fr~uue work of ·one mind and its
two aspects ': ·The re\rclation of the true mcnning (of the
principle of 1\·lahay:ma can be achic\'Cd) by unlblding the
d~trin e th:11 the principle of One Mind has two <lspects.
One is the asrx:ct of Mind in terms of the AbSl)lute
(uuhata, Suchncss). Md the other is ahe aspect o r Mind in
tcnns of phcnomcn.u (sumstmr, birth and dc~uh) . E.lch of
ahcsc two aspects embraces all states of existence. Wh>•'t
Because these two aspects are mutually inclusi,·e. ·"

3
Wing·t!5it Ch~n. A S<nu'CI! /)()f'k in Cllint'J.t: PhiloS<1phy (ITiocctnn:
Prin~.:"'1on ·uni\'crsity f'tcss,. 196J). p. 519, Juli:t Chin~. Tv :kquirc> n ·;stlom:
T/J(! WtJ.V OjiVmrg fmrg.mmg (New Y(lrl.:; Columbia Umn:rsity Press. 1976), Jl.
246.
·*
Moo Zong~an, Xiu ti )'U xht~ ti (1'1:.: Miud-.S'ulmaJrct.• ond tJt~.•
\\ll 1. J>. .580. for the Eng l i~h tn.u&:iJ:IIion . _,r the ,.f ..·aJ:enlrtg
;\'omn.~-St;b~·uut<.:<).
of Fault \\C folkm : A:~vagho:'h3. 71r;• JlufiJi(mi"g nj Fal1h, 1rnns. Yosll1t.:)
 He maintains that the term '"One Mind" refers exclusively to th~:
transccndcnt.:d true mind and not to the lllaymjmtm(l. For Ihe latter is on!~· n
mind in the sense ofnn empirical. psychological mind.
In lhc AwtiJ:cning qfFaith it is further\\ rittcn;

The Mind in tcmts of the Absolute is the o ne World of

Reality (cDwnmuUutJu) and the essence of <~11 ph<~scs of
c...:istcnce in lheir lotality. TI1at \\hich is called 'lhe
e-ssential ruturc- of the Mind' is unborn nnd is
imperishable. ~

According to Mou Zongsan. the concept of -the Mind in tcm1s of

the Absolute.. indicates thnt the mind is absolutely pure. The flltlw is
there-fore something more- than the srmJYlffl of the fh·e :~ktmdhas
(aggregates). It represents the unit~· of tbc true mind and the tulha as the
nbsolute principle:. With the rise of tiiC system of the ltlllwgt•Jtl-gt)rhlw. the
tmha 3S the :sbso l u t~ principle is identified as our mind. Our mind is then
csscntiaUy the mind of the Ullho. That is. the Suchncss is the mind of
Suclmess. More importantly. such 3 transcendental tmc mind is identified as
the ground and the origin of all tfhnmms . In this sense, the Awnkenmg oj'
/;'a ilh declares: "The Mind in tcmlS of tJ1c Absolute is the one World of
Reality (d/J(Intutelhaw) and tJ1c cs.s<:JICC of all phases of existence in their
tolality."
Further. in the .-hmkmiug ofFaith it is writtco:

It is only through illusions thllt all things come to be

diCfcrenti:ttcd. If one is freed from illusions. then there \\ill
be no :sppcaranccs (lllksona) of objccLo; ('regarded as
absolutely independent existences); therefore. 3ll things
from the beginning transcend all fonns of vcrbali1.ation.
description. and conccpHm.lit..llion and arc. in the final
:mallsis. undim:rcntiatcd. free rrom nltcm:u1on. and
indestructible. The\· arc onll' of the Onr; Mind: hence tl1c
name Suchness."6 ·for Mou.Zon);;snn. the concept of'"onl~·
of the One t\•lind" mean!> th:u there is only one single
tmnsccndcnml true mind. On the one hund. the mind of the
urtha. or the true mind. represents rcalily. On the other
hil.l'ld, the nppcar:tnce nnd conccpmaliz:nion of :til things
(dhamws) are couscd by illusions. Jllu.sions must therefore
be differentiated from the IIuc mind itself. fro m the
Buddhist st.:tndpoint. illusions signify the wind of
ignorance. or non-enlightenment This indicates thnt the

ff~c.:da(New York: Columbia Univcrs.ily Press. 1967), p. 3 1.

$ 1'b~ A woAcniug of Ftlitlt. p. 32,
• Ibid. p JJ.
 / 7J

cause of the rise of appc:urutcc is empirical and

psychological. Appcnrnncc that is t;tus..:d by illusions is
c-sscnti3Liy unreaL When one on:rcomcs illusions and
return to the Lmc mind. then one can discover thtH all
lDWnnas arc ~s scntia ll)' sunyo. On the ol11N hand. as
7
reality. the true m ind is ubsolutc and impcrishob lc.

A ll in 311, according to the system o f the toJiwgnta gnrbila, ''the

4

£\·lind in terms of the Absolute" is at the same time the truth (tatha) and the
mind. i\s a consequence. the true mind is something more tl1an swryfJfit as
an objccti\·c principle. \Vhilc Madhy:.1mika stick to the thesis that whncncr
is dcpcndcmly co -::arisen is .n mya, the Awakcnin~ of l;'fJill~fi,/ introduces the
concept of the true mind. Besides the concept of emptiness. the doctrine of
the UtthtJj;tlfa.gnrhhtl n.lso s peak~ of non~mptincss . On the one hand. with
the concept of emptiness. it llims to eliminate all illLL~Ons in order to
manifest the reality of the mind. On the. otltcr hand. with the concept of
MIH!Inptincss. it urscs us to rctum to the true. mind. For the doclrine of the
wthagata-garbha. the true mind hns indcuwnemblc vin ucs and hence is
IIOH·e m pl~'.
Ahhough there is, in rcalit)', only one true mind. '·since all
lmcnlightcncd men discriminate with their deluded minds from moment 10
moment tltC) arc alienated [from Suchncss): hence. the definition ·em)>ty:·
but o m;c th(.•y arc free from their deluded minds. they wHI find th:n there is
nothing to be ncgatcd.'' 11 Accordi.ng to ~lou Zong:sw1. this shows th::u ~II the
di$tinctions c<Juscd b)' illusions do not proper I) coucspond to the t1'uc 111 ind.
Therefore. these distinctions must be dirfcrcntintcd frt)m the true mind.
When a ll di~tinctions caused by illusions arc O\'Crc.omc. then it is cruply
(swryota). But the eliminiltion or tlu:sc distinctions m the same time gi\'CS
rise to the 3chic\·cment of the positiye virtues or the true mind. Jn tl1is way,
what is truly non·etupty is manifest.~ That is the reason why the Aw(lk.:JJiug
<>!Foilh also charat tcri,..es the true mind as "'eu:rna1. pcmuUlCnl. immutable.
pure. and sclf-suflicicnt." 10 As Mou Zongs.1n points out. such a
qunsi-subst.wtialist fonnulottion of the true mind is ncccss;uy. for tho system
of the tarlwgma·gllrhhtl not only maintains the JJurc essenc-e or the u·uc
mind. but olso gronts indcnumcntble undefiled and excellent qu~l i tic s tO its
very c ~c n cc. In order to differentiate this ~·ste m from Brahmanism. ~lou
Zongsan stresses th:u such an "endowment- of indcnumcr>1blc undenied
and excellent qualities b}r the true mind - must be understood to be
· potential.' for it refers to Buddh:t·nalurc as the ground Iof att:lini.ug
Enlightenment) .'' 11 That is to sa) . it is from the standpoint of

'Xl ntiyu rmgll, \b). I p. $81.

tt 11rt• A wu!·othrg ofFaith. p. 35.
9
Xilltiyuriu~li. Vol.l,p. 582.
10
J'he :lwakcmng o/Pnith. pp 35·36.
11 X m 11 y u :ciug I I, Vltl I. fl. 582
176

Ou.ddha~J mturc as a fruit tl1at one can say that lhc true mind i.s endowed with
these qualities. Apart from pi.l cti~:-e. none of lhcm can be achieved.
AI this juncture. Mou Zongsan nlso notes that there is an essential
distinction between the system of the rollurgmo-K<~~'hha and Yog:~carn
Buddhism. First, the true mind is more alt.:~n "the practical Buddha-tL1furc··
in tJtc sense of Yogaca.m Buddhism. For the true mind gu:mmlcc-s thc-
llCces,s i t~· of <ut:aiuing Buddh ahood lOr all sentient beings. Second. in the
case of Yognc.am Buddhism, the nchic,·cmcnt of excelle-nt qu3li1ics is
mcrcJ~~ o ut of contingency. In contrast with the- system of the
tathaglllfl·xarbJw. one can speak of an 01iginal cndO\\IUCnl of excellent
qu.alitics --in the sense ofpotcnli.1lhy,
.
After the char::tctcril.ation of the essential tHlturc of the tnac mind
the Awc;keni,g of Faith gi,cs the foJIO\\ ing description of the defiled
phenomena (.Mmsnra);

The Mind as 1>hcnomenu (sam.o,•u . m) is t;roundcd on the

tmhagma-garblur. \Vh.:u is c-alled the Storehouse
Consciousness is that in which ·neither birth nor dcllth
(nirvona)' diffuses harmoniously with 'binh and death
(snmsnrn). · and yci in which both are neither identical nor
diOCrcnt. !!!

Mou Zongs:m cxpl:lins th3t il is because of illusions chat the tme

mind becomes the mind of phcnomen::a, He further illustrntcs this point in
tenus of the wouer-rippJcs metaphor:

Altbougb the mind or phcnOIUCUO (.mmsm·a) IUUSL be

grounded in tltc true mind. its direct c.:tusc is ignorance.
jusI like water in n pool wns slirrcd by 1he wind. While tl1e
absolutely true mind is like water in tranquility. ignorance
is like the wind. When the wind blows. it gi\'CS rise to
ripples. This signilics the rise of the mind :.s phenomena.
Clearly. the ripples 01.rc inscpar.ablc from water. Tiu•l is to
say. though their rise must be grounded in \\lUCI'. the dirett
cause of their rise is the: blowing of the wind. Simil:ul ~·.
the rise of t.hc mind of P..hcnomcna (sum:wra) is
insep.amblc from the true mind.' ·

As a rcsuiL as afar as the rise of the o.spcct of samsara is concemcd.

it is necessary for us to make a distinction bct\\C:Cn ilS ·•e.ausc" and its
"ground." But ~ou 7.ongsan warns us not to con stn~ 1hc rckllion of the
true mind and phenomena in tcnns of production. ln reality. QCcording to
the system of the tatlw.~.;ato-garhlw. it is the flla)'tn·ipwno nhich produces

l!t/1(' tfwo/. enlllg ojF(Iilh. p 36

11 Xm tl y u :ciug tl, Vltl I , p 582
 I ll

phenomena. Certainly. since the alto·m·~Jmuw i1sclf is grounded in the tru~:

mind. the true mind is indirectly n:spoosiblc for th e rise of phenomena. On
the other hnnd. to the cxtcm th:u the system of the tmhag(l.(a.gnrbha docs
not identify the true m ind as the CflliSC or producer o f the \\ Orld. it m ust be
dilTcrcnai:ned from Brahmnnism. Mou Zongs.an s1rcsscs 1hat in spile o f the
fact tlult the l:mguJgc o f the A,,·tJa.·ning ofFmth is "substantialisC it is nol
a mct..physics of substance
Meanwhile. Mou Zongsan reminds us thai allhough the true mind
is said 10 ~ co,·c rcd b>' obstructions. there is no csscmial connection
between them. That is to say. in ilSclf. lhc U'Uc mind is nc.\'CI' reallr
conlaminau:d. by :my obstmcdons. He says:

What one finds hc110 is the foct that the rise of the defiled
oltrym·{Jntmn is- founded on the 1n1c mind. But even ancr
such a ris.e of the ala;ltn'ijunna, Lhc true mind only rctrealS
iLSelf into the badground. Ahhou~h it seems that the tm c
mind is CJllirety covered by obsmlctions. there is no rent
contaminntion :lt ::.U .... When ignor:lllcc is extinguished
:'l nd the true mind mllnifcsl'; itself. then the oiOJ'fiW}mnw
must be extinguished :ts well. All the ripples must become
e!>.iinguishcd in order to return to the true mind in
uanquilit). 1"

Ln sum. Mou Zons.san u nderstands the doctrine of the

tatha..lJ.llln-gorb/uJ o f the Alfokeuing of I'<•Uir ns a transcendcnlnl nnol) tic.
While the uuc mind is sclf-sroundine,, i1 is the 1rans.ccndcnt:tl condition of
tbe posstbilit~· o f the defiled mind and the phenomcnol world To the extent
that such a doctrine docs no t identify tbe troc mind as the producer o f the
world, it has 10 be diiTcremiatcd from Brnhmanism. ArmOO with 1his
tutdcrstandiug of the doctrine of tbc 1(11/Uigatn-garbha. Mou Zongsan st~ts
to radic.ali1..c Kant's transcendental idealism. With the idcntificatjon of
prtrJna as intcllcctnnl intnilion. he proclaims that in contrast to Western
philosophy. Buddhism enables u_s to develop a positive ottitnde cowards
tbings-in-LIIcmsch cs. As it is particularI~, shO\\ n i_n the system of the
ltttlutgtllrl-gtJrbhll, thing:s-in-thcmsch-cs belong 10 the dimension of the
tathtJ. The identity of the lrue mind tmd the wtlrtt implies the possibility of
the absolute knowledge or thiugs-in-thcmsci\'CS. E)Jistcmological1y. with
the help of pra;no human beings c:tn imuith·cly grasp the Suchness of
thin gs, i.e .. the tmhn. To t11is cx1cm. it functions as intellectual intuition io
tl1c Kanti:tn sense. Ontologically. the true mind makes mnum!J l(l possible.
\Vhilc the mind of the talha is :1 fonn of the K:mti:m intellectual intuition.
tile tntha is nn cquh,..lcut of noumma. As a Confucian. Mou Zougsan now
replaces the Buddhist concept o f pT(yna ' ' ith the notion of U tmg t hi.
lntcllcccual intuition in lhc fonn of Uang :lu is fu n damcnt:~lty mor:l-1 in

I I Ibid
intllOrt. More impowuuly. with the help of Litmg zhi. it is possible for
human beings to dc\·clop knowledge of things·in·thcmsclvcs.
On the other h and. Mou Donssan uics to at count for the possibility
of the knO\\ ledge of pheno mena in tcnns o f tl1c lrlnym•fjmma, Since the
olt')·tn·fJmmfl is the cause o f the phenomen:tl ''orld. it can sround the
possibility of a phcnomc~l ontology. Following Kant. Mou Zongson
further replaces tl-..: 1'\l lt Qf the t~layavijnana with understanding (Vc:rstantl).
But instead of seeing underst:mding as tl1c cause of the phenomenal world,
he idcntific.s the categories of understanding as the conditions of the
possibility of knowledge and of objects of kno\\ lcdge. At thi."> juncture.
r..lou Zongsan is particularly inOucnccd by Hcidcggcr's ·'ontological
interpretation- of Kant's Critique ofPurr: Rea.son. u Lil:c the a!tryur fjnana.
understanding is also t;;Oncti\'Od of by Mou Zongsan as a derivative mode of
the lrue mind. Since the phenomen:.l world grounds itS possibility in the
cntcgorics or underStanding. it must be fin:~.lly grounded in the true mind :.1..~
"ell. Phcnomcm1l onl olos~· is accordint;l)' founded on mmnu:nal ontolO&Y·
In brief, Mou Zongsan de,·elops an idealist Confucianism in tile ronn of a
two-layer ontology.
Funhcrmorc. imilcad of explaining the rise of the t thl) m·l jumut <1nd
hence Lhe phenomenal world with the help of the concept of the
OOIH:nlightcruncm. Mou Zongsan introduces t1 Hegelian lclcology.
According to the Awakening of Hlilh. it is a sudden non-enlightenment o f
the true mind that rc!;ult·s in the mind as phcnomcn:1 (met:lphorkally. the
rise of the ripples). Now for him . it is because of the- self-negation of the
true mind that the phenomcnol world is mode possible. TI1c rise of the
()hcnomcnnl \\Orld is then nm due to ignorance or non.enlig.htenment.
Originally, if one asks for the origiuo:tion of the wind of iguonmc.e. one can
C.'(pcGI no funhcr CXJJlaMtion from the system of ll1c wtlwxau,...xarblw. The
SrimnladC'w:\·imhanada-sutra thus declares: -rt is \'Cf\' dillicuh 10
understand the fact that the u·ue mind gives rise to defilement.,. 10 In
contrast Mou ZongSiln argues ahm there is a h\O· fold reason for the
necessity of such a sclf·ncga1ion of the 1n1c mind. First. cxcn a sage (who
represents the true mind) needs knowledge. Seco nd. in order to m;mifcst its
essence. it is nccCSSilf~' for the true mind 10 concrctitc itself ns
undcrs1~ding. 17 Such a thesis reminds us of the Ch risti:m ::account fol'
God's crc3tion of the world. For the LaUer, God creates the world in order to
manifcs1 Himself. Like\\ isc. in tenns o f the dialeclic:'l l self-negation o f the
true mind. he u·ics to nccount for the possibility of science n.nd democracy.
fol' him. the rise of science ood democracy, ns p:trt of the phenomenal

u cr . M:u1m I Jcklcgs~.o-r. A~tmt mrd the Pmblem oj .\ {el(lp/~l'SiCI. Iran:;.,

Jam..::s Chnn!hlll (BioommgMo: lnd1:m:t Unh·crsity Press.. 1% 2): Mou Z.ongs:m,
l.hi (/r ziti j uC' )'" zhong guQ :It~ Xllf! (lnldl<·<•tual /nTuiliun (tnd Chim::cc
Phi/m.;ophv) (Toipci: Xian~wu, 1971).
16 .. ~·
Ibid. p. 583.
, . Cf: Xitm .tirmg ,r•tllf ll :1 s/t('n, pp 122·123.
 179

world. is telcwloj!icfll in manifesting the true mind. Accordingly. unlike lh~:

dc lilcd mind :md appearance ss ripples th:ll arc: subj ected to elimination.
science and dcmocrncy will fonn the excellent qualities of the m1c mind in
tlu:- morr~l sense. Going bc)•ond Buddhism. he <tlnims thnt the true mind in
the moral sense is the substance. \\hilc the phcnomcn:.'ll wodd (including
science ond democracy) is its fu m:tlon. Acc-ording to the system of the
latlwga!a-garhha, anc.r returning to the true m it1d, there is only one mind
and no more nlnym:Ji,rmo. TI1is would imply the climina~ion of the aspect
of s(llnsttrll rutd hence tl-ult or the phenomenal world. B)' contrnsl. in
gl'3nting a.u identity of Lhc true mind and its func tion. Mou Zongsan is able
to socurc a two-layer o ntology. Melhodologically. he o pts for a top-down
:tppro:tch.
Mou Zongsan 's employment of tl1c Awclk<ning of Fltilh as a
philosophical frn mC\\'Ork in de,·etoping a new Confucian idealism
undeni:tbJy constitutes a m:tjor step in the development of conlcmpomry
Nco..Confudanisrn. TI•is si~ni li es n rcconstmcaion of tbe School of Mind in
Confuci:tnisnt. Globally, this represents a synthesis of Chinese and Kantian
philosophy. lu panicular. Mou Zongsrut c:tn now show that like the mind of
the Wtht,gtsW·J!Orblw , the moral free will is capable o( sclf·presentation.
This might well suppo n his claim that imellcctual intuilion is also attribmcd
to human beings. To the extent tlutl humnn bcin&S can h:wc knowledge of
tbings·iJHhemsches. it is possible for him to theo retically justify the
validity of the K:mti:m lrnnsc.cndent.'l.l distinction.

II.

I~ro1n a n~nec th·c standpoint. two obscrwl.tious can be llUlde on

Mou Zongsrm ·s ide:tlist Confudonism.
First of all, from the perspective of history of Western philosophy,
r-.·tou Zongsan's Confucian mor:JJ metaphysics is rcminisc.cnt of Ficthc's
subjccti\'C idealism. For both of thc.m, human beings can become infin ite.
They :~rc common in granting imcllcetu:tl lntuilion to human beings. As a
result humnn beings can take the plnce of God. Second.~·. both maintain
that it is in lcrms of moral pra;'\iS that human lk:int:s can become: an absolulc
ego. Human beings :u-c said 10 be ab le 10 :utain the s.rotus of holy will in the
Kunt.inn sense. lutcUcctuoJ intuition is primarily concciYCd o f by ~lou
Zongs:~n and Ficthe to be moral in ch::tr.tcter. Fin:lll~·. for both them. the or
:tbsoluie ego, ns :1 m01':ll sclf-<:onsciousncss. is responsible for the- crc:uion
of our cosmos. Intellectual intuition is hence characterized b'' thcnt to be at
tl1c same lime moral and ontologkal. 13 But tltis by no mean's indicates that
t\·fo us Zongsan's moral metaphysics is entirely identical \\ith Fichtc's
subjccth ·c idc:Jlism. The fonncr ba.sically differs from the latter in the

I ll ('.f.: Fichlc. & it'ttct.' of J.:Jtclwled;:i! (Wi.f,h'IU'c!UJ,/isl.:hrt.') Y'ilh Firs/ dtul

.<x:,·tmd lntnx /u(;lion:J. \..".! and lrans. l'clcr 11'-~llh :llld Jolut l.:tchs (New York;
Applcton·Catlury·Crons. 1970)
folio'' ing I\\ o rcg..'lrds. First it results from a hcrmcncutic.al application of
the doctrine of the tmhagtJta·g(lrbhl), Second. it aims- 10 :tCCQIInt for the
possibility of democmey ~nd science. Nonetheless, one C..'Ul discern that
Mou Zongsnn's Confucinnism generally opts for a direction towards
Gcnnan lde:~lism .
Secondly, in the conscquc-nc:c of his hcmlcncutical npplic~tion of
the Awakcnlug vf F'wlh in atticuhuing his idealist Confuciani~m . fvlou
Zongs.1n should identify the system of I he tnfJurgma-gdrhlw as the per.l.: in
the development of Buddhism. Hon'C\'Cr. contrary to our expectation, i.n his
Fo.x;,t yu bf)ye (l1udd1Jli·Nalrm:. wul Prt?ina) he ruguc.s that the. system of the
tallwJ/wgfll(l·gm·bJur is inferior to the Ti'en T 'ai Buddhist perfect
teachings. I<J
Historically. in contrast to Ouyang Jing\\ u and Lucheng ·s suspicion
of 1hc s~·stem of the wlhtlgmn-gmbht). l'v1ou Zonss:.n Siron sly defends its
tluthcnlic Buddhist ChllfOCtcr. lie s.ccs the strength of the Awtlkc:nmg of
Ft)/th in introducina the doctJinc of che true mind. f or tl\c tmc mind is not
only the ontological ground of samst1m, bill :llso th~ transcendental
condition of the possibility of cnlightctuncnt. While the problem of the
J)(}Ssibilit~· or attaining Buddtmhood is not mi~d ir\ Madhyamika, lhc
solution l>mpo:sed by Yogacam Buddhism remains uns:uisf:tctory. Briefly,
Yogac..vn Buddhism 1rics to account for chc possibility of ::ntaining
Buddhahood in terms of the rise of pure seeds. HO\\C\·cr. due to the
c-ontingency in the rise of p11re seeds. it is impossible for Yogac3ra
Buddhism Co provide n uni\'crsal ~nd ne<:essory g.round for the sentient
bein&s to nuain Ouddll;~hood . By c-ontmst. with the introduction of the true
mind of lh~ talhtrgntn-garbhtr, the Awttkenmg ofFtritlr proddes on innate
trausccndcntoJ ground for tbc attainment of Buddhahood. Particuliuly. due
to its intcmal power or sclf"f)rcscntation. the uuc mind of lhc
lallfagnta-garbho is able to m:aL:e sudden cnlightcmnent possible. 1n this
way. the doctrine of the U\IC mind of the lalhagata·l~arbha ntT'trms tl~t
cn:ry sentient being can become o Buddha.
II is worthy to note that in :a new s~· ncrecism of Buddhism Mou
Zongsan clnssilks tho doctrine of the lalfurgatn-garblm of the AwakcniiiJ: of
Pallh us "'distintti\C 1cuchings.'' Namely. he puts the Awokening t~( FtJitiJ
together with Hu:.y:an Buddhi.~ . From a historical standpoint. such a move
is innovative. A$ u mutter of fuel, Fa:t.ang. the founder of Huuyan Buddhism.
though producing a significant commentary on lhe A'tYckeninK of F111th.
merely :utributcs the system of d1e uuhagara-garbhn to tl1c ..final
teachings." ::o This is bccou.se, for Fa:r..ang. the system of the
talhaglJia·gtlfbJw introduces the idea of the non-empty. But. in the eyes of
~·lou Zongsan. sim;.c bolh H uuy~n Buddhism and the doctrine of the
fallutpttla-garbJro arc common in bciug founded upon the notion of the true

1
~ Cf.: ·Mou Zong;.<Nn. F(J:I.'in yu bc'l)'t' (8uddilt)·.Vatm1: Otld Pmjtta) (foipci.
Xu•.:~•h"·ng. 1917). p. 56 L
:lo> Thr-:> poinl IS also fl\ll<:d by M on Z.on~S:"IIl. Cf. · 1bid.
 181

mind. they musl belong 10 the sumc Jinc.ngc. More importanlly. coou·ary 10
Faz~m g 'sself'"(;haraelcri:nuion of Huayan Buddhism :IS perfec t teachings. he
attributes it -~ t·ogcthcr with tl1c ..fwakcning of Pnith •• as belonging to the
lineage of distilltli\C lc..lchings.
According to rvtou Zongsan, dislincti\'C teachings ha\'C the
fOllowing essential ch:un~t crist i cs.
First. distinctive tcJ.chings stress the idea Qf .. self--dwe lling.- A$
pointc-d out b) Zh:mmn •• :1 key figure of Tiantai Buddhism in the Tang
Dynasty.

1'his indkatcs th31 3mk:lion :md the tlhamltiin arc

different in essence. Th:u is. affiiction and the dhnnn<11n
d\\ ell from each other. Eac·h is rcg:udcd as autonomous.
Ap3n fro m .affiiction, there is dlumnttffl. To this cx1eru, the
dharmttta is the oth"r lof nfllictionl. Conn~rscly, the
fflltrnnafu is autonomous . .'\pnrl from the tlittrrmafa, ll1crc
is affiiction. To 1his cxt~n t. affiiction is the other (of the
dhannata(. Therefore, these two kinds of sclf~othcr
rc.lation arc no1 understood in tltc sense or
pcrf.:ct
teachings. A1 this j un c tur~. affiiction constilutcs an
obstruction.~~

Mou Zongsan furt her cxp l~in s: "To say th:11 the notion of
' diJTcrcncc in essence· implies that each of the two is indcpcndcnt.·· ll Such
<1l.:iud of independence docs not exclude an intcr..clationshi11 between the
two. When Bffiiction CO\Cts the tcue mind. then affiiction is independent. To
tllis extent o.OlictiOil d\\•clls autonomously. But. lu rcal i t~t. the rise or
affiiction must depend upon the true mind. To llti.s extent. tltcy are
interrelated. Since the rise of affiictiou is not imrinsic to the true mind. there
is ::m essential scpamtion between the two.
Second. aflliction and the cUwnnma constitute an opposition. Just
like the two sides of a coin. il is only by turning O\'Cr that on ~ can reach the
other. In gcn(rol. t~ccording the Buddhist clnssifkation. there ;arc ten rc01.lms:
fltuldhns. 8odf11.t:nltvas. Proo·ekabuddlw.~ (btlddhas-for-thcsch'CS) .
•\ 'Nwaktu (direct disciples of t.hc Buddh:a), heovc:-nly beings, IJSJlr(l (spirits),
hwmm beings. dcpart~:d beings. animals (bc:asl$). and dcpnt\'cd men (hells).
For di!aincti\'C teachings. while the first is identical with the truth. the other
nine ~r~ in the state of non.cnlig.htenmcnt In ordi!r to :utain Buddhahood. it
is ncccssar~ for us to destroy all lltc otbcr nine. Particularly. in the
Aw11kening of Fi.tUh. tl1c aspect of the mind of the ltllltgawga~garbha
signifies the rculm of Buddhas. while the aspect of sam.wrr11 represents the

21
ZhuntM. U'd mo jic Jing .shu ,ii (...J, J!.\'t'g<'.1is 11jl lr11 f ·tmal abrtt Su1ra}.
.\lanzi:t,J.y o, Vot 28, p. 829. Thi...; po:ssogc is quoted in Ft>xin y u lXI)""'
(!Jtu/,{~tJ -Nown: (uttl l'rtyn(I). J). 693
-· Fo.dn J1' b~~'l' (BuddluN\'aum.· m'KII'Mjftll) . p, 684.
182

other nine rca1Jns. That is to say. il is in tenus of the destruction of lh~:

aspect of samsom that o ne c~m return to the tmc mind. Ontologically, the
true mind is the ground for the rise of the other nine realms. But it is on ly
''hen these nine realms arc c.xtinguishcd that the true mind can m;:mifcst
itself in auaining Buddh:thood. n
Third, for distincti,·c teachings. the Buddha consist$ of infini te
\ 'ittUC$. That is to say. Bulldh.a ·naturc is absolutely pure.. und the other nine
realms do not belong to its essence. It is only in \~ nuc of overcoming these
nine rc:~ lms thot the lluddh:\ can achic,•c the positive \'irtucs.
Founh. from a practical standpoint in order to manjfcst itself. the
tn1c mind must free hsclf from all evil m~ans to salv:uion. ·rhis is bccm1sc
the ''Cry essence of the true mind is absolutely pure.
Finally. dislinctivc teachings end up with n doctrine of the
appearance of pure Nature (xi ng qf) . In reality. such :. pure Nature (xmg) is
nolhing but the true mind. Ae~ordingly, for Mou Zongsnn. it gin s rise to an
idcalism.1.:. In the consequence of the methodology of the ~hl'llkcning of
l ' alrh as -uansccndental-analytic.- the system of the mflmgma-glJI·blltl
results in 3 trt~nsccndcut:tl idcalisut.!l
t>.fou Zongsan howc\·cr maintains that distinctive 1cachings cannot
represent 1hc peak of Buddhism. for. if there is only a contingent
connoction between the J'C3Im of Buddhas nnd 1hc other nine realms. nnd
tl1e destruction of these nine realms preconditions the attainment of
Buddha hood, then one csn hardly juslify lhc ncccs!<:ity of their csistcncc. :6
r-.'lorc i.mportantly. since the Buddha hns scp3fatcd himself from tbc other
nine realms. his essence remnins imperfcxc. 2
On the other hand• .Mou Zongs:.n praises Tiantai Buddhism as the
pcrfC'C't teachi.ngs in tu1 authentic sense. h is because such perfect teachings
affirm that all the nine- realms arc ontologie-ally equipped in lhc- realm of
Buddhas. ln order to auain Buddahood, what Tian tai Buddhism asks us to
remO\'C is merely our attach.ntcnt to tho world. bUl not the world itself.::a
In brief. pcrfcx:ttcnchings must hn\C the foll owing characteristics:
(I) ·n1c dharmntfl is •·identical" with a01ic1ion. Apart from the dhannnta.
there is no n.ffiiction. nnd wLc n:rsn: (2) Mind is first of t1J.I understood in
tbe s.:nse of a mind o f 3ffiicaion. Even a sin3le instance of mind consists o f
affiiction ond the tllwrmaw. Accordingly, the mind con sis t~ of p ure nnd
impure possibilities: (3) All dhanna~ ori~i.natc in th e non-dwelling ground.
Thill is to Sily, there is no ultimate foundation for the world.t9 Particularly.
the mind docs not function as th~ ground of the world.

lJ Jbid. pp. 695--696

" )bid. p. 90 1·. p. 875.
'" Ibid, p. 561.
"' Ibid. p. 698.
,. Ibid. pp. 982·983.
"' cr tbill. PP 697-6!}'1).
, cr.:lb>d. r 6&5: p 829: p 9g9·, p. IOJ>
 /S.i

"'·lou Z-ongsan insists that Confucianism should be dc\·c:lopcd in lh~:

form of perf<x:t teachings. ' 11 Examin"-d ngainst the above cri1Cri3. one
surprisingly discovers that Mou Zongsnn's idealism sntisfics none of them.
First. sticking to the frnmC\\Ork of ··one mind hming two aspec-ts·· in the
AwttJ.:enlng vf Ftiith , Mou Zongsan gmms il prim:tcy to the aspect of the
moral mind which is i:Qmp:tra blc to the tUwrmOia, As :a ft'1Uit. the
plh:no mcnal \\Orld, \\ hich is rhc counterpa rt c,1f ,\fJJJu·aru. is only secondary
to the mor<'! l mind. Such an ontological dependence of phenomena upon the
moral mind precludes the possibilit)' or an idcmit) bct\\Ccn Lltcm in the
sen:1c of perfec:t teachings. Second. f;incc-l\·tou Zongsan identifies the moral
mind whh intcllcc tu:~ l imuhion. it must be purged of any sensibility.
Accordingly, it is ;;m infmitc mind rothcr tho.n a mind of :tffiiction. l ike the
true mind jn lhc sense of tlu: Awokening of Faith. his moral mind is
absolutely pure. Finally. fot Mou Zongs:m. the moral mind functions as the
tr:lll.~etndc nt:ll ground of all dharma~. Bul in stressing an infinite mind QS
the uhimutc foundation of the l\ Orld. he dcvitues from the Tiantai thesis th<ll
::Ill dhnrma.~ originate in the-non-dwelling ground. The l3ltcr thesis aims at
sar ing that there ts no ultintatc fotmdation for the possibility of the world.
On tl1e methodological lc\·cl. Mou Zont;s:m's ic.kalist Confucianism.
howcnr. commits to the tr.msccndental approach. In reality. the
tmnsc:.:ndc:nml analysis :~ims .:11 uncoYcring the conditions of the possibility
of the world. In the aucmpt to go beyond Kant"s original transcendental
idealism b~· grnnting the possibility of intellcctu:.l in1uition to hum:\n beings.
he even clai.ms that the mom I mi.nd :lS the ultimate foundation of the world
must be iniUitivcly gi,,cn. To this c::xtcnt. he is faithful to the s~· stc m of the
tmlutgtllo-gorhhtl . Jn t'lddition, he adopts 3 Hcg.e lirut notion of
"sclf-nega.tion"' in accowttiug for the rcl:uioo between the pure mind nnd
the phcnomcn:1l world. But suc.h a teleological account does not cn~ble him
to reach the Tiantai Buddhist position that the phenomenal world is
ontol og.icnll~· equipped by the mind of a single instnncc. According to the
pcrrect teachings of the Tiantai type. ;,pan from the phenomenal world.
there would be no Buddhahood. In founding the possibility of the
phcnomcnotl world upon the pmc mind. " 'l ou Zongs;m's otppf'0\1Ch
OC\'enhclcss remains ··idealist" in the fichtcnn sense. It is true thnt now the
phcnomcn.:.l world. as ot resuh from the scl f-cxtc~li:r.=ation of the pure mind,
is real, und hence not illusion:rry. Nonclhclcss. though t.hc pure mind
constitutes the Being of the phenomenal world. the phenomenal world docs
not belong to ihe Being of 1he pure mind. For :\·tou Zongsan. apan from the
phc nomcn:ll world. what the pure mind lacks is merely its -eoncrctcncss.''·u
Accordingly. he c~n hardly justi(\' the inLrinsic: necessity of all dlwmrat in
the manner <.l f the pcrfe~;l tc"'chings in the liantai Buddhist sense. For the
latter. the onlologicnl identity between mind and tlharmas implies that all

Jo) Cf.: ·Mou Zong;.<Nn. Ymm .dtull hm (Tiw01y of the Pt.•tf..·ct GO(}'(/) (J'oipei.

xu•.:~h\.·ng. 198j), p, 308

'
1
cr.:.'(in ri )II/ ~mg ''· Vol. I ' J). 65;i
(/harmas arise from the non-dwelling ground. Mcthodologicall~. lhe pcrfea
teachings in the Tiantni Buddhist sense goes lx:) ond the idea of grounding
in the transccndcnu:.l as well ns teleological sense.
Alltl1is indicates lhat Mou Zongsan·s idc31ist Confucianism cannot
00 qauliflcd a~ the l>t"'l'fe<.t teachin~s in the sense or Tiantai Buddhism.
Therefore. he must face the following dilcmmo:
On the one h;wd. if he. tnitintains Lh<~t his idcali~ moral
metaphysics rcprcs('nts the orthodox of Confucianism. he should prnise the
idea of the pure mind in the syste-m of 1hc tmhagow-garbho. On the. othct
hand. if he is faithful to his thesis th:ll Confucianism should be de\'clopcd in
the form of perfect tcxhings in the sense of Tiantai Buddhism. he has 10
gi,·e up his cl3im th:ll his idel.Jist trend signifies dtc onhodox in
Confucianism. Mcl11odologically. he should nbolish the grounding approach.
If he could stick to the Tiantai dt>Carine of Buddh3·ttaltlrc. he should then
disco"er th:'l.t the mind of the Confuci3n S:~.g,e must 11l..o be equipped with
the t.:\'il fflltrnnas. Th:.1l is to Sl1y. such u mind c:an no longer be absolutely
pure in essence. Rather. il should be finite. rather lh:'ln infinitc. 12
In rca.lity, when l\'lou Zongs::tn cl:Utns that "Perfect teachings cnn
only be I)OSsiblc by reaching the infinite mind," he might h3\'C commiucd
to a position similar to the doctrine of the External School in T 'ai T 'icn
Buddhism.3' Like the Jnttcr. he linally inlcrprcts the perfect teachings in the
Ti:Jmai Buddhist sense in 1crms of a docuinc of pure mi11d. ~~

~--: This :tl~) S,l'''-~ ris..: to $\Jill~ inh::nwl dit)'icuHics in M~u 7.on~;;;an's
typology of Sung.Mmg Nco-ConH1eiamsm and his Confucian theory or the
hlfh<"S:l good. CJ: : Wins·<~hcuk Ch:ul. " On Mou Zc.' n.:s:.m's Hcl'n'tcnculical
Application of Budilllism"' (Forthcoming).
•lJ l'ucm ~·fum bm ( 1'1rc:oT)' rJj t/11( Pcrftc:t Govtl). t>. 332,
'' Cf.: Fflxm y u ~~~ (BuddltthVmlln~ 11ml Prapt(l}, p 112.),
 P11 rt II

Confucian Etbics i.n

Comparative Context and in Prospect

 Between the Good a nd th e Right:
The Midd le Way in
Neo-Confucian and Mahayana Moral Ph ilosophy
.lmft,, >fm

INTRODUC fiON

For our purpose \fC can SJ)' " the l'ighr · is lhtu ,,•hich moralily
requires 3nd -rnc good- is lh:n which is \\Otth seeking. A ,fuuc is a
disposilion to do'' hat is right in 3 poutic.ul:u respect or to seck what is ~ood
in 3 panicular respect. Allhough some would dr.tw our 3llcmion to the
side of virtues, 1 some would bclic,·c that ,·irtuc is moral
<:orrcctil'c
excellence. a sculcd altitude tlull (Onduces to habitually good action in
some aspc-tt and that vinucs could be classified as intcllcccual virtues and
pr:~ctical vi.rtucs. 1 Coofucius -.nd Ari.stotlc have olmosl 1hc s:mJc idea of
"hat virtues arc: they arc especially cxhibilcd b~· what is difficult for
humans~ they ::~ rc dispositions Md modes of choice or invoh·c choice; they
:\rc stAtes of ch:trnctel' concerned with choice. lying in :t mean.·' The
concept of virtue might have been altered or cnricl1cd when what Confucius
t:rught was dc\'cloped inro 3 doctrin~ of Nco-Confucianism ~nd when
Buddhism ''as naturalized in the soil of Chinese culture.
Let us examine the positions of Nco~onfucian and Mahayana
ethics on vinucs in relation to the good and the rig.tn in the context of
contemporary philosophy. in JXlrticnJ::u-. in the context of tl1c criticism made
of rulc-\lction-bascd ethics since the 1950s by Western supporters of

1
Philippo:1 Fovl. I •;,.,.,t'S mul J'ices tmd Oll•i',. Hs.vfJ)'J ,·, .\{om/ Philo.wphy
(0:-;l<,rd: 13lncl.>wcll. 1973) R Such an cmph:tl>is mipJll he lhnughl '" h<.."$pc3k :~
t~tthcr nc~:ll i\'¢ ,·icw of tl1c. n~tutc oud tend\.'1lCics of lnunan beings. 'l'his ('.ails to
mind Xun7i 's Lhoor:• on hum.:m nntun:. X~i . hmn."\'(.T. wo.'i quite optimistic
t"lx'I\U.,thc pos~i bil it~· t'L' whul hmmms might nchk"'·c
- M:IC{[\I~Irric, J. •..J Dh.'IIUIUJt) ' Q,((/lris/um l~lluc.<o (London: ~CM J)rcss.
1967) 35·1 Tb1s dcscriplicm of ''lnuc m lhe Western U\ld1110n ~~nls slmiltw ltl
t-.•tcucius:· tlt('Of1' on hum(ut nature.
D. C. t.au. tram;., Cmrfm:iu.,: Tlte .·Jua/o~cls Olannund~H>rth. Pcn~'llin.
3

1979) 9.29. 9:30. Ari.stnllc,:.. ='~•<:omaclwan /?1/IIC$. !) a \ ill Rt'S.'). tnm~. (New
York· O'l:f()rd, 1998) 1105b28--1106a 11. 1 106b36- 11 07~25 At kast ))avid
1hunc l ~t~d mond discretion as \me kind of \'Lrtucs in Enquiry ConC'..qming 1/~e
Pl'illdple of.\lomi.J (1751 ) 2:1. For a list or \"1 11UCS in Confuciunism ~'C 0 . w.
Vvn Norden 1'Vir1u.: Elhic.-. nnd Cvnfttc i ani~m:· in Bo M(l\1, Comptrl'(l/1\'t:
,1ppn:mches to CM~tr."•~ Pl11/o.w phy (13m1ington · i\$hgatc, 2003) I08·1 09.
I 88 .Imfo11 }'m r

\'inuc·bascd cthkal thcoties. and of the criticism of f\bhii~ ana ethics by

contemp<)fary Confucians in more recent d<."C~tdcs. I hti\'C chosen as :a focus
the Confucian concept qumr. especially in its Nco-Confucian moral
imJ>Iicntions. and the equally complex Mahfiy3na notion upfi)'(l
(upl1ytr-ktm$tllyt' kusflltl), and their rcl:uioo to the good and the right.
I will argue that mtmy studies h~vc exc-essively emphasized the
mc<ming of qmm nnd upiJJ u as means (cxpcdicnq• or the cspcdicnt) while
o\·crlooking dtcir essence :tS end (1\"n. .Vt or krl.(a/n), as quality of actions
and as \ irtucs of persons. As dispositions dtC)' -come to us by nonuc. we
tirst acquire tltc p-otentiality aml later exhibit the ac t h·it~ •· through rcpe3tcd
pmcticc." As a state or char~ctcr c.1ch is e:~:prcsscd as moral perception.
mo.ral reasooi.ng. morul judgmen.l. and moral decision: as well as propel.'
net ion directed by the ' inucs: they each fit into a comprchcnsh·e cLhical
S\'Stcm rooted in ccnain cardinal \'irtucs. As 1he unification of the affccli\'C
Md cogniti\'C virtues o f 11 person. qmm and upliya ideally c nsw c th.1t acL~
\\ ill be rislu and ~'001.1 as the practJcc. rcspc:ctircl ~·. of yi (obli&o-uoriness.
oughtncss or righteousness) and lm.mfn (wholesome, wise and sl:ilfu l
nction). Tbcy represent the unification of tJtc mo "incommensurable'"
\'<llucs. the good and the right, and tJ1cy MC rcspcctiycly identical with the
l\1iddle W<ly and the ul1imntc D3o •• tbc proper qurm. :-
Qu(m has been interpreted ns expediency. or the expedient: or as
\'irtuc. good disposilion "in the exercise of moral discretion." "choosing
between sOO<Iness and I:Y.wlncss," or appropriately onrriding /i (obscrr:lncc
of rites) ; or. adapting to tJ1c circumstaoces. or doing 3S the occ:O$ion rcqui.rcs.
or "'weighing occurring events.- or "\\ Ci&hing circumstances.'· t'

Con1pru~ .ViCfJmttclr<''"' Ethit·s ( L9%): l lOJo l ~·b2: .lrwl<'ciJ: 17:2 witlt

4

.\lajjlrimt• Ad..·"Y''· Dhik khu Nnnamili and DOlDli. tr:t.n:;. (l~1o n : \Vi.:>dom l(M)l)
,\ /rullmpmrliko· 18::ZOJ.
; "J:>;M) is the proper princ1plc/:/mJgqmm for JUd£tng the p:lst :md prcscm.
(gtyi, : lri :.ltMgqumr)" Xwrr: Zhcngtniog.22. Wot'k:ln. Uut((ln 1/su, 1":11:
L/asic Wn'till~., (Nc\\ Yurl.:: Columbin Uni\'C.·rsity Prc!':i:i. 19G3) 153 und .\'uuzi: A
1'nmslaH01r f1ml S1ml).• of tht C(Jmpld e W<1rk. \'OI 3. }(1l111 Knoblocl: tnms.
(Stanford: St:ml'h nl University Press, 199J)
<> COI11JMf.:.: U.C. L:tu '~ translati(lO of tlr<r Aua/e('t.t (1 979) 100 witll
Edwanl G. Sling(:rltuld, Cm!}i1C'ius ..Jnaluts: With Sdutirw:c fmm Traditirma/
Com,ent~rrleJ (J ndiaJI3J>oli~; I (J.;kctt. 200;t) 9G·91·. Am.;$ end RoSCJnorlt. 'l'J.e
A ttc'll~· tu of Ctmjitciu,'i: tl Plnlosophlcal Jj yuu/tlfitm (NC\\ York: B:all;mtinc.
1998) 132; Simon Leys. 1'1t l'f A11alcct.t rif C(mfilcius (New Yotk: Nonon l997)
43: rutd (>thcrs 1J".UlS!ations of qutm as "W.:igllin£ things up" or ''c.'\p<:di<:ncc•·.
Sec abo C.T. Wei. in Wing·t~il Cltan. Clm Jl.f i und .V .:rJ·Cui!/IJcitJIIiJm
Okmtllulu. U ru\"Cnilt)' vf l i:I\\ Hii Prc::>s. 1986) 25.5-272, :m<l Hojun Y~n ~.
l.ml)1t~•·r:lm (BCIJmg: Zhonghu~ . 1980) %~ QHm, 7.hongslm. Gmm: lmibhm
(U..:·-tjing: Lhol\gl1Ua, 1 979)~ Gon&'Wmg:lmmr/Sprmg ami Autumu Armal.s witlr
(iall~'wtg Cmmwmmy (Taipei: Shangwu. 1973). l lmoz/man ( fnipci:
Zhvnglnm. 19'13) a.nd Dong Zh·vng::;hu. Cluwqmfimlu ~:d . Y W. W~ng.
C(>nlnlCnli.XI Of'\ hy Song Kuttng: Sun Ytmng ( 'hanghar Sh~ngwu. J97g) I I: 2·3
 Retwt't'll the Gfiod multht• Right 189

Up.~wr·lll.ruJalya· kllsnla \\3S abbreviated as 1tp(1ya nnd grJdually lost its

complete meaning. II has been transl:ucd inlo English as; expediency.
··expedient mcnns: · 1 the com-cnient w::ay. skill -in-mc:ms. skilful menus. Qr
e\·en "pedagogical sJ...ill-. 8 h wos rendered in early Chinese Buddhist tc.xiS
us 'J'"m which is opposile in meaning 10 sh/;9 or flmgblim, 10 tltr.r!UtntJiuin,
or ii/mnquanflmgbiwr. 1l Up<t)'fl-ktwSalya. knmla. gencr::t.llr signifies mc::ms
that arc wise-. skilful and wl1olesomc. AI first glance both concepts arc
relatc.d to ethical \·aluc and to other value-s. :tnd lhcy arc cons.cqucnti:tlisl in
nature. or else belong to nction-bn~d rulc·so,·cmcd ethics '' ithout
rcfc.rencc- to st:ttcs of character and agcnHclated moth·alional fac1ors.
According to this LOC moral virtues possessed by an agent would be
insrmmental and would hm--c no hm'i,sic \'o.lue. I will ;u'gue in f:wor of the
foliO\\ ing four points:
Firs1. v:.lues a rc rooted in forms of life- and cuhur.\1Ctlnstmcts. such
as philosophicn1 construcLS of the l\•liddlc Wa~·, the Twofold Truth or the
m ornl ·met~p hysic;n l principle Li ~ at the same time. 'nlucs are t.hc foundation
for the moral principles upon \\ hich mom! reasoning is b:.sed. Qmm and
upil)·a arc rooted. rcspccti\'cl~·, i.n Confucian and Mah5yfu1a moral
J)hilosol)hics as the modes of re:tsoning for choosing \\ltat is
n/l.tlrmgs·c<msitler('t/ appropriate in a diffieuh sin•otioo. whh a \iew 10
:1cting rig.htly for the s::tkc of o good result EYeo if .some rules arc
O\'Crriddcn. the chosen action plan will \\Ork ciTectj,cJy if it follows the
ultimate principle, whic h is also the primary y irtuc and has mtrmsic value.
Thnt intrin~·tc Yolue cxpl:ai.ns ~md j ustifies the rightness of the ::.ction.
Second!~ . lhc crcalive nature of lJUfm wus sa.id 10 O\'Cnidc some
customar)' rules or precepts. '' hich c:1used a dt.!balc-nmong Nc<>-Confucirut...:;
about whether the cxpcdicnti'JH(In is still d1e same ns the st.andBrd(jing
(social or c u~omMr rules). In light of the considerations lhc l'ro and con,

~ also K. L Shun ,\/rucitt.t and l:.iu'f,l; Chlii•W'' 1'h<mgln (St:mford· S1:ml0rd

Um\o'Cr.S ily Press 19')7) 55·56: 65~ A S. Cu.u. cd. Em:yr:lopcclm of Cltin~st·
Phi/t).IOfJI~v (New Ymk Routledge. 2003) G25.
1
Kumar:.•jrva. lmn~ , The I.JJIIIJ Sutrtt!Stuldlmrma-pumlitriko-s ulm
lj\1l'twjtdumlmty'ing, T{li.,ltri: V9N2(i2·1·6 3
~ M. Sidl...·•nts. Pcr.fQirtll ftlcntlty anti Huddlrisi!•Mio;loplry: }:'mpry l't·r.son.'t
(l lonlf:;hin:: Ashgatc:, 2003) I I 1. r,toLc b.
Zhj)' j , lt:iUS.. .~ ftt/t{i.$WI/Oiflfi--U'pti.Jymt{,f,\ /Qfl\~:/ugUOII, J. 1f:us/t(j
V4GNI9 11 : I. ··Qtum ll'e / qnanmtm, :/f(JI'f,I'Ong luw.firl..~hi wei sltl/11, jiu jlng :hi
~'111. "
10
llunCin \Vulson, tNn:L 11re Lotu:c Sutm l Smldlwrnm pumlorika·JIIIral
.\llaofalitmlmajin;t (New York Cvlumbiu Uni\·cr.:;ily Pn.::;:;. 199.1) 2.
11
l} pfly.t-l:<m&ol)'lt, lnms.. fl\)fll Chin~,."SC by Gaona C. C. Ch311tl. A
Tl'"l'tWi t') l of .\.talulJ'(int:t SmmJ-: .' \(>I('C/ultn' from tlw MaiNirttllu)J.'t1w S111n1
(PCt'l.l'l~')rh·anu~. P<.·!UlS)'Ivtu\iUSlate Uni\'...YS:IIY Press. 1983). 268. 427-468; truus.
from Tibetan. Upii)'O - ka11.ialytt -ttiima, by M:uk Totz.. 11t~· Skill ;, M~·an.JI
Uprlyt,/;.tmftt~ll(t Sun w (New York. P~tnth~;on. 1994) &..-c also 1'a1Jiuj;
VI IN310:38, Vl:?N34)·135. nod Vl2N::W6·156.
/WI .lmfon } 'mr

Zhu Xi took a middle way. He interpreted t11e inherent relation bct\\CCn lh~:
quan and the Jing. unific."<l them \\ ithin the dao, and ~tdded
J'llobli g~uoriooss/ou g.tnn css nnd shirpropcr time to regulate the stntcs of the
chnroctcr of the agent Jpplying quem. and so built his moml·mctnphysical
T\\ofold Principlc!/.i ethical system. This led Neo-Confuci:m moral
philosophy by wny of a middle path to a pluralist ethics of '"displts~· ing: n
dc-nr ch:nd·ctcrfming d.:- ll b) holding fast to the principlcifi, thus
dcmonsmuing that dcontic!action-rule-lxlSed and \'inuc-bascd modes of
moral choice are complcmcnuuy. ·rh e~· ore both ncccssarr fOr on adcqun1e
comJ)Ictc-understanding ofNeo..Confuci:m ethics.
Thirdly. in the fac-e of contemporary criticism of .Mahiiy:lna ethics.
Buddhisl moralists of recent dccndes h:.,·c gcncrnlly agreed 10 regard
morality ns the end rather than only a means is <:omp.ltjblc with chc Twofold
Tnath and the Middle Woty in their llharmt). FoiiO\\·'ing the abo\'C disc-ussion
of the Nco.Confuci:l.n concept tJIWn. we may note Lh:tt the
/Jntlhi.w llvabluimi Pusn-p;uh consists of such UJU~)'tNclatcd pcrfectjons of
morality. wisdom. :111d comp3ssion, "hich are idi!ntical with the end of the
~·Udd l e Way and the Buddha Nature. So, it is not only minor precepts ~d
rules that c.an be 0\'Ctriddcn, but e\'Cn killing could rcech·c some qualified
j ustification. according 10 some Confucian and Western ;ugumcnts. Some
philosophers may consider arguments that would attempt to justify
\\ rongful killing as sometimes tr.tnsccnding "'nonnotivc ethics" in the spirit
t.lf the ·rwofold Truth, My argument is that the btKihi.,·aflw:s in qucsti<m.
::.lthough morally nbo\'c ordi.n;uy foU:s. arc still human bci.ngs and h:a,·c lo
dcnl will! \'arious aspects of ordinill) life. In some c.nscs bodbis:ut\'as arc
c,·~n ec lesti:ll bcinss as described in the Lmu.r .Sillrn: C\ en if they are fully
enlightened or h:l\·e obtained nirw'IJ'Id. as long as they take nct.ious :md
irn·ol\'c then,sclvcs in human affail's \\C- still c.an anal"zc their 3Ctions
within norm:ttivc ethics. 0 •

I! 1'/tt> Grcllt I.NwningtDn:tue:l . The eighr steps <h~us._"'Cd m the (ir~·llt

/.('llnri ng Jct:.al thc ptinciplcs for cuhiwtti.ng <l vu1uous sMte of clutf OCICI' as th..::
end t\:"suh. rather than SL'C in~ mcchonic.:tl marupulatiuns of pt.Tsonill lifc IUld the
\\Orhl :1:1 the end.
11 We :>houl\1urKk..TSlUthl ch:rl Lhc ttllim:uc ::.1:uKIPJint im·~'h'cs rL'C'-'~ni>t.inl:_l
~'n u lt un t~.h:: rc~tl ity bcy·o1ld ~-11 con~1)tut~.l thinkmg uod dcs:cnphon.
Ontolugicall~'· oll phCJl<,mcnn urc lUlllUC. If a magic pom::r i.ii apphtd by a
(xxlhi.wltL'tl to deal \\ ith human off:1irs and 1.:<1.11)" C)Ut ju~ticc \\C C<ll.l still judge
lti.s cNbrts by normali\\! \.--l.hic::~l pnnci()k"$ of righl or " mn~ frum conve~tlionnl
pcrsr)i.x:tin!s. KCOl\ll :~nd Srdcrils- da~mss the ultim:lte tmth to o greater cxtcnl.
Soc·. Koowo. Tht• Natun• ofHrl(k/hist l!'lhks (Macolill<tn. 1992) 159. S1dCJi b, 13.
note n and o~ 204 "'But tl1c pmcticc of cnmpls:sion ol.so requires ccrtnin $kills
lh:H nt8}' l}l)( L'!l..: :t\'allabk tc._l <.11ll.! \ \ h<..1 has not rc~IJ (I'.c\1 the cmptinQ:::I of nil
1hmgs''
 Retwt't'll the Gfiod multht• Right 191

Founh])•. tltc stance of Confucius and or Aristotle on moral virtues

or c~cellcncc 1 ~ is plausible as far ns the application or qtum and uprlya
goes but still needs qunlilication. The Buddhist Twofold Tnuh and the
Nco-Confucian T\\Ofold (morJI-mctnphysical) Princ.iplcl U posithdy
supported the respective Buddhisl :~nd Confucian \\'ays of life and their
::tSsociatcd values. while on the nc-gati\'c side denying their ontological
primae)' and the axiQiogicol primacy of 1hosc ways orlifc. In lhe name of yl
or .Yin);.."l-'t (the practice of yt). or of compnssion/.tarw1d :tny action '' ill bring
about a Double Effect or -double conscqucnc.cs." and we " 'ill ah\'O)'S face
the problem of ho\\ to uni(\' Lhe 1ight :md the good in n.ction. 11tc creation
of <JIIlln ~Uld upr1yo expresses the human will for the achievement with
\'arious m~ns. of the highest good (nirwma or tiannmhc:J'i rcspcct.ivcly; or
-- lhc summum bommi). At the same lime. \\C should nol deny t11at the
means, as qutm and uphyt~themscl n~s . h:we already become the pcrft.'Ciion
of Lhl! virtues or 3n agent renli7.ing the highest good/summum bunum nncJ
hence ha'c bc."Comc the end itself. according to many prcscm..<Jay \\ ricers.
To be completely vinuous, th.cy s:'ly, is to be cnliglllcned or at one with
hc:t\'Cn :~nd e-Mit. Titc Middle Way as the EisiJtfold Path nt hs ordinary
le\'c l brings human to renlizc the highc-sl good: while at its u·anscendcnt
level it is an ··empty way- - thnl is, we can do better and better but c:m
nc\·cr achieve the absolute best. The l\1iddJc Wt:~y thus cnc.our.1gcs the
process of adit~/inilllm and so benefits us as long os we li\'C togc.ther in this
world. Nco-Confucian quan and ~13 h iy:i n a up<lyn 3UCmptcd to grasp the
middle way r:uion::ally. wilh rcsp«:t to the good as well as the right. l_n other
words. they both ha\C lricd to unify the good and the riglll lllrough the
vinue&.

THE GOOD AND T HE RIG HT

In Chinese philosophy ns early as Confucius' tlme y i

(righteousness. oughcncss/obligmorincss) and Ji (profit or interest) were
~p:mucd into two diiTcrcnt ngcnt·rclated ,·alucs in s11ch s:1yings as "The
noblcs(jwzzi comprehend .vi ~nd the infcriors/xia(m:·n comprehend II" (4.16).
Therefore. central to the history of Chinese philosophy has been a tradjtion
of opposing righteousness and profit, "~hich has l:t$tcd until now. In the
tenus of AnglQ-Amcri<.:,on ethics. the dcbu.tc is nbout the right 01nd Ute good.

u "~ret;: h:ss not 11ll: .-;pcci:~ llr owr::~l cQtmOt3tion ll.t3t '·,·irtuc'' hus ocquitul
in m01.lcm EnMiish. Excdkn~ i:c lcs::; li !t bl~.: to mblc;:td". Ros~. A'toomocl~ew'
l;'thiC~S (1998). xxv1, Trad;lloni!lly. ··cx()\'dicn'-'Y" '' not neccs._~mly m(lr;)l
csccllcncc io cillK'T <.:biJ'J(:SlC or Gn::t.k i.-thic~. I we moral dJS(~t(·ttotl ( L!I motal
cxcdlcnce or vit1ue in contract to mt'l:h:micol sl:ills. which n professional killer
JXlS:iC~ E.'IOpeJi~n~y C.:CI. \Jld tK: moral or immonll. the ( fll (ltl in the Analccls
(9 29) is moral exocllencc. t11c csccllcn<.:c of a person ..
192 .lmfon }'m r

The good " and the right arc l\\0 vcr~· rough classes of normathc concepts
cuslomarily di\'idcd bclwccn the C\'a lu:uh·c and lhc dcon1ic. Th~ C\'3h1.3lh ·c
conccpls howe to do with the values thnt things hnvc by being valued or
16
being \aluablc. '·A.xiology"' rtfcrs lo the whole mngc of posili\C :;md
negmi,•e \'alues fmrn diS\':'IIuelb3d 10 beinG \'aluc neutrnl, nncl lhen 10 the
highest \':tluc1llighcst goodisummum bwwm. Valu;ablc items could be
purely intrinsic goods. purely instrumental ~oods or a c:ornbin;ation. Sotrn:
mornlists use ~valuable* and - to \';lluc" 10 define the good 11 ns meaning,
rcspccLhcly. ""•orlhy of being ,·nJued nnd \\'Orlh)' of be in~ judged good"
and '·to be fa,·or:ibl)· disposed 10\,ards. and to j udge good."' Dimensions or
distinctions of ,·alucs (such as prudential, aesthetic nnd cthicnl \'aluc. or
spccifac Vtllucs such ::tS health. beauty. and welfare) hJ,·c been discussed by
many. They stn.ndardly identify one or more ,·aJucs as the only basic cLhical
"aluc or ,·alues, the only thing or things.. \\·'hich \ \C ha,·c a moral n:.ason 10
promote fOr its or their own s.1ke ' such a..~ h:tppin~:ss or th~: K::mti.:lll good
1

u Tllc good js, n::ry rou~hly. the pm pcrty of n thmg meriting

crnumenJotion. fE\·cr slnt:e AtiSlotlc ;.Utd his uh.~J.e,·ru. followcr:\1 failed to
include '·!?uot.l'' in the :sd tcmc-of ·'cotq mric:.;" c xcqJI. by making it apply in oil
'-'f tllCm. "iOt.Kf' luis ..:.aused bcwildem1ent Jue 1'-l its 111311}' u~-s. Arh totlc
in~i.;tcll l h ~ l being, like unity, cnuld nnt be 3 pt.•nus (.\fnnpll).-.fics: 9QRh22·S;
14•1u32·64: 1003b26: 10-1;~36·1~ : book 4. ch. 1·3: book 6 ch I .-nd
Xicollutclt~,m Etltia ( 1998) : 1096al 9-29. Out t~ f this aro:sc lh~ tm:die.val
tk~Ji nc l)f tr:llll)(.'CililcntaH=-alt t\quin:~:'i li,1t.xl ··);tood" ...bcin~... "one... " true··.
"thmg." as tran.:;ccnd&::ntal tcmls applying. to C\'CI)'Ihmg and held that c,·crything
real was somehow good. bu l thr.t g,)Otl was prt-dieable in all the clltcgories su11!~
a substrutt.-c:.. quillity, rclotion. ct.,;. cuuld oil be suoU. (Fur Aqum~ un '·gll>lXI ..
tnm$Ccndcnlal. ~'C R.W. Mull i~:.tn , trJni>., /)e l'aflrl{e. 3 Vl)):-; (Chkvgv. llcnl)'
Hc~ncry. 19S1·:54. <.luc;;stitJn 2 1. Mtick: 5))'1 W. D. R(•ss. 71~ n ght muf the gr)(HI
(O>.ibrd: Clarendon. 1930), ch. 3· 7 is inslnrcti\'c to read,
16
'fhc t~ftn .;v:Jiu.;:" i$ from tll~ Llltu1 w,/cn:, me.ming "to be of wonh''.
,. G. II. ,·on. \VrigJ1t, 1'11~ J'miaie.5 ojGoadt'h.'Sof (tondon: Routledge. :md
K Ptml. I%.3) hils tl full d i scu~ion of the difl'CII.,U u:;c.s or ~O~•d . r'\lst> .:;.:~
Thnma~ ~an i on , 11'/rm We ()1, 4! m l:'tJclt Orlrrr (Cnmhndgc· H:lrnm
Uni\'\.~.S ity Ptcs.-s. 1 99~) 95 and Michll¢1 J. Zimnh.~nnM, Tin~ N(ltrlri.l of/nlrilmc
10 /ui! (l.unham: Rowmnn & Li uld i dd. 200 I) 1-2. Zimmerman di$Ugn.-c.'> with
~m lon on o1h1.'f i ~lk'S of '':aluc but :•gr..'\..":1 to lt:.l! tl11! tcnn "\!OOd". i k sUites
that both "valuablt;:" and "lo \':tine" ha,·c ba<>ic >'nd d.:.1wcd scnst.~ The two
~n:)CS oi' ··nduablc" nrc: (bosac) good nnd (dcJiv!.!d) wonhy ot' b&::illS judged
good. the two SC!lscs 4.-'f "10 \'a)uc·• (UX: : (b{1s1c) to be fa\'OI'ably disposl·d towards
und (dcfin.:d) hl j udge to be gnud. Jlc u)_st) giw..5 B dctai.J..'f.! li:>t of n:Jascd basic
and rda.\1.'\J d&::r iwd ~1ls~:s "'t<.l j udge :ts gL'lXI. b~•d Hr neulnll" and "\\(.lrthy u r
bc1ng JUdgOO good. b~d M nculr:tl...
111
Nicholas Rc.'ldll'r, 'J'opic.f m Plulmop/, c(J/ Logic ( l.)o(dJ\'X"Jn: U . R(·tJd .
1%9) J(i~ L.W. Sumner, Wdfttt't.', 1/appinl!.\'9, mtd E1hic,, (Oxford: Clon:.'ltdon.
19')6) l.J Smnn..::r pre.."'4.!nt:t nn original theuty llr \\'c lfan;, ilc Clllm..::cts \\ d rm~
cJ('SCiy with h~ppan ess or lire s~usfttcu on. ~ nd proc.:t~IXL,. to defend wdf:mm~ .
 Retwt't'll the Gfiod multht• Right 19.1

will (Ross 1930:6). In the Confucian tradition the lisl of goods \\ ould be
a1mosl the same. although certain writers do say lhat. whi1c Confu cians
reject some of the same candidates for the good life :1s arc rcjeclcd by
Aristotelians they June .. positive com:cplion of nourishing diiTcrent from
that of any major Wcstcm virtue ethics: one that emphasizes panicip:uion
in fam ilial life and in ritual acti,·ity (Van Norden in Mou 2003; lOG). For
example, Confucius expresses a prcfci'C!U;c. for acti\ i1ics charactccistK: of a
way of life vecy dirTccent from the idc<1ls espoused by any ,·c rsion of
Platonism ot Aristotelianism: a life of taking jo~· in simple pleasures " 'ilh
friends and loved ones (I I. 26). 19 In my view. pleasure. no mauer how
simple. and friendship. and love do come within Aristode 's conception of
happiness. ::1>
111 speaking of the right a.n ethical theory is discussing oc1ion
(including inaction, such as H7tWt'l in Chinese philosophy). A right action is
a permissible thing for you to do. IL mly be e ither obl ig.t~to ry or optional
(ncul""lor supcrcroxatory). An oblisatory acl is one th;u morality requires
rou to do~ it is not pcnnissible for you to rcfl"ain from doing it ~• TlH: good~
or \'lllucs. arc ccntmlto many ethical sys1cms. Some philosophers. such as
Plato nnd J. S. ~..t ill. 3ttribute a dcc1> structure to \'alucs. posting one
supreme value from which all other \'oliues arc dcrh·ativc. Others. like G. E.
Moore ru1d Da,;d Ross. nsscnt an irreducible ..plura1istu- or independent
\1duc.s. with no such deep structure obtaining. Plato. on the other hand. sees
his !'Uprcmc ,·aluc ("lhc good") as something lot:llly removed from human
life. whcrc;~.s Mill. t\·loore and Ross Yicw goodness ultimately a.s a
chamctcristic of mentnl st.olcs or or ac.tion. Th e~ nlso impute ,·aluc
dcri,·nti\'cly. and some others impute it intrinsicall), to human bcha,':i oral
traits. sn~·ing. "Human charo.ctcr and hun1o.n dispositions b:wc ,·aJuc or
\\Ollh. \\ltich belong lo them in lJ1c same- sense as redness bclong!i lo the

fk ar~uc::; thll n clfttrC is the.only basic c!hicnl nUuc. the only thing which \\C
ha v~ a nl\'lC-al r~ :1~'1'1l to l)mmot.; f\.lr ils O\\ n sah , Jn thb \\ ;l)'. his wd l~1 1 i.stn i.s
:.12.:uno,;r the t·atuc pluralism that currently dnmm:ncs mor:•l philosophy.
XidwmacfflJ(m l:ilucs, bo()k I pro,·idc$ 1l clBssic accowlt (lf lhc hmnon ~ooJ .
19
Sec nl}'nn W. Van Norden. ··Virtue Ethtcs and Confucinn ism·~ in Ao
Mou <"<~ (2(103) 106-107: Sliu~eri:on~. Edw,lfd (2003) 122-123.
:u Nic:omaclu:nn erM<:s ( 1998) 1097:,34. When discussin~ lhc cml of
~•ction ~~ hnJ)pmcss /\ t"l~Ol l c c:\flluins "self -sulric1~\1... " l3y Sl!lf-sulrlcicnt \\'\.~
do uot mc;ut lha1 \\ hich is suJi'l<:tcn1 (or o mru1 by himself. .. . liut also fo.•
pan.'J.l li, childrciJ, \\ ifc ltnd in J;t.-'llCTtll for hi~ fri~nd:.; and fellow c iti:tco.i . since
man t.s btJm for dlill.:tt$hil' ··
::• The K:mlian C.11CS")ncal impcrattvc i5 a typi~l c."X:.mple of this The
fcmnulo ((lt a cutcgoticol imtx-c-:rti\'C is simply "Du X! .. l)(., \\ hut r(·;~SIO'IJ
disclo se~ to be lhc intrinsically rig.hl lhing to do. fo r example "·Keep your
1~misc! .. Sec hnmamtcl KlH11. Fmulmll.:trUll Pt•incJpl<s qf tit.-: M.:t(lphy#cs r..if
l:.ihics, 1rnns T. K. Abbott (l.ondon: Longman. lOth (.'ihtton, 1% 5) , -J6
Jt).J .lmfon }'mr

chcrry... :z My vic'' is tJuu tJ1c rcJmjonship bch\CCO the good and the right
is this.: from the good we can dcriYc principles: these principles arc not be
~bsolutc. but prima }ilcic ~3 or ovctTidnblc. that is. thnt we <=m~ find
ourseh cs in silualions in ''hich differe nt c;onm<::ling principles app]y. We
make moml judgments by reasoning nbout ' 'hich one is riglll and should
win out in the competition of principles under the c.onditions existins on the
occasion at h<md: ahcn \\C must decide co do the morally right <Kt and must
actually do the right act. Whnt mal;:cs proplc take things to l~ ethically
\'alunble due in considcr:lblc mc3succ to thC fotm of liJC in ' ' hich people
conduct their alTairs. ct.hical theories ofien scJving to pm\'ide reasoned
justifications for such forms or life to specify the meaning or the uhimatc
good of a fonn of life. f or cx::ample. an indirect conscqucntinlist may
explain. ·· ... \\hy moral rules arc important bul not absolulc. Because
different soeiali:i'.~ui on practices m3y be ciTe<:live in different societies, it
cnn QCC.Ount for Lhe fact that rules of what is right :'U'c rdati\'C nnd
conventional. Best of 311. it cm1 show how utilit:ari:mism is the deep
stmcturc of :1ny defcns.iblc mor31it)' of dury. by reminding us that the good
is rutcr all prior 10 tJ1c right:<!-' In Confucian ,·irtuc ethics. which docs not
justi(y that disposiaion (the vir1uc) br reference to any other dcsimblc thing
thcr~by furthered, what a.lmm, a morally culth·atcd person. will do. and in
Maha~·nna vinuc ethics. what a bodhiso.ttYa is to do m.ny become a criterion
but is not an absolute. Confucian snge-lif.::c jwrzi and Mahayana
lNxllusnllm.•/pu.w among people rcspccti,·cly h:'l.vc their moml reasons
(virtue} to ::~ct i.n ;my given situ:nion mnki.ng choic.c s between the good :mel
the right. Let me consider lhc Nco-Conrucinn concept fJil(lll lirsL

!: l lhn l aird. A Stttdy of /l~alism (Cambridg~: Cnmhridb>c Uui,·crsity

Prc$S. 1920). 2il 'f11-.: d a:»ic.: t.""~bjt-'tthist \'i...·w on \ :tlucs "'"' ~;in:n by Pluto.
/({•Jm hlic, bed: 2. t~os. G. M. 1\ . Gruhc, (Camhrldgc· Hackcn 19'-JZ)·. Ci E.
tvh>I>I'C. /'rincrpirs l:.'thic-(1 (Ctunbndgc: Ctunbtrdgc UntVC1"Stty Press. 1903). ~3.~
discus.-.cs good as n simple ind.clinablc quul i t~· : the. last ~haptcr d i!>CUS...~$ what
lh iu~ nr-.: f!(I<.Xt Gcn4;:rall)". their ''k:w is th-t'1 values !IJ\: worlhy of b~in ~ dc~in.xl
\\'h~th cr or noc anynnc actually d;,.>sil\!.~ them, their \\"(lf11une~s nl' bi:mg d1.-sircd
iS- mdif"!odcn1 of us.
~ J.atm t(w "'at fi r.>1 gkmc<:.'' W. U. Ross \ISI.'.i prmld jude 10 chll.lltCtcrt7..C
the :,.1utu.'i uf a priJk:iplc \\h.id 1 prc:;crilx..'":i a duty tbat hl-5 J. pn:;sumptino in iL-;
l':t\"QJ bot 111:1) be.: t.WCnilkk, t by anolh<,:;r ;:.1Jch dllly. (n that ~ase. the lau.._,. is
one·s all·lhmgs--commlcn..'d dmy
Z·• \Vaoey Suum(·r advocmes !In iu.dit('Ct cthicc.J conscqucnti;dist lhoory.
·'The Gnod nnd Ute Rig.ht."' N~"K' E.uay11· em .John Swarl .\fill and UtilittuiOJijJm.,
cd w. g c(l('l)l.'f Cl :.11. (Crmtl(/hm.lmlf'IWI Qj'/'lllhJ:Ir.J!1IJ)1. S uppl<;{l)l!l)t~uy \'( I I 5.
19791 114.
 Retwt't'll the Gfiod multht• Right 195

QUAN AS A PRINCIPLEIL/ AND AS A VIRTUE: TOE MIDDLE

WAY OFZHU XI 'S MORAL PHILOSOPHY

lt was Confucius who first drew philosophers· attention to the

concept of quan. Qurm in the Anr1lect.1 h.u two functions: ns disposWon ~:m..d
virtue in ''the exercise of discrction/qumr- or in ''e-mploying discrction.. •5
and as tl1c J)rinciplc dccidine! the direc-tion of ac-t ions. As 'irtuc it is
exhibited in proper st:1tes or mind and in p_roper actions: ns principle it
wciyhs the e,·ent tJtc c.ircwnsw.nccs. the time and the people invohcd inn
or
siluntion. Therefore. its essence-is propriety H (the customary rules) and
yi (oughtness/obligatorincss and righteousness). Confucius correctly
strcss<:d the ad,·nnocd role of qua11 in mom! self~eulth·3t i on. and he
cmphasit..cd lhc function of cogniti\·c excellence nnd the intrinsic ,nJuc of
moral character. Mornlity os vinue is in1cmal :snd inlrinsie and must be
expressed in the- form of being good:

You C-::Ul study "ith some-one. :tnd yet not necessarily

pursue the Daoitbc Way together: you can lcnm the same
Dao/Way \\ ith someone, and not neccss:uily take your
stand with him; you can take your stand with someone but
it docs not mc:m that you c:an exercise moral
discrction'quan with him.

"One of wisdom is never in two minds" (9. 28129). It is diiJicult for

a moml ngenl to nchie\'e the vinuc of rc:.dily adnptin&., to c;hunging or dire
circumstances by employing qutm or wngtp1antlt1bit m·r, to bring about nn
ideal rc.sulL While most philosophe(S linked this saying with moral
sclf~cultiva tion, discussed in the Anal~<:ts 8. 8. 16. 3. :u1d 20. 3. fo r the
purpose of "taL: in& one's place/It' or the er.tdu:JJ steps of momJ cultivation
taught in 2. 4. I emphasize its essence of making choice between right 3lld
\HOng. lying in the mean. in unique circumstances discussed in 9. 3. and of
the relation 10 frie nds as discussed in I. 1:' and 9. 25.
Here I must cl.:arify the two different mc-:~nings of fJUan. h could be
u nuuter or expediency in dc.aling \\ ith non-motu! issues. for inslnnce. o
hunter lost in the woods :u night with no bullets lefl. ond unable to usc his
gun for sclf~dcfcnsc. builds a fire to keep u pack of woh·cs from o.lUt<:king
and killing him. He ma~· be an C\'il person. such as an escaped murderer. or
a good person. Based on his practical experiences he made the expedient
choke. We may say he wns bold. but this was not the specific cou.rage6'0n~

~ Sc~.: the note 6 nbovc ~•bQut ll~ tr~m::il~timls L)f :lnale:cu 9.29130.
~tingcrJand thm~ s discretion refers. to n kind of cosnitivc Hexibihly that allows
ou,·. (O lx11d the mlc-s u1 rc::.-ponsc to cb3.nging or unique c.~i tcuntslances.
~ Sec Bojun Ynng, LmrJ-'U,Vizlm (Dcijing: Z.honghuo. shu j u. 1980). 96.
\\here ICNJ'Iuo mlabilm i~ lkfi.tled ~·:, · ··~.·mpk1y i n~ 11Wl-:tl J ill\:retion to ~!apt lo
changing situultons. ..
196 .lmfon }'m r

Confucius ad\'ocatcd (9. 29. 14. 28). lie bas not used morol discretion 10
make his de1,:ision. unless he did all of these in order to protect ;mother
person or persons. who would han died without the hunter's protection.
nnd unless the hunter was putting himself in d;mger for the sake of the other
pcrson/s - he himself being able to lca\'C the place before tl1c wohcs could
::1pproach him. To exercise moral discre-tion the agent must exercise her
moral perception. reasoning. aud dcci sion · m3k in ~;. It is also ucccss01r)' that
the agcm is invoh·cd in de-aling witl1 others and is moth'atcd by a sense of
obli~tion/oughtness 1'i tmd good ·will only for others. In the Analea~· II . 22,
\\C obscr\'c tJ1at Confucius was asked by his disciples Zilu and Ranqiu the
s.1mc q"cstion but he ga\·c them diiTcrcnt answers so as to make a
distinction bctw~n -cxccssin caution" and ··recklessness or impctuositv"
in his moral tenching.:n That illustrates a state of Confucius· chamcicr
concerned with choice. lying in 3 menn. In the D(>t:Trme of the Mean
Confucius lllUllyztd the tno reASOnS w hy the doo is not pursued nncJ
understood: lirst. one cun miss the point of the mcOln by &Oing beyond it or
not coming to i t~ and, secondly, "Ther~ is no one who docs 1101 C:lt and
drink, but tJ1crc are few who c:m rc..'\JI)r know tJtc fl.:war:·=• this means tJtat
quem or moral discretion is the unit~· of <111 vi11ucs Confucius ad\'()Catcd.
especially :hi/wisdom (cognilivc) and y i/ righteousncss or
oughtncssiobligatoriness expressed ns a.O.Cctivc as wcU as cogoiti\·c
responses. :9 and in a sysh,;matic structure of mean/the Middle Wny and
10
wuwei, Only ir one L:nows well all the ,·inucs :md JXlSScsscs them. and
the moral princ.iplcs derived from and pcrfcr;ted with the ,·irtues. C3Jl one
apply tJuOn!moral discretion for ethical issues as skill full) and accuratcl~· as
a food connois!.Cur can apprecimc and distinguish the full O.: h'Or of food.
The accumulo:tion of Lhc knowledge :wd lhe cultivmion of the ' 'irlues tiii..C a
long time '' hilc the I'Cquisite affect. JlCrccption. reasoning. decision-making.
and action·t~ki ng may take only less t11an a second. There arc no absolutely
fLxcd rules to follow. Qu.an is impossible without tUlificd \'irtucs
intern3lit..ed in one's character as the dri\'ing moti\ation for proper nction. It
is :~ pity th:~.t in studies of the Analt!Cls. quan has not been rccognh·.cd as the
lUiily of the: cxccllcnccs of the ,·inucs and has not enjoyed the rcput;ation
that SillII Clllptlthy hilS Cl~j O)'¢d ,
We can sec ah:u tJuCm in the Ana/ecu, in f~t. is closely linked 10
sclf·rcflection/si. which bkC$ yi/oughbt<.-ss/obligatoriltcss as the object of
moral discretion and shows the afrecti\'C force and cognitive force of mental

z· Slingcd;utd (2003) 119·120. C\)Uipatc u~o Xi:UI and llu~utg Gan \\'ttll
latc.r cm;•mcnluri~:;.
Z1 ZhQll!t)tJll!l. 4 \V, T . Ch:m. ( 1%3) 9'). l.~~!tc. (199 1) ' ol. 1 : ;iS7.
~> This cnn be fo und m the Aflllh•cr$ 2:17. 5·7. 6:22·23. 14:14. 14:18. 15;
& 15:33, 4:10. ~ · 1 6. 5:16, 5:1g. 17:23, 19: I.
Jo) .-'\nnlcct.-; 2:4, 14: 13 and most d1scus ston~ of the ."lnah:cu Dnok 10.

Rcg.~11ding :1/m. sc~ Oanid G:~rdncr. Zlm .\'r ';,· Ret•dr'11g •!f lit(' An(IIJtcl:i (N'ew
York· C<"tmbridg,e Univcrsuy Press, 2003). Ch 2. 1);2-l. 5·12. (dO ::md 4:15
 Retwt't'll the Gfiod multht• Right 197

ncti\•itics joimly pro\'iding moth'otion for action. for example. -on seeing a
chanc·c to prolit they think of appropriate conduclfyi. on socing d;mgcr they
nrc ready to gi\·e thdr lit-es" ( 14.12): - in the sight of gain they think about
appropriate conduce" (16.10): and ·'thoSC ,ilm:f"moraJly culthatcd scholnrs
c.rc quite ncccpt:'lble \\ hO on seeing danger arc ··c.ady to put their li\'CS on the
line, who on seeing an opportunity for gain concern thems-elves with what
is rcquirt:d by dut)'!)'i"' (19. I) These early discussions rclarcd 10 quan
provide a background for the Nco-Confucian dcrelopmcnt of qunn. We will
sec btcr thlll lhu Xi mo.kcs yi as a condirion or the npplication or (JIItm
\\hen one makes choices among different Hl.lucs.
Mcncius notes the i mpor~n cc of qmm as moral discrclion and
agrees with Confucius about the difficulties of the npplication of qu{m. He
iJlustratcd the dilfcrcncc among the \'irtucs \\ ilhin a cultivated moral agent.
and the knowledge or mornl l'ulcs poss-.:sscd by an ordinary person who
knt)wS the moral rules. but cannot bkc proper ru:::-tion when needed: .. A
corpcnlcr or a c3n'ill&c ...nnker Pill)' s,hc a m;tn his C<.Hilp3SS or T·S((U3rc. but
he cannot mlke another skillful in the usc of them.- (76. 5) Mcncius
cmplo)red dtc <JUan concept 10 propose a middle way for moral
deCiSiOn•making between the ''right" (obsCrV<UICe Of the CUstOmary
ntlc/ritc/11) and the wrong (~ A . 17). 1r a man were to be in such :1 d ire
si1uation ns thai of confronting ··., drowning sistcr·in·lnw" and were co
adhere (O the rite or to social rules, then he would have to watch someone
die without lining a finger, The decision to onrridc the rule, by exlc-nding :t
h:md to 5ave the drowni.ng sistcr·i.n-lnw. is a moral decision founded upon a
b.1Sic humanist prino;iplc. n:~r/1xnc,·olcnce ond yifoug.htncss, Mcncius called
this way of 111t)tal de-cision-making "cmployins one ·s morol discretion
(l'uan:hi )'il'lwu zh.:. (jiUmye)"'. l l f;'irsL Mcncius cla.rtficd \\ h.-.t kind or
person 3 moml agent is. He l'Cg3nk-d the man "ho would refuse to extend a
helping h3nd in this situation as 3 beast This reve3ls tltc intrinsic \'lluc of
inner character in Confucirutism. Second. we sec mor~ l rules. standards and
principles assigned diO'crent degrees of vnlid it~· here. Qr1tm here seems 10
be :~. mnucr of committing a minor ··offence" of ;mg (customary rite) in
order to obey the higher (nm :md p) or highest morn I principle (dno) . The
ugcnt takes a certain action. applyin.s qutm not bccnusc the COO\Cntional
St:tndard guides him or her to do so, but bec3u!iC the intrinsic \aluc of virtue
makes the ugcnt aspire to become a ccrtoi.n kind of person. This is often
gi\'cn. though it docs not demand, a conscqucnti3list interpretation. In a11y
case. the exercise of qulm here is the agent's crcnti\'C moral choice, which
sbO\\S his or he1 spirilual side. Not C\'Cryonc could manifest t1lc same spirit
in the sa.mc situation to defend what;,,. in occurdam..·.: w11l1 <l<w. Thirdly. the
urgency of the situation here has bc<.:om.: o condition for employing qmm

1
.~ Som(: tnutsialed qmm in tllC AnaiCCIS 9·29/30 tuld the M(·1tcius 4/\:17
as '·the ~-xpcd icnt," which cmpho.sizcs the quun tl~ mcnns ra.lh<..T thnn n unit<..xl
vi rtue <,f afl4.~li\ c ami Cl.)ttnitiv~.:- c:xcdkn~c \W ,!iSJ)OSilivn/ch:.rllct.::r, Sec C. T,
WCl, IR Wmg•ISi! Ch~n. ( 1986) , 255·272,
I 98 .Imfo11 }'m r

rutd provides the be-st test of a person's stntc of character. It rc\'caJs lh~:
limilalions of gc:nc:n'll. regular mor:1l rules. and il demands lhc exercise of
mornl discretion, (}lfl'l11, in dealing with the changing or uncxpcc:tcd
situntions. Fourthly. in fa~t (/rt(1fl here is a process ofuni~,· ing the nffcctin;
force produced by tht.! senses and cog.niti,·e force produced by lhe cogniti\'C
cop.:acitics of o person to seck the un i fic;~tion of rcn/bcncvolcncc.
yi/oushtnc:-ssfobligatorinc.ss. om/ zhlif" i:sdorn in ;~ sitll43tion. h r<.:-\'c<~ls the
agCflt's charac1er, the principle of action and the choice runong \rtlues.
In c-ontrast to Mcncius' o.rgu:tbly vin·uc·bascd model, the Gong,_wmg
lluwn found :m explicit con!'cquenti.aiL'it dircc.tion in the-(Juan. ''What does
2
IJIUin mean'! It means to dc,ri:Hc from the staodardpng with good results". ~
Zb~o Qi (c:a. 20J CE) judg.cd 1he-qulm by the "goodness" of the pcn.njssiblc
nction: "The lJtum is that whi-ch is a.t Htriancc with Lite standard{/ilrg but is
Slill good". " The Han philosopher Dong Zhongshu ( I 7<i-l !14 BCE) Sludied
thi~ interesting mornl concept :~.nd snid, "Although the quanllhe expedient i~
cu \Uriancc \\itJ1 l.hc stand:ud. it nUJSI be \\ithin the scope of' \\hUt can be
::tllowed ... The expedient is a t:tetful me:1surc. It would be beuer if we
could return to the grc:u stondard{iing. "' 3'1 Two points ha,·e been mndc:
Qmm is rcg<trdcd os being based o n an accumulation of knowledge and o r
moral and intellectual capacity on 1hc pan of the agcm; and it is a -tactful
mcastU'c.'· which - must be within lhc scope of what c.-1n be nllowcd ... The
idea that it \\OUid be .. better if it were possible to return to the gre-at
standard" suggests th:H qunn can trunssrcss some rules such as cuslomary
rites but perhaps not the great princ-iplcljing. T he great pri.nciplcqmg
j ustifies qmrn n"tions. n1though (/Utm m:tions hO\'C challenged the existing.
(customary) s-t.:mdards.{Jing or ~ lsc minor moral pr~·ep t s or rulc!o.. Here j mg
could be pre\ailing social sundords o.nd could be established principles or
ron andJ'i. Su~h a rule·bascd ntmroach has some problem$: I t disrcg::~rds the
agent's m oth·ation~ it sounds as though anyone who acts nccording to the
rules is commcndnble regardless of "1mt th:u nc.tion mc:Jns to the actor. but
to us a \Hongly motivated action no longer seems appropriate: it is the
conduct or an agent lncking good charactcrt attending only to :JCLions.
consequenc-e mny well lend us. sooner or l01tcr. give npprovtllto such agents.
ignor-ing their spititu31 aspirations. Cnlling on1)' for right action without
rcg3rd 10 :my considcrntions of ch!lfactcr building may also neglec1 the
relation between the agent and the p<."'plc in the c-ommw1ity if the agent
d ocs not yet know how to be. \'irtuous. This action rufc.·b:~sed appro:~ch to

s:. Congyt111g <Jo(,, Clnmqm Gcmgpmg:llll(l. in ShiswUutg Zhushu.

Ct>!lll.ncntwy by ! lc Xiu (I lw1) uoJ Xu Yan. {Taog). (DcijiJ)g ~ Zh<.mghu.:t. 19MO)
··T ile Ekvcnllt \ c;~r of Duke l luun..··
~~ Zha(l Q,,,\ h:n:l Zlnr Lomlfntmm,, on tho: /Jilok (~{Mc>t'ldll$ l0 ShiS:mJing
Lh\ISlhll (fkijmg: Zhon~hua. 1996).
.}.i i)<lng Zhonf!shu, Clumqiufanlu, cd. Y. \\i. Wong (Qm~ding
SiJ.:~h.(Uunt'J lu Zhcnl'ldl Bicji. 1975). et'mmcntary b~· Song Kunng. cl ~tJ .
(Z.h(lng((UoZixue Mmsz.Jm.tichcng 13i;Jny•hui, 1978). J·..s.
 Retwt't'll the Gfiod multht• Right 199

qmm shows some simil:uit~· to W. D. Ross's prinw /{ICi(~ mtd

all·thingx·comitleretl duties and 10 th e utilitarianism of J. S. Mill . \\hich
enlls for weig.hing up posi1h·c nnd ncg::nivc consequences of possible
m:tions in order to dcddc. in fight of the higher end f\'lilf fnvors. whether 10
do them or not»
There wos o debate among Neo Confucian sc-holars 3bout the
4

<.loctrint put forwal'd by Cheng Yi J!o thai " t1tc e-xpedie-n t qtUJII is the same
ns the standard, .111115' :1nd the teaching of Han philosophers thai they arc
different ..th3t which is at ''ariancc \\•jtJ, the st3ndard and complies with the
W:ty ii the expedient. .. 31 This debate ad,·:tnec:d the dc\'clopmcnt o f
Confucian moral philosophy rcg:trding mor::~l character. moral principle.
31\d mor011ity as a whole.
Cheng Yi' s position is tltal "the Han scholars considered being at
\'ariancc with jmg (the stand:.'lrd) nnd in compliance with D t lt) (the Way) 10
be the expedient, quan. Hence, they talked nbout expedient v::ui:llions tlncl
lac tics. \\ hich arc. nll fnlsc. The quan (the vinue of mom I discretion nnd the
co.rrc~pon~~ng .•giinciplel sh o~Jd lx:- the .s:unl! as ~he moral standard .or
pnneaplc'Jmg. He 3l'gued ..m confronuns tl ecruuu e,·cnt, one deals w1th
it by assessing it in Oftlcr to have it comply with .vi/righteousne-ss. This is
called exercising moml discretion [rather than the cxpcdientj. How could it
be eontrnry to Daolr'the Way?" (Cuiynn: 1:6a.). He linked inner goodn ess,
righteousness and the ct11it::o--mctaphysical principle. the Way/Dew. in a
manner compatible with lhc s1ructurc of his philosc)phy . He cmphash·cd the
inlri.nsic value of r:nornlity and the virtue of the ;~.gent whe11 ;~.pplying qubn,
"hk:h in\'oh es a rectdincss to tomply with y i und is the same thing as
()taCticin£ the Oao. Chen Yi must h.:'t\c belic,·cd that - the flying of the
lum·k, the leaping of fish. o.nd the feeling th:tt one n\ust aJw::ays be doins
somcthirtg arc: ::~llli,•cly and dynrunic in the same way ... ~~~
Zhu Xi's approach to tl1is debate is th.rough a middle wny and
hence he dc,'Cloped a type of pluralist <:thics. which we should interpret in
the spiril that dcontie/nclion· bascd and arcticf\'ittue·bascd models arc ~•ch

lS J<lltn Stuart MiiJ. Collut~·d W(lrb of J. S..\/ill, cd. J. M. Ro bson

(l\wonlo; Onhrcrsily oJfToronlo £'1'\!s~. 196')) I0 ..!2·1·22Ci.
M Ch~;ng, H~l\1, Rr· C/l(>ng Quonihu SPPY ~;:cJlliOn (Beij ing: Z.bong.hlUI.,
198 1). 1:63.
.\' Z.hu Xi. "Luyujizhu"' in 1./m:i Y,Jer (Li Jingdc 1270 r.mJ CIH.1l£huab<.-n
I..J73 t..-dition. u:pri.nh:d 19(;1()) 37: 1('>-42 .
.~~ Quoh.:\1m 7.hu .~i. '·Lunyu Jizhu" or the r\rmh..:\!ts 9;29iJ.O in Zlual fuel
,H · I647 .
•"1 W::tug Y«ngmmp. butnrc·tiom .for Pr·c1climl Ln·i11g mid Other
Sec>-CcJI!(ucitm fl'r·itiugs'Cimanrilu. Trans., Wing-tsit ChW1, {New Yurk
C<..1 lurnbi:.t Unjvl.!rsity Pr~ss. 1%3) 33 L Sec iil$(.t the l)ook ofSong:J. nv. 239 and
lhc .\I~·neil,$ 2A:2
200 .lmfon }'m r

necessary for an adequate and complete Nco..Confucion ethics. in which

,·inucs and principles both may hti\'C intrinsic ,·aluc.'")
AI first glance, Zhu Xi's arsumcnt to eliminate the contradiction
bctwocn the h\O views is rule/action-based. for the nc:tion-guiding principle
is 1he cs:se-ncc of morality; virtues are dcrh·cd from 111c principles :md urc
inslrumcnul in performing right actions. He defines the principles jing ::mel
quem wilh respect to the competition of rules in a chan ~cd situation: "'TI•c
standardf/hrg is the constant principle and the cxpcdicm/qunn is the varying
principle \\hen the constant principle \\' ill not '''o rk and there is no other
choice."' (Zium fulei 37: 1642) When the consLanl principle cannol be
pmcticed and the situation Jeans no ahcmath"C. 1hcre is a need to Corm a
new :action-guiding principle (qum1) to dcod with the si1u.1tiou. First.
according to his analysis. ··to change.. amounts to what the Han scholars
c:.lled "to vary({tm, ntlmtly. 10 be :u \3riante wilh the standard/quan··
(Zhu:i Yule/, 37: 1647). Therefore IJuan is di.ITcrcnt from the stmcbrdjiug.
S<."Condly. he snys & hat. ahhough 1hc j lrtg and the qmm arc dim:rcnl. the
qunn thai \::t.ries is not necessarily scp::tr:tte from the st:'lndard. (Zimzl r utcl :
37: 1642) The n/J-r!Jings-considcrod decision"' has Ulkcn into ttccowlt the
conswnt mlc, which il 0\1Crrides. in order to ensure right action. lltirdly. he
s.1ys. -complying \\ith 1hc e~pcdicntlqunn means that the standard is found
in it:"' (Zhmci Yulci 1642: 1639) He mndc} ing and quro, two s ides or one
coin: qmm is not the standard(,iing and the stnndard.(iing is not (}mm: at the
s:lmc lime the standard is within IJuan and t}lltm is l\ithin the standard. This
i:i what the Middle \Vay meant in relating quan andp'ng. But we still need
to look at Zhu Xi's \\a). in dc:lling with the standard and the-\Vayltk1V.
Us-ing 1hc rule-based side of his model, Zhu Xi imcrpretcd the
relation between the standard{;mg :~nd the Wayldau. In his viC\\, "being at
\':triancc with the Jmx and in t.:OillJlliauce- with the D:toi\Vay to be the
cxpcdicntlquan," means th:tt the qr~crn. thoug.h nt \-.uiancc with the
low-le,·cl standard. is yet in eomplinncc with the ultim:ttc staudard. the
Way/Duo (Zimzi Y,dei 37:l6~7). So. quan lies within the standard and the
Way. balancing the (ultim:Jtc) right and the (lempor;~ ry wrong) l~ding 10
(ultimate) good. This is similar to whou we discuss-ed in Mcncius' appro01.ch.
Cheng Yi. ns we disc-ussed abo\'C, bcliC\Cd d1at the stand.:lrd is something
identical to 1he W:'l)'· Zhu Xi thinL:s .. lhc Dtm is an integr:ned entity \\ hich
pcnc.tratcs thcj mg and the qttUJr."l (Zlud }l,}ci 163M) Therefore. lhc Dtw is
realized in the}mg as wc11 as in the f{IWII. 1l1is is compatible with Zhu Xi's
rnornl-me.tllphysic:JI principle. IJ. Zhu Xi's ethics is b:l.SC'd on his key
eonc<:pts of li. qi and uriJi. He s3id. "The grca1 ultim:ttcnll!/i is simply lhe
pri11ciple//i oftJ1e highest good/\'irtuc. Each and C\Cry p-:rson has in him the

n Consult Louden , H(lbcrt, "Some V1C1! o f V1rt\11! Ethics" A11"•ricmr

l'hilo.'wpluC'al QuatC'd)l 1984·2 I: TriaO(•slq. Gte~OI}' . " Viteuc. A<:lion iu~ d lhc
Good Life: J\ 'llloory o f Virtue.'>.,. PacificJounwl ofPililru·opi{V. 1988.
111 R\.'CttJI Rus:fs th<..o;) ncs on prirk:ipk.'S ~md Juti..::s ~•ta•1in. Sec W 0 . Ross.
193()· 3·7.
 Retwt't'll the Gfiod multht• Right 201

grc:u uhimatc and each and C\'CI)' thing in it the great uhimatc'" (lhuzi fu/ei
49; l ib). An c~pcdicnt action qurm msy infringe the c~istcnt moral rules
~nd standards or even principles to the poim of serious offence in cenain
ciKumslanccs. it mny be at \n.rinncc with them but must be in complinncc
with the ''highest good·· of the ultimate II. the 111ljl . TI1e ultimate moral
principlc/li and the metaphysical blwiji in Zhu Xi's philoSQphy ore idcnticak
they ilfC- the Hca\·cnly Way or Hca\·c nly PrinciJ)lt as well as being virtues
and moral principh!s or humanity, righteousness, propriety. wisdom :md
faithfulness in the Nco.Conrucilln mortlli-,.cd metaphysics. 41 f or this reason
f ca ll li n twofold principle. One aspect of it is mor:JI and the other
metaph~·sical. From li dcrh·c s the internalized \'irtucs (all'ccth·c and
cog.nhh ·c) :md the extemalizcd moral principles of ac-tions. Metaphysical
principles are imcmalizcd '' ithin a person as the foundational moral
attributes or virtues. :n the same time fl provides the foundational moral
principle-s...The origin t.)f the IJao is trnccd to Heaven 3nd is um::h:m&ocable.
"hile ils t:oncretc substance is complete in ourseh·cs aod fM)' not be
departed from ... (Zhu's remark on Zhongrong 1).
As illusllated bclo\\, on the one hand. LVlfl[ii with the OJX:r:ltion of
the /)ao gi\'es rise to fourltlational mor~l virtues. from which specific
instances of each ,·irtue, su<ih as yi/tightcousncss. arc dcrh·cd. these can be
attributes of n person who mny do a right oction (the right) with good
consequences (the good) ·- the agent must be \'inuous and the result should
be naturally good. On the other hand. l.i '"Jiujt with the operation of the tRw
gives rise Co found3tion:tl mor;rl principles. from wbich dcriYc specific
instnnc;cs or cnch principle. such as tlral of moml discrc;tion.
Nn/bcnc\·o lcnee. yiirig,hteousncss, It/propriety. and zhl/wisdom, which cnn
direct an agent to act right!~· \\•ith good consequence - the action must be
right and the rc:>ult should be n:tturally good. In Zhu Xi's J)luralist mofold
principle elhic;al system, /i is possessed by both hcm·cn and the human.
Hca,·c;u's wa_y,dtJo is the nltuml aud monll wny/doo of hmmmldnd. Tbat is
Zhu Xi's tlatJtonx. There-fore, the lkKJ, in Zhu Xi's \"icw. '·penetrates the
standard and the expedient"': th:lt is why Zhu Xi 's arguments arc sometimes
rule-b.Jscd. somctim;s virtut·bnscd.-'J Yi (righteousness) DS nfl'cc:th ·c :.s
"ell ns cognitive capacities of n p.:cson. and at the same time a principle of
:.ction occupies a central position in the applic-:.tion of qtum. Vi guides
hwmm actions as heavenly wny/rcawn'li tu1d fOllows and scn·cs hcaYcn us
the human \\!ly/reason//1.

~: Zhou Dunyl. rayuu SJuw!J.In Hxp fmK'I/1("' ~fth(! })itrgr(UII (if the Grt.•ttl
U/umotc• 111 Cha n 1963: 463 .
.u ThL'> i5 somd10w, 5imilar to what William K Frnnl.:cn:. dixu.-;scd in
·'TLk! Ethics ~.lf l.un.: (;:oncciwtl as ;m Ethi~ of Vi11uc" in J<)l(r'Jt(t/ tJ/ R.:ligtous
l:.ihic..r.· I (fall 197J).
202 .lmfon }'m r

Principle Li- 7ltfji1Dao

Found;~tion.nl
Principle
/+~
tvloral Vinucs l Foundational Moral

! !
Specific Vinuc -----<~ Yi +----- Specific Principle
•
! 'l
The Right (Moml Action)

The Good (Non·mor:tl Yo lues)

Zhu Xi's Pluralist Twofold Morai-Mcumhysical Pt incinlc Ethical Svstcm

Rc\·ic" ing Cheng Yi 01nd Zhu Xi on the srandutdlj'i11g and the

c~pt.'dient1qmm , We-i Zhcngtong thinks that they h:h·e the snmc
w\dcrstaoding of the tlao: -Cheng Yi bclic\'cd tlmt the Way is the
unh·ersally V:llid princiJ>Ic: he considered all tl1e doctrines of cl1angcs and
\iu iation 10 be false: · ( Wd, 258) He also claims ··confusion in the usc of
tenns·· to explain the diJJ'ercncc between Cheng.. Zhu nud the Hnu scholars.
(Wei. 259) Tvty question is: Wh) did Cheng Vi -consider all the doctrines of
changes and v:tri::nion to be false''. if he rc:~lly understood the dextrine of
the Way/Dao. cspc:c·i<llly its opcrt:~tion·~ Why is it that ·-·their propositions
shared t11c same basis ~nd ns such "e see Zhu Xi on the one hnnd ctiticizc
Cheng Yi, and yet on the other repe:llcdly defend him'" ? ( We i, 2 56) In m)'
\'icw, Cheng Yi is discu~sing the dtw in its most essential (omt. As I
mentioned abo\'c , CIH:ng Yi had a virtuc·bascd ethics in mind, which put<;
the Yinues in the dominn.nt position and assigns the \'lrtucs intrinsic value.
Moral principles or duties arc derived fl'om 'inuc to guide right action. for
him both the tkKJ and the standard[J;ng are rc~li1.cd in the inner goodness of
the <:uhinucd :~sent. A \ 'in1JC such us sincerity or rightcousncssJoughtncss.
is the roo1 of moral principles in practice (the quanfmoral d isc retion as n
inner quality is dcri\'ed from the dt10 and complying with the dtiO ). How
could the same essence of ,~in u e ma~c the srnndnrd(jing oomcthing scp:~ratl!
from the J a(J'! l.n co~:~trasl to Cheng Yi, Zbu Xi wus tryi_og to approo.ch qtum
 Retwt't'll the Gfiod multht• Right 20.1

as a moral principle prcseribing action. How could Zhu Xi not criticiLc

Cheng Vi sometimes?
When i1 comes to the npplication of qu<m, the Yinuc·bascd side of
Zhu Xi's model is rathe-r instn1cthc. Zhu Xi \Hlms people not to '\1sc the
C:\:J>'."dicnlfqutm for scJf.rationali?.ation.. (jietJlltril yi :l.fhi) in the lfwtl ti1l ei
(1960; 37;1637). This k&ys down mor;al ,·irtuc ::.s the foundation of the
principles guiding an agent in the applicution of tJttWI so as to a\'oid scllish
desire and include consideration for others :tnd for the community in quan
moral discretion. To sccute the moral character of tbc agent. tu1d to ensure
that the agent will do the ri~ht and to bring about the good. he strouglr
cmphasi1..cd bl'mg good. He regarded only a sage as able :tpply the quan
(1 960 37:1634: 1638). He interpreted Confucius intention and concluded
th:u Confutius "'docs not allow ordinary people to usc the cxpcdicntlttufm"
(1960 37; 1640). But he shows that Confucius gin~s serious consider:.11ion
to the purity of virtues and the motivo.tlon of the agent in moral discretion
(tflltm). "Manif~ tintt a clein c.llamccer. Iovin& the people nncl :Jbid.ing in the
higl1cst good- (lJnxue I) is the end of the Confucian forn\ of life and is how
people ought to be. The rules and priltciples of moml sclf-cuJth·otion arc
only the mcons while \"irtue is dominant here 3nd h3S intrinsic \'aluc as the
end. Qunn in this case is the vinuc of mornl discretion. This :1pproach
:\voids some problems or ndc·bascd ethics where n vinuc. such as
autonomy. has onl~ instrumental \'aluc: these theories lack 3 moti,ational
c.omponcnt. a point which Mill critki:r.cd :md on which later philosophers
agreed with him ; such theories reduced all moral judgments to judgments
about n.<:tions nnd ncglcx:lcd the spiritual <ru.al i t~' of sclf-rcS]XX:t and the
aspimtiOCl to be a ccrtnin kind of pe-rson. 44
Fro1n foundational vinucs. Zhu Xi selected two specific 'lrtues as
Jll'inciplcs for applying qmm: yirrightcousness and zlk"NJg/cquilib1i um or
/.';hfzh<mg 1i mcly equilibrium. The application of quan. ..must by ncC<"ssily
comply with righteousness."' (1960 37: 1638) As the method of discretion.
·"being nblc 10 adopt the expedient"' refers to "'\\hen one is in an unexpected
situation and knows the 3ppropriatc mc:tsurc." (lhuzt ruler 37:1633)
Rig.htc:ousnc:ss. :JS :m inner virluc. nod action guiding principle. C-tln help one
''ho employs the qutm gr3Sp lhe DPJ'ropriate mcaSufC and act in u cimely
fashion in 1hc Middle Wa~· . Zhu Xi thoug.ht: "One mustu~ righteousness to
usscs.s situations. and to exercise moral discretion is to weigh something
with this vel')' scale. Equilibriunl occurs \\hen the thing altains 3 baiMcc.-
(Zhlt:l Yu!C>i 37: 1633) Zhu Xj cmphllSizcd, ~The. exercise of moral
discretion is a rnaucr of timely equilibrium. \\ithout equilibrium one will
ha,'c no way to usc the lJIIOn" (37:1637). hO\\C\'Cf. "'lclquilibrinm/zlumg is

u M1ll 197J· Sinul3r cnt•cism or rule-based ethics c:tn be found in

Philippa root's, l'iriii~J ond r·tet'S ond 01/J('t• J!ssay.v ilt Mom/ l'lli(o:mplry
(Oxford: l)lod:wdl, 1978). 112. Anscombc. E. <·Modem Morol Philosoph)'' in
l'h/Jw yp/ty 19;8:33. ;\1~$\bur C. M~clut~ 1\:, Aft~''' r'mu~: ,·l Study m lll(~ri.ll
T/J(:ory ( London; I)Ucl;:wonh . 1981) . ct<.~
20.J .lmfon }'m r

without fi:<ed form. ) ct il c.xisLS in :JII different temporal situations.

(Zhongrvng llumg111 2) Zhu Xi considered thnt t)ntm is the "zhCJng of one
particul.nr insum( (37: 16.37). It is ··provisional and nol constant." (37:1640)
Zhu Xi furtlu::r c-larified equilibrium as •·Jiving" and "dead"'. lfc put Zimo's
manner of grasping the middle point as equilibrium in the "dcnd"
category, .;$ ~\'hilc taking a right :~c.tion in :.1 timely f:1shion with good
intcntiollS nnd mak in ~t things •·cac.h a baktncl! in a dire situation hs a ''li\·in:f
equilibrium. To think rcdu etivcly~ qiUm. with the qualilies of righteousness
and equilibrium itself bceo.mc :1 specific. principle for exercising moral
discretion. 01 course in the same way momI discretionhJitcu: is a vi1t uc of
persons. Zhu Xi built a pluralist system for Nco ~Confuci>1 n moral
philosophy in a middle way.
Criticisms of vinue-basc:d ethics are mM}: for c:oooamplc. one of
them is. ho'' could we kno'' hO\\ good and pure the charocter of an :agcn1is.
say n s.age like .JW~i or even Yan Hui, one: who still possessed some
dispositions of his O\\n but is not as pure ns Confucius who " ns "ithout
any hlHnan disposition and \\3S with He.:'l\'cn ttnd Earth?'6 Is Mahayana
upil)·a similar to quan and applied in M<l.h5.y5.nn ethics in the sante W3Y as
quem is applied in Neo-Confuci"'n e thics'! Docs it follow tl1e s:unc principle
when h comes to dire circumSlanccs where killing is involved'! What is the
function of virtue;! Is it comp.atiblc with the Twofold Tnlth and the {\'Liddle
Way? Before I touch on these questions, I wam 10 put the issues in the
context of contempor..1ry criticism of Mahayana Buddhist e thi c~ and the
responses from BuddJtis.t philosophers in recent decades.

t\IAHA YANA U HICS: CRITICISM AND RES PO NSE

TI1c criticism of Mahayana ethics ad,·anccd by contemporary

Confucians CO\'Crs four points. first. Ma.luly5na Buddhists :aim to learn n
lesson from the dmllcncc of Nco-Confuci;mis:m nnd cngJgc in a n(X;essary
and urgent inquiry intO 1hc mom! dimens ion t.)f their own tradition by
shifting their tmdition::d emphasis on trnn.scendcntallruth to;:, new emphasis
(m worldly tcuth in connt.-ction with C\'Cr') day soc.io-moml practic.e.
Secondly. the)' are l!ncouro.ged to reach tt pelfetl undcrsunding of the
principle of the l\•Jiddlc Way. as well as of the rc:U mciUJing of the Twofold
Truth in M'ahiiy5na Buddhism. Thirdl~·. they :u-e told to treal morality as the
ullimale go:al rather lhan a means. discipline, or prerequisite for reaching
the ultimate gooJ. 3nd to plncc cqu31 emphasis on momlity/.fi/d. on wisdom/
PN!irlc'l and on medit3tion/t//ryc11Ja. Fourthly. they should build a ne'" ethical
system. putting new moral clements into the nncicnt ethics of

Zhu Xr and Poxmg Zhang, .hm·Uu .fiji~· (Shanghar Sh~ngwu , 1935) :

10

1:16 a-b: " ZhuziW('I\Ji" ul CJw:idaquo11 (B(·1jing: Zhonghtlil 2002) 5~: 15lY.
Zhu:i fuld. 1960: 1447-1-148.
4S Zhu Xi :md Ltl Zmtiilll. R~:,f/(.CIIort tJII 1'/rlngs <H !land (New Yolk'
Columbia tlnin.!rsity, 1% 7) 13:14.
 Retwt't'll the Gfiod multht• Right 20J

karwulfunhcrs:ll compassion in order to wcklc most if r1ot all. human :~nd

sccul:\r problems which they encounter in dail~· lifc-."7
An :.ttempt is mndc here to clarify the responses from Buddhist
moralists to the above critidsms. though the re-sponses thc-msckcs were by
no means alwal s addressed to pJnicular auac.ks. This has been a common
tendency of Buddhist $Chol:us fro m both the East nnd the West. It is
convincingly evident t11at during the past SC."\'Ctal dc.cadcs alrn():')t all
Buddtlist scholars h3rc consciously nnd \'igorously inquired imo the moral
dimension of t11cir phHosophy without ob.'Uldoning Lhcir tltlditiona:l
emphasis on u·ansccndcntal truth. c.\ tn \\hen their m:tin iUicrcst is not
necessarily in ethics or mom I philosophy. J~ Some of them intcqnctcd
mo.rality/.Si/d in Mabiiyfula Buddhism as al) ultimate goal as well as a
preliminary condition for tile practice of med itation and acquisilion of

.,. Ch~crl~ Wci-hsun Fu. ''MOr'illity M D~omJ · lhc Nct..Cl,nl'uci;cn

('-t)nfn)nlahon w1th Ml\hllrl'i.oa 1~\Jddhism :· Pbllt>~J.()plry Eost (md lfrs t 23· 3
(1973) 375·3!.16: S...-c olso Fu. ut Will?•l!lit Cb:ln. Clm J/si tmtl
St•(,..Cmifucitmi.sm (J Jonolulu: University of I Jawn.ii Prc~s. 19&6)402 tOr fw1h<:f
c -.;pJonuion or lhe four tiSJ'I.'Ct..;,
"' I want \ 'Cf)' hndly list some r-t' them: R. M fimss. F'entinm rr nm l
Ucltgh:m (Uoston: UcACon. 1 9~>6), JJmltllmm il/tcr l't~tnm'f:ll)' {New Yo•k· Stol~
Uni\'Cr!iity of New York Pn:ss, 1993); Sk,fu:n 1:. Tci~. 11u Cltust Ft•stit'al
(P1 in C!!tt~n: Priucctou Uni, crsity r•r~.";>;:., 198>1). 1'/~c: Scriptm~ tnt the 1'r:n K ingJ'
(Honolulu· tlm \ C.'&"SII~' or H:nv:ui Press, 1994); D .1 K:~ lup~ban:t , IJuddhlu
l'l:ilt)$0plry (llonohalu: Uni\'lYS:ity ot" ll ~w:l i i . I 976). 1'1H.t /'mr<:tpfql t?( Buddlu'.tt
Psychology (New Yo rk: St~lc: Univcr:-;ity of Nt.·w York Pr~. 1987), A JliJIOt)'
tl Duddlns t PldlowtlltJ' (11\l«JOlulu· Univc18ity Pre~'{ of 11:1\\ :,ii. 1 992) ~ M.
S1dcril:i. Hmpl)' /\?r,vQUJ (H :unp ~hirc: A~hgJc l e, 2003). J. l... O:lrlicld. Empty
H't.>rds (O:·:f(lrd Univ.:n;ity Pre~.. 2002}; Diana Y Paul, Wom('n "' /Jtufdlll.wt
(U~cb:le~·: Uni 1.·~ t~it}' of C:dlfomio. f'r<:ss.. I')~5 ): P. E. Ka~~ll.ky . 11~<~ J:',gnn·t·d
Oesi)!ll (m the Lat~! Sixtlt C,•uttu~' Sarcophaxus ofLi 1/o (l..urieh : Artibus A !ii .:~c .
1986}. J?m·ly IJmidhJJ/ N(lrl'll llw: At•t (Lunba•n. Ur))n:r:iily J>rcs$ of t\m~ric·:t,
2lXlO}, Chhu•s•1 Bttdrlltiu :lrt (Oxfhrd Unin:r::;ity Pre!'~. 2002); Reginald /\ Hay.
Se(.'rt.'l of th~ l 'ajrn IVorld {llo:OtOl)! SI1:J.tnbhab . 2001) . W. Rtthula. J J '/~<,1 t/1<•
Buddh.."l Tauglu (New York: Gnwc Wcidcnfcld. l974): lvL L. Cunumngs. TIK·
U1·~s Q j ll~e IJuddlur in tit.: rlt•t wu/ Uremwre (if AJio (Ann J\rlx.lf; Unin.:r:;il)' tl f
1\·helugan. Ccntcr for Soulh and Smatheas.1 A:~ nn Sludkoos. 1982)'. J. P. Ki."COIIIl,
!1tJll' M11...,~,. Mou l<.cmon r.J . mtr /Jcmbl$ (New Yolk: .St~u.;: Univ1!t~ ly ( I f New
York Pre:::~ ::. 19'94): ll FoW'e. The Uc•d 71tn'ntl: BuddltiJI !lppruac/u:.s to
.)t:.n wlit) • {P•incclon: P1i.nccton Uni\'crsily Press, 1998). l\'f. Shu\\', Pa.t.,\·iollat<J
Enltgl/t,•mm:nt (l,n ncclon: PrinccLon Univ.;:rsity Pn.:ss. 199-'): 1\ . A Ts:1i.
199.t;M;.sler Hsu.1n Hun. 1994; M. W:llshc. Teaclungs ojriK· Hmldlw (Boston:
WiOOom Publ ic ;~hons. 1995); J. S. SlJ'()ng. The- BtttldiNr (Onowol'ld, 10tH ):
Rolx-rt. A . )o'' ThunnWl, 71te Tiherau n~~)k of tit.: Dc:ad: Til L' Gtvat B04.1k ()j
Xotm•t,J l ib<n.m<"m Tlm:mgh Cndr:t·~·rwulmg ut lh~ JJ.im•·r:.:tr ( Ne\\ York;
B;~n u m Books. 1994). 2000; clc
201i .lmfon } 'mr

wisdom ..a>~ Nou~:bly. in 03n1icn Keown's book. 1/u:. Naw re of /Jurklhist

Hth 1 '~·" ( 19l'J2), an innoYaliYC foray into this field is widely <:ited. discussed.
~nd of course. criticized ..Si> His book proYidcs an oYcr01ll ch;aroctcriz:~tion of
tlu:- structure of Buddhist ethics. Ocp:Jrting [rom d1c twditjon:Jl emphasis
only upon ethics in ahc Buddha's teaching at the c ....:pcnsc of ancntion to
l.atcr Buddhism. his book nol only discusses Mah5y5nn ethics. but :also puts
the J)UI"SUil of cthicitl ideals in fi rst pl;ac.e, and comprchcnsh·e ly compares
Buddhist ethics '' ith Western ethica l theories, such as those of Aris10tlc,
Kant and J.S. {\:till. He pla:ccs cqunl emph.-..sis on morolity/SiM.
wisd om.iprr~j.llcJ und mcdit:nion/dhyt7n-tl. He intc.rprels and c.xpound~ earlr
discourses examining Mahi'iy!ina sclf-:asscssmcnts of 1hc supcriorily of
~'l:lh5y5.na ethics to tll;lt of the Thcmnid:l. and he has pro\i dcd dcbiled
references to precepts. \'irtucs. ;md moral models in Buddhism 10 clarify
their Y3rious func1ions in Mahiiylin:a ethics, 11 Pc1cr H3f\'C)' (2000, 2<'02)
deals with C\'t'l)' nspcct of contemporary clhic:a.l issues. including, the
trcaunc:nt or 1hc natural world. business. won n.nd peace. s uicide nnd
euthan:ls ia. and 3bonion, as well :'IS homos.exullity. All of them pro\i de
details of anornJ practice and interpret the Buddhist theories behind the
J)r.kcticc. Some tlhilosos)hC1's reglrd Mahily5na upc~~·tt as :'1 bridge between

» Cnmpnnng ShcnxiU :md Hmncnt's nndcrst:mdin2- of cnhl;hlcnmt'Tit,

K:IIUp3hana 's ;)dU\U"JIIOII f(l( lluulCilS · :~ \'~too W;.l:S ·· ug:,ht sl the b tlCkgl\)lJild or
Shc.:nxiu's \ '(.T.SC.. ilnd he approved of ·'.1bandvning the search fur a mclaph)·~ica l
entit~· (lh»l i~ ,\nc ·~ (_1\\'11 natur ~.:. idcntificll \\ ith nn ultimttte reality in thl.! hjp.h c~
s'l:1lc M mcdit:llinn) and T\.'f..XlBntzing >ln ull •m:nc gn:al c,f morolity (n ~ mcly
buddhahood. or what was rcfCn.xl h) tn the t•nhnu:cluuliku ''~ the tlhimlwk(i) ·v·r).
(Kulupulmna 1992: 23-0<!3-1) This is consistent with his di.:-.:ussion ou the: e t ~ht
j/uinas/conh.:mplutionllncditation 31ld the hi ~hc;o;t limn of kilO\\ lc.:ls,~/\\ i.:;dom
rt-~('tllliZc.:l..i b)1 llk.: Dud\lh:t - 1\no\V h..-·d~c of lhc W!lnint: of inllux~;.~ 'cl.r<rm~'l.:lul)·tr,
K ~ l upah an a r~rgucs th:u the mo1.1l contCflt o f the knowledge of the ccss.1tion ol'
influxes. is most impo110nt. because tl i~ tb" culminati(ln of the moJ~I•·ccti nl<l¢
with which the procc.ss of mcd.it~ ti on bcg.an. If a p~r:;on docs nut reach this final
~'''g~ she Cillll immc:dhltdy ~''-""-·'t't to tbc ~talc in wltkh she li 1~t :;cl uut c.m lht:
pr.tc.l!cc nf mcduatkm, th:ll t~. the (in•• st :~gc ofjlu)~Msfcont cmpl :•tion (D:n:id J,
K:~ l up3.hana. il Jhstcny of Hmldhisr Philo.m phy. l lonotulu: Unh·crsil)' o r
ffowni't rn:~,... 1992. pp. 30-59). 'fbi.'> wos m.X ~ cxphcilly cmphMizcd, though
mcnlivnW. in hi:; prcvi~.lU~ w Jit in ~~ (Da\itl J, Kni UJl~1ha11 rt. The: Prwr.Jpl~· of
lluddhi>! l'·tycho!o&rv. New Ymk: State UnJ\'crsily elf New Y~:,rk Press 1987, pp,
63-65, 12· 73: IJ11ddhi,fl f.Jin'lo.rCJplrJ•: A lhstoricol . l n<r ly.~is, (Ilona lulu:
University of Huwni'i Prc."SS. 1976) 56. 63-64; Sec nlso lt Su<ldhittissa,
l)uddhi M Ethic.f (Cmw~ Nc~1 : Allen & Unwin, 1970): and {JuJJJu'Jt £tltics
(Somef\·illc: Wisdmn. 1997) 127·149.
~> Cousins . f_, S, "Good or Slalful'? Kus:ll3 m Canon and Ct>mmcnt.rry",
Jwrnnl ofJJuddlll,\'1 l!'thu .-s. l996 No. '3.
~~ K'"•own, 1992 : 129-164 A~ Kco\\n stoles in hi.s book this is o
t.l~.::;cript i \'c ~unt ~.,,f M~lh3yiln :t ~;.1h i~ \\ h~.-rc
he di:;tingui shc.:~ l\\1.1 kint.l:; (_II'
tlpt1yo. e:w loring lhcm \\ ith :, ${110-ctal cmpha~is ( l R morol .-gc.nts,
 Retwt't'll the Gfiod multht• Right 207

libcrol democracy and Duddhism (Garfield 2002:206·219). Using diiTcrcnt

methods. many philosophers have c.xcrtcd themsch·e s on bch:llf of a pcrfetl
tmdcrslanding of tho principle of the Middle \Vny and the real meaning of
tltc-Twofold Truth in MahUy5na Buddhism.:-z None of them hns c.xdudcd
ethical ::~ speets rutd soei.'ll issu~. It has been ~id th:u Jny Gmfic-ld's studr of
N5g5rjuna ·s Mulamadyanuktr/.:ttrnkal11u.• Fumlamenwl Wisdtmt of the
t\fuldle Jill~ not c,llll) pro\·idcs .- nmgistcriaJ ll<lnslation c,lf the text ( 1995)
but also puts forward nn analysis of the Buddhist account of the limits of
thought and llnguagc. of cnusality, and of the structute of subjccti\'ily, 3nd
fuuher points oul the coru1cctions and tension.~ bel ween Buddhist ethics and
the libernl democratic discourse of mom! and political rights (2002). A
rcductionist critique ana]y?.cs the mor:U agent HodhisnthYT in Mnh5y5nn.
ethics as amouming to "an empty person". H
An e:oco'lmin:uion of thi!SC npproaches will prO\ ide "a pcrfcet
undcrst:mding of the principle of the Middle W~y ~s well ns of the real
mean ins of the Twofold Truth" in Mnbi.iy5.nn Buddhism. hence grasping nn
undcrslanding of virtues lc.lds to the Good ond the right when self as a
moral agent employs 11pilya. es~cci..'\JI)r where wrongful killing is in,'o lnd.
in Mahily<1M moral philosophy.·-1

Til£ MIDOLil WAY ANO Tflll l 'WOfOLO TRUTfl: U/llla AND

KUSIIL

As noted above. to perfectly tu1dcrst:md Mah5y5Jlu ethics is lo

undcrsumd its principle- of the Middle Way and the real meaning of the
Twofold Tru1h. 11-.c 1\,•ofl)ld Ttulh tC\'tals the-truth of life and rcoliiV\\'hilc
tbe princjplc of the l\liddle Wa~ provides the insight o.nd method ·to deal
with them. Mahayana ethics brought about a -shift in the cc1urc of grn\'ity
of Buddhist ethics" '''ith :1 new emphasis on moml virtue ~as a dynamic
othcr·rcgardjng qu:tlity. rnthcr than primarily concerned with personal
dC\'Ciopmcm and self-control'' (Kco\\n 1992: 142: 13 1). The dyrutmic
othcr·rcgarding qu:1lity is the \·irtuc of compassion and the pmcticc of

~) ·typically, M. S!dci'IB·.:c 11\cthod 1S :lualytic, J L G~u·fi~ld 's focus 1S on

the philosuphy of l:lngut~gc nnd he-nne-ncu1ics., K11lup:.h ana's approach il'O m ::un~·
p~)· chOklt!iC~I I. D. J>aul :md R. M G J\l$!1 ·~ IIJlJlm:.n:h is feminist, 1'hcn: arc a)$1.l
ethical. political, h iS1nric~1l . tllopr~ phlc;d and tcxhml approach1..>s M. Cummings.
P E Km\'1:-.ky. und R. E. Fis..hct 's a tlL"'-iC iiJlPt\)ach wsth intct))rctativc fl(IH.'$ t~ rc
tlloo helpful fol' uudcr:.tmu.hng Uuddhist clhtcul, mctaph~~sica l Md
cpistCIIJ<)i<)gic.:slJllim:iJ)IC:;.
:<} s~--: MurJ.: Skh.•
'Tils,, 2003: 197· 20? ~Uld .hi\' l,, Garlidd. 2002 92.
q Sec A. J. A)·cr. Phi/o,Mphtctll t:uoy.t. (M:•cmilltm, 1954) 2-1:5-246.
$ (lute philosophe-rs dist"*ui~h cth•c..·$ find lt\C.J'al philosophy ~•s 1wo difl'i'fcnt
area:>- I Jere moral philosophy i:~ U$Cd to n:fcr to thcorcticul rd k-ction on
nto.mlfity t\ hilc d hics i:; u~lto refer k l ti t~ \ tb<.l lc ,lolnbin of m<.,r'alily. In f~ll.!t
1hcy hat·.;: fc3turcs in common.
208 .lmfon }'m r

KuJoltt Up(~la-kausa~va (Sanskril) or ttpt~ra-J.:usala (Pali) is means (upt1ya).

\\'hich an: wholesoml!. skillful and wise (lwu.rtrl)'t) or k'm·a/a). The improper
emphasis on means (updyn) for a long time o\·erlooked the quality :md the
end of the means -· O\ crlookcd the qualification "" holcsomc. skillful :;md
wise- -· J:t~tiS(I/)'il or Jwsala (Arigwwra Nikayo 1.263; Cousins 1996:
154-155). Upt~m-kauS(r~ra c;;m refer to the bQdh iStltl(tvti perfections of
moralitr. wilidom . and conc-entration and unification. and the Bodhi~Uva
Path i~cludes compassion. wisdom <md updya. ;::. Titcrcforc-. uptlya as :m
importllnt fe tuurc of Mahayana ethics must rcl3in the essence of the
Twofold Truth and the Middle Way and manifest the moral 'inucs of kusala.
especially. compassion.
The principle of the Middle Wnyftt,a,jihimo~patip(ldil 56 w~
npplicd in the cnrl~· Buddhisttr:~;dition by the Buddha. In his first scnnon.n
the Buddha taught lhat there ''ere two extremes 10 be avoide-d:
ove-rindulgc:nce in scn..~u:tlity tmd se-lf·lOrlurt. Duddhis:m is thus the (\·fiddle
Way between lhc h\O and bch,ccn some. other p;airs of opposites. such as
etcrnalism and :mnihilntionism. In the Eightfold P:'llh/artyn nflh(mgtka
magg: (right ,·icws, risbt rcsol\'c, right spcc<:h. right action. right lh·cliltood.
right cfl'ort. riglll mindfuhtess and right meditation) which has 1hrcc
divisions of wisdom. morality and meditation, m'Oiding all those extremes3s
is the middle wny. The l\1iddfe W;~y is the ovcrnU principle of Buddhism
'' hilc the Eightfokl Path is the means and end of Buddhist enlightenment
:.nd prO\~ dcs !'{l('Cilic principles a nd specific ,·irtucs low:mls
cnl ightc n.men lfnirvlin;~, "'By particip;Hi.ng i.n the Eightfold Path one
p.1rticiJ)ates in those \'ulucs. c.xcc:llcnccs or perfections. '' hich arc
eonstituli\'e of e.nlisJltcnmcnt. Mmely moralityH-t/a and ins ightful
knowlcd~c!pat111t7. lhc following of the EisJttfold P:ult is therefore best
lutdcrstood as the gradual culli\'ation or moral and intcll<Xtual ,·inoc-
(Kcoml ~ ~~)2:107). Some sc.holars thought that mornlity and the EightfOld
Path nrc like -titc s~aifo ld" which WOldd be lcfi behind when one achic\·cd
ninYmo. but philosophers of recent decades insist that moralit) is the end or
nin·ana and must be the state of mind of a cnlighlcncd person. therefore,
ku~·ala .1c1ions should be the sponL1ncous response-s of a
hmlht.wtiiWI-in-traiJliny or a fully enlig.htencd bof.DJi.MIIfiWt,

q Ab:,ut lht.: pcrf¢1Vti~ms :md lh.: :il:•tz\,~ of the B•>llhi~•th'~• P~1th SIX
Jlnrvc\' 2003: 128-130: Kl.'OWn 1~ 92 : 13·1.
% 1'h(· J/ujjlrimo Nrkil)'a '1iu~ Colln:tion of tlw .Hiddlc /.c:ngtlr .S.tl)'illg.s.
:).S.• 13.5. as a woy to end !tufk riJlS 9.1S. 141:23. d~..1uilcd unalpis. 117:3..
,.
14 1 13.
Dh amm:le-olkkappa v~nana Sutta in Sumyutw ?-,'il.:t~wrt Cormecmd
IJisco/lrs('S ~Jj the IJmldha. Ulukkhu Bodhi tra1\i. (Somel'\·iUc: Wisdom, 201»)
55:2.
s( J'he Mt'.Jilmm• ,'to,',kciyu1'he Collt•CI•m• of1'1w .\IJcldfe /.t.'ng_lh So)illgJ,
32 , 9: It , 19·26. 3:1:24, 44:51 , 44·9. I I: 13 etc.
 Retwt't'll the Gfiod multht• Right 209

Tite Buddha also annly7..cd and s-ummed up all the ph) sica! mtd
men LSI phcnomcn.t1 or a person's e:dslcnce as five aggrcgalcs•.d wndas;
body/ fonn. feeling. perception. mental fommlions and consciousness.
These appcnr toll person as his or her ··1ruc nnd real" self. According to the
Buddha, the fi, c uugregates c.:mnot be identified as 1he self, dmt is. the
enduring ond substantial ground of pcrsonol i dentit-y . ~ so-cnlkd self is
somclhing "bosu!5: · Tltc notion of the self has only a con ve ntion<~ ! ' 'alidity
•• the truth oi existence •• and it docs not signify any ullimatc immutable
cntil~' subsisting at tlte core of 11 person, the tnJ.th or rcalit) . It is bcc3use of
the anxiety generated by tJte limitations of human sensc·cxpcriencc.
knowledge and existence that human beings oOcn uy to go beyond them
and posn.datc conceptions of etcmal selves rutd immutable subst:u1ccs. The
Tu ofold TrutJ1 deals '' ith (I) our conventional understanding of ourschcs
as exi~ting persons us.ing 1he funclions of our fa e-ulties :\s- 1he standard to
judge what is rtnl: Md (2) the ultimate reality of the non..esstnce and the
non·e.xistcnce. of anything. includin£ ourseh es, nil bcim;; unreal. n"~ former
is 1he con,·emional lruth while the Jan'"" is the ullintate truth. In the early
Buddhist tmdition. ,·cry ollcn tbe Buddho.tnlks iu tcnns of conventional or
rclati\'C truth .mmmuti'w#Wram.:rac('lll loka:wmvrti.wuyo :tccording to
which 1)\."''plc and things exist jusl as they appear. but when the Buddhn
:1ddrcsscs an audience capable of apprcci::tting his tltought. he speaks in
tenus of ultimate trudt~nmmwtWSflt'Cfl parallu;nhnsa()n. which identifies
the ultim:ucly real fact (:\Jajjh11ntt Nihty11 5: 11 .S: I2). 'l'hc doctrine of
no·scu· is :about the ultimate truth of the self. or nbout the ultimate absen..:-c
of a mclnphysicnl self such as Lhe ritmmr. ~~~ \\'l,cn the Buddha taught
uh imnle trulh b)' us-ing con' ention31 ltuth, he seemed to be using upt'tya as
means. o means derived from one of his 'iuucs or dispositions :md from his
goi.xl "ill. and he decided. it seems to usc-con'c11tionaJ trutl1 to teach. The
Buddha forcefully expounded his view on the self in his discourscs<·O to
rc,·cal the impcnuancnt n3turo of the existence of 3 person m'd the world. to
highlight suffering and no-sclf/ilnana'amilmcm and 10 reject the
bmhmanical self!iitmnn. the met..1physical self. He st:~ tcs th:lt the
impcmt;~nenl is suffering. and nll tb;~.t is impcm1ancnc. suffering :md subject
to clto.ngc camtOt be rcsnrdcd as mine, as I or as self. So. the concept of the
self ns lrtmtm, as an agent 1hat functions con~iously. is t.hcrcby eliminntcd.
The Buddha argues tha t bcc.:ausc we crumot bend the five
aggrcgat cs ~~ktlmltt'' to our will. tlte.y cruu1ot be lakcn 35 mine. I. or self and,

:xt The Jluddho rtjC\::tod tltc Uralun:u1i<:ul <:On(·Cpt titnum, and dcvelopo:xl
hi$ docui nc of non-sclf/mlfilmtm. Accurdio;; It) UrltaJunm,vuh• (/ptmi,Jm l ( 1.4.
1- 1()), u cl:t...sstc;:tl cx.:unph:. lh.: m ~.-·utphyst cs t..l f lhc s.:lf :m~l t)f lh..: '' orld .ur..:
combmcd in the one <.'Oflccpl of titnum. the soc1al phlli.l St)phy with Ihe lOur-fold
caS1c S)"5o'l("IU as ils base, {uld th.:: 1noru.l ideal ba5X"XI on th\.· caste s~'s1 cu,, whidt is
dcsisnah:d by bralurJan.
{II) l;(l/ll)liiiiO />.'il.'lij'il. 2: ,\ fll}jllitlf(l .\'ik(~\·a· 102. 2.$. 11. 22: /)tJ!fUI ,\'ik~iyu,

M. Walshc II.IOS (Boston · W1~Jom . 199;)· 22· 1 ~·1). 22.26: 35 20

210 .lmfon }'m r

if,H: insis1 on tf) ing to do so. it will leads to suffcring/dul,kJm. The Buddha
is not denying each and e\'cry concept of ··r· in the \\Orld that is associated
with 1he aggregates. bul only the m ct~physical self. the project of the mind.
Tn the Mohfi,"iina Perfection of \'ilsdont!l'<lrjracclwdikcl discourses
and others 1ex1s ' such as l.anktiVttliira. ~ 1 Avmc1m.ra/.:t1, 6"1 and
Sadd)umna·ptmdarika, the Middle \\":ly and Lhc Twofold Truth ha\'C been
dcTclopcd and classically construe-d with negations in N;ig5rjuna ·s
M:idhyamika Doctrine of Emptiness.63 Mahayana Buddhism extended the
c:trl>· Buddhist teaching of no sclfto all things in dte-\\'Orld: thus. ulumntclr
4

C\'et)'lhing. including nffl•tuur.d.:. is empty or will•out essence-. and therefore

non cxistent. As we discussed abo,·c, om concept of "self' is only the
4

consU\ICtion of our minds as sense experiences or the skondhas. Our "self'

is unreal. though we li\·c and fwtction as cxislcnt beings from the
sumdpoint of commonsen$(! and convention. At one and the same time. we
are real though we pOSSess no eternal ess:enc:c, ond :u-c ult.im:ncly
non·c.xistent from the standpoint of ultimate rttllily. Titis kind of vision nnd
knowledge le-ads us to peace, liberation and enlightenment or nin•(mtJ.
according 10 the Buddhist tradition. lt is the Middle Woy. Generally, the
~'Iiddle Way skillfully a\'oids cxlreme.s and is non-absolutist In moral
decision-making. dtc princ iple of the Middle Way allows mornl agents 10
:1chievc a shnrp insight. seeing through lhc faels of the current C\'Cnl 10
disco,cr lhc need to follow the moral precepts and rules or 10 infringe on
them to some e xte nt in order to get w holesome results for others and rhr the
agent. This alters rulc-worshipi.ng in such a way that it i:i able to deal with
c~trcme situations.. This is participating in the Eightfold Path. The l\·fiddlc
Way principle demands the conjunction of morality. meditation and wisdom.
Therefore. to apply the principle of the Middle Wtty is to regard moral it~· as
both a pan and tl1c end or the W:~y :wd not only as the means, especially
when :.pplying upllya.
The undcrs!Mding of the Middle Way and the Twofold Trutl1 olso
helps us to und<.·rstand \\ htrc the 'irtuc -compassion'· comes from and why
an :tetion ofupfi)'a is ncccss:ny. Existence is merely a process of mental :md
physical phenomena. nnd ultimately there is no e sscn~;;c. subst;mcc or rcol
eg~entiL)' "ithin m beyond the process. The '" eh e factors of flependelll
<tri.,·iug6s rcnect the principle lh:u all existent lhingsldharma.r. including
sense experiences. arc ·'dependent"<<• nnd there fore. without c~ce. Such

6l J\ ft,IJa,¥ttu)'trta; Tms M : 16;670.

,\filrofi1fi;,Jml~{ing1Lutus Sltlro. Tais/lo: T9N262.
<1:-
G".J N U1;arjuna, .\llilamtulJ')-'ttltwkakt.irilici t!J&J FmNlamentol lri...dom of the
.\lukil~ rr,,y, ), L. Garfield lran.s.. N1.'\VY'--nk ~ Orxfmd 'Univc.-sily Prt..:ss. 1995.
t.l C.on?c Ed.. Irons. The J'crfec/IOII tif Wisdom ;n Elghl T/l()ltS-t)rt(/ Uu<•s
am/ ,l.f l'crr.fC'S .''i ummmy (Uolim~s ~ I.'our Season Foundatilln, llJ73) 99.
(iS Paiccu-:uwwpptida (P3I i)j1rati~u-.romuJuida (S3n:ikrit).

1'-6 The ·'ftrsl .;:au~·· j;:; ~.lt:nic~.l ht..•:re and thcrt: is no ~;:luc to iJhllc;.uintt th~
lxgmning of Cl\islcn-ce ns ~l f-cx iSICnt 11i$ similar 10 the d<.'flCJldc.:nce <1skcd by
 B.f!hn~m the- Gt)()d dtulth(! Right }//

is tltc nature of cxis.tcncc. Niigfi1juna's f\'fiidh~·mikn thcol)' apparently

cqu:ttcd emptiness with this principle of tlepemlem tm,,·ing (?\1MK2.. : U~· l 9)
~nd pro,·ided the ground or the Bodhisauvn's mornl moth•1tion of
compassion 6! in Mnhiiyiinn Buddhism. Xuanzang·s
Wci shifCon s i ous.ncss-ou l yf'{og~dra theOJ)' planted the non-cxis:tcnce of
the self and all dharma, including consciousncss!6' in the soil of Chin:::..
Fat..:tn;.f s theory on li/prineiple nnd .rhl/rcality or the Huayan school i5 not
only compatible with lltc Tiantai theory on ..yininan.wmqimrfthc l lm~c
thouso.nd \\"Otlds imm:mcnl in a.n instance of lhousht." but also tc\•eals the
relation between oneself and others. It provides anothc.r reason for
compassion and motivation to inspire one to moral actions. ·rhercfore.
compassion becomes the key motinuion of the ideal Mahfi)'5nn mornl agenL
u bodhis.,twa. With great compassion. bodhisauvas take ,·ows to eliminate
the suflCrings of all sentient beings. C\'Cn fl)regoing their own
enlightenment or n;nima. All of these things inYoh·e the T "ofold Truth
nnd are related to morotlity.
Some may :u·gue that it is more plausible that the impc.rsonal
OOdncss of s.u ftcriug!dtthklm could better scn·e as the root of the
BodhisaU\'<fs 111oral moti\ation of conlt).1sston.t.i h means that ''ithou1 a
metaphysical account of the ultimate truth of suffering the commonsense of
the iropcrsonol badness of suflCring could scn·e as a good moti\'ation for
compassion so th:n bodhisatt\as might e liminate suffering of all sentient
bcing!i (Siderils 2003: 110-111. note b), H(lWc,·cr. if people arc told that
suffering docs not i.ndicolc rcol pai.n, whi' h e~n be rcliC\'td by t1 doctor. but

the shC~dow rcllcctcd m the Zltrt<mg:' (chapter 2) C:m!i:altly is an impo n .:~nt

cuncc:pt to t'nsurc the ch.:~in uf the tr~~IO nn ot i on of :~ensc expc:riL-ncc: ut lhc-
:;:am.: time it h iLi bccomr: :t ~rc.tt lliOblclll of B~-.fdhi .;m tu;cotding to $0Jill.!
philtt$ophcts
6
• Sec Sidcnts, 2003: 208·209. which claims to pomt outthrt:c dtiYiculltcs,
I tx~tdy ogn::c with l1im and wdl dt~U$3 this lott"''\
<'4 Xw.nt,ung's Cltelltwd:.·l,illm wus mllucnccd b~· Dham1npala (-139-507)
:.-'111\1 baSI.':ll on lhe h.:n phi k\Sl"'j)h cr~· inl~rpr~t at illl\S of V:tS.Ul\:tndlm·~ v~Jga.;:tnl
T~•...:hmg on Consdnusnc~s OnlylvtJtilaptimMrati\ (71N! Tllir~v r ·e,'$e.t) It
reduces thcoriei on the Slclr into thrc..~ kulds 1\l'ld c.riticizcs them a!-1 C(llfiplctcly
fnl.-.c und su g~-csL" thntthc :self is without C='scnec. h al~l US(.":> the four points uf
urguml..'nllttitlll 10 rcJuc~ all dlwrmas to ~mptin<.:~~ Cons..:iou:mc$S in his
C/Jttllg'•('/Jiuilw is always clmngmg nnd tr;~nsfomling and 1s an mstnm~nl t.-.
pro,·c th ~ tnub of the etn pt in c~ ( If the sdf and dharrmas.l't1is/rd 31 :1585.
'Jiu•out;h KuiJi's (632·682) inttrpl\."tution of Xulln/'..aufs Clumg"'dsltihm
(Tai~M 43:1830). Vasubwv.lhu's doc.tJinc wu.o; naturo1iz.i.xl in Cbi.no lhmu:;.h
Xu:.tlv.a ng..
~1 S1dcms ind1<.:a1cs that lhi<; can r.;-s1 cntm.::ly on common-sense
ob:;ervu.lions ubout what we do and <lo Jl(l t do wlu::n we in\'("Shgate '"ourselves"
:and our procliccs. (M. SideriLi. 2<X)3: 209: note. n.) l ie usc~ S:sntidcv.:~ '~
..1.rgumcru in JJodii!Cc'll)'ti muim . S. ((;r,,by :wd A S. Skilto. 71~e
lh iltlt:M}'Civtttdm. Osl'ord: Oxt'ord Um vcr~ ty l,rc.;s, 19%)
212 .Imfo11 }'m r

is caused by our ignorance of our uhimate non~xis tcnce and lh~:

oon-e :d~cnc;c of all things. there will be a sharp d istinction between
nvoidabJc pain ;:md suffering. lf we hold commonsense to be the foundation
of moral moth'a tion in ~·foh.nynnn Buddhism. it will be one-sided and will
ignoring a detrimental clemcrH into Mah a~·::~na ethics and momt practices.
Compassion as a great virtue in Mah:tyo.na ethics is not only comp.;atiblc
prac.tic; a ll ~· \\ ith con\'c:ntional truth bul also. more importantly. wilh ultimate
truth. which brings ultimate liberation rutd ends suffering. In point of f.1Ct. it
should be stressed that con\'cntionnl U'Uth is sometimes c xtrcm cl~· important.
·nte \\hole doctrine. of karma. as internal merit and rcbiJ'Ib, h:ts i t~ \'ttlidily
only in the realm of convcmional truth. That is why by liberating ours-ch·cs
from the viewpoint or c.on\·emional uuth we cc:1sc to be subjoca to krumic
law. Compassion is fo r niL in rny opinion. not solely for others. from the
viewpoint of the T\\ ofold Truth, Kusalya-Up,;ya ns skilful nnd "holesome
means m::mifcsts the \'irtuc of Compassion.

U/';\YA ,\S M/i;\ NSANDAS liNIJ: THE MIDDLE WAY I N

MAHAYANA MORAL PIIILOSOPIIY

The most importam innov:uion in Mah3~' 5na moml philosophy is

the complex notion of Skilful Means (upiipn·kausn(J:n) and t.hc cquaiJy
complex moml agent b€.)(/hi~·alfvl£1msa. Upc1yo. as mentioned abo,·c. is the
sL.;U\JI mc:ms, or expediency. or expedient means, or cnn "pcd:1g0gical
skill" according to man~·. Upci)m. gcncrnlly, signifies means thnt otrc sl.:ilful
and \\hoksomc. Being ··skilful and wholesome ... tlfXll ·a. similar to
Confucian qmm, is not onl}' means but also end (as morality), "'hich shows
tbat motolity ~fila in l\,f:th:~yan a ethics is nor only n patt of the path or
enlightenmcm but al so tJ1c end of enlilthtcmnent
Keown describes two kinds of upilyo. O ne of them refers to lfpitya
within normath·c or com·cntional ethits and is applied by
Jxxlhiutfll•as-in ·l rllming. who ha\'e cultivated the "'mom! qua,l ities as
encompassed in Lhc first li\'C pcrfcctions:·i1> Their mornlit~·/.~1/a (which
here could be upiiyn-J.:usnla) and insightful knowlcdgcipru'uia (\\hich bert
could be \\ isdom!prrynt;) work lOgcthcr to take a mor~ l :1c1ion skillfully as
UJHiya. bn::u:hing minor precepts or rules, these breaches being rcg:trdcd 3S
no olfcnccs. The other kind of upiJ)'u is applied by bodhisath·as or BuddJutS
who ha,·e perfected the Clu31ities of the SC\ c.nth st<tge of the br>lllusattwt
p::nh or beyond. By the se,·cnth stage the Bodhisanvns arc pe.rfcctcd in the
two dh·isions of the fiJst six smges or ethics and insight nnd cspcciallr
HJH1ya. These bodJriscllll'(U' do not concern thcmsch·c s with ··normative

7
" The len rl(.'ffC(.'i!\onstpnr~mit~:) arc· I.Gcnc:roshy 2 Mor:tlll~' 3.Pallcncc
4.CoutjSC 5.}-·fcditation 6 Jns i~hti\\'L.'Idom (pmjmr) 1 Skilful }.·tcuns
(upayo-kusalyu) S.Now he/Me- is L"Crlain to :allnin Buddlmhood :md his or her
V<.m rc~•cb.:s pc,:rfccti\m. 9 Slrcnglh 1O.h no\\ k·dgc (j nana) &'A! 11;)1'\\':)'
200£)· J29 .. 1J I: 37.l· 374: lo\.i.'<)\\ll, 1992· 130
 Retwt't'll the Gfiod multht• Right 2/.i

ctJ1ical condud" and act wilh an undefiled irucntion or pure compassion

71
(kanmti rhe t and/or mwktm1palirmmin for othe-rs. They c:tn <:-ommit
serious oOCnccs nnd transgress the rules without punishment. This upfiyn is
bcrond normnthc ethics or Hans-moroL7! HowcH~r. the diffi culties here
c.rc, fitst. that in pmctice tlrc.rc is no sharp line dividing minor offenses ftom
serious ones. Sct:ondl,·. cx<:cpl for the Buddha and some great bodhimlfwts,
such <~S Ou:myin/Avuloktte.{;mra. it is h;ud to jud~;c ''Ito is perfected to
which stnge of the l>r>dlusam·a pnth. Thirdly. and mos1 absurdly. gi\·en that
m:my bodhis.ath·as in "bha~ ona discoutses. though they ha' c been doclarcd
to be celestlal beings and h:wc refused "ha' ing thus gone" (being gone).
come back to human life as moral examples (norm.11h·c concepts have
3.irctldy been used by the original texts thcmsch'cs) ;~nd got invoh·c d in
normaLi\e moral pmctic-c - helping all sentient beings -- ho\\ can they then
not be considered as being moml agents'! And why should we no1 :mo. lp~e
what they ha,·e done by means of nonnt~ti,·c ethieo.LconecpL~·! TherefOre, in
my 'iew a hodhismtvn cnn be jud&cd within normuthc cth.ics if and only if
he or she in Maht~yana Buddhism is i1wolvcd in mo1':tl issues. h is
compatible \Vith the Twofold Trutlt.
In the Mahtl)'3mt test. Santide,...,·s (685-763) 8/todltlca,,tJV/Jiora, ' )
instructions for burlhisnltwt.~ arc discussed: -The son of1he Conqueror who
has <Jdoptcd the Awakcniug Mind with grc.a t resolve in this way should,
ever tireless. strive hard not 10 trnnsgrcss the u-aining" (Crosby and Skilton
1996: IV: 1:25). " Realizing this. one should always be s:tri,·ing for ochcr10'
wcll·bci.ng.. E\'Cn what is prohibitOO is pcnnittcd for a com pnssion;~tc person
"ho sees it will be of benefit- (V: 84: 4 1). We can S<.~ only those
bodhiSBtl\'rtS \\ idt c.ompnssion/ 1Wrmu1 and StC:U insighttprtg'JM can prnctiCC
Hpli)'a·l:lllalet.

TilliS.having rcali7..cd the hig.hcst truth, he should always be

zc3lous in pr(l(.urinr;: the wclf:u:c nnd h;~ppincss of beings.
And if someone should object. ""lio'" can he .,,.oid
commining :m oOCncc (ripallf) while engaged in what is
folbiddc:nT IThe reply is th.atl thc lord has t<:~ugh t that what is
forbidden mew be performed by one \\hO perceives with th¢
eye of knowledge 3 special benefit for beings therein. And
the teachings of the l ord bring about sah-:.tion. But tJ1c

H Bound tess syml't:uhy :md pity for another or Olh'-'fS and dcs1rc to help.
'_;.Keown. 19'J2• 157-160. SiJctits uho vgrccs t(' divide upt~JY-' iuto two
kind:->: one. i ~ rclntOO h> t:<lllh 'nliol.laii\IOrulitr. lhe utbcr i:<> tmns-morallty uoJ iJ:>
pract i~·:d by l"'.~o,.lhi ~all \ {:j::\ whv 11:~: ,·~.: insigJu into lhc: grounding of l.h~ u l tun:ll~.:
morolity (Suknts. 2003: 110-11 1. nnt..:: b)
13 Ounp:ux: thJS translution with M. J.. MJtics. Hnl<'l"il18 1/w Pall: <Jj
l.iJII~<:hle iUtli.'UtiRltfm.\'U.ti,s:,lmJ Tht! l!c"ldhicat')dWlttlra of thr: /Juddltist Jlt>l.'l
Stmtidt:'-'<' (frvm San.S.:ril). L...mdon. Gc<.'r~e All~.o't\Z & UIH' in. 1971: and
Kcown· s anm~l auon (1992: 151 ) and Sktlcon 19%
2 /.J .Imfo 11 }'m r

foregoing [exemption) docs not apply to t.:\ cryonc: onl~· to

[cases of] the cxcrt:isc of compassion in its highe-st degree by
one who is of a compassionntc nature. who is whhoUl a
selfish motive. solely concerned with the interests of others
and totally dedicated to this [ideal). In this \\3)' there is no
ofTcnoc for one who is skilled in mc::ms (upc'i),.,·,.J:u.\'u~va) :md
''ho works for the intc:-rc.sts of ot11c:rs with insight (prujii i)
and compassion (kanmtT) 14•

l'oltdwing tllis.. \\C- may formulate a definition of b(ld/Jismfl•a s.

/Jodhi:mllt.'IIS :lTC pcrfcclcd in both their moral qua lities and insight. 'rhcir
intentions arc pure cnUghtcmucnt of other beings by eliminating their
s uiTcri11gs and bringing wclf..1Jc to them. even a1 the expense of fo rgoing
their O\\n enlightenment tOw3rds nirYHna. thus manifesting their
1\CCumubted virtues and " isdom a.~ c.omp3ss.ion :md skiHfulness. Their
nctionslku.\:t1/a hn\'e been scp;tralcd into t\\O types: lhosc funhcrin& the
spiritual perfection of themselves, leading to the 31t3inntent of
enlightenment; Md those aiming at krumic merit~ bu ildi.ng/pmMa by scl'\·ing
others. Depending on each author·s undcrst3nding of the above fac1ors.
each book on Mah5\'5na ethics has its own dclinhion of bodhisatl\':lS:
..beings for cnlighicnmcnC. ··celestial beings". 15 and ..completely
enlightened beings".
A hmlhistrltm/pusn :\~ moral duty is to eliminate the suffering of any
scr:llicnt being and to sprc01d the dtumna witJ1 compassionate ;actions.
inc;luding IIJ1<1ya. CH:n by forgoing their own cnlightcnrnenl/nin '(i;m. This
by no mcnns claims Mah!l.y3na ethic-s to be -superior"'~~'> or outstanding
among the eLhics of other intellectual £astcm :ltld Western philosophies.
'"There are- enough •·efcrcm:cs (O precepts. vinues, and moml n1odds to
susgcst that Mah5.y5na Buddhism im·o lves a moral pcrsp<'etiYe not merely
as 3 world view. but directly JS 3 system. Jn cilher C3SC ongoing research
rna) unco\cr tl1c phenomenon thnt Mah5~ iina Buddhist moralil) contains
no precepts and '-:.lues which cannot be found in ahcrnatc or t\'Cn stronger
form in other m:Jjor <:thic;;tl tr.Jdjtions'· (llindc:ry 1978: 248).
In M~l1fiyfinu ethic-s. all diseourscsl\utrm· stilrns discussing
btKiht.f iliiWI mot:ll precepts, codes nnd rulei arc cnlled puSi!i iL' in Chinese.
There arc csscnti;alh-· three di,·isions: Ftrmrang or th<: IJrahmaiiila-siitrtt
(Fanwang 11 and Yingluo ts ) . Yl~/itylehen Or /lr}(/IU.'\.tlll\'tl~{m1tlmoksn

H l'f!IJU:tk(Lftltn{lti's oorumcnt in : bigul/mYt Nlft·(I)'O: 1ht· Book (1/Gr(l((,a/

.)a)'i"f;\ E. M. JJarc lran.-. . (London: SMl.. 1935) 1: 204.
Wi l h~rd G. Oxlt•by. 1.->tt tl"od d RcllgtOmJ: £a:Jier'll li·odltu:ms. (ToiUltv;
Oxfor~f Umv~r~1 1y P·n....-s. 19%)
1
Koown <.-xplorOO the lJUCstion t'f the S:UJli.'tlOrity of t-.hhayana 10
'
Tht.T!tvnd;J.!)uddhi:ml (C. Dnmicn Kco'm 1992: 137-15-1).
1' Fan'' 'llltgjin!VBmhm:ti!lhl lransl~•led by Kumarajrva (344-4 13) 1(,ulrV
24·1484; Digh(l Nll.:ri)v· I: Tim X11:ang 24· 10 h: 1004
 Retwt't'll the Gfiod multht• Right 2/j

tYujia. 79 Oichi.'so Shanjicu) and )'OUJJtJS~iie. •: which arc specific precepts

for the lahy. There arc si~ kinds of Chinese tcxts 8 ' and there arc also other
scattered siitrns, including Pusnne1J"Icpng with some fony·scvcn rule-s for
b(Nfhi.wzums. ~A In China. the )lOC,<i(:,ir<t Yujiajicbcn (DotflliS(Ifll'lt-
pnitinwksa) enjoyed considerable- pre-stige- up 10 the time- of the T3ng
dytmsly when it wos eclipsed by the popularity of the Fanwtmf{ilug
(IJraltmnjlilo-.\'ii.Jra). whit::h ;u:kllO\\'Icd:;cd more csplicitly 1hc vi11uc of fili.,_l
piety. II is interesting that the discourses of the yoglicflm
ButUu'ral/vlt·priitimoksa ,,·ere translated three timcsu during th.ree or four
centuries before and during the Tang d)'nasty (618·907). Md all or tJICIIl
included the category or pcnniltcd offences. This reflects the difficullies of
moral judgmem and decision-making. :ts well 3S the necessity of the
principle of dtc Middle Way.
The chnptcr Jnutuli flad'h Jsnm·nbhtiml on the- ethies ()f the
bt:J<fhi!UII/WJ SUge pr<:stnl~ it$el( 3S the ::s.Jtem.:ltive Code Of COnduCt for a
luNIM.o;aflw) as n mor:d a,&ent.
On one hand, like all MaMytlnn h!xts on morality, it SU'Csscs the six
pcrfcctiotts/lillfltt (sonJc.tUues the ten perfections). and the four major
prcecptsfsiMte: controlling greed. stinginess. anger and insolence to others.
These precepts cluci~lc snrrJIYj"KJii•, the three modes of Mah5y3nn
mornlity: the ethics of tJtc vows of tempcnmc.c. continence, restraint nnd
self-control (.'iltmm·artl): the ethics of ac.cumulating vinues. a subjccti,·c
person:.! moral pcrfcc ti<m linked to intelk-ctual cuhivalion in the quest rbr
cnlightcn.r:tlcnt; Md tbc ethics of contributi.ng 10 the wclfJTC of sentient
bcin&s - nn objective n.x:iJJient - oriented precept " hich focuses on the
nct.'ds of 01hcrs. h srans "~ith .'Uchongj)'t:, the four " Offences of Dcfl'at," then
tltc fott~··Lhtcc secondary codes. though some- trnditional commentaries
enumerate them :tS fo•t~·fhc oa· forty~ b: (Talt... 1986:24}.
On thc other h3nd. the most striking feature in the whole chapter is
the group of seven permissions. wb.ich explicitly :mthorizes the brcnlcing of
the lirst SC\'cn rules established in the popularty accepted

;, l'u~nyingluohcn~·cjing. 1iu.dt6 24: 10'20.

" YuJia~ltidilun 4 1, ](r;,,lzO 30: I :579.516·521 was tOt th..~ fir:ct llm..::
lmtt.'llatcd and nnm..-d Pu.mdichijiug by Ton \Vu Zhcn uf the Bc1liang dymtsty in
4 1 ~1. Th~,l it wus n:tran:tluh..xl mtJ muuc.:d Pu:.·o~·h,mjl<'J ~'"K b~· Qiunnbumo from
l.iu·song d~' n<t:OIY in 367-431. ln the sev.,'fllh l!(..'tll\11)' Xuam~:mg translated it
~•S.!llll ond n::tmcd tl fryhuiJidtlun. Ml)lil scltol;.~rs US¢ th1s 1ron.sJmi(ln now. &."'\:
aloo '(uJia shiJtlunshi 40, T.:~ishU 30: t s gO.Si l -515.
to> J)u$&lichijin~. Tai.1/u,i 30. 15~ I: 51 1-521 .
s: Shou~hislwnjkjint~. Ti•h h6 24 1486, Tnmsl!ll<.:tl by Tau Wu ?..hen
a. Youpo~jiCJmg. 'l'ni.;;M 24· J48g.
t<J "IlK'}' arc /-'(mwang·pustt·ju!bt·n. f>usa·rhrgluo·OO'I)'CJilt8.
}'ujia.dtidihm-pu~ajit•b~" Pwuulichiji11~-.li~hen. and PU$1L' lmnjh:jiiJ,rt.:fiehL' II)
s-• f~:,lntt•pU$:.Lneijicjinta. TtlishU 2.S· J487. 1028
Si Sec !he nolc or Yllji:,shichlun
216 .lmfon }'m r

Bralrmqjcila·sl11ralF'onwang. These rules arc abstcution from: taking life.

t:ddng what has nol been given. sexual misconduct. lying. slanderous
speech. harsh speech. nnd frh·olous talk. The tlrst three of thc:m are phrsical
m:tions while the remaining arc \ Crb.1l actions.l\6 None of them is unr~latcd
to mental elements and memal slates. Breaking these seven rules is
"reprehensible by nature," ;md they nrc rcpcotcd in almost ~II Buddhisl
tliscOUI'SCS on moralit). In contrast (O the. SC\Cil modes or reprehensible
conduct. the seven pcnnittcd olTcnccsill'lllf('~fnnf1 c:tn be samlmilri'led by
the folio'' ing:

l.Pcnnission to engage in compassionate killing. 1'aking the lii'C of

people about to commit an act entailing immediate
rctribution/(JPUmlt~ro-kamw in order to prevent them suffering the evil in
COOSI!qucn CC or that 3Cl,
2. Permission to cng3gc in comp:u sion:ltc stealing. Causing a cruel
ruler 10 f<all from his J)()Sirion of nuthorit). or rcpossc.-ssins propeny taken
from the .wmglta or o suipa, or causing monks who nbusc their position or
nuthorit) to lose their rank.
3. Permission to engage in eomp:tssiomuc sexual misconduct
Ha,·ing sexual intercourse whh an unmarried girl in order to prcnmt her
from fonnin g. thoughts of hostility if her a<h'nncc:s nrc rejected .
..J. Pennission to tell compassionate lies. Telling a lie in order to
s:wc the ti,·c s of beings or to save them from bondage and mutilation.
5. Permission to cng:1gc in compassionate slander. Scpur:ui.ng
bein&s from c' il friends ;md bad company throug.h shmder.
6. Permission to usc compassionate harsh "ords. Using h:arsh
speech to discourage beings from cl'il.
7. Perm is!' ion for compass_ionalc idle chnucr. Indulging in singing.
dancing and idle chatter to com'Crt beings who nrc attracted b~, tl1ese things.

I would like tn focus on the permission to engage in comtl3ssionatc

killing to analyze the moral agcnfs \irtuc. imcntion. dccision·maldng. and
smtc of mind in an c~trcmc situation. It is sbtcd in the ch'*ptcr on pusajit·
that " (c )ven in the c:asc of what is reprehensible b~ nature. the bodhisattva
:.cts whh such skill in means (upiiyn J lh:n no fnuh ensues; rather, lhcrc is: :l
spread of much merit.'' Thus. the Bodh.isattva mar sec 11 robber engaged in
commilling ::t .. great many deeds calling for immediate k:umic retribution-.

~ Dighu .\'ikliF': 1.
t<' \\'uwciran rciJd"-'fcd with rcfcn:nccs to 8cxl!Ji.\ a tf'.'ttbhlmu' (A:;angu.
/)odlrmrttwtMirmr: being 1lte X l"l!t seetion v.f r1${111gtrpadtJ's J'og(Jc;(rmbltmnih
) ()gtic,irt~blttitlll Sansknl cd Nahnat.:sho Duu (Palna: K fl. J ay:~ swa l N:c.sc.arch
Institute, )97~) 95-ll9. aU ikms bcg,tnning. with Aniipnui ;,, ,w{'ifim bt.in ~
collcdcd together; with T3i:shcj 41: 1579.51G-21 { 10.2) which Xu:m~..ang used
"huo- (If ··ll•o·· ~• s beginning. :.t)Si.t \\ith Cblin M~.11 in Tatz . .-llxn•iglm:s &
u ,·(1ttium ami Otltc,. £.~ .,,~)'·' {f leincmann Educallonal Auslralia. 1932).
 Retwt't'll the Gfiod multht• Right 21 7

being about to murder -many hundreds of mognificenl living beings" for

the sal;e of a few mutcrial goods. What appears in the botlhu·nm;o's mind is
thnt
a, Jf I tnkc the Jifc of the: scn1ic:nt being. J m)sclf mnr be: reborn as
one of the creatures of hell;
b . Beller thnt I will be reborn u creature of hell th:tn thai this
robber siiQuld go straisht IQ hell for w hat he doc.s:
c. The BodhiSlth'il ascertains 1hat his thought is vinuous or kannic
indctcnnin:uc 4nd then feeling constmincd. with a thought only of
compassion flU the consequences. he-tales the life of that robber.

We may gothcr (a). (b) and (c) osthc followi ng points:

a. Killing is reprehensible by muurc.
b. Double conscqtaenccs: This killing climinmes 01hcrs' suffering,
the robber ·s karmic retribution, and brings suffering only to .. myself''.
c. M> intcn.tion is comp.1Ssionatc :md pure (h justifies the
rislttncss of m~· action. r understn.nd il is wha1 I ought to do.)
d. Consequently, it is better th.'l.t -r· sufiCr in hell than thnt the
robber .suiTcrs i11 hell or others surfer from ''hat the robber has done (the
good).
c. 1 tnk:c :mother's life onl~· in dire cireumstnnccs for others'
benefit where there is no nhemath c choice.

Ln the llash· Ptllh tu Awtshmmg, Tsong-Khu-Pa (1357- 1419) m~dc

n comment on this and c-mphasi;o:cd two points:
a. At the time of killing the agent mu!\1 ar.ccrtain th~ Sl.1tc of hL.:;
miud to be ,·inuous or konnically indctcrmio.3te, ond entire I)' unmixed with
delilcmcm and the like .
b. This ac1ion musl be constrained by tltc situ:uion. -There is a
p.1uc-ity or alternatives, since he C..'lll find no otltcr mcans.''s1

The JJnslurmJumrimg/Up<iya./wu.fn~ra Srifm shows taking life to be

un-rc:prchcnsiblc ··when it dc\'c lops from a virtuous thougbt." The Buddh:a
in a p:tst life wos n bmlhfs.tsft\'11 sen Ct1plt~ in named the Great (()mpassion.
who was unnsporting 500 merchants. One nisht he W:'ls informed thot one
of the p3SSCngcrs w:as a robber intent on killing all the mcrdumts for the
purpose of stealing t1teir goods. He 1,0ndcrcd deep and long on how to
pre\'CDI this, tl1inking: (o) If lhc robbe.r docs what he W4ntS. he would suffer
in hell for cons: (b) if he informs the merchants. Lhe)' will kill the robber
and they would suffer in hell for cons: (c) it is to the benefit of others if he

~ Mari: T.:~.tz. AswJga:\' Chaptt'l' ou Et!tic.s \tith Jltc Commt·ntary Qj

T:,·vng-1\lta-Ptr, TIN: /)cr,,·fc l'<'lh 10 Aw1rkt"-ning, The t •o mtlkte Borll,JOIIVtr
(LOfldim; Edwin 1\'lcllcn Press. 1986), 21.1·21 5.
218 .lmfon }'m r

kills the robber :~nd only he suffers in hcll ..for a hundred th ousand cons."'~9
This provides a d~.-"t:: il cd descriplion of how skilful means upt1ytl.
insigl11/wisdom and c.ompassion/momlity work together to lend to this
double consequence moral action. \\ hicb is ccnainly different fro m the
Cath olic Double EIT~t. " hich will be discussed funher o n . The moral
dis,crction of this btldhi~;auwt is within norm:uivc ethics,. Wh:u the agent
uh imalt ly intends is to eliminate suffeting 0111d benefit and ehlig.htcn other.)
(and himself). wl\31 the agent does no t intend as his ultimate goal is just
killin g the robber and incurring suffccing in helL What he docs is an actio n.
chosen on cl1e basis of deliberation bct,,cen the conflicting \':tlues of the
lawful and unlawrut. 1he right and the c,·il, and the good and the b3d . It is
the Middle Way. My understanding is tluat t11c Middle \Vay helps people to
come to a wise and compassionate linnl decision based on \\hat the real
siluntion needs in order to obt3in 3 n.""'Sult in moralit) before the thoughts o f
decision arc put into action!>. Howe ver. lhc premise of this decision·mtlking
should be based on compassion. und lhus on MniJa)ana Buddhist ctltic.s. h
is no t only right but good. From a Buddhist point of ,·icw. lhis concern for
others hils no residue of selfishness. When we apply the ide:~ of the Middle
W :ty, \\C. kno w that our judgement of an C\'Cilt is not based on Lhc C\"Cnt
itself, but on the real situation or circumstances. Some snict teachings arc
applied in Ch;:m Buddhist teachings. whereby, good. is not real good. an d
bad is no1 real bad. For e\el)•lhing is ""ultinm tcly·' empty. Good and b:.td arc
relative. not absolute. This is a view from an ultimate point o f \·i ew, Thus. :t
moral judgment on un event, nonn::ui,·cly. is based on considcrtUion$ from
nil diffcrcnl nngh:s. such as wh:.t the intention of the agent is and n hal the
real situ:llion is and n eeds in ordc:r to make in the end a mornll) satisfying
dcctslon best fitting the C\'Cnt C\'Cn though Ibis decision ma)' not be pc1fcct
in 1hc absolute. In Buddhism. morol dec-isions or jud~mcnts made on the
basis of wisdom m us1also contain compassion.
- For pure bodhis:HtYns. tltcir mother (matr) is the perfection of
wisdom (prajl'll1 prv.uiMp<Jramltif), and the fotther is skilful in me:u1s
(upiiyn·ktmStllyn): the lc~ ck:rs of the world." Accordingly. wisdom whhout
skilful means is bondngc. n.nd wisdom 01cquircd through sldlfuJ means is
dclivcr:mcc:: sldlfu l means with no" isdom arc bondage. and skilful means

~ TmnsJ~ted from Cluncsc U rd.rfla, gpt,Ja •v.'4'ttd(t.flri,mjuanjms ( 1iih.· ll6

12:345: 156 J l/row ltam· lmdlrisit/WII• ptrripn·c!IIJ) Upii}'ll J:mztt1{ra lrtltl$. from
Chinese by Ganna C. C. Chnn~. A li'c'u.smy uj JfahciJ'«IJu Sumu: S.,:/ections
fmm tht~ MtJIItn'lllnakuut .Sim"lr (Univcn;ity Purl.:. PA P~;tub)'h':mia Sial..:
Unlvcrsll)' Press, 19S3) 427 ·6g~ :and lrnnsl3ted from T1h:tlan
l. ipiiy11 knuja~I'O•UI1nttl Malta)'(iuu Sim·al Tlllt Skill in Mtran$ (Upii}nkmtinl}m
Smro) (trans. by Mork Tut;r.. New York: Pantheon Booh, 1994) 73·76: Sec 11l 'j\.l
P~1 ut Williams, Mu/I{JyCJ/1(1 8~Uit0tt_\m (l.vu.:k,n: Ruu!IC4.1t!,c . 1989) l.J.$ and
H: rvcy. 2000 135·38
 Retwt't'll the Gfiod multht• Right 219

nc.quircd through wisdom arc deJi,crnoce.w f or pure bo(uu·:muvas. wisdom

and skilful means. or comp:1ssion. must be possessed and U1ili1..cd
simuJtnncously in order to achieve tltc ultim;~.tc perfection of spiritual
cu hi\';~.tion . Benefiting both others and nn agent they are the achic,·cmclll of
per fe<:t spir itunl culth otjon . T he suffering of the mo ral agent in the stOJ) '
demonstrates a srcat in.sight on the part of the Buddha on the way lo
cn l i~htc nm cn t. It is u nly at this cot1\'cnti on;.~l lc\·cl th.-.1 a double·
consequence action could become 3 means to benclit others and the :1gcm.
r;or lhe 4gcnt. this is a neccssal) mornl process of the pctfcction of wisdom.
and for others the 3\'0idancc of suffering and immediate kannic retribution.

JUSTIFICATION AND FURTII£R CONSWE RATJONS

Argument (~{/ntentJdn

The dominant role of intention and the function of miJHI h ii\'C been
found in various Buddhis1 "ritings which justify 1he application of 11pt''Jy as
the mcttns :ss well as the end or the perfections of Bodh.isauva. In the
"' f l':lgmcnt or a Commentary to tl1c Twenty Verses From Dunhuant,f we can
sec all actions 1he Bodhisauvas take arc justified by their intention: '·With it
:\S your lofty intention.. (verse 2b). and we can sec th.1t bodJJisattYa ethics
should be received by the candidate with pure intentions by tJ1c candidate
who!'c intentions arc lofty •• fn."'C from dillhonesty - and who is desirous of
awakcni.ng."' 1 "This uttcmpts to s;~.feg:uard the right ;md the good of :an
action by a I>C-l'fcc ted pcrs.on/lwddhistlllm. How then to pro\c that
"compnssionate ldlling, l)'ing, stealing. etc." arc not rcprchcn..:;ible·? 'l'hc
.. Permission to Murder·· section (reference to lJtll;c /JotU;ismtWl Path: note
3?5) tells us that - the Skill in Metm :~ Scrlp turu shows taking life to be
im:prchcn,siblc \\ hen done with dctJchmcnt and so fonh. When it d e\'elops
from a rirtuous thought (bccaus.c the thought is conjoined with dcmchmcnt
and so fonh). it is "inuous. ;\II those done by body (murder. then. and
sexual in terco urse) arc presente-d in relationship 10 lhought."~l And. it
continues. the BuddhJ b :~s dccl:u-cd:

Mmd precede!> e vents., chief in mind; born from mind

l11crc is u positi' -c thought. rutd speech m action fo llow:

w JJ'e imqih:Jing 1 "11!/dlfrkmininf.-.,tM•m•~ Vll.6.1. VI th. 1\ccordmg 10

.\ldtll~rcmriknmtum , =Jroug.luu 12 . COl'U p;~s..'l iou tS the 8(-(:d of Uuddhobood sin(.'\:
ilpnwidc!> the l.llQiivation Itt guin cnligbtcnnwnt for the llCI.Jdit nf nthcrs.
? I The aulhor is unknO\\ u. The T''~n1y Vc;r~-s from Ounlnmnil l~l
bodhiS:IIt\·a ,·ow~ were 1~ught by the 1113~cr Candmgomin ;r~ <ltl e<1~
introdu.::t1<>n fc11· ~)thcr !ii:·utic.nl bciilf:!S 10 <~Onl(~ forth. See 'l'utz, 1986;31 S.
9 : :'\ppcndix D m Tatz,, 1986: 323. In lhi$ woy. spc~ king hnr.;h \\'Ql'ds.
telling a lie. aud (:Stn.ln~i n M llicnds f~:,r lite l)l.:ncfits "'f $1.'tlli\.'UI bcingti ~uc nil
juSIIfl t.'d.
220 .Imfo11 }'mr

TI1crc is a negative thought. and speech or action folio''·

And
All the world is guided by thought. completely led by thought
E\'Cf)' C\"CO( folio'' s aflcr thought aJonc. YJ

So ;application follows intention. and killing with ;a pure intention

is not to be condemned fro m both com"Cntion.al ttnd abw lutc points of vic.·w.
It seems 10 me tllat the \'irtuous intention should dclinitely have double
consequences: one is good, brin~ benefits or adv:mccmcnt of interests to
sentient beings. the other is bad. killing, spe~d..lng harsh words. telling a lie.
and estranging friends, etc. Pcr10nning these actions to perfect oneself is
the end while performing them with good imcntions becomes the means.
We had bcucr distinguish ''hat the pre<:oding discussion calls
"double consequence moral action.. from "hnt C;uholic mor.:~. l teaching
eolls "double effect''. -Nothing hinders one 3Ct from h3,•ins two effects.
only one or " h i ~h is imcndcd. "hile the other is beside t_hc i ntention~ ... the
act of sc lf~ efc n sc mar ha\'c two cm~·c t s : one, th~ snvinc of on~·s life, the
other. the sl:1~· ing of lhc aggressor:· In addition, there arc three more
conditions. In the first place, if one ·s intention is s~wi ng one ·sown life, it is
not nnl3wful to kill the aggressor. and it is natural rrom a commonsense
mornl pcrspccti,·c . At the same time. the right of self-defense is not
llllt onditional. and is only pcm1ittcd in a constrn.incd set of circumstancc.s
with the agent not using more ,·iolcncc than ncC(..'S!':try, w In discussions
down th.roug.h the centuries to the present day. the doctri.nc has developed
more conditions for the principle of Double Effect. One of them focuses on
the act~ "The act itself must be ntorally good. or :tt least indiffere nt.·· Two of
them stress the good effect: "The good cOCct must flow fl'om the action (in
or
the order causality, though not necessarily in order of time). [n other
words. the sood ctTect must be produced directly b~, t11c a~tion. not by its
bad effect. Othen\·isc. the :tgcnt would be using a bad means ton good end.
'' bich is nC\ 'Cr allo\,ed: · Additionally. -ltlhc good cOCct must be
s ufficiently desirable 10 compcns..1tc ror the allowing of the b:ld ciTcct."
Comp;aring th.is with the ethical codes of upliya. we sec lh:at only one of
tbcsc eondi1ions c-onsiders the stmc or mind of the ageru "ithou1
:tb:tndoning the impon.1ncc of the ~ood effect: "The agent nt:l}' not
po.siti,·cJy willlhc b3d cfTcct but may permit it l(hc could ;~tuin the good
cfTcc.t without the bad effect. he sJ•ould do so. l11e bad ciTcct is sometimes
s3id to be indirectly \'Oh.tnt.1r')'." 9l Therefore. "double eJTccf" is to this

9J Appcndi" p in T:tW.., 198(.. :lB-324.

?I A<ruinas. TI•omas. StllmtW n~ology 11-0 . Q 64. :trl. 7. " 0( Killing... i rl
W I' Baumanh and Rich:•rd .I H. S .1 •• t:d. On IA~tl". /thmr/iry. <md l'olutcs
(C.:tunbr'idgc: llackett, 198~) 226. Sec aiSlO lJ .JI. (J. 43. :u1. 3: J.JJ. Q. 72. art. I
tOr c.xplunation:~ t'f why whot is beside intention i5 nccidentnl.
j The l"'t1or ,;unditions li~h:d in Gtdc G roup & Catholic "Uni\c-J~it~' or
1

Amcr;c~ t~t 71te ,\ ',•w Cmhollc l:)t<:J•CiopetRo. (TI10111JOn (j(l/~ 2002) 1 02 1 ~ at¥1
 Retwt't'll the Gfiod multht• Right 221

c.s.tenl conscquentiaHsl in na1u.rc. If \\C usc acl·utililarianism as a s1andard

to compnre the nolion of IIJU1yo and the principle of Double Effect. we find
thnt upiiyn is closer to it. while double cff~t is not Roughly speaking. -act
utilitarianism is the view thai the rightness or wrongness of an act depcods
only on the lOUt I goodness or badness of its consequences, i.e .. on the cffccl
of the-action on lhc. wclfurc of all human beings (or pcrhops ~II scntienl
lx:inssr· (Smara nnd Will iams 1967: 1). Act·utilitari:mtsm ad,ocaLc.s Lhc
incention to maximaizing the good -~ an intcn1ion upon whic.h a uptl)•a ·~
prac.ting bodhis.1th :.t doc.s act But the Catholic Double Erect principle
forbids acting and intending thus by certain forbids :.ctiug and intending
thus by certain forb idden means. a constrain! absent alike flom the
:tet·utilitari:m teaching and the bodhisn.th':t ethics endorsed at My Hate fo r
extreme cases.. Bol.h rtpiiya and Double Effect stress the limited SCI of
conditions tmder which it is pcrmissablc to take ano lhcr's life. which seems
dissimilar to Fletcher's situ3tion ethics.. Fletcher claim!; that for 3ny mor3l
ti£Cnt tlac correct oricnro1ion for decision·makin& should be adopted on the
b:lsis of the single principle of lore. "Christian situ:uion ethics hl.S one
norm or principle or Jaw {call it what you will) that is binding :t.Ud
cxecptioncss. and always good :md right regardless of the circumstance.s.
That is •Jon · -~ the agape of the summ:tt)' c.ommandmcn1 to low God and
thy neighbor." (1966: 30) Buddhist compassion is the controlling nonn
justifying upc'l)-'lt and can m3tch Christian love on the score of inner
Qf.lC.'XIncss. \\hilc Double Effect docs not m.akc such strong dcm:mds on the
moral ogcnl 's state of mind.
I will pro' ide l\\O examples for further inquiry. From one of the
Confucian cl:.ssies the Gtw 111. 1/:e ('(Jt1l'el-smion.1 (lj' 1he Swtes, \\C read n
chapter "Shao Gong Let His Son Die to Sove the King Xu.:ut of Zhou (r.
R27-782).- lc is S;1id that in 824 BCE there was a rebellion. King Xuan wM
hidden in Sbao Gong's House. The rebels surrounde-d the house and
demanded the king 's life. Sb:to Gong exercised his moml discretion :tnd
applied cxpcdicnc)'. He Icc his son go out as King Xuan. ~a u sc the rebels
did not know what King Xuan really lool:cd like. 1'his action s.1vcd 1hc life
of the-King, Shao Gong considcrc:d that this ls the Wny/Dno of n minister.
He said to the King. ·'J ha'c g.h·cn you many sut{:CStions about the policies
of the QO\'Crnmcnl. You have nC\'cr listened to me. Th:ll is; lhe c-ause of
tod:ty ·s rebellion. Nc.lw 1 let my :son to be killed in-stead of you. A minister in
SCf\'ing his ruler in danger ought to take Ihe risk without complaint: if he

Jo:K.1lh Man£~11 \.:> lbt in "·A Jlisturicol A.nalysis of the PriociJllc of Dt1ublc
nm.:ct- Tlwo/(,gu:al StudieS 10 4:1 (19 49}. ··~\\ ~;II :.l$ lhc uansl:tlil..lll of the four
condii!(!M m Boyle, Joseph "Toward Undcrsl:mdmg 1bc Pnncaplc of D-ouble
1::.m.-ct"' iul:'tltir..s 90. (U!\1\"CI'ility of Ch ic~go Press. 19@) 527 4 3~: t('pl'mled in
Woodw.:trd. P. A. cd. Tlu• D(,C'Il'itte of Dmtbll.' Effi•cl: Pltilo:JQpltt.'I'S lfi:bttll! a
CottmJ~'t:t'Sia/ MtJr<Jl Princlp/(. (Notcl' D~1m~;. Uniwrsily "f Nt.lt1rc O:a tn~,: l)t\::iS.
200 1}S
222 .lmfon }'m r

complains wi1J1 suggestions he should not be nngcry wi1J1 his master. I

should scrYc you in this way." 96
a. S h ;~o Gong did not intend to kill his son.
b. His intention j s to save the king.
c. H~ took an :.ction that j ustified his correct intentiorl \\ hich is
identical to the principle of Double Em.:cl.
d . T his action fu lfi lls his duty as a ministc.r.
AI the s:1me time.
c. This action is ~lso obcdicn1 to the dictates of conscqucntialism
from Sl13o Gong's perspective.
f. According to "vimrc ethics" the minister Sh;~ o Gong can claim
th:u be shows his mor.:al ,;nuc in lt.is dceision·maldng.
Anothe-r example is taLcn from -Methods of Handling AlTairs- in
the Reflection ()lf11ungs m Hand. In his c:omcrs:uion Cheng H:lo happened
upt)n the subject of -one '' ho wo...~ :~bo ut to spc.lk but hcsit3ttd nncJ
s:toppcd:· He s;1id. "If one should speak. c,·cn if it is to dcmnnd somcone·s
head. he must speak as Jing Ko demanded F~m Wuqi's be-3d:· " He must
spc3k in such a W3Y that his spee<:b sounds firm and deeisi\'c.. as the
Analoc1s 1?:? 3dvocn.tcd. according 10 him. Zhu Xi remarked on Cheng
Hao 's teachings on this issue and set a standard for one to :tct. which
cmphasizcd the importo.nce of lilprinciplc "Whnt one should spcnk about
should be in acc.ord with princ iplciH. The case of Fan Wuqi is not in accord
with principle." Th:lt is, to 1.;11 or to commit suicide is nol in ae<:ord with the
principle of Nco·Confudanism. Zhu Xi w:mtcd to Slrt:$S sinccrity 1d7L•ng ns
n cardinal \'irluc playing 8 crucial role when a moral agent makes a decision
to :\CI. He S:lid. ''Master Cheng referred to it simp I ~' to sho" ' that one should
speilk even if il is most dtfllcult to do so'" (Ziwngyonx lluonc:n). This
cotwerS<ttion is based on n SIOJ)' recorded in rhc .91ljl' tJfe Hisltman Sima
{!inn :t Rt•corrf (X6: 2 Ib). Fan Wuqi was a general of Qin who desencd to
the Ynn State o.nd became a retainer of the Ynn Prince. The King of Qin set
a price on his hc~d. Jing Ko (d. 277 BCE) w:~s also a rctain<:r of the Prince
of the Yan Slate and 3 professiona l swordsman. He W:lS ordered by the
prince to nssassin.:ate the King of Qin. Thereupon he spoke to Fom. saying
that if he could have Fan's head to present to the King of Qin. the King
would surely recei\'C him ond he \\'Ould then h.:I\'C :a ch3nee to Sl3b the king
ut dose range. Fan hutcd the king so much th3t he was willing to saeriftec
himself to have the king killed. He in cl'fcct commiued suicide. In this case.
n. Cheng Hno 's intention cmphash..cs the moro.l agent's purity of
mind or inside goodness. By citing the A,o/c:,·t.f 19:9 be claims tlu:u good
intcntjons \\ill make the agent firm and dccish·c in ac ti n ~ . An actjon. such
:ts speaking or ~illin g in the case of Fan or Jinc Ko. is decided by the
agent's ,·irtue or disposition. From tl1etu is derived the rule or st..1udard to
net linn I~~ and dccis ivcl)'·

<o6 llo~ng. Yl)ngt:mg Guv )', Qmm l't: Com><tMlllmz,~· o/1he Ssuflt'S
(Ciuiyans: G-u•zhl)U Remnm, 1995) 5: 1.5· 16
 Retwt't'll the Gfiod multht• Right 22.1

b. Zhu Xi ogrccs " ith Cheng Hao in emphasizing the internal

purily of the ~gc:n t. AI the same time he considers that killing in Fan's c~\SC
is not in nceordo.ncc with the gcncr:Jl principle ofnn action which is morally
nnd mctnphysically in <KC·ordancc "ith Nco-Confuc.ianism.
c. Jing Ko ·s demand for Fan's head is not justified by the Principle
of Double Effect. He was niming nt Fan's suicide or murder F;m :md took il
<:~s means to nn end. \\hich would rcsuh in killing the King ofQ in. Jing Ko
may justify himself by say in& that he is pmcticing Yt or j ustice. He c.an also
claim that following the prince's order is his dut~· and disploys the virtue or
loy~lty.
d. Fan could also claim that he is practicing y i or justice. He did
not intend to kill himself (though. as his death seen as means to the result he
desired. Catholic Double Effect teaching \\Ould regard it as wrongfully
intended). He just intended 10 kill the King of Qin as the meJ\ns It) his
ultimate gool Of bringing ju.u ice and pCOCC tO the pCOple during :1 time or
\\arfarc. Or he fila.)' even simply say that his intcntjon is to pmcticc yi. nnd
notl1ing else.

Titc above examples he lp us to ex:uninc the e.onccpt of qumJ (moral

discretion) as a practical moral principle and a.s a virtue or a person rntllcr
than as a notional concept for pbying with similar notions in the world of
ctl1icaltrnditions.
In discussing the human nspirotion 10 pcrf<.:~t i on leading towards
nir' llna os o coal in Buddhist ethics, some scholars compare it with
Aristotle's tclcolog.icol ethics and advance a.n intcrprctlllion thilt advocates
pr.1c.tices directed towards at sclr~p~r fcet i on as summum bonum. Tiley thus
address human nature in the interests of fostering cenain human potential
which could be regarded as vinucs. -For Aristotle. onlv the wise nrc
virtuous and only the ,; n uous arc wisc."~1 Upt~ra as whol~somc in mcmts
actually represents compassionate (alTccti\'c) and wise (cognith·c)
dcc-ision·m01king and action-t:tking. As mentioned t~bo\"C ~ purt bodlrisalfwr
takes perfection of wisdom. including moral and i.nte11ectual pcrfc.."Ctions. as
father while Ukmg Jipl'iy u-kusolct ns mother. It pnrnllcls the rcl::ttion bch\CC:n
\'irtuc and wisdom in Ari:s:totlc's cthic:;. lit'C is by nature good ac:cordin:; to
Aristotle and to good men cxi$tcnce is goc.>d and plcas~nt (Nh:omtrcherm
l:'fhiC's ll70:s30-bl9 21 4), so that c\'en wroogfu ll~, taking .:mother's life with
good intentions is not o virtuous action. Titc: names of actions such as
adultery. theft. and murder ·' already imply badness·· ( 1 006b36~1 1 107a25
)9). Virtue lies in :1 ldnd of mct~n . ~iming :lt what is intcrmi,.-diatc
(1 106b?-1106b35 38). The Middle Wo)· of up<i}'tl is not different from
.A.ristotle's mean. Bu11he theory of the momlogcnt's employment of skillful

"' Anthtmy J1.d. m P~drick Kenny. AnMtJII< ':! 1'he(JIY Qj 1he II'ill (l.ondun;
Duckworth. 1979) 80.
22-1 .lmfon }'m r

means and the metaphysics behind such ctltics arc quite Uiffcrcnt from \\ bat
cnn be found in the Ntctmtftd1etm f.'lhtc.t , E\'Cn if climin:uing suffering is
the duty of tltc mornJ agent. applying upii)'(l is also different from whut we
find in Krull's de-ontological ethics. nu:tJphysicnlly and ethically.
M}' trnnsl;uion of the lii'St item on 1hc list of Ihe SC\'Cn pcnnissible
offences _.s '"i;ompassionatc killing"'. in contrnst to the- precept " no killing''
stipulated in the Rranwjiila .\litrt1 has undctlincd its eth ic;~) mcani n~;:.
Bcnc\olcnce and Jove as pure afTcct may brine harm. To justify the
bo<lhisaflva's compassion::ttc killing action 1 would like to usc the
Confucian conce-pt of the rcctincation of Mmcsl:henxminx. r:irst of niL in
the Analet·t.~. we read. "L.ct the mlcr be a mlcr. the minister be 3 minister.
the f:t.thcr be a father. and the son be 3 son." ( 12:11 ) This idea was 3lso
supported by others in such words as " Do not lly for the bi1ds :md mn for
the horses" and as ··Act without :\-cdon. Doing w·ithout >'I n~· doing:·
(DtKHkjmg 63) Tht~.t is, nho you arc m~y impose on you the duty of not
ncting <JUh\Drdly. Bodhismtms Juwc their onn duties nnd functions.
Compassionate killing is one of them.
Secondly. in the J't-lmcius. ..The King XtL'ln of Qi asked. ·was it a
fac t th31 Tang (founder of the Shang D)·nasty r. 1751· I739 BC E) banished
King J ic>a wicked King (r. IK02·17S·z BCE). and the King Wen ofZhou
b.'Ulisbc-d King Zhou of Shang'? ' 'Yes. According to records.' Mcncius
replied. ' Is it nil right for a minister to murder his king?' Mcncius said.
' One \\h(l inj ures hum:mity is a b:mdit. One who injures rightc.'Ousncs!' is :t
dcstruc;ti\·c person. Such a person is a mere fe llow~ I huve heard ofkilli.ng a
mere fellow Zhou. but I ha\C nCK hcm"d of murdering him ns the ruler....
Therefore. the bmfhismtw1 would kill the mere fellow as murderer ot bandit,
not llS a man with responsibilities.
Th irdly. I would like to usc tl1c h\0 principle-S Zhu Xi added to the
exercise of qurm: rishtoousncss and timely cquHibriumi,("hi.rhong. With the
\'irtuo of righteousness the boti}J;satll'n decided to override the rule ..no
kill ing"' in ccrcain circunt.stanccs in order to practice righteousness and
compassion and eliminate a large amount of sutTcting on the p:~n :JII theor
people invoh·cd. He did so at tbc. right time. His moral discretion made him
ch()(Y..;e the appropriate-action bet\\ cen the good and the bad. and b¢t\\Cen
extreme hnnn and suflCring and extreme lx."'ncfit for everyone involved.
Therefore, his upiiyt1 is a m CUU$ as well as a perfection oflhc middle way.
From the standpoint of the ethical :1sscssmcnt of actions,
consequences, chnmctcrs: and moth·cs:. we can see both upbya and quhn
cited in the ouempt to prO\'idc an ideal action-guiding principle in order to
produce right action :Jnd to bring out the best consequences in any given
siruation. At the s:~mc time they both require a perfect quality!Yinuc on the
p.'Vt of the mo~.tl agent Howc,·cr. each has hs own difficuhics. cth.icol as
\\Ctl as rncwphysical and therefore. recourse to the ideal principle ''as
limited to Confuci:m s.,g~:s and Mah.3~·5 n :. borUu~·mtwrs rather than being
onti lablc for usc by 3\'crnge morol ngcnts. So. !he importanc.c of the
charac1er of 1he asenl is cm p h asi~..c d as the- guarantee or his good will,
 Retwt't'll the Gfiod multht• Right 225

righteousness or compassion. with tltc elimination of suffering being lh~:

only motive or the IfliOn or upt1ya. Gh·cn the uncertain IC\'CI of 'be purity of
ch:unc:tcr ~nd intcm of c\·cn the bcst·intcntioncd rulc·brcakcrs. both
Nco-Confucianism nnd Mahfiyiioo cthks. inOucnecd by religious and social
practices and by on awareness of humon selfishness, brousltl in the powers
of supcm:uurnl beings. budhis·au,·as nnd szagcs. ;md pullhc quality of their
\·irtue for <Juiln 3nd UfUl)'tl at il lc\"Cl beyond merely human obilitr. thus
causing s.omc morn lists to regard 1he upr'l yn 0\S something beyond nonnative
ctJ1ics. In my \'icw. Nco·Confucianism and Moh5yfuta ethics h:l\'c rtttiorully
e:qJlorcd the necessity of qmm and upi1)'(1 und htwe rationall~ argued for
them from virtuc·bascd and mlc·bascd models. Howc\'cr. contrary to what
they ha,·e said. it is not necessary to regard such ,·cry gre::u olfcnccs as
outside of t.he sphere of nonnative cchics as long as human virtues nud
moral principles can handle 1hcm. In fac t. killing is not only a mornl issue;
it involves laws. As cxemplnrs of morali ty, sages and bodlusatTa·a s
cncourut;cd moml culli\'ation posi1h•cly :.md pro"idcd inspimtion for
ave-rage moral agents in the two philosophical lraditions. Neg:llivcly. they
bccoute -empty images•· beyond the reach of an avecagc ruomt agent. The
Twofold Truth a.nd tl1e "no·sclf"" doctrine can easily m:tke ''ignorant peopfc~
lose the dinx1ion of their liws.
The Middle W:ly as a mornl principle or mctltod must be wort.:nblc.
its rules or codes must not lay a hca\)' burden on agcniS. The Middle \Vny
:.s the Eightfold P:uh is workable in praclke and has its lofty st:1tus. It
might be dcsi.rnble for ;altru.ism or fairness to figure more i.n any concept of
momlity. bt1t the result or such prim:iplcs could be moral dcs)nlir. deep or
undue nwml guilt fcclings nnd inciTccti\C action. The Middle Wny is :timed
at reducing these ncgath·c potentialities. 1'bc discussion of the Middle Wa~.
ils m11nift:stations or up/iJ 't l :tnd tJttfm <~ nd their consequences on tl1c ogem·s
side show chc overly idcalislic t\aturc of the Middle Way. Such discussion
encourages the agent to do better and bcucr in a positiYc way, but ncnr the
best The M iddle Way. in mornl prncticc, pte\'Cnts cxlrcmc :~ cti on and
decision-making. It makes p;:oplc want to create a hnnnonious cm·ironment
within their giYcn fom1s of life. l t is prar;tkal in nuwy ways. Neg;lli Ycl~·. it
is ·'empty.. for there is no subst.ance there. \\hich ls 10 say. any attion or
decision could rcxh some stopping point on the W:l)' -· but nc\Cr the 1ruc
dcst.i113tion.

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GLOSSARY

Dichi !!HI'
Fangbian li [~
Fauwnng-puso-jicbcn ~t~~ fl:t rf~ii!X. *
FO$huopus:mcijicjmg ·flt.J.Q i:f.~ii J)~ ~Kf:
Gujin z.hi 1J1cngqu:1n j!j'4":G iEfii
Guanzhuibi~ :~m1.~
Huish:mgpusa-wendashanquanj ing ~ J-.:-f1,: Wi.l:\1)-: :f1f fil'i~
j icquan y i zi!;hi f-;1~ffi ~.1 tl Sff
Liudu 7\Jj£
Kuiji 1iH~
lianmin t_,ll.fflf
Pusadic bij ins·Jicbcn ~'i 00 Jik !<\!~ 1tl1 A<
Pusa.nc,jicjing 1';iWi V~ ltX!i¥.
*
l'u.~ylngluobcnyejing F.i:1:MJ;t! Jt~ ~i\\1.
Quan -ill.
Qumr we ;qumt mou, zltmJ y mrx fum j i:i, slti wei J'hi 111. jill jinx :hi gm.
tBiffi'Hii~~t ~fJfJi'ilf.Jt ):ff,',~};H~. ;,·u :t!fii'IL
Sanjujingjic ~~i:fiJ£
Shanqunnfangbian Titl1J1!1!
Shitllong !1·} 11•
Shou.shisha11iicjing ~ l ·'il1fl'i~~
Sichongjic ·l"lli:Jtlt
Tongquandnbian iililiii:ll~
wm,clfilll .fff1~-m
Yini:ms.anqian -· :2 ~.;;f-
Youposcj ie rflr;f.;f,\;J~
Yurul?Jti yishou >ltc. quan~c. "I~Z ~Ff-~, Iii iJ£
Zhao Qi .Ill l~
 Chaplcr XI

Chong Yagyong's Four· Books Learning

Tm: FORMATION OF Til E Z IIU Xl"S FOUR BOOKS LEARNING

The Gn:ut L,·urnhrg (:k~) and lhc Do<:lrine r;if the i\ fe1111 ( 1t 1/dh
''ere original!) lwo of 1hc 49 ch.:lptcrs of the Hook afUI/e:r ( Ht'it!). Howc,·c r,
C\'Cr since the H~n dynast)'. stholars have 3tt.achcd :J high lc\·ct or
importance to these two ch."lptcrs and scp~r.ttc works written for the sole
purpose of discussing them h:1xc bccn in circul:ttion. Among the most
+
iltlJ}()l1('1nt of these were th.: Explaining the Doctrine ofthe J\lettn ( 1 1Jilf:\Q)
in two ch:ap!CI'S listed in the nweu zhi of the /Inn SJw (i~ iM ·~)CJ.-i) tmd
the /:)oplrcm;on and Commentary on thr /Joctrmc l.J.f' tilt' /&1em1 ('IJ J~j{;f.t~i)
in 011c juan written by Empc:ror Wu of the linng dynnsty tmd listed in the
Jmgfr :Ju of the Sui Shu (I:N1!: ~ tl\.~). Liu Xin ('jlJI~, style Mmc Zijun
T!Vl. ?· 23 BC) cl:'lSSificd the c~m !...earning. in one chapter. ilS a general
work on Confucionism in his /Jiclu ()J:Ul). (Kong Yingd.1 UUtiiil): 983) In
the Tans dynasty. Han Yu (!ff,;.li!!, style name Tui/.hi :ill.£.. 76&-824) S.1\'C'
the (lrc.'ilf f .urmmg an extremely high c\·a lualion. at one point citi.ng lhc
phrase and ..seek to be sincere in thoughts and rcctUY the mind-heart.. (;l~~
il~·C.·) fro m lhat \\Oik as being the basic principle of govcm.ing. (Han Yu:
7- 11) During the Song dyn:lSty. the stolUs of the Great f.l!trrning and the
/)tu:lrim: r~ftJu: M.:mr was elcvoted C\'Cn higher. To begin with. Sima Gu:mg
(i0'11 !!~Jt. style name H(l~!Juns hi. 10 19- 10R6) separated these 1wo chapters
oul' of the Book of fWeJ' and wrote his l!~\'p<>undin~ ()n the, :\111aninK of the
Grt'nf l.eorning ( k~·~ Jtr :-Xi) :md £:rpmmding m, 1he :\ fC!tmmg- (~!" lh~
/)llclrim: oflh~: Alerm (rt1 J~L'~tla). A.flcr the Cheng brothers -- Cheng Hno
(:fl\~~1. style n:unc Bochunf£:1 f'~. ~nown Inter as Mingd:10 1tfJ.i£t. 1032~108!5)
and Cheng Yi (i'~ lf!l style name Zhcngshu n:J){. l n0\\11 later ns Yichu:mfJI
)II. 1033-1107) ·- ga\·c prominence to lhcm, there two works came be put
on the same IC\ el as the Anafct'IS anti the Mencms. 1 During the SoUihcm
Song dynosly. Zhu )(j (~ .t:(, style name Yuonhui JGiil!i . 1130·1200)
foliO\\Cd the lead of the Cheng brothers and began cn:aling these 1wo
ch:.ptcrs :IS independent works Ihal could st:~nd oo their owo. He thco wrote
his CtJmmt:ntar,v on the Doctrin~ oftlte Mtttm ('I' MU;~ U}) and Commentary

I Thi~ \'icw origmntcd in Ch~n Zhcnsun (I:W1fH..f:)'s Slmlu Jll'll (i':lil.'~Al¥.

Mit)t~nd i.s qu<th:~ in Qinn Jibo. Si.shu Jklt ji qi chifr_t (I!Y~H&Y.JM D:~l: tt)lr!:).
Taipct· Sh:mgwu Ymsh llf!U:\0 ( 1 97~) . p, I
2.l0

on !he GtVat Lc:amin,~ (.k!~! t~1:1i}). which together" ith his CIJmmentary em
1/w Anah'L'IS (~iifHJ5~t) and Commc.•n/ary em the M4!m::lt~s (i[r:1~~~ 1i:) were
combined into one work. the Cnllec:ted Commt~ntarie,,. I)IJ the Ft"mr Hook.,·
(lill~l<jN1Jji~jl) . The subsequent increase in Zhu Xi's influence led to the
Four Boola bee-o minc tl1c most fu ndamental Conruckmtcxts and one of the
basic teaching matcri;als of Confuci:mism in F.:~st· 1\si:a.
Zhu Xi's lumpin&together of the Armlccf:r. the. Great T.eammg. the
/)tU:Irlne l~(t/Je A·fum and the ~'-'fencius was not simp!~ based on the content
of these tOur books, hut rather bccau..;.;c he saw them ns scpnt3tl! but inleg.ral
parts Q( U \\hOle. It is bc."C'ause of tlli$ integrated \iC\\ tiU'll \\C-C3R that in
tenus of the history of intellcciUal thought his grouping ur these four works
was significant for erc~ting the notion o f ··four Books learning"' (ILH!;I~) .
Zhu Xi's Four 'B ooks le:1ming can be explained through an appeal to three
scp:u:uc lines o f thought, To begin with. Zhu Xi reinterpreted the
dc,·clopmcnt of Confucianism through the cstnblisluncnt of an orthodox
tradition staning wilh Confu cius (A1Ut1N·t.)') :md cxtcndi_ng throug.h Zcngzi
(~ -J~. Grt>at Lt•aming). Zisi ( -[-.tl,t. /Jottrim· of The Meat~) rutd Mcneius
(,Wend us). Secondly. Zhu Xi used his imcrprci:Hion of the On.>tlf /,earning
and the Docrr;nc of the Ml~ml to establish his own wortd,·icw based on
nature (fl') ;md principle (.iM.). with which he lhcn went on to establish his
own brnnd of Confucianism. laslly, he ;attempted to m;~kc up fo r
shortcomings in Confucianism by usins the mctaph~·sic.s fo und in lhc
f)ot·lf'me Qj'l/w A·ferm to respond to the intellectual challenges of Buddhism.
E,·cr since Ou~·Mg Xi.u (~~A.}~.$. sty le name Vwtgshu A<if.l.
1007·1 072) scholars had been highly skcplical lhal Zisi was the author of
the /JQc/rme t~{Jhe 1\fenn (Ouyang Xiu: 3-4) o r that lcngzi h:a.d penned the
Great Lcaming. Zhu Xi. howcn;r. argued strongl)' thnt the Doctrim: of llu:
Atfecm \\US indeed \\Tittcn b) Zisi in order to strengthen the orthodox
tradition lh:.t he championed. Acc.:ording to him, the o riginal tc~t in the
/look of Rtte1· could be d i,·idcd into one scttion written br Zisi ond ten
sections of commentary. l,ikcwisc, Zhu Xi bclie,red that t11c the-otctic:al
system of lhc Four Books contained distinctions be1wccn 11 - mind·hcan of
dcN.f' and a "·hum3ll mind· hcart'' on the one b3nd nnd -hc:avcnly
principle" and "human des ire" on the other. This "mind · hcart of tlt)O- wns
on the le,·cl of principle. thn.t is to say. it rcprcscnt~d man's .1 priori innate
goodness. a ... nature of heaven ;:md crutl1" lhnt contained all tltc different
principles. The " human mind·hcart'' W:JS the principle inc.am:~tcd in tjl (1t().
in OdiCI' \\ OrdS. 3 "nature Of COmbined l)fincipfc and qf' (~ fJ.:t tf.).
According to Zhu Xi. this combined nature of principle and qi. as a mnucr
of cow·sc. conGealed the hem·culy principle. but as thjs concealment did not
entail an essential change. it \\3S still possible to restore one's nature
through training. In other words. it was possible to reston: one's original
and pure nature throush the mctl1ods o f "maintainint;: quicsccnc.c" (_±·~)
and -cx.ha.u!.ting principles" (l~f f.!l!). To respond 10 lhc theories of emptiness
put forwnrd b~ Daoists and Buddhists. Zhu Xi affirmed tl1c phrase -what
 231

the llca\C11S confer is called 'nature'" c X6l'rt..<t~·~l:) (OtJctrine ofthc: Afean.

Chapter I) in the Doctrmc of Ihc A1f!an as rcsohi.og the rckuionship
between Confucius· morDli:stic teachings and mature and the heavenly duo
(itl). At the same lime. 1he phmsc ··sinc.crily is 1he d::to of the 1-lca.vcns~
making oneself sincere is thc fkJoofman''(~ 'tt· . XZi.tf: ~'RZ,.:l( . A Z
jl!) (Voclrim: of th~ A·fcan, Clmptcr 20) wns combi.ncd with. tbc idea th at
"si11ceril)' is the beginning and end of all things: without sinceril)' 1hcre is
nothing'' (~R"ff·, ~Z~f;~~ ~;~w_ P.H7J) (Do'''""" oftlw Mean, Chnptcr25)
to rcsoh·c the question of the relation bcn, ccn the doctrine of the mean and
n;uurc.

REACTIONS AGAINST ZRU XI'S FOUR BOOKS LEARN ING IN

EAST AS IA

The SI)!Cial meaning that Zhu Xi imparted in the Four Books

helped him to form ulate a complete philosophkn.l s~·stcm. At the same lime
though. it also had the e.fiCct of chtu1gi.ng the status of the other Confuci:m
classics. Tn other words, bcginninc in 1he Yuan dynasty, the privileged
position of the Four Books in the imperial examin:uion system resulted in
the Fh·c Classics. prc \·iou sl~· considered the basic books of Confucianism.
being relegated to a subordim'ltC posi1ion. This is not to say 1ha1 this:
trnnsition went unopposed by scholars. ln China. opposition 10 the
Cllcng-Zhu school of philosoph~· bc~1n '' ith the Song dynasty scholur Yc
Shi t.!i~.im. J I.S<l-122.3), continued into the Ming d)nn.~t)'
. with scholars like
Wang Tingxiang ('El:UU. H 74-1 SH) and Wu Tinghan ( ~ flif.IL
148£)- 1559). and was taken up i.n tbe· Qi.ng dyn::asty b~· Yen Yuan (trf;t.;.
1634-1 7-10) and Dai Zhen (i'&l;.l. ) 723-1 777). Genetally speaking, thcil'
opposition took two forms. The (trst was to question the pLlce of the F'our
Books in the Confucian tradition :md the onhodO'<Y that was based on it
from the viewpoint of :.uthorship. The second was to question the
h:gitim:Jcy ofZhu Xi's \'icw ofnnturc :.nd principles from the ,·icwpoiot of
intcrprct3tion. Thus Yc Shi argued that Confucius nC\'Cr p1.11 fomard
anything like 3 "doctrine of the mc.;m" :mel th::at such :1 position could not
have been p.nss-cd d0\\1'1 fro m ontiquity. (Yc Shi; 840) On the other bo.nd,
Yen Yuan sugscstcd th:n while ''lhe Confucian \\3)1 ctwlsioncd by Zhu Xi
cmbodi(:S the complexities and subtleties of Buddhism" it l \ !lS not orthodox
Confucianism. (")·'en Yuan: 282)
Oucsidc of China a s imilar trend was :also St't'n. During the 17th
century Zht1 Xi's philosophy began to be lmown in Japan from a number of
Chin~c tcstbooks written from students preparing for tho Ming civil
examination system. Thus Japan became a pan of the East Asian Confucian
circle. In the lbkugnwa period. ItO Jinsnt ({.It~ (:.~. 1627-1705) undertook
n 1cxtunl critiQue of the Four Books using a stattdnrd 11uu he rcfl!trc.d 10 as
..tllc bloodliJlc of Confucius :tnd .Mencius- ( ·Jl t~Z. Ifil~). This critique
set the stage for .. ancient learning- (ii4~. kogaku). a t) pe of scholarship
airocd :at discovering t.hc nocicnt meoln.i.ogs of the classic' tlmt c:lO b~· seen
as the fi rst deconstruction of the Four Books durins lhc Tokug;m o period
and the beginning of a Japanese Confuci:mism strii)J'cd of of Zhu Xi's f ollr
Books lc3111ing. 116 Jinsni engaged in a reinterpretation of the text of lhe
Four B4.X>kS "hereby he critiqued Zhu Xi's Four Books Lcanling. denied
the prh·ilcccd status of the Grr:cll l.eorning, and proposed an emphasis on
the ··throe Books'", namely the Annl~:cls. the .\.f,•ncius, :md the Doctrine of
the Mum. {lto Jinsoi: 3) A fie• that. Og_1 o Smai (illi'i'f~ 1:1<. 1666- 1?28) took
ItO '$opposition to Zhu Xi a step farther with his Daigaku koi (A:~}~M·).
In this book. '' hich is replete with critic.isms of Zhu Xi, (Ogy() Sorai,
VaignJ...,, Jit1i: 9) OgyO treats the Grta/ J.carnmg as a conuuentary inslcad of
a cbssic. (Ibid.) and argues tl~at the Doctrine ofthe A1(.an was intended as n
response to Oaoism. As such. he argues. it represent.~ a line of thou~hl that
is a1 times inconsistent with the thought of Confucius (OgyO Somi. Chr7y6
l.:ni (rt•J.If/fR.); J-2) and th;1t has COnSiStently resulted in misundCISiandings
on the part of l:ncr Contbc iM~> . (Ibid.: 2)
If we- take 116 and Og~:O togcLhcr. \\C can see that C\'Cn though Lher
didn't attempt to write eommcnrarics to the classics. they did. in fact
represent a mo\'cmcm nimcd ::u shining the locus of the sutudnrd texts of
Confucianism :may from lhc Four Books and 1owards tJ1c Six Clossics. for
ItO. undcrst:mding the "'bloodline" of the A.nalecr,,· and the J\1enc:ius \\Ould
enable one 10 comprehend the Six Classics: (hO Jinsoi. GOmO ;tgt: 78)
" hich \\ Crt idenlilicd as tbe four classics of the /J(wk ofS(mgs (;.U~). the
Buuk v.f'Vocumeuts (l~'ij iS). lhe Book uf Changes ( -Mi:l1~ ). the Annals o.flht•
SprmJ; (IJ1d Arltwmr Pericxi (:{f!Y;:#r:). together with the classics detailing
rites nnd music Oft~). the Iauer t\\0 being seen as supf)ltmcntnl to the
politie<ll and educational teachings of lhe former four. Ogy~ , on the other
hand. S.O\\ the teachings of the saints 3..'1 being pJ-cscrvcd in the Si.'< Cklssics
<lnd Cllll)h3Si1.,cd the Study or the Rook of ,\(mg.r, the /Joak of /)ocumen/.1!,
and the clnssics detailing rites and music. (OgyO Sorai. Henmc1: 41r
\\'hcthcr it was the -Jcaming ofmorolily and daily li\'ing". and -bcnc,·olcnt
\\ay of lhc king" cmphasii.Cd by hO or the ·'"a)' of the earl~ l:.ings"
chmactcrizcd by "rites, musk, pcn:Jitics :md regulations" (OgyO Sorai.
"Bcndo" : 201) ch;ampioncd by OgyO. their fund:~mental oricnt;ation w~
opposed 10 Zhu Xj's theories of u r,JI nnd mindlnaUtrc in ra,or or on
iniCrprct.ntion of Confucianism that centered !!rOund rule by a king thn')ug.h
rites and m u~ic.
In K orea Song Learning had been gcuing the allention of scholars
c1·cr since An Hywang (~ lp). 1243-1306) began promoting Zhu Xi
learning during the Kony6 pe-riod. In 1367. under the reign of King
Sci.ng,iong. Vi Sack (1i~t st)-·lc o:amc MogUu fJJ.U.. 1328-J396) had the

2 r(,r this 1mp~.:r. an Edo-crt" \.\lition of thislxlt•k ill the Ntlli1)1Htl T;ji\t :'ll
Univcrsily L1hmry t \ a$ \1~"':\1
Scmtggyun-g\\an (J£.i1J f!ii) rcbuill and sparJ..cd an in1crcs1 in Song Learning
with 1bc cstoablisbmcnt of system of tJt.:ldcmics for the tcachi.o s of the Fh·e·
Classics and Four Books (these academics were later to bcc:omc known
eollcc.th'el) tiS the Nine Course Acndem)r (hm)). The Choson dynnsty
follo\\ed the C.'(amplc established in the Kon)O period of including the Nine
Course Acrtdcmy under the Sconggyun·g" an. Tlle Confucian classics were
chosen tOr usc in the ci\'11examination system, with Zhu xrs commentaries
on the Four Books gh·en the place of honor. After that. c\·cry cduc:t.tcd
person in Choson bccarnc acquainted with t.he Four Books through Zhu Xi.
During, the middle aod IDle periods of the Choson dyn:.sty. though. the.
scllolar Chon1: Y<~&.\'Ong (T:l:';»b", Sl)'le name Ta5an (J~lil), 1762-1836)
embarked on a srud~· o( tllc four Books that wns different not only from
tlt3t of his contcmpomrics and tlteir emphasis on nature and principle-. but
also in that it differed from the interpretations of Zhu Xi and Wang
Yongming (3'. ~'M 19J. 1472-1528) in Chino.
On the surfnoc. Chons's denial that the-Great Lutrnlng " as wriucn
by ~eng:rj (Ch~n* Yngyong, 1fu:lwk ~o-~b"rJty: ~) Qnd his belief thrn_therc was
nnctcnt matcnal· tlml SUJlported Ztsn clxum lo the :tuthorslup of the
J>c·•ctrmc.• of 1/le Mean appears to be \ "CI")' s imilar to hO 's Three Book
Lenrning b:.t.SCd on the Analrcts. the Mmcws. :md the original IC~I or the
DcJctrine ofllle ;Hum. Ho\\cvcr. Chong's distinct interpretation of tlte Great
/.earning would seem to a llow us to speak or a Four Books tcJming unique
to Chong. Zbu Xi's interprctntion of the "inYcstigation of things- <m~)J)
.::md ··extending L:nO\\·'Icdgc" (j~ jll) in the Gr~m /.earning \\:lS th~
backbone of his Four Books Lenming. Chong. on tl1c olhcr hand. used his
own interpretation or the Gn.~at /.(•rmrln..s: to :mack Zhu Xi Lca.rning. Such a
mon is more fund3mcntal and mdical than hO 's dismissal of the Great
Learning and. as such. is certainly worth}' of our attention.

ANCHcNT UcARN I.NG IN CHONG YAG YONG'S FOUR BOOKS

LEARING

A review of Chong's Four Books learning shows :t few b:.sic

prcsuppositiun!S in his intcrpl'Ct;tlions Qf th...: f our IklOks. To begin wilh.
there is a c.lear predisposition towards •·ancient learning" in Chong's
intcrprct:uion of the Confuci3n c lassics. for inst:mcc when he tr.lccs the
origins of the Great Lcomh•K and Lhe Docfr im: of the Alum (for example
the fonncr being seen as origin3ting in the ''1llc Counsels of Qlo Yao.. <*
~J~~) dHJptcr of the H4H}k 4~/"/)(}cwnen ls). (Chong Yagrong. Ttu:JwJ.· kongu,J':
42) Chong also finds the lone of discussion of pleasure. ru1gcr, sorro\,. Md
joy in the Doctrine 1?{' tlte Afam to be similar 10 tlu.t of Lhe anctcnts.

~ For c:-:ampk rhc T:mg dyn!l.Sty scholar l...u l) cmmg (~~:~~19J ) ::.sscns in
his Jin~cllwr Jlrha·cn (~-~Jll!:f¥)t) thul "'The lfi.JClrbJ(~ uj J}a,! .\1~:-wr \\US writta l
by K(lngzl"s grandson 10 glonl} lhc ch:u~c•cr ofhl"= t~rt~.~~:stor'"
especially n p._1ssagc in the .lii~Yll (r~~~th (Chong Yagyong. Cwungyong
ktnJ!,"lty; 6) Bcc.:~usc Chong linds the tone of discussion on n:llurc :md
principles among IOJtcr scho1;rrs to be different from thiU of the nnc.icnts. he
proposes: "the (mean i n~ or the) original text of the /Joctrmc ,.d. tire /l'l ean
should be sought using the tone of people of lh:..t time"'. From this we cnn
sec that Chong ha$ cornplctcl~· b~·passcd Zhu Xi's tour Book Learning lo
base his understanding on <tntiquity.
Chong's -Mcicnt leonting'' tokes rwo b:tsic directions. The first.
"hich stems from his dissatisfaction with scholars of the Choson d) nast{s
acccpt.:ulCc of the :mthority orZhu Xi. is to rc\'i\'c studies of the Classics. In
his 'Sips..1m kycngchayk · (-1~=:i.:itl1). he s.:tys:

During the time when the gt'Cilt Ming dynns.t~· ruled the
world and ch ilit..'l.tion reached new heights. Zhuzi ' " 's
rcnrcd and trusted, heterodox theories were forb idden.
and the Four Books and Tiu~e Classics were in the schools.
Uu Guang (M!Ii!l) and Xic lin (fr'lt/1) compiled the Daquan
(,Ai':) books nnd caused all scholars under the Heavens to
abandon reason and forego thought and be unified in one
direction. As a result. :111 of the different schools of thought
or
from the tintcs the Han dynasties on dO\\ I\ \\CfC unable
to ~woi d (lhc fate) of being stored a'' ay in high tO\\I:fS and
bc.;oming wnste p.1pcr. lnsoltlr ns it rcc1ificd rhc tradition
of the hundred schools of thought and com."'ttcd the cnors
of an age. such a work ccrtninlr had its contribution. but
on the negative s1dc there was no obscncc of errors on 1he
side of Ol'Crtompcns<Jlion. And so those or little l ~;arni ng
in dcgr:'tded times, the base and worthless. did not frorn the
start know Lhilt there are arguments (to determine)
differences o.nd similari(ics 3od tluu dtct'C is a basi~ fol' the
old aod the new. Instead. they pul their faith in platitudes.
as petty learning became the fhshion ns that which they
took 10 be made by the I-lea\ ens clogged their minds and
senses. It was then thnl those who looked to lhe ancienls
find a base were accused of in1erestcd in novelties :md
those \\ ho used the dnssics 10 cvatunte l_hc commcnUlrics
were ridicule.d ns chasing aOcr curiosities. So it c.'\me to be
tbat Lhc J:Jook tifRites (~ttl) bce3ntc tr.:t'lh. the Rites oftlu:
Chou (.f;?;lft.l) became an esoteric-work. the (itm&'l'nng ('l.~
+> aud Oulitmg c-a~~) commentaries we-re regarded OS
heterodox. ~rc /!')"' (Ui:Jft) and /Jook ~!'Pilial l'h·ty ('!'=!:\')
came to be looked 31 like Daois'l talismans. the names of
Ma Rong (I.!JO'.Jl) ond Zhcng Xunn(~!; !<) were seldom
heard, nnd Kong (IL)'s Shu (lii) nnd l in(~~rs Shi(f/!)
\H!I'C not to be seen. lgoorancc and :trrogancc resulted. and
 235

(pcopk) were no longer able to undertake Lite mandc of

their predecessors. The extent to which this culmrc of ours
has been blotted out has never been as serious ~sit is tod.1y.
My! Everything under the Hcm·cns bcsins " ith one
principle, diverges into 10,000 differen t p:u ticlllaritic-s., Md
then converges into one principle in the end. For this
rc.uron. the teaching of the- ~gcs moves from the
comprehensive to the essential. Today. understandings of
the classics rue \'aricd :.lnd numerous o.nd '' ithout aor
suuctun: \\h3L<IOC\'Cr. \\''Crc one nol be able- 10 carefully
pick and choose. the end result would be that the way of
the classics would be aU lx1y cxtinguis!1cd. lChong
YagyonB. "Ohak Jon- (Tif}J ;A): 25)

In this section, Chcu~; uses the phrase " nbruu.lc)n rcmn and fOI"~O
thought, and be unified in one dire<:tion·· to describe the ~ate of scholarship
io Cboson nt the time. From the sc\·crity and harshucss of his criticism we
can sec his dissatisfac tion \\ ith the scholars of his time. ·n,is d i s s~ tisfac tion
Led Chons to ad\'oc;utc sirh.ak, (t;l,r}\. pr.lctic:~l lcnming). as when he wrote
·'seck onl)' "hat is right. net only on "hat is right uphold only ''hat is
righf'. (Chong Yagrong, ·rap li yehong sc·: 29) in :~n attempt to revitali;,.c
Confucianism at its most basic level.
TI1c second d i rc~:tion Chong·s .;ancient lean~ in~( tn.kcs might ha\'e
originated in an interpretation of Confuci:mism common to both Chin:'! and
JapJn that centered on t11c usc of rites and music in go,'Cm::mcc. For our
pw·poscs. it would be wonh our whiJc to consider the influence of ItO and
Ogyt)s kogaku (:~nci cnt learning), From Chong's 'Upon lon il' (FI -*'i'J'U - )
(Otong Yagyong: -t) we can sec that Chong bclie\C:s Lhc- credit for the
transfonn:uion of Japnn from a '"unch ilized country·· that is "infat\J:ttcd
with Buddhism. taken wilh the strength of ::ums, ;md (exists) only to prey
on c.ounu'ics along tl1c scns" to a one in which -ch ilh·.ation has triumphed-
and that "obscn'cs rites and propriety and considers the i mplic~uions and
r:unifications (of deeds)" belongs entirely to tltc -ancient learning"' school
associated with ItO. OgyO and Dazai Shundai ().;:~fr": f.i. 1()80-17-t?). From
this his incredibly high view or the school of ~ncicnt learning should be
quite clear. Furthermore:. \\hen he writes thai "ch ilita tion has lriumplu:d-.
rrom the point of view of :lncic-nt learning it should be clear that, on :111
intellectual lc,·cl. be is referring to being able to understand the way of
Confucius" Si:-. Cl:lssics .-.nd, on .-. practic.:ll lc\'el. implcmcrlling the rites.
music. laws, and gm"Crnmcnt or the ideal ruler.
BASIC STRUCTURE OF CHONG YAGYONG'S FOUR BOOKS
J, f.ARNING

Gi\·cn the desc-ription abon~ of the tcndcnties tow;~rds ancient

learning, there are 1\\0 uspccLS of the Four Books Learning as developed by
Chong t.tmt wurmnt fut1hcr discussion. The fi rst is the notion tht!t there
should be a conncc.tion of some sort between Four Book::; LCilmi n ~t ;~ n d
study or the Six Classic-~ . The second is that Four Books Lc3minc should
put aside lhc \\'Ot ld viC\\ of U'qi based on lhc dichotomy between bca,·cnly
principlclluunan desire (Chong Ya.g.)ong. ' Ohak lon': 19) in order 10
connect discourse on the hc3n·mind and nnturc with that of the rites. music.
penalties and regulations of the ideal ruler. In h.is ·ohak Jon ir (1il~~iit-).
Chong states:

But "hen stud) ing in ancient times. it W35 known that

n:uure was based on He3\'en, that principle originatt'd
tfom Hc..'l\'Cn. th.11 morality wt~s the way to achic\'c the
Wa~·. dmt filjaJ pict~·. obedience. loyalty and uuo;t ''ere the
OOsis of serving Hca,·cn. rites. music. penalties and
regulations were the tools for ruli.ng pcopk. :a.nd thot
-sccLing to be sincere in thoughts nnd rcc;tifying tl1c
mind-heart'' \\Cte the nxis connecting man nnd Hea,'en.
Dtis WQS called hcnC\'Oicocc. actiJlS with bcnc\·olc.ncc \\'US
called rcciprocil). dcali.ns " ith others with benc,·o knce
was c:l11cd respect, and hold ins oneself with benevolence
" "'coiled tloc ~Iiddie Wal (rl'.f11Z~Ii). Th>t wos all ~tcre
was to it. and there w:~s not nl\lch disc\lssion of it. And
c,·c n if there was discussion. it was :lll redundant.
repetition. and nothing nC\\.

Rites fonnalizc :lction that is in occotdo.ncc with filial piety.

obedience. loynhy and U'usl'. those \\hO ;~rc not awi\rc of
this say that nru.ncs. objects. systems and techniques (:g:f.n
J{.[tl) arc unimport;~nt trappings of the Way. and that there
is someone in charge of seeing to the uses of the ritual
objccls. Music. pleases (Lhosc) uclin!; in occordancc wilh
fil ial piety, obedience. IO) ahy and trus t~ those who are not
awill'c of this s:t~ that ch:mting.. singing~ and dancing arc
not ··ell!\-ant to the world of tod.ly, that music is just made
up or ''oc.als and the sounds of bells and drums. Penalties
and regulations guide action that is in accordance with
fil ial piety. obedience. loyalty and ll11S t~ lbosc who arc not
aware or this say that learning in,·oh·ing the matching of
names and reality nnd utilitarinn.ism (l}J;f;!JZ,!',I:) is cJsl
aside by the sages. Gestures and dress mainmin ac-tion dt:lt
 237

is in accord:mcc with filial piety. obedience. loyally and

tmst by providing for differen t countenances for sacrifices.
receiving guests. aucnding the imperial coun. manial
displnys. prhatc nudicnccs. and funerals lhat c.1n not be
interchanged: those \\ ho ore not :'I ware of this collapse
them into a single rite: kneeling. (Chong Yagyo ng: 19)

TI1e :tbove p:tssagc b:ts h\O main points. The (jrst is that Chong
bcliC\'CS that the anc ients discussed the relation between Hca,·cn and man in
tcnns of Llm~c :tSpccts. IUtm c.ly "'fili3l piety. obedience. loyally 3Jtd trust
were the b:tsis of serving Hc:wcn". "rites, music, penalties and regulations
were the tools for ruling people"'. and "seeking to be sincere in tl1oug.hts rutd
rcCiifying the mind-l1cart' \\CJ'C the "oxis connccth1g m:m ru1d Hca,cn"'.
Since Chong also holds 1h:1.t " riles formalh;e :tel ion 1ha1 is in ac.cordanc.e
with fil ia l piety, obedicncc. loyahy find Lrust", "music pleases (those) tu~ 1ing
in iiCCordancc ''ith fili nl piety. obedience. loyally and lmsf·. and lluu
..pe-nalties and rcgulacions guide aclion th:H is in accordance wilh fili al picry.
obedience. loplty and trust". we can deduce that rites, music, Md pent:~ hies
and regulations exist for lhe s.1kCor Iilia) piety. obedience loy3hy :111d trusl
From the otbovc. we can SCi: 1h:11 Chong thinks that wha1 is
impommt for Confucianism is filial piety. obedience. loyalty :md trust nnd
that the usc of ·'seeking to be sincere in thoughts and rcc t il~· ing the
mind-h-eart" and rile~ . music.. pena lties and regulalions was tc) glori~,. the
way or[llial piety. ol>cdicm:c, loyohy nnd trust. In other words. the purpose
of both ·'seeking 10 be sincere in thougl1ts o.nd rccti(r ing the mind-hear(
and rites, music , pcnahies and rcgula1ions, the fonner \\ Ofking on the Je,cl
of indh·idunl cuhiv.o.tion rutd the l:mcr on the lc, cl of govctttiug the polit),
is to ensure 1hat the path of fil i<d l>it t)'. obedience. loyalty und trus:t docs not
r:tll by the w:~ysi d c. This no1ion is clearly similar 10 ItO· s idea that the
AnolecJs and the A1encitiS ..tcoch bcne,·olcncc. proprict~·. rites and wisdom
for the purpose of fil ial piety. obedience, l oy.o.h~· .o.nd trusl.. (ItO l insai.
1Jmlw1.1l leihtm : 3·4) and OgyO's cx plan :~tion of the ·'doctrine of the mean..
ns -ch4Jroctcr thtlt is not VCI)' c:o:altcd nnd c.o.sily put into nction. something
of the IiLes of filial piety. olx:diencc. loyalty and trust.. ( 0~y0 Somi. Chti}il
kai: 1) and points 10 the innucncc of ancient le.o.ming in J.o.pan on Chong,
AI the .s~um; time. though, Chong is not simplr bom.m·ing fi om
Jap.o.ncse anc.icnt learning. He. marks :m imJJrO\'emcnt on 1hc school or
ancient l~mi n g in that he incorpor:ues Iilia I piety, obedience, loynhy and
trust. - seeking 10 be sincere in thoughts and rectifying the miud~hcan" rutd
rites. music. penalties and regulatjons into his fra mework of four Books
Lcarninc. That is to say. the focus of the Annlccts and 1hc M'•nmts is on
ftlial piety. obedience. loyalty a:nd tru.sl due to their C.'li: plic~t i on of human
n.;uurc and morality: the l)tJ,·trine ofthe ft.lctm nnd th~o: Gn:ml.c:nming foc-us
on "seeking to be sincere in thoughts :md ~ti fY ing the m ind-hc:~rt"' in
order to explain the rchnionsJ1ip bCh\ CCn "solitary watchfu lucss" ('lti'-'i >
and -seeking to be sin~crc in thoughts'". and nature and ch:tmctcr from :m
indh idual and political pcrspeclivc. LikC\\ isc. rites. music. pcnahics mtd
rcgulouions arc :t focus of the Gre(ll l...eammg in order 10 explain that the
n1le of the ideal king starts with fili:11 piety. obedience. and beneficence.
Tn the frnmC\\Ork of Four Books Learning outlined Jbove. the
GrrNtt l~ C'tlrning is panicu lnrly imponant bceause "seeking to be sincere in
thoughts nnd rcctif)·ing. the m ind-heart" . its ccntrnl conc-e pt. cun serve as on
..a~ is connecting man and H ca\'C tl-. As C hong stute.s :

Sinc.crii) is the thing that per,·o.dcs from the bcginnin~ to

the end. it is lh:n "hich makes thoughts sinc-e-re. it is that
which rcccificd the mind-hc:lrt, it is that which cuhh"atcs
the body. it is that which orders the house nud country. it is
lhat \\ hich makes c\·crything unde-r the Heavens trnnquil.
Thus the Doctrine of the Mean states: 'Sincerity is the
beginning 3nd the end of a.JI things:· (Chong Yrut~')' Ong.
Ji'ltlmkkwJJ,'ll.V: IS)

From this we cnn sec that he is attempting to usc - scckiztg to be

sincere in tho ught- as :2 me:2ns for handling the connection between nature
(Hca\'en). charnctcr (m~n) ;md cultivation through go\·.:mmcnt as well as
moking a connection with the Doc-lrim: of the .~Jean. As such, -seeking 10
be sincere in thoughts and rcctil)'ing the mind-hcan" can be seen as the
main :\xi!' of C hong's Four Bool:s Learning. for this reason, C hong's
i.nlcrprct:uion of the (}n·at Lt·aming not on.ly bri.n gs out the unique
character of his Four Dooks Learning but also can help explain what \\as
rcYolution:lry about his pnnicular Yersion of Four Books lc:lming.

CHONG YAGVONG"S INTERPRETATION OF THE GREAT

!.EARNING

Chong's intcrpi'Ctation of the Great Leoming is found in his l\\0

works Tm.'hak knnguy (_;.k:.l}~ iT.~ t/1) :md the 1'ndutk /.;qnguy. T he TtN.!Iwk
ktmguy \\as written in 17R9 when Olong was 27 years old. (Chons
Yag)'Ong, 10tthak konguy: I) The ]'{'1('/tnk kongro' was written in I~ 15 when
Chong \HlS 53 years old ond ca.u be seen as reptcsenting his mature thought.
(Chong Yagyoog. Tae/wk l·unguy: 8)
TI1c interpretation of the (ircnt IA:arnmg's basic position in the
Tachak l"OJJIWJ' is extremely different from that of Zhu Xi. Even the text
used is dill'crcnt in stead of quoting fro m Z hu Xi's Commenfllf)' mr the
Great Leornmg, Chong quotes from the "ancient" t~xt orthe Great
Lt!nmin;:. To beg iu with. Chong docs not accept that this tc~1 was written
by Zen& Zi. clnim ing instend t_hat it is not possible to determine its author.
(Chong Yagyong. 1'fu,hak konguy: l) For 1his reason, the text can not be
t.liYidcd. us Zhu Xi did. into one section of origin~I classic :md ten s(."CtioRS
o f commentary. Instead, it is seen as being made up of 27 s.octions o f
o rig inal text. In addhion. Chong accepts neither Zhu Xi's position that the
 239

Great Ltomin~ gi\'es nn oullinc of \\ hat eolts titutcs scholarship that "as
used in ~ncicnt· times to teach people (L.i Jingdc (~ llit!): 397. 401). nor
his notion that in controst 10 the .. lesser lenming-. the "greater lcarnint(
constitute-d ··1hc way of exhausting principles, recti~v i ng the mind-1tcan.
cuhiv31in~ the sclflo and rulins olhcrs·· (Zhu Xi: I) (ril l!l!!E·.:.O}C.if;Az
ili). (Chong Yag.yong, Tac:lmk konguy: 3) C hong also objects to Z hu Xi's
\'icw of li tti. preferring instead to belic,·c that the emphasis of the Gr~nf
learni,g is not on "illuminaling the mind-he-nri" (Chong Yugyong. Tl~hnk
konJ,;uy: 10) ::tnd hos nothing to do ";th discourse on the mmd-h!!:trl :mel
nature. (Chon~ Yuy,,rong, Tm.lhak kon{:!uy: 12-3)
Chong's interpretation or the (;rrot l.tamlllg does not just diiTer
from 2 hu Xi's: it is opposed to Zhu Xi's interpretation. Overall: Chong uses
his intcrprclntion of the Grem Lee1ruinj! to provide discussion of the ritc.s.
music-. penalties and regulations that is otherwise lacking in the f'our Books.
thus raising the status of the Grllnt l.e(rming to that of the six Confuci:m
classics. f oJ esilmpJe. he rc~ds the first d mrm;tcr of .k~ (tlm:m:) as .l\
(ta1). and undcrsl.!tnds this schooling as being gi,·e n to princes. On the
strcn~th or that. Chong takes the "way" of lOC (ln:tH U.·(lrning as bcinl; the
··"ay of princes". (Chong Yagyong. Tadwk J.:(mguy: 3) What. then, actually
m3kc-s up the ..way.. of the Grcm Lt·m-ning'! Chong is of the opinion that
what was taught at to the princes at d•is school \\aS the \ \il)' of filial piety
:md friendship. (Chong Y3g}'ong. Tm:Jwk l.:tmguy: 3) From this. we C3n sec
that he understands the art of ordering :t country and m:tking C\'el')'t.hing
under the Heo\'ens tranquil lies in "\'encruting elders". Hhonoring su periors·~
and ··c-aring for the " c-ak". (Chong Yng>·on2. Ttrehak kQng,y: 6) Princes arc
thus tnught the way of fili;d piety and rricndship to Si\'C them the.
round01tion nccdOO to implement rites. music. penultics and regulations.
On Chong's interpretation. lhc thrust or the three main principles
of the Gr('nt Le(Jmin~: identified by Zhu Xi. namely ··iuuntinating
illustrious \'irtuc" <'9)1!/Jli~>- -=rcnc"ing the people.. (.mR;} and -coming to
n::st in supreme goodness- (.Jl:}/.d:i1!V). tnO\'CS nwtty from the c:"\plant:~tion
offered by Zhu Xi or "rcstoring the uanscendcn1al and unblemished original
n.11u rc bcstO\\'Cd by the llc:m.'ns". "people chllng.ing their old prncticcs to
(get lhcm tu) illuminate illustrious ' inuc'' and ··coming to rest in the
supreml! goodness of Hc:wcnly principle untainted by personal desire and
not mo\ing therefrom"'. (Chong Y:tgyong:. J)mme : luzngju: 1) in tl new
directiOit. tlun of "becoming completely com'ctsam with the Iiila! pict) .
obedience. and beneficence or one's nature... (Chong Y;~gyonu. Ttwhok
J:Un},'lty: 6.10) " the JX.'Ople drawing close 10 each other through tiliul piety.
obedience. and bcncficcm:c'" (Chong Yagrong. Tnelutk konxuy; 10) nod
"comins 10 rest in the supreme morality of fi lial piecy. respect. trusc. :Jnd
beneficence and not mo\'ing therefrom'' (Chong Yagyong, 1'twha~· kt1nguy:
12). Chong goes on to modify Zhu Xi·s "eight steps of cultivation- (J \.P~ 1;1)
into his own -si~ means of cxrunining things and extending knowledge" (·r.+
"iii'\'(•~~) (C ho ng Yag_\ong. TtJelwk konguy: 17). a system he cxplit3tcs with
the following di::1g.rar.n; (Ibid)

* !lvi!f ~·
~~a: ;.J Jl@ll. 0 7~~

!M!Hf !l!'li l'ttli IH!.G[j Jt~~:[J

:>~< nrlli:Y. I<'! 'f iili'l itl[j!() ¥.IT:A

~u[J«.u r.ttTR0>~·~
f.k~ t·~i!!•l) " 'fr.la]ifi[ q illll:t~1Jltl
j\; !itlt.~·!illiJ!I
ll<:llllfr )118ii2!J!)~i!i;J! Jll:i\{ijl:t>!
~ .(i.'l:lih!E)·f,'ff.
•N :iii[I!UJ :.~ "'mjg;_q•., ~ll\~U:E

1i! U<h~~litl'> liil:'filh~J.:: Flf

With the a bo,·c di:tgram. Chong is :tttemptins to show tl1a1 ··M

tmdcrstandiug of ·cxrunlning lhi11gs' is to be sought in the terms ·root' and
' branch ': an undersland ing of 'c:ct~nding knowledge' is to be sought in the
tenus ·nrst' and ·tater···. (Ibid.) As n result, -examining things.. is taken 10
mean ''determining the 'root' nnd 'branch· o fthiugs (J.k.#JZ 1~-*;f~) . while
..extending knowledge" is understood as "knowing to lhc fullest wh:tL i.1i
t.rst and last" (¥~J!tJt;Jri~l:·ifi). (Chong Yagyong. Ta<iwk konguy: 19) On
this ,·icw. -examining things and C:\1cnding knowledge .. is the beginning. or
the root. just ns "seeking to be sincere in thoughts·· is what comes first for
the Son of Hea\'c-n. lif..cwise. "c.xam ining things Md Lnowlcdgc b!!Coming
c:ompletc- (I\1-~J tJI 1:) is the end. or the bra.~:~ch. just ns apply ing tbc fruits
of personal culthation to the cc.lmmon 1>crson conlCS last Accordingly,
Chong Si..'CS "S('cking to be sinc.crc in thoughts'' as being the first step in
·'examining things and extending kno,,Jcdgc" as \\Cll ns the fu-st step in
d ealing wilh one's ~lfai rs . For him. there is not. as there was for Zhu Xi. the
need to ha,·c the p redicate the step of "s~king to be sincere in though( on
the practices of "examining things'' and "extending knO\\ Icdgc". (Chong
YA8)'0ng. Taelwk Jmnguy: 17)
 2-11

From the above \\C can sec that Chong bclic,cs that the three main
principles of the Gretrt /.et1mmg provide: an O\·crnll framework ~md the ••six
means of cx::.mining things and extending knowledge·· QCt ns n methodology
and steps that centers around the beginning. end. root. and branch o f
"c:o.:amining things··, "extending knowledge... For' ll1is renson, if the Great
learning pro,·idcs :my steps for cultivotion. they nrc based on its three m.:tin
principles and arc used to c:O.:JJiain tl1e ciTccts o f those prin~ iplcs . Chonrfs
position is that .. nlial piety. olx~ icncc , and bcn~ricencc.. are the three steps
based on those three. principles . (Chong Yagyong, Tf1dWk kc:mguy: 12)
Were he to ha\'e dra\\'R up 3 chan to illusu·atc tJ1c relation OCh\ccn these
three and the three principles. it would have probably looked something like
this:

Sl'::~t/Jil;l1illl'

!fll91 \j) L m1;11~ u

J1l , .

"' !MtlliiHC~
L_ ;fjr"""'
lll '" "' " ' fi ~ Ill"'Ill"'
lil!llili!i! ill
EIA'ftt~ 'f:

AAil\d:~ ll!
Si liiiA~tUl fir

.!:1 A :X: J.t ~ :!!l

CONCLUSION

Chong Yagy ong's Tt~lwk kanguy is definitely :m imponanl wort\

in the establishment or his Four Books Learning. for that reason. the
peculiarities that he exh.ibits in his inu:rprctntio n of the Grc~u L.c3ming nrc
also an im po n am part of his Four Books Lc-.trning. From the ubon!
discussion, we c.an dr:tw the lb llowint observations about C hong's unique
fOrm of Four Boo~ Lc:.nming :
( I) he Gretrt Lenrning forms th e foundation for Zhu Xi's Foul'
Bool: Lcnming,. so in order to de,·clop :1 new \'CI'Sion of this learning.
Chang complctelr re.,·runps Zhu Xi"s imerprctntion of the Gn.=
at Lt~aming to
reorient it toward.s gO\'Cmancc :tnd education. The mos( rcvolutioa\31)'
2~2

reinterpretation offered is or1c that centers on tJ1c h\O terms ""examining

things" :md ..ex lending L:nO\\ Icdgc". In Zhu Xi's Commenuuy mr lht Greflf
LenminJ:. the cxplonn.tion of ..examining things" nnd ··extending
knO\\ ledge·· . seen as being the most critical aspccu of the Grcnl /,.c(lmiu~:.
c.rc Or'iented to,,ards a process of"rcs:toring one·s natun!- through realizing
one 's origins :md returning to the orisinnl t4lturc. In the 1tuhak J.:on,'.,'lty . on
the (.lthcr h;md. thc$C two tcm1:; arc not scc.n as ha\'ing any thing 10 do with
the removal of obst.1cks in the mind·hc:ut or a return to one's original
nature. Instead, these l\\ o terms as seen os indicmins a srorting and n
stopping point ftlr the progression flam ··cuJth ati.ng t11c bc.xly'' to ··making
cn:rything under the Hc:wcns lranquil". From this tr:msition in
interpretation. Chong mo,·cs the emphnsis of the Grt!nl Lenmi,g away from
Zlm Xi"s nalluc and tow:nds "\'irtuc··. -action" (lbitf) and a teaching tlun
begins "ith oneself and extend$ to others. At the same cimc. "exnmining
thing.')"' o.od - extending knm\'lcdgc" 3rc linked up with rites. music, laws.
pcnahics ;md rcgulntions. Chon&·s undcrstnndin& o f the three bi•sic
principles of ··muminating illustrious virtue", "renewinG the people", and
-coming to rest in supreme goodness- follows the Sllmc pattern:
''illumin:uing illustrio us vinue- is taken as referring to the ruler's own
un dc~tand i ng of filial piety. fmtemal submission. and mercy; -renewing
the people'' becomes mnking the people emulate the ruler and using the
principk-s of filial pict). obedience nnd beneficence in their interactions
with one another.
{2) The second tn.:ljor t:r:msition .awuy from Zhu Xi's Commctr!OIJ'
on the Greal f..l:(lming is to tnkc the principle o f "'s iu ccrit~ in though( 10 be
the centml message of the (i~at Learning. (Chong Yas,yong, 1hehak
konguy. 12. 20. 20·21, 24. 26j This allows him 10 combine the Grt•tJ/
/.eami,~ togclhcr "ith the Dot•trine of tlu: ;\{e(m into a single system
through om appeal to lhc Jlhrase "sincerity is the end and bcgirming of all
tbiur;s·· Llt:t{ appears ln the latter. But while the Grwtt Lcaming and the
Doctrine o.(Jlte Mecm both ha\·ing · ·sincerity" as their tcnual idea. Chong
sees the /)m;trmc (~(the A1ean as leaning tow:uds a description of lhc "inner
principle" of ·· nature··. while tl1e (Jn•nt LcnrniiiJ: leans tow;nds the ..d;~ily
pro,ctice- of " \'irtue-. .. Nmurc'· a.nd "virtue-- . though. a.re inscpo,rnble. jusl as
without "rcciprocily.. , the ''mc:.:tns Of pr:'ICliCing hcncvolcnee". there i~ no
"bcnc\'olcnc.c". (Chong Yag_\'(.mg. 'Tap Jj ychong sc {Kopswu sipwcl il)':
35-6)
(3) Chong uses :1 frmncwort 10 interpret 1hc Four Books tJ1at is
buill arowld a. dao of - the basis of sen ins 1-lc-~.'l\'Cn is through filia l piety.
obedience. loyalty. and tmst"'. a teaching of ''the tools of o rdering man arc
rites. mtlsic. penalties :md r~gulations". and " s,-c:L:ing to be sinc.crc in
tl1oug.hts and rectifying the mind-heart nrc wlw.t ~onnc cts man and the
HC&\'cns- (a c:onfi)rm:mce of muurc and \'irtuc "ith doo). With this
frnme\\ork, the Fo u.r Books are organi7.cd into a \\hole nnd ore able 10
display thci.r own i.o di,;dual characteristics through that whole.
 (4) Chong traces the origins of the Great learning back to lh~:
/Juuk (~{Dm:ummls, saying .. The 'Counsels of Kao Yno· is the origin of the
Gnat Lenrniug and the cssenc.c of the leaching p:1sscd down by l l .IOO
s.1ges:· (Chong Yogyong. Tttehak kmt);-uy. p.42) His intent here is to open up
u new space for the Four Books br conne<:ting them \\ i1h the crnditional
cl:assics. This in tum could help correct the onrcmphusis th:at scholars of
his time to Song l.cuming.
gzl \'C
While tl1c influence of the Japanese ..ancient learning.. school on
Chong's Confucianism is ob,·ious. his undcrstrutding tlnd rcconslruclion of
rour Books Lcruning \\as mor~: radical llHH tl1at of the '"ancient lcaruing
school". 110 b:ascd his scholarship on two clements: ·'bloodline'· and
·"irnpJjcation.. (~~~~).(ItO l in.s.1i. (j{imti ; iK•: 59) Of these two. -bloodline·~
takes priority and indeed is the b:lsis for h<fs v:llue judsments.. Par1 of the
rc:l$on wh\· ItO uses .. bloodline" like he da<=s could be lhat he bclie,·cs that
the s.1ying~ or the sages (W~) and \\Onhil!s ('tf) were spoken with diOi::rent
intents. These diO~ercnt s:tyings resulted in misunderst:tndings nmong
Confucians of Inter ages. though. causing them to tum their bac"-s on the
tn1c way of the sages l:xised on morality and daily life. hO uses ••t.toodlinc··
to ns a means of ntOtking sure· thou 01mid the plethom of sayings th;n l1ave
been pnsscd down through time. lhc lruc mcnning of the s'lses nnd \\Orthics
docs no1 get lost. From this vie,, poinl, Chong's intc(prelmion of the Grem
Learning is more progressive th;m hO's. He C:lSl$ the notion of n
"bloQdfine- tO the Side. prcft::rriug instead tO USC hi$ C(JIIU11CIItar~· IO Cil$1 Q(
the authoritatin view and rc,·cal the ideas of ..rites, music, penalties and
rcg·ulations'' aud - the morru dao- to be found in the l~our Books. As n result,
Chong's f our Books Learning clcn.rly incorporates the .. ancicm learning..
sc.hool's notion th:at the Six Classics contain the dtw of the C:lrly mlcrs
without relying on :1 ··bloodlin e'· to make the comtcetion. In th:n respect. we
can say Lhat that among E..'lSt Asinn Confucians. Chong \\ 3S important for
being able to truly deconstruct Zhu Xi's Four Books Learning ;:,nd
rcconsltuct his own \ CrSion.

REFERENCES

Chong Yagyong (T:t~:flli). 1936. Cw•m>O'(mx ~·tmgi{V ( rl~m; ;,t?.i),

in Ycyotrmg cens'' ( Y:! ~ ~ ~ 1U ). Korc:~: .Mincok mwumhw.:~ko
chWUJ>hansa.
1936. ·· upon lou ir ( IJ *~-·) in Yeyottmg ,·.:use, \"O I. I.
J.'l1'cm 12.
··-··- 1936. ··ohak lon'"' (ii.?~!flii) in Ycyolnng cen.sc. \"OI. I. tw~.:n
10.
·---·- 1936. Tadrak kangu.,r (;lo;:i}l:fi~tiQ.) in reyatang cense. \"OI. 2.
--··- 1936, Ta<'hnk bmgi(V (X'f.•:i~ t.~) in Yt•yotrmgt't'n~·e. \"OI. 2.
----- 1936. ·Tap li ychong se· (1$~tji: <]L. {!;) in Yc.rMtmg t~nst.·.
vol. L ~ .tw~n 19.
 l-Inn Yu (t:~~). ··vuand~o pi;m'' (J!.Uti~) in /ltm CJwngliji Cf!l!J.:•,
\!!!US). Taipei: Hclotushu Chub""shc ( 1975),
I t~ Jinsoi ({llqji f :tii');·cMy~ hashiki Joyu" (•f>!;lf~~~ij; ~Ill ) in
Scki GiichirO (l~m: ·rJl) cd .. Nihon mc:iko sltisho cluislraku :ensho ( 1:1-*
~~~I!.Y ~FA:I:ff~Gi). J.:an I, TokyO: HQ sbutsuhan ( 1973)
4 ' _4 _ f)aihnbt uuhon (J,:f.}~ Jif-19. in St'l>i Giichi~ cd., Nthtm
mcikn s.!Jis/JQ cluishnku zer~sl1o. kan l. Tok~·O : HO
··-·- G(imO ugi (lf,~·r ;;;,: ::-~~) . Nihon jurin sousho (n 4;: ff.H~:t1 ;1f) .
k(m G. TokyO: HQ shutsuh.:m (1978).
Kong Yins da (fi.Wii:ti). 1.!}1 zlteng,l•t (!~;il! il:~~). Taip<i: Yiwcn
yinshugu:m.
Li l ingdc ( !If gr; ii ) cd.. 1973. lim,\·; yulei (Cias..~ iricd
Con\'crsalions ofZhu Xi) (.~ ~~fH'tn.Juau 14. Taipei: Zhcngz:hong shuju.
Lu Deming (fX~ I~J), .Iingiltan .<htwen (1&9q..fl!)[).
Ou) aug Xiu (~"'~}). "Jinshiccwcn sanshou >.hi san" (Jl!i ~Jii [r.[
.=!. i:i Z E )in 0·rmg Wcn.zlumggtmg qumy'i (ID:~)(.,r.!.~i~±-!£) j uan 48.
Sibubeiyaojibu (IJQ t111fl'i~ ~~fil:), vol. 6, Shans,hni: Zhonghoa shuju.
·Ohnk Jon'. in Y~.-•ytH(mg cense. \'O l. 1. kwen 10.
O~')·o Sorai (~'IHII I;I(J. " B<ndo" (i#iil). in Ogyo .'i<Jrai. 'l'o~·yo:
Kanhu sbodcn (1?78),
- --· - Cluiyrj kal (._1. . r.lr·fti·) in Seki GiichirO cd., Nihon mi!;ka .~hlsltt>
clui.shtJku : enslw. kon 1. Tok)·O: 1-15 shutsuhao (1973).
-···· ··· f)lugal.:u km (X.l}~~~) in Seki GiichirO cd., Nllum melk(l
slu's/10 clui:,-Jtflku :t:nslw. k(lll 1. TokyO: HO shutsuhan.
Yc Shi ( ~i@) . Ztmgshujilmgxue tlozhi (~,i&; ~1il}~J.:Fi') in Huang
Zong:d ifiA'~~. Son~:,ruan xue·an (A~Jl;!;.l~)jutm 54. Taipei: (iu:mgwcn
ShltiU ( 1979).
Yen Yuan (~}C) . "Zhuzi ylild ping'· (~~ 7·Jtfma'l') in Ye11 l'tum Ji
(ilJI:n'!l\), Beijing: Zhonghua shuju ( I ?~7).
Z.hu Xi <*;;t). 1?74. Dame zhtmgiu (Commcnl:uy on the Great
Learning). Taipei: Yiwcn yinshuguan.

GLOSSI\RY

'IIPOn ion i l' rl 4;:;:,:1

·Qhak lou il' ]il}~il!l-
·Sips.1m kycn~hayk' + .=:~U1
' T.1p li ycbong sc (Kapswu sip"¢1 il)' .J:\'$ifl;;L,I'l('1'1Ji I·.R [ f
·Tap li ychong sc' ~'M!l 11.l!l
"Chi•yO hashild loyu" •+•J,If~Hifi ~~~~
''Jinshiccwcn SllnShou '!J1i san" illi lJriftJ:=f i:t=
.. Yuandno pian.. Jf;(i.ij j~
·'Zhu::d ) i.ilci ping" *T:::i~i~:li
An Hywong :!.(Jf~
Benda tilill
8emm:i )1f.~
);•n:J.
JJit.~tu
Bochun I'Hfi
Cheng Hao 1'Ui!
Cheng Yi f.'t!!fl
Chong Yogyong T :J:.'tli
Cwtmgyong knn~u y ri'Jilfi'IJi~
Oai Z hcn ~(~.l
0(1/g(lk" kol :k !'Niif.
/)no m
D:tquan )\: ::&;:
Oaxue ::J,f~
Dnzai ShundGi ;J.(*ifFt;
I!I) '(J r?t:m:
Gao Y~o !i,!:~tJ
Glimii :igi t.lt 1;~ !)": ~
G<mgyong ~ -1~
(;uliang 'fl*
Han SJtu ~ ~-~
Han Yu .i!'/,.€1.
Hu Guong iiiJJ:~
llo Jinsoi 1J'JiH-:•Il\'
l in f{
J iugji :hi ~tlf$
.lill)'ll ~ ~.tt
Junshi lll tl
Kog.aku 'i~1}\
Kon~ Yingda 1l~li.ili
Kong { L
liu .X in ;l;lk
Ma Rong m~
P..Hogdao 19Hll
M ogun ~1< F!l
Ogy;; Sor:oi 1)(~1'.11lt~
Ouyang Xiu ~~H~
Qi JK
Soouggywt·gwn.n J&£iJQil
Sbi .f~
Shu ~{(
Sima Guans u·H~'lt
Sn/ S hn l<'il'f
Taehnk kml~f!I{J~ ;kl}~ 'i7~7N
1trt:hflk lwnguy Af~M~iii~
7i11 ).(
Tasao ;'f£ tlJ
Tui~.hi JtlZ
Wang Ting~iang 1:\!!fl
Wang Ynngming ~E I:jjljiJ
Wu Tingllan .5Hf:•}iJ
Xic Jin ffif..~'i
Yc Shi ~.i!l
Yen Yuan t'oJVi:.
Yi Sack Z'f. ~
Yichuan f)t Jlj
YiwemhJ ~~ .X:.~~
Yu:uthui J(.&tj
Yungshu ,j<;JX
Zcngzi f!,•1~
Zhcng Xuan ~~;-g
Zhcns,shu iE>IX
Zlm Xi *kf
Zijun -f .'l!1
zisi ~r .'&!.
Zongsi1Ujia11gxuc ckrzh; ~jJtM:i:~}!:J:;: ~
 Chapter >.11

Ito .Jinsa i on Confucius' Aualects;

A Type of Confucian Hermeneutics in East Asia
Clmn-chie!J lfmmg

INTRODUCTION

Confu cius (55 I-479B.C.) occupies the status of incomparable

Exemplar in Ea~t Asia. In the traditio nal cultures or
China, Japan. and
Korc.1. he is revered as the One whh sagcty personality. exquisite literary
scnsibilit). robust pmxis and humane poliLicnl principles. Vcncrnted as Lhc
Sage pnr excellence. Confttcius has exerted far-reaching innucncc
throughout E:JSI Asia. Com mcntaric~ on lhc Anal£'Cls, the received
compiiJ.tion of his didactic dialogues. arc as countless ns the summer stars.
Titese commcnml'ies h:we ptolifer:ucd down to the present C\'Cn ahou{tl1
Confucius lh·ed O\'Cr h \ 'O millcnni:t 3go. E,·cn tod:l)'. Confucius' sentiments
continue to suffuse the heart i!nd soul of CYCJ)' Confucion scholar in A si;;~ ,
TI1c present essay examines 116 Jinsai's tJtif_P.{...: ~ ( 1627-1705)
interprctntions of the Anolec:ts ~~~{• riA· o f Confucius. 110 was Japan ·s
fOremos t scholar -- o f ClasskaJ Confuciru\i$m, patticulAr - of the I iJ'
century. lie \'Cneratcd the Analect.s as "the lofliest. the sre;~.test Primal Dook
in th e whole uni\Crsc Jil 1: !1~ ~*iii P-i~ - lH ." J He \HOtc two
commentaries. Gom6 Jigi,'j'(tft'(f~ and Rong<J KQ,1!'i~M:1l~. devoting
much of his life to the latter work. His e ldest son reported. "He bcgon
\niting this commentary \\ hen his teeth were still gro\\ing. ... nnd
continued re,·ising and ~dd in g to it for about finy years. rcwritin& the
manuscript n,·c times."" - ·nms, Jinsni h imself felt confident about the
R(mgo K()gJ. claiming that it ;.clucidrue.s what has lain hidden for age.s in Lhc
Ana/tc.:ts :md the Ment~trn~ . l 'cnuuc to publici;-c my pcrson~l opinions in
th is commentary on what has not been explicitly said before... ~ This indeed
was ItO's most rcprcscntati\'Cwork
'l11c book also represents a type of Confucian hermeneutics in 'Easl
Asia. a forceful apologia for Confuc ius :1g;~inst "heresies.. of Daoism.

I ItO.llusai f) Iat t:.:if. R()nJw Kcij;i ~~ ~~~ i!i :N. ill s~ki <Jiichil\) l!fl fi.l -fl~
cd . .V1/Iou .\!elkt' SlnsJtiJ~Ciul.~ho.ku Zeuslm rt ~ t', ~Vtl -:aHI:.tl ~f!~ (Tokyo:
Ho Shupp:an. l913), Vol. ~. p. •1. ltt) .tins:.i fJfllif=~, DQ..\·Id .\fort 1U: ~fll\1. in
l~·~•wg~t S~bUt\l ~,ok ::l'S ct =..1. <.'\Is.. 1-:hr.vd Slu.w k it l)mul m jJJ(ll..!!!.,\il~ ·..•t
1J! (Tokyo: lw:m3mi Shodcn, 1966, 198 1). Vol. 1, p. 204.
1 RongcJ )\{)gJ. p. 2
' Rongo
. A'()gl. p. 4
2-18 Clnm-<:hi.-lr 1-fmwg

Ou.ddhism. and Song Nco..Confu ci~ns . Jiusai re--interprets Confucius by

offering meliculous aextual exegesis wilh fresh intr.ucxlual tmnolations of
the Anah:cls and faithful definitions of such key notions as Jilq ifi and ./t'n
t~ ns Confucius himself mcanl them, on the one hand, n.nd by inl~nexlulll
collations of tJ1c Analects wit11 other Cbssical \\ritings to sJlO\\ their mutual
coherence. on the other.

M.ETIIOOOLOGY OF !TO'S IIERMENEUTICS OF TilE

IINM.E:CTS

116 Jin&li tried to understand Confucius a fresh by commcntins on

the Anah:cU<l-"ltl two rou1cs, (2 .1) re·reading 1hc A,flh'C'I.v with new tc.xlual
ttnd philologic:t.l nnnotations, 10 replace the Sung Nco·Confuci~
hermeneutics. nnd (1.2) mcticu lou..J~· comparing the A,ale</l,f with othCI'
Chinese Classtcs to discern their o,·crall mulual coherence. His fresh grasp
of Confucius opened the W:l)' to n new Confucian hcnncncutics.

ItO"s commenuuies proceed in three steps. He ~;:l osscd word

meaninas Mter e\·ery sentence in the Analtcls, expresses his imJJfessions
u.llt:r C\'CI)' chapter. and sums up m:utcrs with, "Jj udse. saying, i".tE1.- The
two examples below illustrntc how he procei:dcd.

A. In Anolct•fs 1/12 Youzi sa.id. ·'OftJtc tJUngs brought about by lhc

rites. h:trmony is the most \'flluablc. Of the wuys of the Fonner Kings. this
is the most bc~utifu l. ~md is follo"cd alike in maucrs grc:u an-d sm~ll. li=-f
H: I.:I.Z./11. ~11 /-!J't ;\; ·E.Z.lllll'iZ1lf<. ' J•)(IIrZ.:·' The word ')lr' hod
been inlcrprctcd nuiousl} for gcncrmjons. For instance. Zhu Xi <*~t'& .
Hui:mii~J!I\t . 1130· l200) i.ntcrprctcd it Cl<Ccording 10 the Sung Nco·Confucion
theory or··subst:lncc (II. nOJ and function (yong. ffl )... "Since dccomm (1.1.
ft). though solemn in subst;mc-c. also originates with llannony in lhc
Principles of N:uurc, so both their fu nctions must value unhurried ealm.'' 5
Boscd on nn allcbocd distinc-tion bctwcc.n the substance and function in Lhc
rites. t11is intellJCCtation renects Zhu x rs O\\n srstcm ofthought mOI'e th:m
it expl.:1ins the \\Ord and the riles.
ItO adopted a special Ulclic to depose Zhu Xi's nontt<Ui\'C
interpretation. This was to examine the meanings of the \\Ords as Confucius
himself used them in the Annfccfs. He s.1id. - )lj is "nslwith 1;1..• as the Book

" D. C. Lau IJ'. • 7'hi.~ .·lnol<·ct~ (! long K~mg: The Cfuncsc Uni\''-1'sit~ or
Hong Kt"14'l8 Pre...::~, 1992), p 7
!< Lhu Xt. *·~·~ IAu~·u j1z/ru liii.l~tt.mU 111 his .~islm cllallf!.illji::lm I!Y "fJ
'ii!: l.ij ~~ ,'ft (lleijing: Chung-hua slttt·(·ho. 1983). Volume I, p 5 1.
 '}.19

of Rite.d G ;';(. s;;~id. • t~~~ Z !i.l :fn ;1,;f j;;t Li takes hanuony as \'aluable.'
H.1n1:1ony mc.:tns no affront. for since excessive Li f~ scpnr:ucs people, in
pcrronning l .i one takes hamtony as \'aluablc:' 6 ItO Jinsai tltought people
sbould undcrsl.tlnd the Anakcrs b>• rcco\'Cring the word meaning in ils
original conte.'(t 3nd should avoid i.tn posing C.'(l rtl·Aualec/S mcrut.ings or
conleXIS, as Zlm Xi c learly had done. T11is was how 116 criticized and
rcjoctcd Master Zhu Xi. saying.1

An old commcnt:uor said. ' /.i ~~, though solemn in

substance fffl. must be unlmrricd and calm in function
(vmJK. JtJ). ' Now the Song Confucian scholars originated
the thCOI)' of SUbStance \'S. runction. but the studies
conduclcd by the sagely 01nc:icnts hOO no suc;h distinction.
Wluu were they Ilike)'? l11c w;ay among the sages j ust
shuulcd among ethics ond i ts princip l es~ they ~cp1 suh·init
to pmctice their concrete dCL'lils, nC\'Cr reflecting bacl: to
the calm recesses of the n1ind·hcan in practice. seeking
where it is yc1 10 issue in nctiatl. Thus. as to \\hat is called
Bcnc,·olcncc, Righteousness. Decorum. and Wisdom. 01c
sages prncticcd 111 the level of their already ha\·ing been
issued in nction. \\'ithout minding their substance. But.
Buddha staytd out of ctbics and its principles to
conccntrntc on our sing]c mind-heart and yel could not
stop \\ Orldly ghes and t::~kcs ruuong men. In talking obout
true vs. fnlsc doctrines, he could not help but adopt the
theory of substance \'S. func tion. as a Tang monk said in
the Com,wnlflri(•s on lhe HunymJ Sutra ·l1~ ]~?{ ~ tMi,
·Substance and fun ction arc the single origin that
thoroughly manifest minutest details lof things!.' Sayings
like this became so prevalent nmong Sons Confucian
scholars thai they beg;:m to formulate a lhcol)' of Principle.
M:utcr-c.."llNgy IQi. it 1. Substance and Function.
Benevolence. Righteousness. Decorum :md Wisdom ha\'C
their rcs(X.'\Cti\'c substances and func tions. ·s crorc
maniJCstin.g' ?.;:~ is substance: 'already manifesting' d
!fl is func1ion. The s.1ges' grcJU instructions thus were tom
to pieces and turned into words of fu11clion "ithout
substance. As long as we stick to the framework of
subst:moc.function. we will make light of func1ion in favor
of substanc.e and people cruutot but pursue substance by
discanling function. The rcsuh has been to promote the

~ RongtJ )\{)gJ. p. 10
; Rongo A'()g/, p, It
250 Clnm-<:hi.-lr 1-fmwg

doctrine of dcsirelcss <(uict emptiness at the expense of

Filinlhy. Brolhc-rlincss. loyalty and Fidelily.

The "'old commentator.. refers 10 Zhu Xi. ItO J ins;~i claimed thnt the
distinctions the Nco-Confucians lt:td dr:h\'n bCh\C<'n inner ond outer ~:md
subst;mcc ond function h;ad originated in a Buddhist-like desire for
Qrlhodo:-.:y. and that tl1c propagation of such dic-h<lLOmics inclined pcQ(>h: to
pursue the will-o"·the-wisp of .. inner substance- such that tltcy tore 10
pieces Confucius' robusl pmx.is of principled ethics. Both of these
e.nraordinary cl3ims a\\ait historical cc.mtinnation. to be sure. but ther
show how 110 Jinsai cngngcd in this son of "'back to Confucius" project 10
defend Confucius against later heresies.

B. The phrase ·· - ~..H~( ;:- OpfX'.nrs l\\icC in Confucius· Analects.

In Analects 4115, Confucius talks 10 his disciple Zcnc,ti 1'{T about the
'"single dU'ead binding" his Dao. then Zcng_zi tells others this mc:ans doing
one·s best (;tJtong :~)and using oneself as a measure to gnugc the likes and
dislikes or others (shu ,tl). On :mother occasion. r~ordcd in Anulub· 1513.
Confucius cl:~ ims to ""h;n·c a single thrc3d binding ir all together.- while
denying that he is a m:m of brood learning. liu Boouan :JfiJj'! .lfli( l797- 1855)
11
~ilid. ~-No one kn~'' what this meant since the times of Elan." Zhu Xi
interpreted the phrnsc in tenus of his own philosophical concepts. saying. 9

Principle runs throughour. rcSJJOnding C\'CI) '\\hcre

nppropriltcl~· at C \'Cr~· l\\•ist o.nd turn. thus t~ means to
"penetrate all- (T'tmg, Jill)... , The sage's hcan·mind is
One turn. to function diJTcrcnlly on cncb occasion.... h is
onalogous to .. the Hca\'cn and Eanh suw Sincere to the
utmOSt without ctasing. !.'lnd all myri!KI things rcspcChYcly
obw.in their proper place$: · ... ''Sincere to the utmost
without ceasing" is /Jao's substance (7t, t!), the One
Origin (Yiben. ·;f9 of myriad things. -All m}rind things
rcs~t ivc ly obtaining their proper places" shows JJmis
func.tion fll. the 0 11COrigin d i,·cr~i~\' ing in myri:Jd ways.

Clc3rly Zhu Xi tutdcrstood Confucius' "single tlU'cad binding it nil

together- in light of his conception th:n . .. PrinciJ>lc is one while iL-;
manifcslations arc manv.~
In contrast Jti$ Jins:~i says. 10

lhc~ urc the \\()rd" or Qi.ng :-£h<>lur Liu n Jonan ~~W.f:~ (1791 · 1SSS)
8

m l.mryu ~lu•ngyi .i~ iih tE~f.! (llcijins: Zltooglm:1 ~u.1u. J9l.K'J), Volum-: t , p.
152.
., 7.hu Xi . l.mru.JI: Iw. (J. 72.
10
Ro,go ;..;ogl . pp 53 ·54.
 251

~ means to "unite ~JL" It means that Ono in its extreme

vastness is unit~· \\ithoul mi.Jtturc ;md is sclf·nlt.nined for
good among illl unde-r hca\'en. uniti ng C\'CI'}'thing
evtr~·"'herc;
it is impossible for us 10 obtain by means of
much learning.. ... Dt10 is merely 3 sin~lc unity. Ahhough
the Fh·c Constancies go in hundreds of ways. and arc
extremely ,·:trious: in their diverse ways, through hundreds
of dclibcrntions. they all return to this One. this Ultimate
One of all under hciWCn that can unite myriads of "good"
under hca\·cn. Thus. the Mnstcr mentions no mind·hcart
' \'"in, •1:.0). no principle (L1, J..~). but mentions only ·•a
single lhrcnd binding it oll together:·

ItO Jins.1i takes N as a concrete unity ?Jl of aU, unlike Zhu Xi's
abstr;H;t iili that J)CilClrotcs \\hillC\ Cr is. Koyasu Nobukuni r~ 1i. ·~r. ·m
(1V33-) rceently deseribcd ItO Jinso.i's hcnnencutic method ~
undctslanding the words br concretely deciphering Lhcit' meanings us Lhcy
appear in each textual instance. as om>oscd to intcrprctinc the words ,·ia
abstmet Nco-Confucian theorics.1 1 ItO adopted what Koyasu dubbed the
·'concrete incidence approoch. ''
1"16 Jin.s."li further clucid:uc:s such Ci.mc.:rctc hcnncneutics in laking
loynlty (Z/umx. •'J.l) ond rcciprO<:it~· (Shu, t!) ns prnxis of Dno. not ~
scholastic glosses on Dt1o. He sass.12
I j udt;,o.c. saying: The Sages' /Jao merely resid'-~ in tl\c
midst of the human ethical constants. the grcatcs1of which
is tO s:I\'C people. TilUS. by loynhy and reciprocity, Z~ng"£i
dc,·cloped the oac penetrating the Mnster's /Jtro. This \\ aS
indeed how lhc Sages' D<w \HIS lransmiued to later
students so clearly ~md completely. The Mnstcr thus
MS\\Cr Fan Chi's !'!.i_\l que') on Ren by saying. · ac
JoyBl 10 people." Zigong -f ii ::sskcd - what would be

11 Koy:..:;u Nobukun.i. based oo :1 .n.--ccot study of ltO's G<' 1.\ h) J,#, s.:t.id
that thi.:i volwne :st.·d :s the. wurd.•i nu:.unin)!s by looJ.:inp into inciJI.'nts of
Ct1nfucius ' and M(.'11Ciu$' ~)flC(Cie m.1rdi11g. 'l11is a Jl jlf(l:11!h i~ dianli.'triclll
l'f'p()Scd hl the thC<ln:tieal :•ppr('l:tch of !l~"\."1'lfn ning dcJimtc meanings <)f \\'Ords
in (cnns ,,fZ itu Xi ' :~ ~c bool .:~ f ~\!o-Confudanisau .ns iuXw:.:ll :'J'i fi.P..r"t-:&.
l1tc inCil!cll l-:l Jl plt~I Ch takes lite m..:aning of 3 word in lilt: COIII,: N h; Cl)l11CXI u!'
ils u s~gc in s1x~dic mc•dcnts, Sec Knya~u Nobukum . ..116 Jmsm yu n:n di
:.ludat ti J.m1)·u jic. i'Jti Tianmin£= sbuo." pap<:l' fo1 the &"Cond Cottf('I'Cntt oo
the Ik mlcncutic Tradition of E~t Asiilll Confucianism. November 19, 2000.
N\ltltJnal T~t i \' tut U'ui, crsit' .
11 Ro, go ;..;ogl . pp 230.131
252 Clnm-<:hi.-lr1-fmwg

one "ord to practice through lifc't' The Master said

merely. " Probably reciprocity,.. Mencius also said. " Try to
redprocntc with others: for seekin g Jcn. nothhtg is elos.:r
than th is.- So. we can sec that loyolt~' and reciprocity nrc
the uh imatc csscmials of Rcn tMt fonn th e stan :'lnd the
fini sh o f the. sage I~· studies. Lo ynh y ;md rcciprocily do nol
refer to " the o ne that penetrates- ; they urc th cm ~h· cs that
Dno by which to .Pcnemnc things into one. Fomtcr
Confucians thought the Master's he:u t ·mind was touillr
on e Prin ciple. nc~ibl) rcspond lug to all. Only leng1..i had
grasped Confud us· real meaning. and h was so mething
thai nol :111 students can underst3tld. So. he used lo)•alty
and rcciprocily to instruct us about the meaning of the o ne
that penetrates. How could a ll this be the e ase'!

The " former Co nf ucian" mcmioned by ItO Jinsai agoin rc:rcrs to

Zhu X i. When ItO Jinsai s:lid th:ll 1' the Doo th:ll ..penetrates all
into o ne..
resides only in the ntidst of loyalty and reciprocity, in concrete moral
behavior. he was uugcting ZllU Xi's \'ic'' that Dao is above loyalty and
n::ciprocity, namely. at one with the m ctaph ~·sicnl Prin ciple (U , JIJ~) 1ha1
gives bin h to Qi 1i( and the my riad things. ''~
In a similar ,·cin, ItO Jinsni commented o n Confucius' Sa) ing
recorded in 15/2. u

I jud ge. s:~ying: The ancients co ns idered proc:tidng vinucs

to be doin g scholarship. Outside v inue·practicc there "as
no so-c.allcd .. scholarship." Thus. once schol:u ship was
occomplisbcd. 'irtucs were established of t.hcuasci\'Cs , ln
deepening self-cultivation to man:1gc families and all
under hea, en, there '' as nothins difficull. Later. people
took prncticing \'in.ucs M ,·irtuc· procticc and d oing
scholm-sh iJJ 3S scholorshil'· uot rca li/jns tJ1a1 '' c musl take
virtue-practice as sdtol:uship itSlel[ Thus. if o ne dc.cidcs to
practice sclf·cultimtion. o ne will u sc sltcngth to grasp and
bold on. if o ne \\ants to manage the \\Orld. one \ \ill

IJ 'l'hi.'> may bC' It6's ·•Jocul!onary mt(1ltion·· ~ts dclincd b}' John R. ~:trlc
in Spt:~cl' Act:~ : .111 !l\'!IU.Y in the PhihMophy of l..tmJ!.uaJ_¥. (CambJid)!.c:
Cmnbridgc U n h ~'f.)il~ l'rcss. 1965). ~Ul d " A ntXO!l(l())~ \l f lllocutionary l\cts.-
in K. Gundcl)lll»l 00., l.ung,ag.·. Mlnd, t/lld f..·,,.,.,t'/?(/go! (Minneap•'Jis·
UniVI."f.Sll)' M Minncs<>to Pn."!is~ 1975). pp. 33,1-369.
H Ch..:ng ShuJc r:;am:z
( 1871-1944) said, ··TJ1i:; Ch:~ph.:r hns onl>· t\\' '
1"-'::>siblc meanings, lhc lh:tl pcncl_r:th.-:~ a ll resides <.•i!hcr l•utsadc or insid c
\>O C

loynlty and n::c1procity " How rigbt he is! Sec h.is Lm•J''' ji.dn' ~Sft :UH1
(13.:-ljing: Z lu.m~:J nw Shuju. J9':X.n. Vul. I. p. 267.
15 Ro, go ;..;ogl . Vol 8. p 230
 253

maintain it wilh legal rcgulmions. a11d lhosc with liulc

knO\\·Jc."CCge will Uy hard to borrow and pretend. Virtues
now lie barren.

Wh;uc,·c,· is regordcd as abstmct in scholarship e:m :~email)' be

found only in co ncrete prncticc. This thesis derives fro m hO ·s d istincti,·e
i rucrprc~t i on or Oao in Confu ciu:s.

!ntt•rttxtual Co/u.>n:nct~ with 01hcr C/as.\~ics

ItO's second imcrprcli"e method is collating other classical \\·Things

wilh Confucius· Analects to idcnti(v and display their mutual atTmities. hO
Jinsai expressed his general scmimcm "hen he annotated Anfllec:ts 2'2. The
Master said, "The Ode.f arc 1hrec hundred in number, The) c:.n be summed
up in o ne phrase. Swcr\'e not fro m the right puth, 'T-El: (:;-.n ~·iJ. - ·ti·
•., W..(-
~tA .... , . .-r """""
L l ...... ,"('~'o w J . .... 110
· 1·ms:n· sat·d"
.

I judge. s.:tying: Benevolence. Righteousness. Principle.

and Wisdom ore. c;~llcd \'inucs. they arc the root of tl1c
human Way. Loyall>·· Fidelity. RcH:rcncc• .and Rcdprocity
are called beha\·ior-cuhi\rznion. Thus, talk about \'ir1ues
must be the center. '''bile discourses on culti\'a.tion of
t~ havior must be \\l\iU is essential. which is also \\hat our
Tca.chcr (Conrucius) mcilnl when he said -swer\'c not fro m
the righl poth" 10 C·o vcr ..the Odl:s arc throe hundred in
number."' Some form er scholars (i. c. Zlm Xi) rcgordcd
benevolence as 1hc es-sence of the AnnleL't'·· innate good :lS
the essence of tbe Mcneius. holdi.n_ g to tbe Middle. of the
Book ofllistury. nnd timeliness. of the Book (1/Chang.:.\·,
chus :.ssigning ench Classic-one essence. wi1hout seeing an
o,·e.rall unit)'· T hese scholm were unaware of \'atious
classics as ""rious rouds converging to one. the one soing
back to hundreds of thoughiS. many words pierced into
one. Thus, -swco'C not from the right p:nh" is really what
begins and completes sagely scholarship.

116 took 1hc mrious s\lgcly words in the Clnssics >'IS pcnctnlblc into
o ne . Thus. 110 intcrprttcd the A'wlc<·ts nlso by :;oi.ng through the other
classics.

16
1), C L:lu rr.• 1'/uulnt~/;.>ct.,, p. I I.
1' ltl• Jms.ai. JfU S!ti 1\iJJ!i i\7-i~t.?l. in Scld Gih:hiro 00. A"i/!Qn .\lo~·u
Sh l.~/1() ('f1,.1fUibi z,•mJ/1"() (Toky(l· IUl Shupp:m, 1973). 9: I.
 Firsl hO Jinsai took the J\1/em:itts to be at one " ith Lhc Ana/eel.\. as
its dcrh·:u ivc. n and so the \\Ords in lhc former can lead bacL: 10 a corrccl
lmdcrslanding of the latter. hO linsai said. 11

The Seven S~ti ons comment on the Arwfects. which \\'C

undcrst.::mcl by grasping the A'IL·nciu...,, Not starting nt the
iHendus but seeking "hat Conrucius meant br mcrclr
looking nt words in the Ann/(•cts, we could become
:ll'biua.ry and make mistakes. as with Song scholars saying
"benc\·otcncc means l11c orl110dox principle of all under
hc;wcn:· Learners should not be unaw:~.re of th is d3ngcr.

Thus. ItO linsai ah\3)'S cited the Alen,·iu::; when commenting on the
Amll~t·Js. Forcxamplc. lulcited Mcncius' "The org:.1n or the heart can think.
Bul. it will ri.nd lhc un_swcr only ir it docs think. ·L·ZLfl"!lJ!Ji • •1.ttJ1:1f.lZ.''
(A1tmcius. VIA: 15) in interpreting " tltink Utrec times bcrorc takinc action
.:::.\t!.iffi'~·h'." (Anal.:c:ls 5:20). :o He also cited Mcncius · arguments based
on the .. unbc:trablc m ind" and " unbe:uable go,·cmmcnts:· to inlcrpn:l some
21
of Confucius ' comments on benevolence.
On huroon mnurc. hO\\ C\ Cr. Confucius· \'iC\\ differs somC\\hat
rrom tltac or Mencius, so 110 Jinsai paid crrort to lt:mnonize them, saying. "'

Confucius said. "Nature lamong hurnansJ is mutu::llly

c.IOS('.- Mencius spec.ilically said, .. [Human] noturc is
good." so tbcir words seem to differ. Why'! Being a
student of Confucius. how could Mcncius hO\'C mcruu
something dirfcrcnl'l His " Hum:m na1urc is good'" was to
clucicbtc the mc3~:~ing or '"f::lumOJ.n nature is mutu.:.Uy
close.- Sages Yao and Shun differ so much from people on
the street. yet they arc said to be close-, for hO\\C\Cr
diO"c-rcnt people arc in their pcnonalities. strong or soft,
dark or brilliant. the) do not diiTer in the fo au Buds inside.
Water may differ in being sweet or bitter, clear or nubid,
yet it 3lwa~'S flows downward. Likewise. what our Te3chcr
took 10 "be close" Mcncius said to "be innate!~ good:~
Tims . what Confucius said to be close. Mcncius
spccific:~lly snid to be ns irmatcly good. as water flows
dO\\ n\\':ard. and thus as f:u :.sour tniC:-naluJC 1R goes. it is
cap:tblc of be-coming g.ood. in shor~ .. good." All the-se
\\Ords arc S:'lid in lerms orinnate- quality. 1101 io tenus nf

.. Uo,gof:ogi. p. 31 .
'' Uo11go Kogi, p. 71.
;)) Rmtj!,a A"oj!i. p. ?0-7 1.
21
NQrtgQ Kogl , ~l, 70.
:::! Ro,go ;..;ogl. p, '2.56· 257
 255

reasoning. In regard to reasoning. we cannot C\'CU talk

:1bout ourscl\'cs- 3S being far or clos.:.

lt6 Jinsai strcsscs here thnl Confudus and Mcncius \\ere discussing
the s.1me points. This " ·ns to target the Song Neo-Confuci:~ns. especially
Zhu Xi. with his so-called '"solid scholarship" that we w ill d isc.uss in dcbil
in Section 3.
Besides being :u one with M<'nclrrs, 110 Jinsai took Confucius 10 be
21
at one " 'ith the Spring tmd Auwmn Annals. Jt6 Jinsai said,

1'hc people, cn:nts. :md polhic:~ l ebb and now of those

cbys that our Teacher (Confucius) discoursed :1bout do not
seem \Cry rclc\'tlJ11 to students of '·toda)." Wh} then did
Confucian studems 3\'idly rccei,·e those \'Oiumcs? Our
leachcr hnd s:aid. .. Rather put down <:learl}· mailers
rdcv~:~nt to spccilic times than wield empty words.., Since
scholarship aims at cffcetivc :1ct ion~ it is best to tackle
concrete C\'Cnts 3.tld things to obscrH· their rigbts and
\HOng. g.:.ins and losses. rather dtrul discourse about
general principles. These chapters and the Spring nnd
AutumH Amwl~· then m u tuall~· fonn "inside and outside."
TI1is is\\ hy these students held ahem dear.

hO's \'icw con be contrasted wilh the approaches L:lkc.n by lwo

o ther scholars. Pi Xinti IJi. i\l liS (Lumens Jill I"J. 1850-1908) apti)'
indicntcd th:1L ..The A1mals ' claim lh.at O\CttJlrowing rebels is Grc:tl Justice
tacitly suggc.sts Mcncius' words on c.hangc and establishment or
go\·cmmcm: Gongyrmg and Zhu Xi's <:ommcnLs make us grasp Mcncius'
intentions: · N to show how the Annnl~· and Mcm:ius fom1 ''lhc inside nnd
tbe outside.. to one another. A contemporary Japanese s inologist. Takeucl1i
Yoshio t.lt JXJ ,~1 ffl:" (18~6-1966) odoptcd n !>imilt'!r ,·icw. ::s. They both
understand the-A.tmtl/.t in terms of the A/tmt'ius. nhilc 116 takes the Annals
and the AnaiC'cts 10 fonn the inside and the outside 10 each other, for both
books argue front c;oncrclo m:mcrs without wielding empty gcncmlil.•nions.
Lilt\\ isc. leO Jinsai sees how the Clas.\ir.:s of/'()etry and Hislory,· 10
agree with the Anale,·ts in that they all discourse on principles without
lca,·ing CYcnts. and thus Yicw obstract m~ttcrs in coocrclc tcm1s.. ItO Jinsai
commtnts on Confucius' saying (7/18): "Where the M\lstcr used the wrrcct
pronunciations \\3S the Odes, the JJtm/.: rif Hi.u ory :md the performanc-e of

::) /~ongo .t\ogi. p. '29.

2.• l,i Xitui Jiu::.r:th~ 1'unxhm #f:~!)i!}~(Ti.libd. lJOkl tu:1hu (!hub:m:illc.
1973). 4 :1-2.
~ Takcuicht y,,:;hio. ·'.\lo Shi do Slum Ju :· in 1'uk<'udti J'm·ltio "L<'mlm Jl \
~~ ~ffi! 'i'.~((Tokyo: Kadogawa Sl••kn. 1978). 2 :473-485.
256 Clnm-<:hi.-lr 1-fmwg

rites. In all these cases. he used Ll1c correct pronunciation. T·Jrtlffilff. ( ~.~ ».
( ll}) tJl itl. f5' !ftl: ;J tl! .··'" oddi• g. ''The Clussi<· o{' Powy c,, ploms
feel ins$ and sentiments. the Cllustc af Hfstm·y c:<plains mancrs of politics.
Both Classics rc:.tist.ic.rlllr clucidat~ interpersonal ethics in terms or daily
I '"
uc:" "'
- I to. ·•
ulcn de' c Iops tIus ' conunent say 'mg.·.,

1 judge. saying: Seeking the Way in the high, seeking

m<lHcrs in the far. this is a general fault of scholars. In
contrast. Cln:>Sics ~!'Poetry and History teach "ith mancrs
close to buman situations rcleYant lbr daily USC·, r:n:~kin g
mailers not far from us humans into the Way. with words
not r:u from the human world, And so. as we can persist in
adhering to Decency la. we become p:1ragons or human
demeanor to kt''P up the worldly ways. This is "hy our
Teacher constantly discourses on these three Classics. As
for Ouddhisn1 and Daoism. they lean: the world ond break
orr with sccularil) to cngnge only wi1h the high nnd ~'lr
without regard to t.his world. They thcrefOfc do not rc:~lly
attain the principles 5'r. or the Cfo.rsrC.\' tif r•oetry and
History·. Besides, :~ !though later Confuei:ms recite the
Clfl,i'Sic ~f Pot:lry and read tlte Clas.'l;c of lliJtory. tl1cy
seck understanding in too deep. too dimcuh areas ' ' ithout
knowing tl1.1 t they should seck it in easy ordinary
situations close by. As o result their words and deeds ore
often ma ni re st l~· encumbered "'ith t" iSIS and difficuhics.
Jading in Yast. right and unhurried composure. lsn 't it
true Ihat the TC:IJUlc:d difficulty of rending is not in reading
but in reading" ell and righr?

110 Jinsai stressed that the Analects, the Clcu·sics of Puetry and of
H ISIOfJ' all begin a1 <laily human :md ethical ac.th·ity, and so they can cast
light on each other.
hO Jinst1i hesitates. howc,·cr. on the intcr-dueidation among the
AnnleCI.'t:. the J)m:trint of till! A·fe(ln. ;md the C'fas\·ic of Change due to the
''extremely .high ;and profound M!trit~r eootents of the Jattcrlwo. ItO Jinsai
conuncnrcd on Anoh·cls 5/ 16 , "Tile Master said of Ziehan thaLl1c possessed
~cr~;~~,,o;~c gentlc.Jrum on four counts. f i;}Y· (ti! . ·:n:tt-fZ.I!Y:iit~~t '"
1
'i

~ DC. I.au tr . TIIel lnaln:tf , p 61 .

~ Ucmgo Kogi. p. 103.
Rmtfp A·oj!i. p. 104.
lJ D. C L~•u tr.• 1'he rlmJiea.~. p. 41.
~, Ro,go ;.;ogl . p. 68
 257

1 judge. saying: Claiming tltc gentlemanly wa~· differs

c<msidc:r.1bly from claiming the sagely "ay. The sagc:ty
way is concerned nbom the extremity. the gcndcm:mty
wny is concerned with ordinary. riibt and C·ommon rules
lhtn apply llu·ousbout myri:'lds of gcncr:nions, su<:h :'IS " 'hat
vorious chaplcrs in the f)Octrimt t!f 111..: Mean d iscourse
about. S3dly. illc commcntntor undcr.slood the Biyin ~~.:J.
Chapter according to high :'lbstrusc principles. thereby
losing much of the otiginal intent

Titis ..commcnt:uor·· who ll6 Jinsai crilic:iled as being too nbstmsc

was Zhu Xi. ) J Wh<~t is difficu lt aboul the ;\h:an lies nol in its mysterious
technicalities. As 116 Jins.ai said, ''Tile M.:tm is the moSt d ifficu lt thing 10
pr11cticc in the world, not in undertaking the difficult actions of the world.
but in keeping u1> our easy daily routint.~s '' ilhou~ change frt)m start tu fin i$h.
This is '"'h)' they say the Mean is impossiblc-:· :ol Thus, 110 Jinsai thought
tbat the A{cafJ and the A11nl~c1s can be taken to intcr·c1ucidntc in this light.
rtO Jinsai thus unifies various Classic~ with the Atwlecls under the
view that they all discourse on daily human cthic~11 ways. 'J'11is
hermeneutical method meets :1 difficulty when it coOlcs to 1hc Cla.~·sic of
Clumgt•. 110 has lhc following words on Confucius' \\Ords (7!17). '·Grant
me ;:~ few more years so th3t I may continue to study the Clumges at the age
or f~fty and t slmll. perhaps. be free (rom major errol"$, };(1~\i;{r.r~. ]i -t·t;J.
,f)\ b), oof!;(A~;ki!lt~.''"

I judge. saying: In the ;mcient days of his sagely n1le. Bao

Xi i!! ~ looked up and down. fnr and ncar. and created
eight trigmms 1hat were modeled ofler po\\el's of dh·inilics
and Yicissitudcs of Yin· Yang ~2' I;). the principles of
myriad things gh1ing birth and resting, Aficr last days of
Yin ,fj1' Dynasty. the Zhou }tii Dynasty arose to c:ompilc
appended remarks to tell fort unes. and called 1hc book the
7Jtou 11' H:JM. When our T..::nchc1 came aJong he only

' 1 Zhu Xi ~onuncntcd on. "The way wl1ich tbc !_.!(..'llllcm:lll pur::;au.:s~
n
re:K:I'kS wide and far. and ~'CI IS: S<."Crcl J !'f'·2.ill ffii~.l,!" in Chapter 12 of the
Doc:triuv of the' Ml'u" <1•1.1f . that he pcrsouully cOttl))lk-d. sayi.ul!. "''l11c
gentleman ·s l)a(J is inc.\haus11blc. un comai ne~b lc. fl\"'ll as close as 111 the nu.pllal
room to 1l1c realm ,)j' the sag.::s. Its cxh!rior has no oulsidc, 1I.S ltUCI'IM has no
inside; it can be called -hi fJ." Yet lhc principle Jtl lhot mnkc-s it what i1 is
lies hidden and invisible. \Vhill \'1.! CJJ1 k ll<IW 0111d MC CIJ>ahlc Of i:> t)IIC within
Tltl\ and it::; ' 'llk'f' r1.!:1chc.s no sages kill' \\ or ar..- c.:IJHihlt! ••f kn,m ing " St:c
Z!Jt>~r~-onJ.: Zllaugju rJ•J.U·:f;~{,J, in lhu Xi. Si.tlm Zlumgju Zi:/m, p. 22.
•~ NQrtgQ Kogl , ~l, 69.
1
' Ro, go ;..;ogl, p, 103~ 0 C IAIU 1r . 1'/l(t lltllll4•c ts. p. 61
258 Clnm-<:hi.-lr 1-fmwg

discoursed on tJ1c Way of fonncr rulers and vinu.cs of

Hen·bcncvolcncc f": and )!-righteousness ~. His talks
with disciples were simple. and relined, He instructed tl1em
untiringly with nothin.g other than discourses OJ1 such
\i rtucs in the C/(us·icJ dfJ•O(llry :md NJStory, while '''e me
Jcfl with only tlth SU)'ing on the-CIIJs:lic qfChanxe. which
prcdously had been a book of divination, so our Teacher
went ag11inst the custom of concentrating on the principles
of change. Mcucius also oficn quoted from Clos~it,·s of
l't~lry and Hisrmy and ar~Ju cd aOOut the $jJring am/
Autumn Annals. but of the Clnssu: (~{Chaugc he left not a
single saying with us. for his studies \\ ere com:emed with
::~d ornt i on of bene\'Oiencc and righteousness. and aucnding
to filiality ond brotherliness. He bught us to cultivntc our
n~turc, while the C/tL'o')·rc of Change talks nbout nothing
but profit However. since the book also meticulously
details methods of lifc·mnnagcmcm and cxhons people to
greatly benefit others. our Tcachc.r also adopted it. Those
desiring to learn from Confucius and Mcncius also do well
to adore the ('/(u·.r,cs (?{ f'<l~try o.nd H1sftJI)' ;md Annals.
and approach the Classic uf Clwnge in the perspective of
our Tc:.chcr 's- saying. .. may ha\'e no major mislakes:·
never using it lls the book of divintllion.

110 Jinsai look Confhcius 10 be the first person in history to

undcrsrand the C/e~ssk u,f'Chungt\ not ns :t lx.10k of divintltit)n. hut as o book
of mc.anings, and in that l i~ht to h:muoni1c il with the Anlllecls to
inter-elucidate.
In sum. ItO Jins3i initiated <1 new Analects scholnrship. He not only
traced back to the original meanings of Confucius· sayings in the Analet•fs.
btll took all the Cl:~ssics as co·forming "'insides and outsides" by the f:~ct
dt;at they all clucid;~.tc grcot principles in da.ily life. ItO Jins::1i pursued both
routes so as to refute-Zhu Xi.
ITO J INSAI'S PERSP.E CTIVE ON 1.115 ;\ NAUiCTS·SCII OLA.RSHIP
AND ITS RECONSTRUCTION

Now lhat we ha\'C seen ItO's hcnncncutic methods. our next

question should consider in what context 116 Jinsai admired the Anah~cls as
··the loftiest. the greatest Primal Book in the whole unin:rsc." We can s:lY
thot (3; 1) 110 Jinsai understood the Ana/eel:{ world to be pro\·idins the:
context of "Om' i.n t11c secular.- and (3:2) offered new i.nlcrprctations or
Confucius' key notions, /}(Jo :lnd Uc.•n, in 04lt light.
3:1. The Context of" JJao in the Sc.cular- : ItO Jinsai understood the
Ana/~cls' \\Orld to be pro,·iding the context of ..Voo in the secular:· which
means that the common :md ine\'itoble moml principles :uc 10 be found only
 2J9

in specific concreh: daHy life. TI1c so-called DtHJ exists on I ~ in tltc midst of
the intcr·human d~ds and words occurring in d3il)' life. As the 1H~t111 shows.
the metnphysicn.l wortd appe~rs only in the common ordimuy world ~nd
both worlds co--fom1 a unity in tl1cir shared constitution. ItO Jinsni thus
objccu~d to the Song Nco·Confucinnists ''ho h:sd conMructed, \H~ll above
the actual life-world. another scp:mllc mebph~·sical world of l.i·Principlc
Jtt that SUf)posc.'dly giv-es binh to and CO\etns myriad 1hings in the uni,•crsc.
ItO Jinsai denied the e~istence of a tmnscendcnt world abon~ nnd beyond
Lhc ac1ual one. and sought human nature onl~· tJuough concrete dail~· life.;\4
116 Jinsai admired Confi1cius" sa~' ing in 6/29, "The Master said .
..Supreme indeed is the fv1can :~sa moral ' 'inue. It hns long been rare among
1hc coononon 1>coplc. 'T-J=I, •t•loli:t.l.'~!il)·il!.. :JPii~'fl li':fi-P,~:-'' llo
Jins.1i had n long section of comments concerning this sarin g. M

I j udge, saying: The \;rtuc of the Mean is the most

difficult \"iltltc under heaven. People discourse about the
Doo. TI~r ''ani to reach tl1c highest and most difiicuh
Ullimatc in order to get to the Otw, We rcJy on thntst to
rc:;~ch the highest and on strhi.ng to do the difficult. But.
the \ irtuc of d1c: ~'(can is common. easy. and unhmricd: it
is unre-nch.able by thruSt or stri\'ing. This is why people are
inc-llp:tblc of the Me:ut. During the 'fhree glorious
GcncmtiOttS of Tans and YU. people were simple. com mort
pure, witl1out twis[y aniflciality, nnd none were not
n.1turnlly in hanuony with tl'lc Tao. Fathers were fatJtcrs.
sons were sons. brothers were brotllcrs. and spouses \\ere
spouses. n:uumlly without contriYancc or str.mgc
m:~.oipulluioo . ~nd dcnlt w tth one- :mother acc-ordiog as
\\hat they saw and heard. T11is is "hal is c:aJicd the \'irtuc
of the ~tcan , In contmst. L'ltCr people se-ek the 1l10 in lhe-
IO.r nnd seck mAtters in the difficult. The more they try the
farthe r il\\ ll)' they get, Tl')1ing to rcp.1ir the situalion. they
te-a r things apan funlll!f. Therefore it is said. "'h h:~s long
been rare amont the common people.'" This is why our

~~ $<.'(: m) Dougyt~ Ruxrre $111 dt :cl, sh),.,~ ~1!illif'A5Ji,!:~(J~J~"JjtJ! 9!}(Taipci:

Himal:tya Found:tlton, 2001), pp. 125·1 i0. t:'ontempornl)' Jap:mcsc schnl:u$
u.tKul imou:~ Jy <~~u\:c Otl JtV's anti·m-::tapltysicul dliU';tclcf. E g.. hhiJa lchut 1 1:i
Bl - 1~ said. ··Jinsat·scholllfl)hlp rs ~n ·alNllulc huma.nily•$Chol:tr5hlp· again:d
Ucavcn -ccnlcrcd $Qng SC·h olol'$bip, msistios on undcn;t.:m.diJlg bum.sn.ity in
tcnu.:s of hum;mity.- Sec J sbid~• 1-::hirv. /16 Jit~·(IJ (Tokyo: Yu.'lhik~t\\'il KObwlkan.
1960, 1973). Koyasu Nubukuni T~i"(Jf; c.-mvincmgly ~aid 110 JinlS"ti'=' world
(Jf thought is the "'ctbi<:·.a.l inlCt·lmrnan world;' in his /rri Jumu: J in·mntd sd:ai
no shisQ, csp. pp. 27 ·60.
,\~ D. C L~nt tr.• The rlmJiea.~. p. 53.
Vi Ro, go /-..,"ogl. p. 9 1.
260 Cl nm-<:hi.-lr 1-fmwg

Teacher spccificall~· csbblishcd the 1'rw of the hkan as

people's ultimate horil .(m. and this is why the Analt'cts is
" the loftiest the grentest Primal Book in the whole
unherse."

116 J insni thought that the Amrltxb· is "th e loftiest. the grcatcsl
Prim.:tl Book in du.: whole uni\'crsc- precisely because it eonvcn arc the
principles of ordiMry daily li''ing. Such a Dno bears its inc,•itablc
tmh·ersality and uni\'crsaJ cffccth·cncss. As Yang Rubin ~tJ.j'j~ roccntly
said. " ft6 J insai regarded the content of the rlnltle,·ss to be none too
m ~· stcrious or profound. but j ust the uninrs::al. conunon. and practicable
mane~ to be learned. This was the s<H;.alled 'No Dao outside people. n o
people outside Dtw. ·The pr~cisc definition of DtW is ·peo ple ·s /)(K)• . .. ~ 1 h6
Jins.'li thus took Dtm to lie in the common 01nd the h uman ~ the Ana/uc/S
disc::oui'SCS on such a /)ao: therefore. 1hc Anlllec:ts is '"l11c loflicst, the
greatest Primal Book in tl1e \\hole unircrsc."
3:2tt. ItO's New Jntcrprcwtions of Confucius (1) : Underslandins
/)(Jo by Its C lassic:tl Meaning: ItO Jins:ti conducted such mw1<bnc
hermeneutics of the Antrlet ls by tmdng the kc~· notions back to their
cl~ss i ca l :uch.aic; mc:.an.in gs. ht contrast to Zhu Xi's metaphysical appro:ach
to the Classics. One typicnl example is his interpretation of ""D<ui' nnd
"nnturc.'' as when 110 enco unrcrcd Confucius" SAying in the Antrlecu· 511 :;,
""Zigong said, "One can heat abctut the Moster's o.chicvcmcntS. but one
cannot hcrn his \'iC\\ s on human nruurc and 1hc Wa)' of Hc.w en• .:"( 'j!i B,
, ~<-f·Z Jt'"· nfl~l!rur:u 1!!: J<-~'Z ~;· tt~~i7<11!. -1;"T1ll-dur:u1!!...." ho
lins;ti ga' e the fo llowing comments: JSI

I judge. sa) ing: SOJ.&C:S tc.ach d i\ crscly according to the

d h·c rsity of pt.""'ple. What are men1ioncd here o f lhumanJ
na.turc and Hc:l\'c nly principle arc ''hat people say of them.
' ' ithout an) tl1ing abst•usc or mysterious bc)·ond
understanding. Wh;tt did Zigong mean by "one c:1nnot
hear·· "! People onJy know human di\'c rsity in strengths and
intelligence witltout knowing their common love of
original virtue and adherence to a e·o mmon potential for
ad\'ancing in goodoess. yet because their li.ki.ng is not
stro ng enough to n:nch goodness. our good-potential is
oOcn doubted. Ncm Zigong '~> \'inuc w:\1> n01 yet sagely. he

l" Y:mg Rubm ~~M}'fl. "Rcnlun yu tt:mh· l h.t Jms-:u y u Zhuzi di qmd:k)
li<h<n~ .A.(:b l)!J<l1!\ -· fJI)Jti f= 1.t\"C!~< Y.i~J ;Jtjjjf.,tfl" in my <d i!cd ' Oiwnc.
Uujio Sixitmg : ai xinndni Jk mgyn: R1lx'fl p1:1n ~ft~ ~.!!.W (:~J}H\:.*~! : H..f.:fiji
(Taipei: Aca.dt.'lnin Sinicn. 1999). pp. 87-13-l. c!ip. p. 123.
·\'~ D. C L~•u tr.. 1'he rlmJiea.~. p. 41.
~) Ro, go ;..;ogl, p~ 66·6 7
 261

nlso took the Teacher's ''ord to mean "71~iif .nifiiUU."

without dcpcndi.ns on s:agcs there is goodnc:ss nlJcttdy:
anyone whose hc-art·mind is conc.c ntratcd on goodness " ill
sec il CO\'Cring the enti re hca,·cn :md canh. Thus, we l:now
that cvcl)·onc c.nn :td,·nncc to goodness.. Besides, hca,cn
inevitably helps good l'coplc. This is how our Teacher
became a sage. Sadly, in Iauer days people studied the
high. far. nnd mysterious. and s:Ud such is the way to seck
hca\'Cnl~ principles. "ltich arc unintelligible except to tJtc
enlightened. Zigong had studied quite minutely yet still
said something like this. How could it be'! Wh.1t the s.1gc
mentioned as lhumnnl nnd Heavenly principle arc just
whnt Inter scncr:uions c;all Qi ~. not prinrciple J!B and
should not be taken as road ttl follow in S(.'l:king the Lruth.

Clc:n l)'. wi1:1C ItO Jinsai w1dcrstood ns .. Dao- in the Anolt~:ls wns
anlhropo-gcnctic. constructed b~ common people to be moral regulations
for people to tread. We c.an sec illuslrntions of the difference bCt\\'een ItO's
mund::me ~pproo.ch from Zhu Xi's metaphysical one in the following
intcrprcta1ions of ..Doo- in Confucius· sa,>ing in 418... He has not lived in
vain who dies in the e'cnins. ha\'in~ been told about the Way in the
mornins. ~Jllltlil!. ,?IKnJ~:·"-, Below arc their respccth ·c accounts of
"!Jao" in this s3ying:

Mas(cr Zhu Xi s..1id. "Dao is the prescriptive principle of

t_hings tO lx: us lhcy urc, Once "C could hear nbout il. we
would be living smoothly. dying contentedly. with no trace
of rcs.rct Tims. he suesscd the nearness of tllc·timc.- ·11

ItO Jins:li s:tid. -oao is that by which people become

hwnan. Being human without h eating about it i:; to li\-e
emptily. if not being with chickens and dogs then toning
with grnss nnd trees. lsn · t it sad'? lf once we heard about it.
we \\Ould lutve Lhat by which "c :uc human and complete
our life. and so :1 gcndcm:m's dc:uh is called "Completion
t't.·· mcan.ing thnt he would not perish.~2
For Zhu Xi, nw
is the prescripti-ve principle of thinss lo be ns they
a te, thus c(mstituti11g both metaphysical princil)le lnd ethical norm. In
con1ms1, ror ItO, /Jnl) is 1hat by which people become humnn, with the
mctnphysks dropped.

~) 0 . C. Lou lr.• The Auah•cts, p.3 L

", Zh x· I . Z• "r.
... U .t 1, 1·..,llll)''ll j.ll»l I
1
' Ro,go ;..;ogl . pp )0· 51.
262 Clnm-<:hi.-lr 1-fmwg

Similar!~·. regarding Confucius' saying in 9/31. ltO asserted. ··Dar>

is th at in "hich all under he:~vcn arc identicai.''Jl in order to refute the Hnn
Confucian theory of ·'Going against nonnality and conJOnning with li10. is
called c~pcdicnee &fi. f:'; jllk)~Gi.·· Against this. ItO Jinsai SJid.4-'

l11c Tc.-.chcr once said. "Js R1.m far'? 1 desire /ten. nnd R~n
arrives here."' And. he also said. ''If a person claims to
practice Dar> yet is for away from people. he docs not
practice L)(lo." Both indicate tJ1a1 Dao is \Cry close by. for
outside DriQ there is no person. outside person there is no
J)no. The sage diversely teaches according to their
dhcrsity. and docs not set up " set tc:aching and dri\c
people into it. Here there is nothing far ftom people, eithe-r.
Those [Jno-ignornmuscs think the h igh is ;~d.mi r.tblc tiS if
going up to hca\cn. sec /)a(} -.s so far away, and make it
hnrd for people to anain Drw. What a pity!

In a similar ,·cin. h6 Jinsai also oonuncntcd on Confucius· saying

:u 1/4, "F.nry day I examin e mys-elf on three counts, {:: FI ?:'[i~i.:J:.J."'.a.s
sa.yinF dull " the Doo of hca, <::n and earth exists in humans. Human Dao is
notl1ing else tlt:tn ftlialiry, frmcmil)'. loyalty, and fide lity, so such human
virtues suffice to fulfill human Dao ... .-s Such common human pmcliccs of
commt)lt hu111an virtues one the. Duo.
flO Jins.1i further ~intcd out tl\illlhis human /Jn(l exists ri~ll in the
mundane secular life. ItO Jinsai <::ommcntcd on Confucius' saying in 913. ··J
follow the majority ~."f·~ A~ :· sa) ing. £ 7

Fonner Confucians said. '·On thing.s thnt do not hann

rigJucousness. we C3n follow secular con\'ention.- Titcy
nrc 1ni!>t:lkcn. for if things would RC\'Cr hann righteousness.
the secular is tlte l)uo. and o utside the secular there is no
/)no. Thus. it is said. "The gentlemanly Dno begins at the
spousal relation."' Likewise. Yao :md Shun both ceding
crowns and k ings Tang t&J and Wu Jit expelling and
:Jltncking followed the people ·s hearts. Where people ·s
hc;lrtS lend. there the secular accomplishes. Thus. it is
enou~ to see if" hat you do conrorn1s to righrcousncss or
not \\ hy do we h.twc to put aside lhe secular to pur!>uc Dno'!
l11is sort of J)C'actice is real!) the likes or hcn::sy, not sagely
/)0().
 Titis sot1 of Dao ,d tJtin the secular must be common. easy. mtd
close 10 people• .IS and such concrete ,·irtucs as ·' in word you arc
conscientious and trustworthy and in deed single-minded nnd rc,·crcnt. -;j·
.·L~tH. i'f!~ ~c thcmsclns ;uc the /Jao . not the tmnsccndcnt principles fiR
in the cstrcmily of the ltig.h and the deep. .19
1"10 ·s common secular /) ao OCars no distinctions between ancient or
present. nnd remains unchanging through time and place.j lf To lt6, this was
Confucius· DtiQ: '·the cons uml Warp ·;rr ~- of hem e-n t1nd earth. the
common j ustice ilillhrougb the old and the new: 4nyonc with intelligence
com t now it and practice it, hO\\C\'Cr uncouth, as c.ommon spouses they com
aJI know it <tnd know how to pDclicc it. Such is the so-c:1llcd sagely
Dtro."' 1
In summary. 116 Jinsai intcrprewd Confi1cius" D tt Q in tcnns of the
secularity of the Dna;.. thereby uni.IYing :all the Cl:1ssi; s. including the
Anrl/l!cls. the A•fcnciu:('~ and 1hc D(K/rmc ofllu: 1\ilcan: 3 Such was ItO's
nC\\ unique hcnncncu1ic syslcm.

'" ltl' Jius<~i suiJ, "'ll)osc who arc cJe\·cr an.J inh:lligcnt wuu!J s.t)af OJ)
hig_h 001d f~l r Ill ::;tm·c :tftc-r lhflicultit:s, nol kn<''' mg th~tl Dao (lriginall) ::;tay.s in
the Jnld$1 o r daily Q)ffinl(ln :lCth'ttics, ()rdinnry nnd c~ by us. .. Sec i?Otll,"()
Kos i. p. IJS.
• It& said. "Loynlt~t and lidclity .~~ t;; arc the root or<.' ur studies, \\ hose
4

gtound i:s scJ'iou&llc.!iS 'P.'' f{{. tlud all this (;Ompl~tC'S 1hc whole m:ntcr. bnct'
Confuciun.:t thou~h t Lh~ tv lx: d all~ 4.X)Il.Slanl dulics. UQ1 LbC(I(il~ of th.: highest
~ntl the fm1hc::.'l 1lltimatc, ilnd ~' C:51 t~~blishcd scpa rt~tc t.I<.,<:Uim:s. 'l1tC)' d id not
rc:thzc that Dao 1~ the rc.:~ l Principle :.nd studtc.'\ :trc the re.nl dulles;. I {ow could
there be 3!l}'tbins h.igh ~ od far outside o f Joy:llty, fidelity ond !iCriou..,nc$$'1 So
lite ''ords of those \\ho know Dau arc rulid f!tu.l cJosc \C) lilC. amllhc mon.; they
are tlllhd"-::tl to and practiced. the mon.: th..:)' ilJ)J~ w he incxhau:;tiblc l hosc
\\hO talk of D,·,o Wtth<nll l(l)':tlty, fiddtty ami SCJ, ~)YSil c:;s dl' ll()\ kn(l\\ what
/)al) 1$" Rt)ltgc) A·qpJ, p. 232.
~> JtVsaid. "As Ln. /JaC). so muong people. nuwbcrc ru tlC.l Uf:! them is there
any d istinctit•n of un..:icnL ft•om prc..~11 t Ttx.lay•s people ate j u.st the ancient
J'k."Ot)lc of the lcgcnd~lry Tlm::c Oyn:tsl!es. A~ long ~Ls JX."41Jllc pr:tcl!ce Slr:tightly
according to D(ll)• their muun: hnt' no dtffcrcn<.-c to besin with ThQ.!:iC igoor.snt
(If thts haY~ to l'cgntd t(ldoy·s pcopk as swt J;<M.XJ. sc• in nwm.lg.in~ the world
they have to cntirdy Lr:m sfortn J)(),lplc of today into LJu; pl-oplc of Tlli\."C
Oynastic.s.. Thi.s is entircl~t out o f li n~!. with uulh."' Ibid · I' · 2 .~8
!<I Urmgo .<:ag;, p. 28M.
s: Itt) CQJU.l.n cotcd on Mcocius' rcroor:l:. oo - :l$!iOS!:iio:ttlO,B the tyrunt Ch(Jll
t:r by ~· ing lh <'lt King wu·s c~pdlinl:! and assassinaLing wa~ n(lt regicide
Since "the cn11r\! world expelled ~nd :lssa ssin ~h.:d hun .. Then, Ito s~ld . ··[)<'I() IS
what ull people uuder hC3\'l'n share. whcr-c all hcaru ~)f;i'CC. t])(·t l". as D<.to.,. Sec
htl'~ .\10 Shi J..r>t i , J·35-3G.
!'J ItO imcrprcl~;..l lh..: Fit~t Cht~ph!l o( thc IA~Cirinc: oj1he .\lea11 by Nl)'ing.
"Doo. ll<.m-ing ~'\.'J).'Whcre under h c~wcn. IS where t1ll p<.·oplc commonly
26.J Clnm-<:hi.-lr 1-fmwg

3:2b. hO's NC\\ Interpretations of Confucius (2): Undcr.uanding

Jen by liS Classical Menning; Another key notion 116 Ji11sai used in offc:1ing
his epoch-making inlc-rprctation was Rcn-bcnc\'okncc (:. -- a term 1hnt
appears in the Analects I05 times in SR chap1ers, coeh occurrence bearing a
~cif'ic linguisaie contf!xt betwe.cn Confuc.ius o.nd his disciples. On lhc
whole. tlte concept of flt~ll as it i.!ppcars in the. Ana/eels includes all
admirable human ,·inues.jol especially those rcfc.rring to concrete moral
bch:wior. ItO's interpretations of /lt!IJ !lrc based on pnrc Kogalr.:u (cl(l.Ssical
learning jif~). thnl is. studies to cxcaHUc the ancient meanings. in contrast
to Zhu Xi's more iotcllcctual i.merprctati\'C st~·lc. Consider the lbllowi.ng
cases in point: .
Ana/eel\· 1/2 reads, "'The gentlem:m dC"\'Otcs his ciTons to the root.
for once the root is CSI.:tblishcd, the Way will sprout from there. Being good
as a son and obedient o.s a young man is. perhaps. the root of ~ m M 's
choraclcr. Jl ·f f».-1<. * ii.li1ii1l!l;. 'l':111l1!.Uf·, JUH..:2..4<~1! ... " Zhu Xi
commented on this pnss3gc. "'Ren is the principle of Jove and the character
or hc•rt-mind )it~ Fl!, •v 2. 1 e ... "' lnnucncc.l by Cheng Yi t~ ~Jj
(1032· 1085). Zhu Xi"s interpretation contuins many inconsistencies. Qi:.m
Mn ~f.f'; (1895- 1990) wrote,"

[Zhu Xi) quoted from Cheng Yi's saying . .. Virtue flas. ilS
root. which, when cstablishcd. Hils and cnk1rgcs its Oat>.
fro m fili.ality nnd fratcmil) practiced at home extended to
IO\'C th.inss.- TiliS quot:nion purposely omits a word ''birth
:~:. :· replacing it 'vith -nus and cnlt~.tgcs ft. A " from
Mc:ncius. for if R,·u is substance ·r~m!. it could not have
begun to exist by being gh·cn bmh b) pmcticing flliali ty
and fraternity, ... Zhu Xi s.aid "Ren is Principle of love:·
:tnd " principle" could not h:t\'C begun to cx1st by being
~n:n hiTih by prttctidns f'ili.ul ity and rrntc.·rnity. eilh(,.':f.
BC$ides. ··f>no" differs in connOtation rrom "principle: ·
We can say. ...llle Doo of Rm is born frorn this'· but not
··n1c Principle of /lcm is born from this." Both Confucius

(>fiSiJUtlc Thus. whut coclft·mns lO hmn!ln oatul'...~ is /)tw : whatever is (lthcrwa.'i(:

docs not. /J<w (."X i sis wit11in d aih· hwnan uctivitics tutd n:och~ nil under hcu\'cn
tlm.M.ltth<.lUl myrituJ ~encruti\tnti: mul ~hould noc be lei\ for a :;inglc moml.!-1)1,"
(Ciut .r(:; fi(I/.'Jti •P}.:U11Jfli. PI\ 9, I I)
!-~ Cf. Qu WnnH ail.~lji.. "Rcn zhi guyi di li$hi k:toca f::Z i~1iU'f.Jf.'t~
;;l)'~~" in h1S Shu J'ang J.unotc" Ji JUCi/.l.t~~(T:ubet : K:~.immg shuju. 1961)},
pp. 2)4-2G<i.
~J D. C. L~u tr.. The Auui~<:U. p. J.
~ 7.hu Xi. LmrymjlZim, p ~8
!<" Qim1 Mu. Kcmgzi )'II Lwryu .fL -(·9i.!Miritt m Qitm hhm Q11tmjt li.f ·n: I!.LI
4:!'£ (Taipei: l.ionqing clmban !t''lltz..."i. 1998). Volum~ 4. cs:tt p 272.
 265

and Mcncius often used '"D<11i' bUl seldom ,..principle."

Both Cheng Vi and Zhu Xi began using .. principle" 10
C~l>lain Confucius and had to try hard to patch up the
irrcp.•uoblc scam. We cnn sec Zhu Xi's cfforl at sewing up
1he distMce between Confuc.ius nnd Menei&IS, on 1hc one
h:md. ond the two Che-ng brolhcrs, on the other.

Qi:tn ·s view is \'alid and convincing. Confucius :md Mcncius both

ad\'ocatcd Rcu in terms of conctclc bcha\'ior. !lnd nc,·c r took J(,·n as
sub:u.ance of nnturc. Zhu Xi's intention of cxplo.ining C\CI) tl1ing according
to his theory of M as principle sh:trcd by cnr)'thing is quite explicit in his
cxpJan:llion of Confucius' Rcn. Zhu Xi s:ays nod1ing :1bout Ren ns principle
of concrete bcha' iors.
In contrast. 110 Jinsai's explanation of the Analf!cts 112 dc:uly
demonstr3tes his de ,·otion to classicism:u

I judge. saying: Ut!n is the dtoroughfare of all things under

heaven. what people crumot but follow in order to bcba,·c.
11s root consists or the innate goodness or hurnan n:uure
whh thes.e Four Buds. which if we know how to expand
them we " ·ill rc:~ ch Rcn. Therefore. Mcncius said. -People
all ha\ c whac they cannot bear. whh such unbearable bean
to rc~'ch what they can be-ar, th:u is Ren." Ag:-tin he s.,id.
''l11c bc::trt of comp::tssion is the bud of Rtm,·· " lnti.mntc
tonccms for the intinmtc pJrcnts arc Re,. There is nothing
else. C;o..;().'}nd it throughout under heaven:· Such sayings fit
Youzi's 1i' ~f sentiment of laking filial it~· and fraternity as
Uen's root. ~-1 cncius was merely com·eying the ancients'
views. The fonner sr;hotar took Ren nnd 1i' to be t.hc
principle in human nnturc. \\ hich contained only Ren. It
/,r.dcccncy and lhrh·lntclligence. these four. Whe-re dili
filiality :md frutcmily come from'! The answer could be
Rcn·substanec as the root and fi lialil)' •md fmtcmi•r os~
func tion. :tS the bmnch, :.uul then such an answer seems to
contrndict You~d. So. he had to sa~· th.at pro.cticing Rcn is
the root of fitiality and rrmcrnity. aud speaking of nature.
Urn is the root of fal ialily and fraternity. But, then, this
Slying puts Youzi's original contention upside down.
namely. "Jt il.AI!!.J'.':fJI\" and " ~' {f. ifllill'-l'.," in short.
filiality nnd fr.ttcrnity arc the root of Rcn. But. then. why
did Mcncius tnke Ren and Yi (rightCO\ISness) 10 be wlun we
i n nate!~ ho\'c'! It is bccaus.e human n:nure is good; both
Ren o.nd ll arc our nature. whicb is thus described in terms
of Rcn and rl. Mcndus did not directly describe Ren and
26ti Clnm-<:hi.-lr 1-fmwg

n as human nature. One slight de' i:uion here could lead to

:l thousand miles of error. \Vc musl keep clear·sighted.

"Former scholar- again refers to Zbu Xi. Iurs contention. u.Rc.n is

the thoroughfare of all thinss under hea\'Cn, "hat people cannot bu1 fo llow
in order to behave:· j ibes well with Confucius ' origitml intcnllon of
indicating Ren through conctc:.tc moral bchavion;. ItO Jin:sai thus used
classic:~ ! philology to target Zhu Xi. Confucius' saying in 7/30 pro,·idcs
another case in point "Is bcnc\'olcncc rcall,\ for ow:ty'! No sooner do I
desire it than it is here. (: lti ~r- .~? JQ fJ: t . Nl t: !f.~ .'' so Zhu Xi
commcn1cd on this. saying, -Ren is the vi"ue of the heart. not something
Olllsidc.'' 00 ItOJinsai h.eatcdly triticir..<:d tl1is comment.~·

I judge. snyins: lkn is the grc-nt ,·irtuc of the world, yet

llt:n·s affairs ate so very dose br. practicing ia resides in
myselr. Hence, "is benevolence really fa r away'! No
sooner do I de-Sire i1 than ic is here." But. the fomtcr
scholar cook Ren to be J)rinciplc within nature, and took
cuuing desire 10 return 10 the beginning 10 be the worl.: of
Ucn , Jftb is is t.be care. cvcl)·ooc h.as /len as my body has
four limbs ~nd hundred bones. and chen: t,:;aunot be anyone
"ho is no1-Rt'n or has ahe n~c~ssity of "re:\Chins·· Ren, For
c:umple. take mlllly hcrut-minds a.s " ood and R1.•n as ftre.
The usc of the wood lies in making fire. nnd the vinue of
the he-an lies in Rcn, if the wood is acc.umulatcd yet not
burned. the usc of rbc wood would not be manife-sted. lf
one lets go of it and docs not sed:: il, then the vinuc of 1he
heart is not manifesaed. Thus. the sages always said
"desire bcncvolcnc;c f)\ 1::." '·seck bcnc,·olcncc ;~ C :•
bua nOt ··cut des-ire to n::tum 10 ahc beginning as the "ork
of Rt'n." Cheng Vi hnd the lhcory of inside-outside and
&ucst-lord ahat natu r<~lly fias our Teache-r"s mc<~ n ins of
.. reach ji." and which diJlCrs greatly from Ulking Rcn ns
nature or principle. Students would do wdl lo take note of
:1llthis.

ItO Jinsai intcrprcls Confutius· "'is bcnc\'oJcncc really far away" 10

meAn, "' It:; m!)UCI'$ are close by, pr:t~tiei ng it resides in myself.
extrem~ly

~t ~i ?ii.ili:. ~Z-tE .f~- What he slre5.ses is thnt it is ··1 myself' who is

conducting concrete :1ecs; thus, Zlm Xi dc,·iatcd by making it internal. as in
../len is the \'irtuc of 1hc he:art:·

~ 0 . C. Lou lr., The Auah•cts, p.65.

(lo) Zhu Xi. L'"IJ-'11 iltht~. p 100.
1
"' Ro,go ;,;ogl . pp I 09· 110
 267

l n summary. ItO Jinsai starred from the pcrspccti\C of practical

scholarship ~f.(~. .and proposed ::1 new cl:~ssicist interpretation ot' ..mcaning
,fg!:l!t,,- f>'l In ItO's "'=' Confucius.-scholarshit>. Conrueius' nao bcc~1me the
Dao of d3ily intcr-hu~nan Jh-ing, .and Ren then was understood ns fulfilled
in proctic3l acts of flli:.ility. fraternity. loyalty. fidelity. and the lit.:c.

11rc Purposi" o.f/uS .f AlwlcC'f.\'·Scholnrslup

What is lt('is Jlurposc and imcntion (in the sense of Searle's

"pcrlocutioa:mry· intention"' ) behind his rcconstructioo of Confucius and his
Anul.:.cl.\'! fl O's p urpose· \\i\S opologctic und -.rgumcntativc, His targets were
two, (4: I) Buddhism and D:w ism Ihat disc:trd ond lc~wc t11c mundane
intcr-humnn world behind, nnd (4:2) Song Nco-Confucianism wilh the
or
philosophy cosmic Principle Jl~ ;3borc this mundane world.

Criliqw.: of Buddhi:mr and J'(loism: ItO nitiqucs Buddhism rutd

03oasm .31 m:my points in his volume. Hmzgo Kog; {,fVMf st;;N, oltacking
Buddhisn1. I cite onh· one such instance here.
Con(ucius· Analects in 18{6 reads:ti 3

Chang Ju Nm and Jic Ni ~iS~ ''ere ploughing tog1:l1ter yoked ns

il team. Conf ucius wt:nt ~st them and sent Zilu to osk them where the ford
was.
Chang Ju s.1id, "\ Vllo is lh:tltaking ch:ugc or the carriage'!"
or
Z ilu sa id, " It is Kong Qiu Lu: ·
-lbcn, h e must be lhc Kong Qiu of Lu:·
'"He is. ~
-Then, he docs no t bavc to ask w here the rord is."
Zilu asked Jic Nj.
Jic Ni s.1id. ·'Who arc you?"
6! Thi-; i.s 111\'s tcduaic~al tcn•t He ~aid, " I d ivide our lc.al'fli n~;: into l\\ 0 ~ ltl
lc3nt the blood w in llil.fi\~. :~,nd to lct~m thc. mca.nios ~~!.1~. -mood vein" •s 1bc
gist of lillt:el) tmdilion. such ll!:i the lhCOIJ of Rem 311d n in 'Mcncius; "mc.aning"
is. the m('nning behind it Mt·anmg derh·es from the \'Cin. which we nut~! firs~
le:.tm \Vath(nll the \'t:.'in we Ul'c sbtpli wiJhout rudders, mghts \\ ttltOUt cand lcil,
ignonmt of "here to ~tC>p. The vein is prior m Jc:mung, but yet mc;ming tS
httrdcr I<' grasp, Why'? 1\ Ycin is a ro.1J , once we arc on it, \\C will arriYc,
h~\\C\'d' far. hUl withl.)tll insight \\ c;.· arc til ., loss 3S to where to find Ul t.::
meaning io the Y~Sl tetrnin I once S..l id that rcad:ng th.;; A na/tel ,\' di!Tcl's from
reading the .\lcnciu.r. We fu'!>t read M~o.·n ctu.;; ' \'\.•in. and ,,·c eun nalur:aJiy fmd hts
Olcan.ing.. WI! Ji.r.st £J'!l:lp the tnc!ln.iog iJt the A nal~cts, ond ouly ~len find iL5
''e m: · lt<l Jinsai. GrrMr"l ./igi .~.rt ;I~!f- ?J.. in Jno uc Tetsujim ~ l:~~~ a~ (.~
K:mic \'QsbimuJU MiJ:~ :Jt. cds.. NUtOn Rmli J\c,ilreu U~f(o J..rlit'!~i (Tol')·o:
lku><:ikai. 1901-1903). V"l. $ B.t> 50
Al D c L~lll lf. 1'/l(! AnaiN:rs. r 185
26S Clnm-<:hi.-lr 1-fmwg

-ram lhon~ ou."

"'Then, you must be the disciple of KonQ Qiu of lu't '
Zilu answered. -1 nm."
"Titroughout thc Empire men nrc all the same. \Vho is there for you
to diOilJ3C place-s witlf? MorcoYcr, fo r your own sake. would it no:t be. beUCI'
if. instc;~d of followi.n s <! Gentleman who J.:~p$ run.ning awuy from men,
)'(lU followed one \\hO runs awuy from the world nltogclhcr'!..
Alithe while he c.arricd on harrowing without intcm1ption.
Zilu \\Cnt llnd reponed ,:,hat " ':)S said to Confucius.
l l•c Master was lost in tltought for a while and said ··one cannot
associate whh birds and beasts. Am I not a member or this human race?
Who. then. is there for me to associ:1tc with? While the \Vzw is to be found
in the Empin.::. ( will not change places t\ ith him.-

This narroti\"C conlntsts worldliness of ConfuciMism with

othen,orldl) rcclush c Daoists d u rin~ the Sprint; lind Autumn. period
(722-464 B.C .). 116 l ins.1i spccilicllly exp3nde.d his sentiments on this
JXlSsagc:~~-&

I judge. sayin g : Jic Ni wanted to change the world: sages

do not. The fofTDer force the world witb 1hdr ways. The
lath::r govern the \\ orld with the world. TI1c world i.s made
of p<."'plc. wilhout whom it c:mnot exist. Thus. sages enjoy
the world, worry nbout il. buy nc\·cr nvoid it to clc01nsc
thcmschcs apan from il. like those. such as Clumg Ju and
Jic Ni did. Their \Vays were not Lhc univcrsaJ historical
Wtl~ s of the \\Orld. Buddh.o 14ua;ht quiet sc lf~dcmisc. L:102i
took the \H'IY of empty nothingness. thereby thc.y thought
to eh:1ngc the world. Ancr two thousand odd years.
howcYcr. Buddha is still i uc:~pable of eO'cc1ing the demise
of rulcr-subjcxt. father--son. and spousal relations of the
world. Nor could L3ozi rcvi\'e ancient non~~c1ion . This
f.-.cl shows us th.:lt our Teacher's instmction is great decent.
correct. nnd persists 1hrough the ag.cs and c.nnnot be funbcr
:Ktded to. He 31so s:1id, .. These people arc those who
enabled the legendary Three Gcnerutjmts to go on.- He
S3id :tgain. '·Go"cm people with people. they imJHO\'Cand
stop."' Sages thus refuse, liL.:c Lhis, 10 cut Lhcmsci\'CS ofT
froru things or fwnc at the ''orld. Perhaps Ibis is wh::u he
meant "hen Wei Zheng ~~~~~ of lhc 11mg dynasty s:1id.
··sagely fh·c EmJ>erors and Three Rulers c.h:mscd no
people but tJ1cy trnnsform cd thcmsch·cs. ··
 269

tu.rs based this powerfu l argument on his interpretation of

Confucius tc:tching :ts .. No l)tw outside people. no people Otllside Doo:' 63
/)ttiJ exists right in the midst of people's daily ac1iYitics: ns JtOsaid. "Why
st ek /)no outside the sccul;~rT(16 In 116"s \\Orld or thougtn there exists not n
single divine J'CCiusc flying high up alone abo\'C this wotld. hO thu$ tried to
dispel the Budd hls t-D:~o i st mist and rctum people to the origin:al Da() of
Confucius. h6's upplic:; Confucian otlhodo~y a ~ ai)Qiogctic.s a gain~t other
teachings he rccardt.:'d as heterodox.

Critique o.f Sm1;: Sdwltm~: '11te main UU'gcl of ll{)s critique was
Song Nco-Confucianism. especial!)• Zhu Xi's metaphysics articulated on
Principle or J; J.!iL
Zhu Xi was a gre:u Confucian scholar \\ho wrote dclliled
commentaries o n mosl of the CI:Jn ics. His lhinl;ing greatly influ enced the
\\Orld of tho u:;ht in A~i:a . espcci:tlly from the fourteenth century. He
initiated Asia's Nco-Confuci3nism that promotes the Four HooJ.:\' ahead of
Lhc Fiw Classics.6 1 His Collected Commcnf<mcs on the Four Books t!3l .!,
·~iJJ.!t~ l:, not only anthologized all the commcnwies ftom the Han. Tang
and Northern Song pcricds to uni ~r the-entire Frmr Hm1/.:~·. but also cost out
some of them a1ld molded a unique meta ph) sica I system .:entered on
Principlc.65 Among the /•'our Books; he particularly stressed the importance
of the Gre(Jt IAUirning }.:~~. saying. '•Leamirtg must begin at the Gr(•ot
Lennri"K· followed by the Analects, then the: Docirinc of the lvlum:•t>'J "'I
\\M( people to read first the Grem L.eomin~ to define the fram~\\Ork. then

M Sec SUI)I':I nolc 44.

(~ S('C :iUJl i'11 11(11C 47.
6• Uno Sci1chi =i~ ~~~i1; - s:ttd lha llhe Piw C /as.fics were products of the
mcJil!\'tll St.~id y . n ...-cltU~I! o;_)f the suc.-cim:t bn.:\ ity tlf the Four Dnllko; that
appc:tlcd to the: conll.:mpor:•n<.~. the l:•ttcr c:tsily n:pl:.ccd the runner S<.-c his
··G,>kyo k:artl Shit'llo c-Kci~nf...1.1shi Obocgn.ki :J.i.~i,. t. I!Yr-1"" .. .mt··}~!J.!i:t
~r in r~)'<i 110 IJtm~'lJ ,fo Slwkttl ~!i('t -;>:o:,· ft t. U. ft. No. J. Kyoto. 1952. PJl.
1· 14. Zhu x.·s Colli•(,•((•(/ t'()mmtutt~ruz:)• (i fl Ill(' Four Hll()b rose IU popul:ni ly
s:xmllarlr in t)O.$C relnti<m \\ ilh external so...~i al. economic. :md polihcnJ fa..:tor:s.
Ct James T. C. Liu. "'I low Did a Nco ·Confucion School B~m.,; the Sta1c
OtthfwJOX) '!" Plu/,.mpl~l' Emt mul U'c>.fl, 21•4 {Octt-.lX:I' 1913), IIJl. 4fol3-50$, C-"Jl·
pp SOl-S04.
(..t On how ('fC3tivc Olld yet how tntdiltOlllll Z.hu Xi w~-:: jn hlS c()/fl:etf'd

Cwruwntutit•,t em lhl· 1·~)11,. Rcmk.t, !IIX 6t!'iul:i Nobuy,,:;hi k l.ll!t'; J:t. "SIJbiNI
slm clm t shoguul warchlru Shusl1i m> luidl) Ll!llf~ii.t 4~:f,JJJ!51~ -f~!!!J5t."' Nilt<m
C /mgoku[!.flklll:tJilto IJ;f.: a.jr~ ~jg.flt 5 (1953). 1---'1'· 80 ·9~. On how Zhu XJ
tmtHi:d lhc Fourl-looks into one, sec Wmg·ISit Chan, ..Zh\1 X(s Completion or
N(·o~Confllclanism,.. in k tud(•s ,\'ong 111 .\lcmmiam i:timnc- &1/ct:.s. EditCcs plll'
From;oisc Aubin, SCnc- II, HI (Paris: Mouton & Co. und Ecole-Prnctiquc de
lloutc Edu<lc:<. 1973). pp. G>0-90.
~<) 1.1 Qmgdc cd •. Zhu:i y111lrl (Pc!:ing: Zhooghna shuJu. 1986). I, p 249
270 Clnm-<:hi.-lr 1-fmwg

read the Analects to csmblish the basic root Aflcr litis. people shm.•ld rend
the ·"-·l ennus to obscn·c its dc:\'Ciopmenl. lhcn read the Dm·trine ofth~ Metm
1
to seck the subdctics of the ancicniS." (1 Again, "The Ana/et·t.,, A1t·nchu·.
and /)()(:trine (?f 1he Nlccm all depend on Gtclll Lc(lming for their grnnd
hatmony... 71 Zhu Xi specific-a ll~· wrote the "AppcrHied Rcm3rt.:"s on the
Investigation of Things·· lo nrguc for our hc~rt-mind ' s cJpnbilitics of
tlisccrning Princil)le ;md slrcssed the importance of exhaustively seeking
Principle by following thinss and ilwcsticatinc things to attain
kno,:,·lcdsc. n Zho Xi plac:cd panicular stress !len's crcath·ity, interpreting
Ren 35 ''the character of hcarHnind and tllC principle of IO\'C•Cr.t ~z e.
3!.- sucssi.ng that this Principle is the hc:ut-mind of the uoiYCrse. the
Principle that sives binh to all things. Zhu thus pu1 aside Cheng Vi's
ncc:ount o f Jcn tiS producth•c :md producing on the basis of Principle, tllld
claimed tluu lm c is born onlr out of Principle tl1ut is the hean·mind of the
uni\·crsc to gh·c birth to the uniYcrsc. It was in this way tl\31 l hu conferred
73
3 metaphysic:Jl b:Jsis to Confucian ethics.

iO Clm 1':11 fll ·lc:i. p. 2·19.

11 Clm T:u ro-Jc:l. r 2$6
n Yang Rubin mal:cs the no\cl cl:nm thatl.hu X•'s idea c)f"in\'estig.-tion
l)f thmss'' W:IS nOt juSt :l C<'l~'11itt vc ntli\llt)' but :1l.!oO tn\'Oivcd ConcentratiOn of
nund-hc:ut. This Sf!<.-cific cooccnlrution and other S(:par.:.ted conc~"tllrot i<ms an:
PJTI.~ of the 1-:t...;k of :;trivin~ (\W .scriousncs:; c:llh.'ti !:!4-Tiou.•:;nc:;s J'~Cil\.1r.at in t;
o.lctivtt)' :n1ll qur..:.1udc. wl1cr-c seri<10snc~ (,."\'ukcs •• sudd~;~1 eutnpn:h..::nsi\'C
reahzauon. Zhu '~ <=XiX'I'il.'ll~c or principle warra.n1s the unir.cali ~'o or
tra:n.,.ccndcnee nnd CXjX"rit.·ncc. \Vhnt the schoktrs cxpcncn<:c ns pnnciplc
unobstmch.:dly pcnctr;,ting things is R(.l ( only an ontoloP.-ic:tl :~.flinnal ion in
Stgnific.utcc and in n;ahns but also l';icilitatcs one·~ free rcspon~"-:1 and
managt.'lncnt M con<:n'1c affa irs. YMg :;;ay~ lh:n l.lm'): sudden rcahZIUi\)1\ rcfe~
lu a rc-grnsptnft of our pnmol self, wh.:rc the mmd-h.::tl1 is :1 bnght, empty
quie1t1Jc in wbicb :til princip)cs rcsidl! a.nd <mc.' s nnturc j:; ciCQr nnd umfi~.-d .
·n ,c scllo1ar. the tUll\'c~. and tltc Orc:H UILitn::ttc ad \' iUlCC together to the Truth
l'~:l hn . Jn this wodd, aJJ ihin g~ lhut a te u:\ually incnmp1cte, pmtiul, ('f(l(:cssivc
~nd pt)t\.·ntial. jfC tC:i-1:-«"tiwly complct..:-d 'l'h• ~ is wh~re "tllthillg:> -· msi\1!! ~1\d
out frnc ond conrsc •• :m: :ttl uchic\·t·d. togcth<..-r \\;th the total !>ubstoncc o r my
mind hc;ln is !!fci'llly c:ITc.:.livc and lucid." Sec Y:u1g, Rubin, "Gcwu yu b\lt.lfiUl
guantong: l.huzi Q.C\\11 buju:lfl di iJU:&nshi wc nti f~H~PQitlit~!!l'J!Ii : *~=f- · tM;J
lJHY. '(I(];& liHiiJ ~ ." p~1pcr f(,l' CouJ(., ·cncc on 2 bu Xi anJ Ea~t Asiiut
Ch·ili-.wuon. T:1ibd. No, ember 16· 18. 2000. Yang's crc:.Uh'c view dill'l.'I'S from
the u:;ual chnr:u.:t~ri7...11il)ll <~ f Zhu Xi a~ ::uhscnbing to a m1nd.principk dua l i~n
I thmJ.:: dm1lism describes the pn)ccss of the mmd-h!.!:trr Ll)' tng to disc'rn the
Principle~ while Y:mg's \' i.:\\' d..:.:~cribcs the n::.tl.n of ~uddc1' re:slizali()R l!Jk'f
tllsc...Timli;Ot. Bolh vk"s arc pc1h:.ps mutuJ1Jy t.:(lcnpk:mcnt;.ny.
n Sec Wing·ISII Ch:1n ~J1!~<~. "Lun Zhll7.J zh1 l~enshu~ i6t*T L, r:rt!t"
in Zhu :tut· lmiJI *J}':M\1~ (l':.ubci: Xucshcng :~bUJU. 19it2. pp. 37-6$.. :.nll his
"Cim llsi ·s Complchon of Nro·C~.'nfuciani~ .... pp. 73·SO
 271

A. In contrast 110 Jins:~i claimed that /)oo is just the Dau of daily
human intercourse. \'iolcntl~· dis:tQrccing with Zhu Xi '' ho had t:1kc!l
Confucius' /)nQ to be a -Normative Principle of things and events.'* •"
adding that ·'this ultimate Daq is difficulc to hear about- Against all this.
h6 Jins::~i said,
76

TI1c Song Cc.1nfuci<tns olwa~· s undertook to discon:r '' h~t

the fanner sages had not sought, not rc:tlizing that tltc
sngcs· \\'Ords pcr,·.ndc up ~d do"~n. and are all embracing.
oil sufficicot. lea\ ing no undiscovered maucrs "I13IC\'et.
Why do they ha,·c to wait for later people to discO\"'Cr
:utything new for them'! Mcncius' theories of··goodncss of
nature" and •·culti,·ation of Qi '·based on Ren and y,· were
just 10 explain our Tc-:u;her·s word$. The former Confucian
li. c .. Zhu Xi I thought them to be disco,·crics of what
former sa~;cs did not seck. nnd so he nlso wanted to
append his own theories, followinc Mencius; ... 311 of
which arc rcntn:UllS of Budd.hn nnd Lao1i uot to be found
in our C"..onfucius or t\•lcncius. Ct'ln he be S3id to ··transmit
and not erc:ltc>- to be "'(ahhful 10 and fond of the
ancients.. "? Clearly we need no fu.rthtr C:\:planation obout
who is right and who has gone wrong.

ItO Ji.nsai accused Zhu Xi of being completely out of toucb with

Confucius and Meocius. us "ell as being unduly innucnc<:d by Buddha rmd
loozi.
Conscqucnth·. ItO Jinsai accused Zhu Xi of straving lnto the
mysterious dCJ>Ihs and leaching a Dtw out of touch \\ ith d<~ily ·lifc. 11

I judge. saying: Seeking the W:Jy in the heights. seeking

mancrs in the fnr. this is a ge-neral fnult of scholars. Tn
eontrns1. C'ln.5$ics of /'()(:fry and H1story teach with things
clo~ to human situ:nions rclcvnn' for daily usc. making
mauc•s not far from us humans into 1be Wny with words
not far from the human \\Orld. And so, as we pcnist in
adhering to Decency i.'d . w~ bcc.omc p:u-agons of human
demeanor to keep up the worldly ways. This is why our
Tenc-her constru1tly dise-ourscs on these three Cl.lssics. As
for Buddhisn1 and Oaoism. they lca\'C the "oriU and break
off with the secular world to engage in only the high and
fa r. They. therefore. do not rcttll)· atlain the principles J.l!

:~ Zhu Xi,l.mr;·u ,1i:hu. p. 71. Couull(>:Jlt:uy on 4/8.

1
' Lunyuj izhu, <:onltn<:ntruy on 5127.
16
NQrtgQ Kogl , ~l, 94.
;· Ro,go ;..;ogl. p, I OJ,
272 Clnm-<:hi.-lr 1-fmwg

of the Cla~·J ics of Poe/IJ! and /Jh'tOI)'. Bcsillcs.. although

later Conruci:ms recited the Clns.n c (~f fJot>try and rc:Kl thc
C lrlS51C ofHisJmy. they sought mtderstanding: in too deep.
too difficuh areas '' ithoul knowing lhatthcy should seck il
in easy ordinary situations close by. As a result their
words and deeds ore oficn monifestly encumbered with
twisl$ and dimc.ultics. lacking in \ ilSI. right, and unl1uniod
composure. Isn't il true that tl1c rcptllcd difficully of
reading is not in rcadin~ but in roadins M:ll and risht?

116 Jins.,i claimed Dtm was '"close to human situations rclcYant for
daily usc'' bec~usc -the secular is Dao. outside the secular there is no
so-cnllcd Doo.- 5
116 Jinsai n.lso targeted Zhu Xi in his comments on AntJJecl.t 1 3 11 ~ .
"The G<'n·c mor of $be S.:)id to Confucius. .. In our vilbg,e we have one
' str;sisht bow·. When his father stole a sheep. his son ~u,·c- c' idcnce nJP&insl
him. ~0Z'1FfL:r H. ·e:a\{J'.t~:Jrh~··, ~~:>tii~ie.. uiJ-ft.llZ.- 19 110 Jinsai
critici1.cd Zlm Xi's comment ...11HH father and son conceal ror each otl1cr is
the ultimate of heavenly principle and human sentiment.'" t(l 1.16 Jinsai
said.• 1

I judge. sa~' ing: An old commcnl.tlry on this p.1ssase Slys.

-Father ::md son conceal for each other is the ult.inw.te of
hcaYenly priJlCiplc and human scntimcn1s.- This is wronc.
fo r it splits the hum:m and the principle two. What human
sentiments share in common C\'Crywhcrc tJuoug.hout
history is thai which origitlatcs all Fi\'c Const:mls and
Hundreds l)roccsscs Ii'ii\' Btf of things. how could there
be any hta\'Cnly Principle outside human ~ntimcnts1 Let
human sentiments go against one nno thcr~ 1hen, C\'Cn if
one could h~h·c pulled offlhc "orld's most difftcull tasks,
it is rcall) done with animal heart. \\hOse bnnc rc.-tchcs tllc
len! of lhier·s DM. Why',• When things are done with
discrimination of yes :lS yes. no 3S no without
distinguishing close relations from disumt tllc noble from
the lowly. such man:lgcmcnt is called " public/officiallfbir
i~..,. acts.
Now. if a father conceals for a son. or a son fo r a
father, 1f it is not c3lled ··strnight ... it should nat be called
- publicJoffici:tUfair... Still our Te;schct acccpLW such
father-son c.once:.Hng for L-ach other because this is tltc
ultimate human sentiment. "here decency e~nsts and

11
Uo11go Kogi, p. 130.
~ 0 . C. Lou tr.• The Auah•cts, p. 127.
8>> Zhu Xi. L'"'J''II j•t!JJ,. p 1-16.
81
Ro,go ;..;ogl, p 197,
 ''here righteousness rc.sidcs. So. the sages lnU.. about
principle ~~~ wittlout saying it talk about righ1oousncss .~
and nol public/offir:ial/foir, To leave human scntimt'nts and
wnnmh aside in seckin& Drw is heresy. not the unircrsal
IJao of the world.

For ItO Jinsai. to split human n;uure from heavenly principle, for
the Iauer to go,·c m tlle former. and to lcm'C the secular to seck Dao. ns the
Song Confucians did. \\3S to lc:1\'c Confucius' original meaning of Dao
behind.

B. ILO Jinsai also critfcizcs Zhu Xi on the basis of another central

(()nfucian notion, Hm or bene,·olcncc 1: . Aecordin~ 10 \Ving·tSit CMn it4!
.:f:itli (1')0 1·94). Zhu Xi rencetcd deeply on this 11<-Hion for Len odd )CatS.
from about 36 or 37 years of age (1 165· ll (l()). Zhu completed his essny
·'On Rcn'' at ;:about age 42 (ll1l). tl~l is. about 20 ) Curs bcforc' 2 - · "hich
therefore CM be taken as the source o f his ideas in - Coll..cred
Commmlnncs :md Qttt!SlJ()ns mul An.\1Vcr$ tm Four &X>k.\· (ll77. published
in l1 90)and/.c:c:lmt:-s ll/ lHrmnt Yfl .Ii.tllt'iM.~ ( 11 94).
The most imponant kc~· to Zhu Xi's philosophy of R.m is his
saying. -/(en is the eharncter of mi.nd·bcart ruld the principle of Jove."
whk:h appeared mon: than ten times in his commentaries on the AlW/(rls
11
nnd the A1cncius. It is one ofZhu Xi's imponant crcath·c idcas. ' 110 Jinsai
critiques this intcrprctotion of Rt:n ruthlessly. ItO Jinsai thought that Zhu hnd
C:\:lmcted Ren from concrete human activities. and sublim:ncd it into
14
.abstract Prindplc. hQ said.

Tile Fonner Confucian said, "/leu·benevolencc and

yi-rightcousncss arc principles in human nature. Our
nature- onl) has H~n. Yi, /J·dcc:cnc)· and Zhi·lntclligcncc.
these fom. Whence then (iliality and fraternity'?" If so. Ren
as subst;:mcc is the root. fili:.lity and fr.ncm.ity .as fu.octioo
arc the branches. this would coruradicl You;~,i's :t.r 7
sa~' ing, ··fi lialit)' and fro.temit)' arc Jf!u 's root." So. Zhu Xi
said , ''Pratlicing Rt:.n tJ-kcs ftl ialil)' und fti.l lcrnity us ils

$! Wing::•ISit Chttn, Zlm ,l:UI! fmyi. Jlp, 4 l ·-41

&:~ Ymn<:~:t.ak Mi~.i Jl rdtf=R ilt ( 1796-1856) .s<tid of n~, t: in hi:>/.onf.! Au
shlJtyitm fPl.ii~~· iM. "l'ooplc's \'Oicc.·s. the hcatt'~ \'ittuc, lo,·es ptmciplc ·L.•.Z.
1.~. ~Z l!it. A Ouddhb1 numl.. Zhiguang ~8'it wrote llu; \'Olumc in 997. Chu
Hsi compktcd the l..un Mc•rtgj1:1m i n 1177, and ••doptcd lhis Bnddhtst J'hm5i:."'
llow.:;\'('r, C.:hu.n Wmg·tsit's t.::xtual (.'fittctsm t·.::nals tlt\1( ptopl<·. lawr <Jddcd 1hc
phro!)lC to Umx Art shrmjitm. sl" >wing. thus thO! Zhu Xi httd.n't OOuptcd it (sec
$Upr:l not..: 82) Chan· :1 uS;)Crti<m StlUndstJIIIusibk.
81
Ro,go ;.;ogl. p. J
27.J Clnm-<:hi.-lr 1-fmwg

root discoursing on nature takes Rt~.n as the root of filiality

:and fancmity." ... But then. whr did Mcncius t:~.kc Jen
and 1'i as our innate possession'! It ''' 3S bc<:ausc hum:ln
nature is good tht~tl1e took Jen tmd Yi ns our ooturc. This is
to idelllif~· human nmure in terms of Rm nnd Yl, not to
take Reu and Yi directly as human nature,

116 Jinsai pointed out how Zhu Xi had strayed way from tllc
dialogic situation in the Analuts (and thus -c.onlttldicted You:r.t ) 3nd
quoted Mcncius 10 point out Zhu Xi's mist3kc.s. This rcOccts flO's s.tmtcgies
ofau::~ck .
Next. hO Jinsai poin1cd out that Zhu Xi's mistakes rutd
im:lcvnncics crunc fromiUJ\'ing been jnOucnccd by Zen Buddhism: ~~

AHer Mcneius died. his Vao became obscure in the wot'ld,

and later Confucians merely wandered in the realm of
annot:tting words. When the Song clan arose, mn.or great
Confucian scbolius appeared to promote orthodoxy and
reject heresies. to \\3Sh awa~· the disgraceful scholarship
of the Han and Tang dynasties. Despite such great
octurrcnocs. chcrc flourisJlcd also the philosophy of Zen
and not a few schol:us interpreted the sages' saying wilh
Zen ideas. The situation indccd was not :mspieious. People
came to trcasun: oneness of mind, to rcg:ud dcor mirror
and quiet waters as the uhinuue task of sclf-c:uhhotion.

E\cn Lhough ItO Jinsni respected the Song Confucian scho!arly

efforts, he differed greatly from them for -seeking Tiro too highly... )(-, ItO
Jinsai saw chcr had polluted \':Jiuablc Confucian notions, such as /len. with
Buddhism Md Dooism: thus. the sages needed ItO to appe:lr to dispel the
dark clouds for the sun to apJlCar to re-establish the classical mcnnings of
Confucianism.
ln conclusion. ItO's hcnncncutics of tho Anal~tcts w;JS not just a
theory but aJso a l)racaicc. a iming to protect and IH"Omoce the orig.innl
c:las.sk31Confueionism by :.tbcking the wayward interprct:uions of Zhu Xi,
who kld been misled by Buddhism und Oaoism.

CONCLUSION

We ha\·c in\'cstigatcd one major type of Classics hermeneutics in

F.ost Asi:a. of Confucius's Analecu·. in p:uticul;u. that is a hermeneutics as
.1pologctics. Such a hcnncncutic.s uses o.nnotntion or commcntnry: on the
Classics - going back to their original classical meanings -- as a n1eans to

SJ NQrtgQ Kogl , ~l. 17.

M Ro,go ;..;ogl. p. 79.
 275

clear up polluted understandings of Confucianism. Going back to lh~:

original meanings of the original le.xts rcsoiYcS many mistakes and
problems incurred by Song Nco·Confuci:m intcrprtt;ltions. ItO Jinsai
pointed out llO\\ for Zhu Xi :md hjs colleagues hnd dcpmtcd fro m the
ori!linal dialogical world and context of Confu cius and his disciples.
116 J insai used an ;m_notatiYc scalpel th;lt cut back to the original
mc<mings of the Classic-s, and rcn~a lcd the- insights of mutual hannonics
among the Clnssks, in order to remove .rurgkally later accretions of foreign
meanings ~ccn.cd to Confuci:m kc~· notions such as J)(1o o.nd Ucn. This
linguistic and contextual correction of Zhu Xi"s intcrprcth·e S)o'Stcm c.nablcd
lt6 Jim;ai to n:storc Confucius' ..one" that pcnctrntcs j.:l:.lt from Chu Hsi's
miStt)kC11. notion of"eomJJrehcnsion j!" by rciUming to the original/)au or
"Joy4hy and reciprocir,,·· to go,·c m oll dnily 'irtuous .:activities in the Fi\'C
Processes and Hundred Ordin:trics. By c~antining the muddled
contro,·e rsics or the IX'" and 19' ' ccnl\11')' Qing Confucians on that simple
declllmtion of Confucius. -a single thread binding it ~U.'' 11 we ;uc all the
more impressed \\ith llo's insightful interpretation of ho '' the '"one" that
"pt.·netr.ucs all" successfully disst><:tcd and OYCrthrew Zhu Xi's intcrprcti\·c
rtpproach to the Annlccts. In this way. ItO Jins.1i completed the reYivnJ of
Confucius· original Dao.
ItO 1insai"s hcnnencutic apologetics can be compared instructi\'cly
to that of the Qing Confucian. Dai Zhcn i& fl (Dongyuan ~U I~ .
1724- 1777). who attacked Zhu Xi using a classicist annotati\'e
hermeneutics of the 1Hmdus in a monograph titled 1irxtuol Critical
Comment(UJ' on rlu~ Alem:iu,\· ;&i: 7-:"F:t'il;(t;,n. Unfot1unatcly. Dai Zhcn \\ RS
less cOCctivc than ItO Jin s:~i. He was un:tblc lo dcli\'cr a fotnl blow to Zhu

s• Jtuon Yuan [itj[: (176:l. Jl:W9) :sa.iJ. "'Confuctus· Wuy appears in ull
llis dtnly acthritics.. nm j lbl in lco.lming (If Ius teaching and Sl~· iugs.. ·n1us. \\ ha l
he toh.l /.t,l g7.J to pcuctt31e his Way ;@ into ont·-, "penetrut.;: !'£'' means acnons
ami CH'Ili:L .. So, ir \\'~ take '"pcnclrOic '{!l". U$ " (-.-c'nclicc or thing~."' then the
sage·s W:~y reduces t(l ConfUcHulism: tf we t:tkc at :lll .. ,x:n..::tmtc tbtough i§
it.- then ll is dose to Chan Duddhisnt We ask \\hUt sott of Way 11is. thcu we
get what the J>ocwtnr- nf tlt~· Mum c:tlls l oy:~l l y :tnd rcc1prn<:ity. \'irtuc-: nt' the
(lfJinary, words. of the (lrdiuary. the Way mutuaUy ul\'l)lvang W(1rJs ~lod :.cts:·
l·h,wc,·cr. Fan Onng::J.m 1T!f:OH (1712-J SSI ) di ~a~1~d. snying. ·•'nl~.: phm~
· pco<:t1~ 11n g inh" ~)lh!' et)lllhilll!''- km)wins and aclmp. and ~<1111\0I be t ilt\!~l 10
c1lhcr one.... l.oyalty and rcciprot:1ty 1s the s.:t.lt lo soh 'pcnctrntmg mtu onc', thc-
snll pcnctwtcs w1d then we know il OnJy upon finishin:: dlc sahin~;. C<Ul we
llllllcrstand its meaning. unre;.l~habl~; by sh:tll(lw scholars. Jiao Xun 1.1.-i i\l
undcrSIMd it to b-!· ··My Wrry pcr\"ndc-.s all throug.h :lmong pc<>pl!! ·/.i:jtj - !;J.illl.
L~~ A ·· He JU::>I stuck him:>t:lf hJ luyail)' and r~:ciprodty. lrailing lhcsc ''mds
to m1ss the n::d 1nc:anmg. .. Both statements :tppcsr in Fan Dongshu, IIM1\'' '"
.rlumdu1 li-!t-iT'~ Q; m his lf(llr.\·u~ shi(:hniJ(Jf i-~l'f! fj'fij'j(f.i! (Dci;iug SanJhul
shuJu. 198'8), zhuan B (1). pp. 198 :tnd JOI
276 Clnm-<:hi.-lr 1-fmwg

Xi. because he ne'er really entered Zhu 's ·"circle of hcnncncutics." Dai
Zhcn 's mcthodologic;al limitation rendered him less than successful in his
npologctic :1tt.1ck on Zlm Xi. n
116 Jins.<Ji \\Ould htl\C met ''ith problems like O;ai Zhcn·s on the
Mencius, for they bod\ opplied 1hc tools of l<::xtual hermeneutics -- which
were more suitable for word studies than for undcrst;mding the theoretical
mci.Uphysic;.al s ide that is more promiut:nt in Mcncius th:tn in Confucius. Be
that as it may. the debates bct\\CCll 116 Jins.1i and Zhu Xi. with the t.1cit
..cnem~ " of Buddhism and Daoism in the back~;round, ~dd depth to our
wtdcrstanding ot'Confuci::mism. including Confuc-ius. Menciu.~. Zhu Xi. and
h6 Jinsai himself.

~ s~.:c my ,\ (e iiCillll llt:rtllt;!tl(.llfic:t: A J/ls tOf)' vf /lll(rJnr:lmium ; , Chlrttl

(New Bnmswu;k and Loodon· Tr:msac1ion Pubhslu.TS. 2001). pp 211·'232.
 Chapter Xlll

Confuci us on li and Montaignc on Cous/llme:

A Reflection on C ustomary Pntcticcs and
Personal Autonomy
Cecilia HCe

Confucius has oficn been charnctcri:tcd as maintaining that there is

one tn1c p:tth (' the Way") which all humans should try to follow and :111ain.
Thus. there would be. for him. broadly speoking. a single kind of sood life
for all humans. which C\"CI)onc should seck to live. Michd de Montaignc.
on the other hand. is sometimes seen as- the mot:ll rclmivist par e.w·e/lente,
who holds that wh:at counts as the ·good' must be rcl:.ti\'C to specific
cultures and societies. :and there arc no i_ndcpcndcnt SU'Indacds by which one
m:'ly compare the ·good lire· of one cohurc with that of anotl1cr.
Despite this (alleged) rundruncntol difl"c~ncc bci\\CCH them, both
h:wc in common tht~t the-ir views :IJ)Jl<trc ntl~· threaten. in one w:~y or another.
to exclude the possibility of personal autonomy. Thus. for c~amplc ,
Fingoucttc cJaims that in Confucius's ethics:
M~m is not an uhinuucly autonomous being who has an inner and
dccisin: power. intrinsic to him, a (XlWcr to select :1mong real alccmatiY<.'S
and thereby shopc a life for h.imsciL l.nstcnd. he is born ;as 'raw m.ntcriar
[that) must be civilized by cducntion and thus become a truly human num.
(Fingnti!IIC 1972:34)
Agllin. consider this '' cll·known claim b~, Montni:;,nc:

For in truth custom is a \'iolcnt and treacherous

schoolmisucss. She establishes in us. littJc by litt1e.
stcahhily. tl1c foothold of her authority: but ha\ ing by this
mild nnd humble beginning settled and pl:mted it with the
help of time. she roon unco\"crs to us a furious and
tyrunnic.al face against" hich we no lont'-• ha' c the libcn~·
of even raising our eyes. (Essais I :23. Frnmc: 77) 1

Customs and h..1bits mt'ly, :1ccording to Mont::signc.. \'t'lry gt·catly

across space nnd time, but the customs and mores of n panicular rociery nt :t
particular time aJtd pla.cc exert such o. hold upon its members th:lt they cba.n
tltcir lives unquestioningly according to these standards a11d practices. He
C·oncludcs th:u 'it is :a common vice .•. of :1lmos1 :111men. to fix their :aim and
limit by the ways to which they were born'. (E$S(liS 1:49. Frame: 215) One
migl1t then clnim of Montaignc that l•c thinks that custom exerts such n

I CiU•tklflS fl\>nl the E.f :wb tein :. bxlk \llhl (.:$Say numbers. r~..\LIO\\~.:d by
(XIge number~ from the Frome edition ()f 19.57.
strong hold on humans that the.:~· no longer ha\C an ·inner :md decisive
pcmcr to choose among real altcm:.tivcs' .
TI1is prspcr examines Confucius's Yicws on II (trnnslatcd here, not
\\holly fel icitously. as rites). and pla«s it against MonLnig.nc·s Yiews on
rot~smmc (transl:ucd here, again not \\holly fclic itousl) , :'IS ·custom·). !(
suggests th;~.t , contr.try to initial oppcornnccs. there arc m ~tny -.flinities
l>ctwocn them in rcspc.ct of their \'icws of the human good. and of how one
should li\'e. ft also argues tltat each has room for a reasonably strong
\'Crsion of personal autonomy in his account. l begin by looking at
Confucius's vie\\S on tlte role of ritc.s in the ethical Hfc. before looking at
r..tontaignc's \·icws on custom.1

CONFUCIUS O N RITES

Confucius pl:tccd strong cmpho.sis on the imporl!l.ncc of rites for

the indi,·idual who \\ishcs to li\'C the good life. He mnintains lluu
benevolence (/4.'n) is coosaitutOO by returning ·to 1he obscr,·ancc or the rites
rhrough o,·crcoming the self'. {Analects 12: 1. Lou: 112) The Confuciln
ideal of achie,·i,lg bcnC\'Oicncc thus has as an integral Jl3rl the obscrY~mcc
of rites, such that anyone who \\ishes to be a benevolent person must
o\·crcomc bcrsclfao d rctmn to the obscn·nnce of the rites.

But what precisely is a ritc'r In the Annlecr.f , the rites

discu.sscd include those ahnt rclalc to how we should net
tO\\nrds our p>~rcn ts \\hen the~ arc ali\'C. \\hen the~· die
and \\ hen thC}' are dc.od; nnd the wider Confuci:ln tradition
clcarl~ specifics the ritual relations Lht~-t should hold
bct\\ccn husband and \dfe., fa Lhcr and !SOn. commoner and
minister and so on. But note that the rites mentioned b~·
Confucius nJso include extremely dcto.ilcd spcdfic.ntions.
such as the linen cap to be worn for a particular ceremony
and whc1hcr to bow before or af\cr a&:-cnding lhc hall
(Ann/eel~· 9:3. L..1u: %),

The rites thus eneomp:.ss whal might be called eus1omnry pmcaices.

Importantly, Confucius hold$ thnt these rites have nn ethical dimension ••
they outline how one should beha,·c to one·s elders. onc·s children aJld
others in one's commllnity. Indeed, these Confucian rites or customary
practices dclinc:nc an entire way of li\'ins ... they provide one witlt a guide
of how one IS to /we . In following t11csc rites or rules of propriety. one acts

z I focus cxclusi\"IC:ly on Confm:.tus·s own \"iew.:~ ill lhts pa~. Thot ts, I
\\"ill be looking al Lhc \·ie"':S of immcdmlc Slk."Ccssor:; likl! Mcr.gi'"j und
llQt
Xunzi. far less the wi(k,· C(tflf~a ciml tr:uJiliou ~LS it l1as d-;, dorw:d lm.:r th~
ccmuncs
 279

nppropri:ucl~· towards others in the frunilial. social and state.: order. 3Jtd li\cs
as one should,
But in order to live ;15 one should. it is not enough to fol/ow or
ptnj (Jml these rites · - rather. these rites should be lived out. Confu cius holds
tb:.t, when one sacrifices to t11c gods, one must S:'I Crificc as if the god~ arc
present. (Anal~c·J$ 3: 12. L:tU: G9) It is not enough to pcrfonn the sacrifice.
one must Mkc ptm in it
Fingarcuc provides an interesting illustration of what this might
in\'oh·c using the (Westcm) pt.lcticc of sho.king hands. Consider nhat
llaJ)petlS "hen I meet you i11 the street. and W.l\'C and put out a hand to
shake yours. When this happens. I do not need to direct my mind
conscious ly to my focli.ng of respect or good-will for you (which might
indeed make rmhe.:r sclf·couscious with )OU). Rt1thcr. pro\ idcd I genuinely
particip:ue in the h:md.$h3ke. that net itself is an expression of m) re-spect
ttnd good-will. Another extunplc ( this time not dr3wn from Fingaretle)
mi&ht be that of the councou.s IX:rson '' ho invites her ~ucsts to pnnul.:c first
of the food at a feast. Sh~ docs not have to think of being councous- the
spontaneous net itself is an expression of councsy and respect. for
Confucius. \\ hen one performs all customary rites and obscn·anccs in the
right spirit one is attaining the Way ;md li\'ing as one ought to li \ 'C.
We cnn contrnst the case delineated abo,·c with a case where the
person pcrfonns the h:mdshake or im·ittltion to cat blindly or mechanically
•• these pcrfonn:.nccs then :.re surf:.u:c motions that do not re:.lly impinge
on tbc rt•a/ person (who may i.n realit)' be indi.OCrent or bored when maki.ng
the gcsturt.'S). In such a case. thtll person is not doing ns s he ought. Or ngain.
consider someone ''ho is bursting \\ilh g()()(f·\\'ill tmd dtlCS not conttol
herself'. indis.erimino.tcly showering physical affection to the cmb::trmssrucnt
of her :tcctuuimuncc or guests. For Confuchts m least. such u pcrsou "ould
not be doing as she ought he would think she needs to temper her brash
behaviour with propriety. He srotes:

When there is a preponderance of n:nh'c substance OYer

acquired refinement the rcs uh will be rudeness. When
there is preponderance of :.cquired refinement o,·cr m1ti,·c
sub.unnce, the result \\'ill he pcd:lntry. Only a
wcll·balunccd admixture or these two wiiJ result in
gcntll.!manlincss. (Atmlecl.\' 6: 1R. Lau: 83)

h is on l~· when the person lh'CS a life where his nalh·c substance
has been genuinely been sh:tpcd and informed by the rites that he truly
becomes 3 gentleman.
Confucius holds that 1hc good life consists in ·swef\·ing not from
the right path' (Anol~G'IS 2:2. L.au: 63). and again. that the gentleman
dc\'otcs himself lo :lll3ining the W:.y. {Analct:ts : IS:32: L1u; I36) It is clear
that nttoining the Way must in\'OI\'c lh ·.ing one ·s life by und through the rites.
for it is only by doing this that one bec-omes a senllcrnan.
 1 ha\'C looked at Confucius's \·'icws on the ruuurc of the rite :Jnd lh~:
role that rites (ought to) play in shaping lhe person's life. NO\\' we ham lo
1\'lontaignc's views on the role thnt custom pl;ays in sh11pi.ng n person's life:
to sec how Montaigne·s DCOOULH m;~y raise possible worries conceming lhe
good life :'I Sodvocnted by Confucius.

MONTAIGNE O N CUSTOM

In his ~soy ·on Custom·, rvtontaisnc explores the di,·crsc ~d

\'3ricgatcd customs and prnctiees that obtain in different societies. Among
the pr.tcticcs that he includes arc th.::n or grcc1ing one another by P" tting
their finger to the ground and then rnising il to hcm·cn: of being prohibited
(unless one is his wire or child) from speaking to the l.:ing \\ hhout an
intermediary: of sending one·s blood to others as a s isn of 3ff'cction: of
burning incense to honour fellow human beings. not just sods: :md or
kill ing one's fznhcr at n ccrtuin ogc as £111 act of piety. (l£,.,,.,,isl:23. Frou.te:
82)
Titc customs tJuu 1\tontlligno mentions h:wc some oJTt.nitics to the
rites lh:u Conrucius discusses. To begin witlt they ~rc ritu3l practices or
obscn·anccs in much the same way tb31 the Confucian rites arc. Moreover.
Montaignc docs not think that s uch customs arc merely pr:~c tiscd
mechanically or blindly. whhoul impinging upon the real person. ' It is
custom th~t gin:-s fomt to human life'. Montaig_nc's well -k-nown a!'scrtion
here i.ndic:ltcs thnl he th.i.n.ks that. i.n most Ca$tS. such customs ~orne to fonn
an inlcgral tmrl of the person. so thnl she Iires out a life thnl is shaped by
these customs. Indeed, his ''ie''' is th:u these customs and practices are sa
intcrn:ili?.cd. nnd become so ~nuch of the person that she ' no longer lh:tsl
the libcny or raising lhcr] eyes' in ddiancc or accepted c-ustom. and c.1n
only fix l'lcr ·aim and limit by the ways to which (she is( born·. As with
Confucius. then. l\·tontaignc·s customs delineate for tltc indhidual an entire
wa~· of' lh·ing ~- they shape lhc way th.."lt one ,i/wu/t/ li\'C. Such customs may
dcHnc~tc appropriate expressions of aiTcction and honour. as 1hc Confuci:.m
rites dclinco.tc npproprintc expressions of rcspc:c.t and courtesy. Ag;~ in . jus1
as obeying one's parents unconditionally is an act of ptc•y to the Confucian
child, Montoisne spc.oks of a society in which ldlling one ·s f:Hher t1t a
ecrtuin ugc is un acl of picly.3
In cl:"lim ing th..1t cust\)lll may become so intcmalizcd to the
indh·idual tll:lt s:hc is: no lonser rrcc to ·rnisc her c~·cs· in defiance of it,

3
it might be argued that Montoigne's ·cou!jlumc' i:; .-;imjhtr to. and more
approp1i:.lld)' C\1111J>O:tfl.:d Wilh. lhc Ul)lil.m or Ml (founJ in lhc \\ riUn g~. c. ~ .. ul'
Xunzi} th:.m \\'Jih (; However, as the :tbo\ '\.' p:1mgraph shows.. MIM II11rN~. as
ooncei\'Cd br Montn i~1K', diX's phl)' a r\'•k: a.nulogou~ 10 /1 in humrm livci'.
Cou.stll/'111! is not mcrdy (cluhorat..:.) ritual blindly and thou¥hlkssly followed, it
is iuh:m~Jjz(.XI ;,~s tl1c rig/ilthinl_t lv do. :.md ~l has it:; ethical dimcn:iion In lhis
resp.':Ct, it 1s cJ<'~ lo Confnci~ n II
 2111

Montaignc C\ idcntly tl•inks that the customary prnctjccs of a society can

dcpri\"C ils members of fuUonomy. in the sense that they dcprh·c these
members of the ability to envision and carve out ;"Jitcnunh·c Ji\·cs to 1hosc
mapped by pre\ ailing custom. This sounds uncrumily similar to Fingarcuc·s
claim in respect of Confucian ethics thnt ' lm )3n is not an ultim:nely
::mtonomous being who has ... a power 10 scle\.:t runong real alternatives ::mel
tftc.rcbr ~h npc a life for himsclr .
For Confucius. the rices dclinc:n e tl1c right way to live -~ when a
person's 'tUtivc substance· has been genuinely s:hapcd lllld informed by the
rites. she u·uly becomes the gc.ntlel\Oman. But Monlaignc's views, as 1 ha\ C
just delineated lhcm . can be brought to bc3r on Confuch1s's ethics and 10
raise n couple of objections conc,cming this ethic.
Filst. Montaignc notes that rites. c ustoms and practicts differ
wildly from cuhure to cuhu.rc, from society to socie1y. Yet the members of
ttny p:uticular society ~ so s haped and informed by their l)wn p.:trtic-ul:lf
rites and observances thatlllc)' lhiuk their w:.y of li\'i.n& is the rishl wa)' 10
lh·c , and no other. So is ConfUcius simply one of tl1cse arrog~llll persons
who think that tJu;ir ":)}' of living is the rit;hl way. :md th3t n life sl1apcd br
their· prc.scribcd rile$ (IO\Hitds parcnLS. ministt'fs etc.) is the good life·· <lnd
ther~ can be no other'/ Thai is. docs he indeed ignore, or unj ustly exclude.
the possibility that tbcrc mny be other cqunUy ntt~inJblc kinds of good
lives?
The sec-ond point concerns the pcrwn who lh·es the ethical life
Confucius prescribes. Confucius mai.nt.ains that the gentleman sets his heart
on attnining the Way. and this in\'Ohcs ' rctuming· to the rites (i.e.
immctsing oneself in and in!cmalizjng the-se rites). Js the Confuci.1n ethical
person then someone who works unquestioning!~ 4nd dctcnninedly at
i ntc-rn:. li ~ing these l'itcs. \\ hOse ·a im and limit'. it1 Mont:.igne ·s \\'Ords. is
nxcd by these riles? If so, thcr~ may be some justice to Fingarcuc·s cl::tim
tb:tt the Confucian ethic has no room for personal autonomy. at least in the
sense that the c.thical person docs not sll3pc tl1c contours or her own life.
this liCe being shaped by internalizing specific customs and rites directed at
helping her 011t;ain the W:~y.
I now c~mmin e these objcc1ions. once llgain b}' locating
Confucius'11 views in rclntion to Monwiync ·s. I C:'I:Ominc the second
objection first.

MONTA IGNEAND CONFUCIUS ON REFLECTIVE SC RUTINY

ANDAUl'ONOMY

Montn.ignc claims of custom31)' practices thm they can become so

ingmincd in n person that she is no longer able to ' raise her eyes' in
defiance of custom. and cmisagc living in :1 \\8)' other 1hnn that prescribed
by cuslom. Bul docs he think it ine\·itablc that the customs of a particulor
.society c~crcisc lhis eiTcca upon .its membe-rs..!
282

As I ha,·c argued in another paper." Momaig.nc docs not think tbat

it is ine,·itablc that we lose o ur aulooomr in this sense. Note thal. while
Montaignc cl:1ims custom is like a schoolmistress who cxcns a tyr.mnkal
grip thnt is very difficult to cscap<:. he docs nol think it is imiJ()ssib/c to
escape this srip:

the princip;~l effect Qf the power o f custom is to . .. ..:.nsnarc

us in suc.h a way that it is hardly {a pt:imr) within our
JlO'' cr to get ourseh 'c s b3ck out of its grip and return into
oorsci\'CS to reflect and reason :!bout its ordiu3nccs.
(f:.'suus I :23. Frame: 83)

Montaignc ''rites {),;n we can lmrtlly escape the inOucntc or

eu~tom in order 10 ·return inlll oursch·cs" co rationally rcncct on customaty
practices. suggesting that while this procedure is difficult to 4)chie,·c, it is
not nupos.,·ihlc. Momnisne Lhcrcforc maintains thnL it is possible 10 usc
reason to rcnect on our custonltu)' practices and their :1cccptabili1y.
TI1nt Montaisnc would malnuin this tnisht nt first seem ludicrous
to tJ1osc nccJu3intcd \\ ith his widct wOtfc ln his Apofog,v ji.Jr llo.rmond
Scbomi. and in countless other places. rvtontaignc i.s uncrty dismissive of
rcnson, uryuing that it is of no usc. and indeed causes considerable hrunt.. to
tile human being. How lhcn <:an Montaignc hold that rc:~son can be used to
free the human fro m the 'violent prcjudic.c' of custom'!
The onswcr lies in rccogn.i7ing th at ~·lon tnig.nc US(:S the tcnn
'reason· (rai.~On) inn ,·aricty of senses in his \\Orks.~ In paniculur, Frame
points out that Mont.:1ignc mnkcs n distittelion between rtll:um ralstmntmu.>
('reasoning· rcascn) and raison roisonnabh· (rc.as.onable rcllson). (Frame
1??5:203) 11tc rormcr is charach!rit.cd b~· Frame ns 'sheer ratiocination (or
ils own sake, \'arious. changeable, and irri!sponsiblc' (ibid.). II is townrds
this kind of reason lhat f\'[on tnigne expresses skeptjcism nnd ridicule. In
contrast there arc man~ pbccs in ''hich Monuaignc endorses the usc o r
rc:tSonablc reason . Frame ch::mu:tcri1..cs the latter as ' the reason thai should
prevail :md somclimes docs. in the conduct of human allnirs: :s m;~ttcr of
reasonableness. o r hccdin.g LhC-J)I'Oper order of things. ... It seems to operate
solely in the r¢alm of human conduct Iand i is modest when: i1s c-ounrcrp:ut
6
is presumptuous. Lruthful where the oilier is deceptive·. (ibid.)
II is the Iauer kind of reason that one Gan bring to bear o n custom
to free onesdr of its power. Th:u such rc:-.so.1ablc rc::tSon can be used 10
cvnluatc custom is confirmed in this passage:

"~ W«.:Z005
~ f'r:nnc p<)in1s oul th:u the !..ArXIfJttr.: rf.r ltllmlgr•e t/($ £t$al$ hscs fi\'C ~11ch
\ls<Jgcs. (Fr:unc 1995:203)
6 Montnilln~.:•s vacws on Jt=-lt.iOn hun~ of course been widely di$(.."US!SCd. S<..'\!,
Fra.m ~ 1995. L-:k Choritc 199$. toch(.'l' 199j, JJ).
lOr 1.':'\tllllJ)k. Ou\til 198:l.
Schnccwmd. 199~. pp. 44.47
 18.1

\Vhocvcr watns 10 gel rid of tJ1is violent prejudice of

custom will find man) things accepted with undoubting
resolution, which ha\'C no support but in the hoary beard
and lhc wrinkles of the usage thnt goes with them: but
t\ hen this mask is tom off, tmd he refer~ tl1ings to tnuh Md
reason. he will feel his j udgment ns it were all upset. :md
nevertheless restored to a much 5urcr st.:ttus. (lf.\·.m is I :23.
Frame: R4-5)

f\tontaignc :Jilows that custom leads to lhe unquestioning

acceptance of m:lfly pracliccs. but holds ncvcnhclcss that one con refer
these pro1cticcs to (rcasoMblo) reason ror ev:~.lu:nion. While such referral
may result in initial disloc:uion for onc·s judgment. onc·s judgment will
c,·entu:~ll)' be rcs1ored to a much s urer suuus (as it is fOtutdcd on reflective
reason mlher t.lun unquestioning pr:lcticc). Mont:ugnc thus thinks that
humans possess the po"c-r of stcppina bud: from their customaJ)' pracliccs
to rc n ~ct upon these ll1'3Ctices, and subsequently endorsing, modifying O J'
discarding them. indeed. Monltlignc thinks that this procedure is cJsrm#a/
(or :l11)'011C WhO WiSheS tO :'!VOid being impriSOUCd b) t)IC •violent prejudice"
or 1he ·furious· and ' l)·r:mn ic~d schoolmistress· that is custom. For
Montaigne. the human being can reasonably choose to live in woys other
than those prescribed by lhcsc customs.
The issue of what is required CC,r an agent tO be autnnomous has
been much discuiScd :and contested. A di$Cus.sion of the merits :mel
dran backs of the ' 'arious kiuds of criteria for human autonomy is obviously
bcrond the scope of t h i..~ ().1 per. Thls paper will in~cad focus on tlnc
prominent \'Crsion of personal autonomy. whicb is centered on the
requirement lluu an autonOJnous IJCrs.on is one \\hO is nble ·not only to
scrutinize critic:tlly tltcir first order ntoti\·ations, but also to change them if
they so desire·. (Dworkin 1988: 16) his usuo.lly accepted that such first
order scrutiny need not be confined to onc·s motivations or desires. but
include one' s \':tlucs. relations to others. and (prcsuma bl~·) one' s practices..
Clcarl}•. 1\•lontaiguc ''ould hold that the person is copablc of th.is
kind of autonomy. insofar a~ she is cn1>ablc of scrutiny of. ~md (reasonable)
reflection about, her custom~· practices. (Indeed, he thinks !:he should
embark on such scrutiny. in order to a\·o id being imprisoned by cuslom·s
·,·iolcnt· prejudices)
Confucius too IU::t) be soid to hold a similar position to
Moutaignc ·s. Of course. Co1tfucius docs not spocific:tlly maintain th:lt one
can usc rcmsun (far less mi~on roisunnable) to assc.ss one' s cuslomary
pmctiecs. (He could not do so. as he liL:cly lacked the c qu intl cn~ of the
Western conception of 'reason·. with all its surrouuding b:tggagc). J But it

1
The lock of :m ob\'iou.i distinction between rc:uon ond emotion is
indi..;.:.~h:dby the cornmun lrans!:tlion <.l. f .' fm as b~;urt/mi nd . So.: a!Stl. e.g.
H:n~n 1992. pp 81·3 and Wong 1991.
is C\'idcnt t11at he endorsed somctJ1ing vc~ liJ..c 1hc rcasonabk
rcflecti,·cnc:ss th:n Montaigne endorsed. rn Ano/ea.. 9:3. he states:

A ccrtmonial <.:np of linen is ''hat is prescribed by the

rites. Today black silk is used instead. This is more frugal
nnd I fo llow the m;~jority . To prostrntc o ncsclr before
asc-cnd i n ~t the steps is wh;~t is prc:sctibcd by 1hc t iL
es.
Today one docs so allcr having ascended them. 11lis is
c:ts·ual 4nd. though going agn.inst the majority, J follow the
pr-actice of doing so bcfol'e ascending. (Lau: 96)

Confucius here docs not unquestioningly internalize the riles, but

steps back to rctlect on Lhc pmcticcs thcmscl\'cs. Thus. in find ing 1.hc usc of
black silk more economical, he finds it reasonable to accept (" ith the
m3jt..""lrity) Lh:tt one should depart from what the rites prescribe. In contrast.
compare J)I'OStratin~ oneself bf![Qrt: :~sccndint; the slc-ps. Lo prostrnti.n&
oneself only trjler one h :~s 3sccnded. Thl! laltl!r is :~pparently espressin of a
certain uppi ty~ness or 3ttogancc. Since such :l tnodificntion results in a Jack
of respect. Confucius continues wilh the rife.
Nolc here 1h:u Confucius neither blindly follows the majorit)' nor
insists th~t the m:.jority should follow the prescribed rites. Rntbcr. what he
docs is to sumd back and rcOcct I"C:lsonably on the rite itself. If it is
needlessly cxpcnsi\·c to lbllow strictly th:u rite. he recommends modifying
o r dcparti.ng from thai rile. If ;~ modiJk:uion 3lttrs tJ1e spirit or undcrlyi.ng
intent of the rite. so that rcspcc1 is no longer expressed. he recommends
continued observance. of th~ rite.
Confucius's rcflccthc scrutiny of c.ustom:try rites is bul one :tspcct
of his "'idcr ' 'icw tl1at one should subject tJlc \\ ay one lives 10 humane and
reasonable rcncc.tion, and modil)' this if need be. As mcmioncd, Confucius
chruDCtcrizcs tltc good Hfc .1s ·swcr\'ing not from the right path·. But
finding out what the right path is. and li\'ing out th:tt path, is no easy
cndcaYour. The M:~slcr s l:ucs th:tt he sets his hc:n1 on l~mi ng at llfic:cn, but
it is only at thirty thJt he is able to l:lkc his st..md. nt forty th;~t he is free
from doubt. and at SC\'CRI)' that he can follow his hcan 's desire \\ithout
O\'Crslcpping 1hc line. (Analecu.· 2;4, L:tu: 63) The inlcn·ening ycm
between tif\ccn and SC\'Cnty nrc cYidcntly spent refl ecting on his desires.
\':!lues and prac.ticcs. disc:~rding some tUld endorsing others bcfo1'C he
att.3ins serenity in old .1ge.
Thal rcOccth ·c scrutiny is an csscntiill part of the good life is
further conlinncd by Confucius's fo llowing claim:

In n hamlet of ten households. tllcrc ore bound to be those

"ho a~'\: m)' equal in doing their best for o1hcrs and in
being trustworth~· in what they say. but they ore unlikely to
be us eager to lcum us I um. (Analcclx 5:28. Lnu; KO)
 2/iJ

Confucius's point here seems to be precisely that intcrnali.1.ing

ccrU'Iin values and pracck.-cs may not be enough: h is nol enough to always
do one's best for others and to be tmstworthy with one's words. Rather. one
must :Jiso be 'c.agcr to Jcnm'. Such Jcnming Ob\'iously goes beyond mcrdy
learning to do o ne·s best or be tru.SI\\Otlhy. (In this kind of learning
Confucius h;~s. OlS he points out.. man~· cquJls.) Instead. Confuciu s's
cae!crucs~ to lc.utn would likcl>' in\'Oh -e his cnl::~sing in a search as 10 WhJ'
(and whether) one should do one's best or be trust"onhy, and how this
relates to tlttaining the Way. Here too. it is C\ idcnt that Confucius " 'auld
hold retlccti\'C scrutiny to be ucccs.sary to Ji,·ing the ll'Ul) good life.
In short. then. Confucius holds that thing the eth ical life indeed
in,·o h·es being ·uained' throuch the rites. or ·ingrained' with the rites ~- but
it also im oh·cs. inlttr alio. reflecting upon. and if necessary modi~ ing. the
ways we :l.rt being tr~i n ed in. like Mont.:ligne. Confi•eius thinks that the
hwnon need not just live :t life sh:t.pcd by customs or rites or ft)IJOw n fixed
path - aud indeed .~multi not do so. She can dcpnl1 from the prescribed
rites if rcncction le:tds her to think she should.
As 1 IU\'C mentioned. Montaignc mainuins lh:tt the process of
(reasonable) rcOc~tion m:'ly l'cs-ull in initial dislocation for one ·s judgment.
hut that one 's judgment will c,·c ntually be r<"storcd to OJ surer status. A
simil.1r insight was likely p resent also to Confuc-ius: surely it is one 's
sccond·o rdcr reflection about o ne· s obscrYrulcc of the rites -- as \\Cit as
o ne's own desires. goals eu:. -- th:u enables o ne to restore onc's j udgmcnls
about o ne's oct ions and beliefs to a 'surer st;uus· and hence (.:ts he puts it) lo
•take u stand" at thirty. to be 'free from doubf r.t fony. and finally. 10
folio'' o ne· s: dcsitl! without o verstepping the line lll Sl!vcuty.
J"'(l(.'t' the second obj ection. the Confucian ethical life docs not
invoh-e merely intCIMJiJ'jng the ritc.s and u nquestioningly dc,•cfoping
oneself in n nxcd direction. Scrutiny and possible modific:nion of rites and
customs is as much an iutcgr:tl feature of the Coufuci:lJl good life. as it is of
r\'lontaignc·s. Thus. the Confucian cthic:1l person must possess this kind o f
auto nomy.
HoweYer. there may be omother sense in whi'h th e Confuei;m
ethical person lacks autcmo.ny. Fing~rcue argues th:11 Confudan ethics docs
not conceiYt: of hum:ms as persons with the power to ·select among real
altcmnti\'cs and sho.pc (thcirl own Jli\'cs('. Now. one weak reading of this
claim \\Ould ill\olve th at it maintains th:tlthc hum:Jn laeks the autonomy 10
reflect on the r ites (and more broadly. on one's desires etc.). and to make
the rcquisjtc ch:tngcs. If one rends Fingarcuc's claim in this, then. as J',·c
argued. it would not be reflective ofConrucius's pos.ition. 3

a 'l'hc :ergumcnl I give is but one 10 a wide amy of n:bnllals ag<~inst

F1ngareuc·s <:!aim th:it th(·. Confu<:itm fuun:u1 Ju<:ks autont'm)' (&x:. e.g.,
Schw.mz 1985:79-81. Wnng 2002. Chong 2003) Interesting d iscussions of
J UH'IIOIIIY in rd~1ti~ln to CvJlfud:tnism tlrc tu l'lc; ft.IIJIKI in S1nm and Wong
200-t),
286

But Fingarcue's claim could aJso be read more strongly as

maintammg that Confudus docs not tnf,;~ eogni;oancc of the fact tha'
htun:ms h<t\'e the power to choose Y3stly different wo.ys of li\ing their lh·es:
thJtthcrc can be o wide nrm) of(cqually octeptablc) &ood li\cs. While the
Confucian does ensagc in sccond~rdcr reflection. such reflec.tion moy
uhimotcly be thousht to lc:ut her (more or less) ::1long the same broad path
\'it.., the 'Waf. Attaining the Way. it might be. ~r~ucd . in voln.~s. in its
broad contours. Jh·ing a life that has as among its key clements gh·ing peace
to the old. having trust in one's friends and cherishing the ~ oun£. (Anah•c1s
5:26. La.u: SO) ·rhus. \\e- !<itill 113\'C tJu: first objection •• 'iz .. Confucius
(unlike Montaigne) fails to recognize that there may be \'astly diiTcrem
kinds of good lh·cs. different ·w3ys · which arc all equally ncteptablc. But
arc Montaignc and Confucius so \CI)' difl"crcnt in t11is rcspctt? I examine
this in the next section,

CONFUCIUS AND MONTAIGNE ON GOOD I.IVF~S

Montrtignc in his ' 'arious essays often highlights the \'<lStlr

diOCrcnt customs and pr<!ctices (and by implication diiT'crent moral
orient:uions) thm obtain in v·arious societies. It is oRen thought th:n he
means to c.oncludo from this that :111 these very· different ways of li\'ing arc
equally acceptable. tmd that there arc uo indcpcll(knt standards to
:.djudic:uc between ,·arious forms of living. so th~ t a benign :ltceptMcc is
the only nttitudc dull we can have towards other ways of life.9
But this Cilnnot tx: Mont;,isnc' 5position. As mentioned, ?\1ontaignc
docs think lhnt ,,·c can apply a rcnccti\'e rmsan rmsonntrble 10 our O\\'n
customs and practices. One would surmise: that be also thinks that we can
do so with the pmcticcs of otJter societies. l11a1 he docs tltink the Iauer can
be seen. for example. in his css.1y ·or Cannilxlts·. There. Montaignc
describes the practice of strangling rut enemy to dcn.th n.ud then ro3Sting 3lld
eating him as one of ·m1rbnrous horror'. He t11u,'i clearly j udges this custom
of the Bm7jlian cannibals to be mol':llly un:u::ccptablc. lmponn.ntly. he then
points out thnt. in;~smuch ns this pra,ticc is un.:~cccpmblc. the pr-actice of his
fl'ench comp..·nriots of roasting a man '''hile alive during 1onurc i.s ¢\'Cn
more un.lcC.cpt:'lble. Mont.aig.ne thus applies reflective rcnson in n.sscssing
both the practices of the French and the Br.17.ilian c:umib:~ l s b~· the so.mc
y:udstick. :1nd in uq~ing 1hc French to be as critic-ill of their own practices as
they arc of the practices of others.
Montaignc clearly docs not thlnk that all customs and practices
across cultures arc acceptable. In 'Of Cannibals'. he \Hites tellingly that

there ne\'cr was any opinion so disordered (dcsrcglcc) ns

(0 justif)' (ext·usost) trcachCIJ. disl oyalt~· . l)'ranny. nnd

9
Sec. e.g... Tod<m)v 1983
 2~ 7

cruchy. which are our ordinar) vices. (CJsais 1:31. frnmc:

1.55·6. emphasis mine)

Montnignc is C\'idcntly speaking here or rcasonnblc fC\1 500. He

maimains that this kind of reason c::m nenr ptO\'ide OJt acceptable
j uslifu;::uion of trcac.hcry. disloy::.hy. ty ranny and cruclcy; no matter how
' disordered' or unruly onc-·s a~licati on of reason is. it can nc \ Cf
convincingly j ustify these ,·ices. 1 Thus, practices embodying tl1cse vices
arc (\'Cry often) unacceptable. On the otltcr hand, Monto.ig.ne. in ·o r
Coaches', expresses a~,prob:uion of practices thnt crntxxiy dc\OuiJlcss..
liberality and lo yalty. (Es.r<Jil· 3:6. f'rnmc: 69.&) Again. gh·cn that cruelly.
trcnchcry etc. arc vices. one prcswncs he would consider their opposites ·•
compassion. sincerity. loy.n.hy. freedom and kindness - to be Yirtucs. One
might sunnis-.e tlun reason would j ustify as 3CCeproblc those practic:es ahtn
embody these tmits.
Montai&nc-is thus 1101 11 mom I relativist. He docs C\1alunlc customs
::md prnctkcs accordinc to certain unh·crsal s1and:uds. n,is being 1hc c3sc,
not c,·c~· l:ind of life would cowu as a good life for Mont.aiguc. A person
who is cruel and tre3chcrous. or '' ho has i1ltcrnali.r.cd a uadition or se-t of
customs embodying cnaclty :md 1rcachcry, does not liYe a good or morally
ac(:cptablc life. (And indeed something like this position must be right. fo r
one \\Ould hardly want to say that a Nazi camp commandant who tonurc-s
prisoners ~ n rl sends thous.1nds to the gas chambers li,·cs a good life.)
On the other h.nnd. one who is reflectively sincere and loyul. u.nd
'' ho has thoughtfully intcrnali7&d customs embodying libcmlity. loyolty
etc. would li\'e a good life ror Montnigne. Mom:tisnc holds 1ha1 1hL.:;
libcr3.litr •
etc. nl:\\', be c:tprcsscd ,·crv
•
diffcrcutl)' in diflC:rcnt cultures. :.nd to
II
that extent the li\•es Ji,·cd may 3PS>Car \'Cry d iiTacnt on the surface.
rvlorconr. I thinl< Monlllignc would allow tl1a1 different cultures may
cmpbasil..c, one kind of ''nluc at the expense of nnother ··e.g. freedom at the
c.xJX."'11Sc of piety or \itt \'Crsa. But there should be m least some undcrl} ing
commona lity - or at least some family rcscmbl:u1cc •• in the terms upon
which these good li\·cs :lfC lh"«<.

10 'fhi.s i.s in fttcl a bit of glo::R~ 1\s I JXlint out in W~,.'l.:- 2005. Monwign\!
seem<: prepared to :.ct:epl th:11 cmcl. tH.;lchcrou::' etc pnacticcs may not he
inh'lt\.':ac.llll)' .1us11fwble. but mny be jusUiil•bl¢ tts msmull4..'1l1S to t1 further good.
l lowc,·cr, Montltig.nc ohotbutk.s that such i.!utrum(11Ull justiflca1iou sllould be
.:."Uhjcctcd to c.m:ful scrutiny. ln n.to:>t ca:sc,"i.. he maintuins. li.Jc ju!5tificnti.:Jn.-;
p!V\'idtXI will tum c.l_ UI lu be ~puri ous, Thus. it i$ uniy m :1 ' "''~)' smal l muntx, · ur
c:tses th;.t such instntmctual just.if~~.:~ t i on !urn:;: out to be ~ cccpt ablc. Bcc<1.U5lC or
considerations of length. aod b\.-cou:>e I think they n\a.kc liUie dlff<::C(.u OO to the
point under discus:;;icm. 1 isnon: this \'Cl)' ~n:. ll clos:; of c a:~cs in this p:tpcr.
11
In st.-cin!t lhis I<J he~). M<.,ul:tignc may wc-11 hil\~,: imticip:th:d R:trehcls
1986
 \Vc can now prococd to Confucius. For Confucius. there arc
prcsumabl) no momlly unacceptable riles (such as rih.'S embodying cruelly
~nd trcnchcl)·). since Lhc Confi1cinn rites precisely provide :1 guide to lh·ing
an cth.ical life that im·oh cs trush\Orlhincss. respect for others etc. But
Confucius's rcncctivc C\'aluation of the l'itcs nt Analects 9:3 dcscn.·cs a
re-visit. Rct:nlllh::lt Confucius ~cccpLS the replacement of the linen cap with
the black silk cap because it costs less but pctfonns the same role: in the
ceremony. bm rejects the practice of prostr:uing only aOer one has ascended
tbc hall because it docs not express the ~pproprimc rc' crcncc and respect.
For Confudus. as for Mont.aignc-. wluu matters is Lh:u the ·'1)/rU of clle 1ites
be preserved, not the actual rite hsclf {whtch is open to modific-ation). ·rhis
leaves it possible. in principle. that for Confucius, other kinds of rites. od\cr
forms of expn:ssing Ute same rC\ ercnce. sincerity would be acc-cplnblc.
Thus. for example. l.:is·sing (or CYCn shaking) the hand of 3 SO\'Ch!it;n.
prO\'iding it expresses Lhe s.:une reverence would be .:1.s acccpltlble QS
prostraling oneself before the- SO\'trcig.n. Thus. he misJu well acccpl 1hut
other li\'CS lh 'ed in other cullurcs :.nd shaped by other customs l'n3Y look
quite diffcrenL but would still be good li\'(:J if the undcrlyins rercrencc.
sinccrily. etc. arc thctc. 11
One might argue that Mont:ligne is a lot more willing thnn
Confucius to allow that different vah1cs might take precedence in different
societies - but C\'Cn this claim mny be open to argument. As argued.
Confucius makes clear th:u the good life invol\"¢5 SCC<)nd order rcncction
on onc·s practices. values and beliefs. his possible thac further rcncction
migl1t make C\'idcnl thal. sa~ . that unconditional obcdiCilCC to parents or
subserv ience to the so,•crcign should not be o sine qrw 11()11 of the g()()(( life,
but should be more nexibly applied in different times and at different
Jllac.cs.
Morco,·er, even if one admits this claim. Confucius and Montaignc
would still be much closer t11an initioJ appcar:tnccs suggest Instead of being
polar opposi1cs "ith rcspec1 to the admissibility of different kinds of good
lh-cs. Confucius is more llc:dblc than first appears. and Mon1aignc r::1thcr
less. nboutthc kinds of lives that would c-ount as good li\·cs. Their ,·icws on
good lh'CS tliUS con\1Cr&e mOl'<: than first npl)Cars.
In sum, Monw.ignc ond Confucius have ccraain ~ffin itics , "hich
mny be surprising given their separation in time and intcllcclual tradition.
Both nxognit.c the imJ)()nancc of customary pr;:,cticcs in shilping and giving
form 10 a person ·s life·; both accept that rcncction and t'C3sonable C\'aluation
of these practices is possible. and indeed a ncccssa.ry feature of thing well:
neither is a moral rcl:ttivist. and both hold that certain qu:tlitics arc \'"Diuablc
and others despicable. Montaignc is pcrhnps ratllcr more cognh~ant of the

: It's po!lsiblc. of cotuse. that <.:onJhC1US may lx: less ac(·omnl<XImin~

1

uboot the kinds of customs that c.vunl 11.'> accq>tublc exprc:;.:<Jions of a p.micuJur
.scnt im~,.,n , (F\11" cx~1ntpl..: . il j ~ hard tv sec Cunfucius a.s :.~cc~.,,ling th~llthc killing
of one's f~thcr at a t::cmun age is an <~cl of piety )
\'ari<:ty of diffcrcm kinds of li\'CS that may be li\'c.d. bul both \\Ould agree
that what is important is the underlying sc-ntimcnls - which both n:cogni1..c
to be shnpcd m1d tempered by customary practices •• th.1t mo\"CS these
lj,·cs. u

REFERENCES

Bcr\·en. Dikka (cd .) ( l ~J5 ) , .Montmgm:: A C<,llecfi on f!{ 1::~st7Jt..~

(Nc" Yotk: Garl>nd l' ublishing) [4 vols.[.
D.C. Lau (tram.) ( 1979) The An(lh•ct~· (l,c-nguin: Hnrmondsworth).
Chong. K im ~ hong (2002) ·Autonomy and the AnaleelS', in cds•.
Kim-chong Chong. Sor·hoon Tan and C L Ten. 111e Afornl Circl,· omlthc
Self Chinese wul We stem ApprtXICIJes (Chic:Jgo: Open Cou n Press).
Dworkin. Get31d (1988) l'hr 111ellr)l llml J.'r(JCtice of Aurtm(Un)/
(Cambridge:: C:.mbridgc: Uni,·e rsity Pre-ss).
Dunll. Robert ( 19R3). ' L-.:ssotts of 1hc Nc''' World: Dc s i &~l nnd
l\·lc-:Jning in Montaigne-· s ../);,•:; Ctmrubole...··• and .. l)cs Cochrs'· ·• Yole
Pnmch Swdics 64. pp. 95 -112.
Ft<1mc, Donald M. (lrans.) (1?57) 11u: Cmnplete Work.\' of
M muaig n(!: t:.ssays. Trm·el .lmmrnl, /,el/ers (London: Hamish Hamilton
1958)
---- (1 9'-) 5). ·Montaignc's Dialogue wilh his Faculties' in Bcrvcn
J9')5:4. pp. lf.J-74,
Fi.ngarcuc. Herbert (1972) C.:m1.fi1cws •• 11tc S<:cular tu· Sacn:d
(NC\\ York Hurpcr and Row),
Hnnscn, Chad (1 992) A Otu>f.H fii:Uol)1 of Chlmw: 1'hoflg hr (NC\\'
York: Oxford Uni\·crsi[y Press).
La Charite. R:1ymond C. (1 995). ·n1c Relmionship of Judgment
and Experience in the r;.....,.n;s of Mont:Jigne·, in Bcn·cn. l ~~J5 :4 . pp. 28-9.
Locher. Caroline (1995). ·Primary and Scc.ondory Themes in
i\•lootaignc·s .. Des Cannibalcs.. ·. in Bcn·cn. 1')')5:2. 155-62.
Rachels. Jrunes (l!>t((,j 11u• Hlements o_{Morul Pllilo.soplu' ( l.r: cd.)
(Phibdelpbia: Temple Unin:rsily Press).
SchnCX!\\ ind. J.B. ( 1998) 11u: fnw~nlfon •~{A utonmny: A Hi.~tory (>j
lt.1r>dern J\ft)ral Phi/t):Wplly (C:lmbridgc: Cambridge Uni,·ersicy Press).
Shun, Kwong·loi und David B. Wong. Ccmf ud an I!.:Lhics: A
Ct>mfKtrlllive Sf m(•• of Se({. A ramwmy and Community (Cambridge:
Cambridge Unh·ersity Press 2004).

13 An earlier \CI'sion of this p:~pcr wo:- read ut the cunJCI\.'ooc on

Confilt:lfml~m: u~wo.~'(leCt (md F'I'VS(re(;t . hdd :11 the Uni\'Cr.sity uf Toronlo ill
September 2i:X)5 I wo\lld hkc to lhank the pm1ic1pnn1s for thctr li\'cly n1ld
helpful conlm(:nts oo the pnpct. I would al'Kl like to thr.mk G.l.. T.;.,l fol' l1is
lL'leful oommcnl") on the initio! droll. and l lui-Chich Lo~· for a helpfu l
JXlSh:onfcrcncc Jiscussi\tn on Confucian rih.:s (It} t"~nd ~us!(t lll (MI)
 Todorov. f'"l\Cta.n (1983). 'L"Elnt- c:r L 'Aliii'C: Montaigm:'. Yale
French Sludie.~· G4. pp. ll 3-4S.
Wang. Ytmping (2002) · Au1onomy and lhc Confucian Moral
Person·. Jcmmnf (~(C/rim:sc fhi/(,.wplry (Oxford: Bladwcll). 25 J-268.
Wee, Cccili::t (200.5) 'Monmignc·s Cannib31s nnd ~..tultic.uhuralism·
in Sor-h0011 Tun, cd .. Clur!lt.•ng;ng Clli:cuship: C}mup Mc>mb~.-•rJhtp and
Cultural ltlentlty in a (;ft,bul Age (A idcrshot: Ashgatc), PI>· 137-50.
Wong. Oii\'id B. (I~JI) ·ts tlu~re a Ois1inc1ion llet\\Cen Reason :tnd
Emotion in Mcncius', Phi/US(Iphy l!ttsl (md iH.•st 4 1: I, 31-4...
 Chapter XIV

Globaliza tion and Confucia nis m:

the Virtues of S/111 and Generosity to Many Others
Vmcent .')hen

I NTRO DUCTION

Todnr when we're fac ing the challenge of gloho.lization. nn anempt

should be made to critically identify and crcati\dy interpret the resources
in Chinese philosophy not only good for Chinese JX:Oplc bur 01Lso fo r otltcr
people in the "orld. Globa.lh~at ion.. basically understood as a process of
dctcrritorial i~-.1tion or border·crossing. to the c.\:tcnt of imolving all
humMkind on l.hc globe 3$:. whole, that happens now in cn~ry do m ~i n of
human oactivilics: health. tcchnologr. environment economics. politics.
education. culture. religion ... ~1c . T11e detcnitoriali7.:Uion here should be
u.ndcrsrood in a broader scns('. :lS :'l proc.css of crossing border-crossing, or
::;oing bc}ond oncsdf to muh iplc o lht:IS, that I \\(.ltlld coin in a neologism
.. stmngiJication-, or 1rtrillu ;rH(r; in Chine-se. Oc\·clopcd on linguistic,
pragmatic and ontological levels. suangific.~nion is taJ..cn here as the basic
stnucgy of mctling with differences and soh ing the problem o f conOict in
,·icw of :m optim:al 14lrmony. :tpplicahlc to :ttl kinds of d iffere nces. C hinese
philosophy. as wisdom guidins, Chinese people to f:1tc di(fcrcnccs. soi\"C
conflicts nnd S-l iSIOin the dnim fol' optimal hnnnony, m ight still be raluablc
for today·s hum:.ut c;o..;pcricncc in time of glob::tli:;.otion. Strangjitcation
presupposes approprintion of language and an original generosity or
hospit:tlity to multiple others. This paper will focus on :1 critical discussion
of the ContUcl.1n \'irtue of shu and generosity to the other in Confuci:tnism
to c.~ploJc thdr n:lcvancc for today "s \\ Orld in process of globaJi,.ation.

GLOBALI1A\ T ION, STRANG I FIC ATLON AND G ENEROS ITY TO

MANY OTHERS

lnstitution:Uiy speaking. the process of g loOOii:tAtion st:trts with

modcmity but it has something going beyo nd modernity, Modcrn it~· ha..~
produced os basic institulions, on I!'COnomic level, the ever-extending
market: :utd o n political le,·cl. tho N:ttion ~ Suncs. Beyond tltaL
post-modcrnil) is no'' in process of producing on its ncgati\ C side Lhc
dc·constructionol cnltquc of modcmity "s princ iples: subjccti,·hy,
representations :md rat iono1lit~· : and on its posilh ·e side tile global
infomullion society, In the process of globaliz:ujoo we sec on the one h1.1nd
the extension of marL:ct economy into glob.<ll market, t.hc global politics
beyond the limit of notioi)·StJte ond the concept of SO\'Crcignty. and fi.nally
292 I inc:ent Slwn

Lhc global cultur¢ in contrast wilh and in dio1cctic :~gnirtst sclf·a\\okcning

local cultures.
Taking all these considerations into ttccount I would define
globali;t..nlion as '"An historical process of dctcrritorinlizntion or
cross-bordering, by \\hich human de-sire, human uni\'Crsaliz:lbility and
ontological interconnectedness ore to be rcal i~cd on the pl:~nct as n whole.
<:~nd to be concrctiio:cd now as s.Jobal free market. tri!ns-national political
order and cuhurnl glocalism."
Sinc-e globnl i~..ation is a process that concerns human kind as n
\\hOle. it should h3\'C SORIC foundation in the nature- of human being.
l)hilosophically speaking. it should be based in human desire 10 go always
lx:yond and its tutturc longing for unin:r53.lity or better. its uniYcrs:ali:.dng
capacity. Globaliz.atjon as a technological. e<::onomic and cultural proctss
should be seen as the material implement.ation of this universaliz ing
dynruni..~m of alw3~·s going bc·yond in hum::m n:llure. For us hum:'U1
detcrmint.'<l by hi~orici l)' there should be no universalily )Jure :md simple
but only procl!ss ofuni\'crsalil'.ation in time. This is 10 say thai uni\'Crsalily
pure and simple is onl~· :1t1 ilbstrn.ct ideal existing in nn cver-retre:uing
IK>t'izon. The only re<'ll historical proce-ss is the uncca.,ingly going beyond
and towards higher lc,·cts of unh·ersali7.ation.
Anlhropologic:.lly speaking. this could be tr3ced b3ck to the
historical moment in which a human being picked up the first c.hopping
stone and came to UM: utensil or instrument, In this w:.y. human being went
tx:yond the dc-tcnnini.sn:t of physical nature and established thereby a free
rcbllionship with the matcrinl wo1ld. Since then human being slcppcd into
the Sl:'lgc of homini:t-...'ltion. Homo }fiber. thoush able to so beyond the
dctcnniuAt.ion of nt.ntcri:tl \\Otld by using them as instmmcnts. still
depended on them. and thetcforc nOl totally humnn. When human beings
were :1blc to communicate with otl1cts thtough langu:1gc, a s~•stem of signs
tb:tl conc.cntmtcd hum..'lll experience. rc\'calcd intelligibility of things in
communicating \\ ith others. they stane.:d to exist on a new lc\'cl of
uniYers.-.lizability. Morco,·er. when hum:1n beings came to cng:1gc
thcmsci\'CS in disinterested octi\'ities. such as playing. sacrificing ;;1nd
artistic trcativitics .. . there emerged higher IC\'CI of freedom. C\Cn to the
point of fusion \\ ith things ruld people. Just im:'lginc human beings got
easily tired after a whole day· S lubor. but Llu;:y would continue da~· ond night
dancing. playing and engaging in the ritual activity of S3crific.c withoul a11y
boredom or fatigue. This shows that human be-ings scen1ed to be more
hum::..n in Lllc:sc free playful ::1:11d ercatjvc ~c tj vitic:s .
1l1crcforc. homo loqmuus and homo Jucle.ns arc more human. more
univers.-.!i7.ablc and tl1,;:reforc more humanized than merely hominized.
Born together with bwun.nizotiou. there is the Wlh·erso.li7..ablc d~ nruu ism in
human nature thai came to the scene of human historital process. Probably
this is why philosophers East and West in the a:'\i:tl age. that happened
bclwC(:n the 81b and the 211;~ Centuries O.Cl!. in the time of philosophical
bre;tkthrough, \\Ould understand reason as the most essential function of
 193

hwuan mind. In ancicm Greek philosophy. l•ummt being ''as defin ed as ..fu
(»rlogon exQir". later transl:ncd into Lmin as "'tmimr,f ratu.moh•"'. the proper
function of which w:Js 1/u:oria. which produc.cd knowledge ior knowlcdge·s
own sake. in looking for the thcoretie.ally unh ·ers.n.lizable:. In nntient China.
the concern was more "ith the irnpania l or the uni\'crsal in human pnuds..
the practically un ivcl"$ali ~blc.
But it is clc:i.lf thilt hJving the idea ami tcndcncr of
univcrsalizablil it~' is not yet tll¢ process oi globali;.raJion. This needs the
\\hole tcchnologic::tl, institutional and historical dc\·clopmcnl throush
modem times 10 implement the: uui\'ersalil'..able: in fonu of gloablaization.
C\'Cfl if th:H whic-h has been implemented is mere ly part of the
wth·er53lizable. Globalization conc.crns the globe or the earth :all :as a
whole. chough still in f.1ct bu1n tin)' star in l11c immense uni\·crsc. The day
" hen \\'C'rc ready not only for:. g lobAl ethics. but also n uni\·ersalizable
ethics in tem1 of the uni\'crsc, we hum.1n would be qu:aliJicd then 10 go
beyond the glolx1l em to enter into the unh·crsal ern.
Now we should consider this: glob:~l irntion brings with il the
conttnst with loc3li:r.ation. homogeneity in contr::r:st with dh·ersificntion.
TI1is is a moment of huma.n l1istory lhal people in the word fed so close 10
c:~ ch other on the one hand. and so \'Uincrnblc and susceptible or connie Is
of nny kind on the other. Now it is the critical historical moment of opening
IO\Htrd od1cr instead of keeping wid1in sclf-cndosure. In responding 10
today's urgent situation full c,lf conflic ts created by sclf.-cnclosurc of
diOC.rent parts such ;~.s different discipliJlcs. cultures. political nnd religious
groups. CIC.. \\C humans should lx: more cOOC·CJilCd with one another rmd
the po..~ibil il}' of mutu.:tl enrichment. In order to O\'Crcomc :\ntasonism by
appealing to efT'-'Cti\·c dialogue. I h.wc proposed in recent ~·e~
··s•ransification- and "l:tnguagc "J>pro))ri:uion- as viable -stra t e~ies. TI•c
tcnn "stransiJication."' a noologism lhat might appear stmngc in English,
yet is much more undcrsl!tndablc iu Chinese •• tm;uti 71· flt: . means
ctymologtc:-llly the :tel of going outside of oneself to multiple others. or
going oulside of one' s fnmili::ulty to strangeness. to many strangers. This
act presupposes the appropriDtion of l angu:~ ge by \\hich we fc..nrn to e.xprc.ss
our idens or values in langunge either of othcts ot understandable. 10 othl!r!L
In their tum. "sun.ngifi cotion"' and "l:1t1guogc appropriation.. presuppose an
original generosity tow:~rd many o111ers. without limiting oneself to the
claim of rcciproci1y. quite often presupposed in soci:tl rel:uionship and
cthie::a.l golden rulc:s.
11ll'cc types of strangilic:ttion could be brought up here: The first is
linguistic scrangiJkmion. by which we translate one discoursc/\·aluc or
culturt.ll e.xprc-ssionlrcligious belief into discoursd,·;.luc/culturol
e:o.::pressionlrclil,tious belief cl:~ im ed brother scientific, cultural or religious
communities, then it has o l!lrgcr or universaliz.ablc \ :llidity. Othcm·ise. its
vulidity is limited only to its own \\Orld und rcllcctiQn must be made on the
or
limit one ·sown discourse/value or expre-ssion/belief.
294 I inc:ent Slwn

TI1c scc.ond is pragmatic strangification. If one discoursci,alue or

cxprcssionlbclicf can be drawn out from iLS original social nnd prngmatic
comcx1 and be put into other soda I nnd prngm;uic contexts nnd is still Yalid.
this menus it is more un ivc~ali7~1blc and h;~s ];ugcr \'nlidity thnn mcrdy
limited to its O\\ n context of origin.
The third is ontological st.r:mgification. A discourse/ ,·aluc or
cxprc.ssionlbclicf. when univctStli?.ablc by a detour of cxpcricnciug Reality
Itself. for example, a dire-ct experience wilh Reality itse-lf. such as other
people, Narurc. or C\'Cn with the. Ultimate Reality, would be ' 'c ry helpful for
mutual understanding arnong different scientific. micro-worlds (disciplines
or research programs). cultural worlds. :md rclisious worlds.
TI1c original generosity implied in this first net of going omsidc of
oneself should be seen as Lhc condition sine iJIIG non of all situation of
reciprocal relationship. PhiiO$Ophically spe-.al;ing. Jxforc we c3n cscablish a
sort of reciprocity, cmph:lSizcd for cx.runpte in Mnrccl Mau..~s' J:'S.\YII .\'ur h•
tkm11s dtc. pri.nciplc of human society. there must be a £CI.1CI'OIIS nc.t of go in&
outside of oneself to the other>so that there can be cst3blishcd accordingly a
relation of reciprocity. If in the classical world. g·oJdcn rules MC so much
emphasized and reciJ)rocity W3S seen as the basic princ.iple of sociabilit~·.
now in the post-modem world and the world of globali1...11ion. we need a
principle more titan that of reciprocity. The new princip1cs for society nnd
ethics that we arc looking for should base themselves on original generosity
and strangilkation as the act of going outside of oneself to many others.

CONf UCIAN SIIV AND GENEROSITY TO MAN\' OTITl:RS

An~ kind of sodal insti[utton, no matter what it is. should aJways

be li\'cd e...:istcntially nnd ethically wilh mcon i n~fu l ncss by human bcin&s.
The same witlt tltc prO<:css of globalii'tnion which. dcn~lopcd by
communication technology and ilnplcmcnted on economic. political 3lld
cuhur.,l lc' cis. brings humankind into more and more systematic networks.
This situation of living in llCtwolt:s c;'\istentially exempli lies the ontology of
dyn.1mic rcl3tionship that we find since long affirmed by Confucianism,
The Confucian concept of r~n denotes somehow the intcmal rel;uionsbiJ>S
between hum::m beins nnd nil things existing in the uni,·crse (HC:'I\'C1\ nnd
earth). fn reason of n:n. human lx:inss c.:un be aflCctcd by and respond to
one another. and by the act of slw. they can cnlargl! their existence to largl!r
realms ofc:o:istcncc fron1 oneself to the other, io famil~·. to social communily.
to the state, to a.llluldcr hc.a\'CtL now interpreted by the tcrrn globalization.
The network of this dynamic relationship cannot be said to c.xist in form of
substance. neither can it be said not to c;r.:isl. as nothingness. (t 's always
tl1crc dynnnticaUy developing. not only on the ontological level but nlso on
the cthicallc,cl.
8;LSically. Confucianism will be able to contribute to Ihis process of
glob;~l.i:(.ul ior:t by its w;~y of life as a process of ethical extcosion. c-spccial.ly
by Confucinn vinuc-,s and \;'l.luecS: such as humanness. rishtcousncss. " isdom.
 195

sincerity. faithfulness...ctc. In the nct\\orl s dc\eloped by globaJi:r.ation.

human beings. if they want to k1.-cp to the dignity of their life as human.
should alwnys deal witJt each other with sincerity and cspccinlly with the
\·irtuc of shu.
Going outside of oneself tmd generosity to manr others urc
supposed to be the most needed \·irtucs in the process of globali7....'ltion. In
Confucianism. shu could bl! s<.x:n as such a \);)sic virtue. Although ctuitc
onen tmnsl:ned as ..ahmism·· (Chan: 44), or - putting oneself in o1her"s
place" (Ames: 92), or C\Cn as ""usins oneself as a me~su.re to g·o.uge others..
(Lau: 74). it's best understood and interpreted now in tcnn of suangifie:ttion.
in the sense that " he who practice s/w knows how to str.mgify" (.shu zhe
slrnn l ui) and ··extend from oneself to other people" (fui,ifji twr).
In the Annle,·ls. not much was said about slut. though i1 was told by
Confucius himself10 be the cxprcs..c:ion to ace upon 1ill1hc end of ooc 's life.

When Zisonx asked. ·•ts there one expression 1h41t (;.tlll be

acted upon till the end of one ·s daysT The mas1er replied,
-ntctc i.e: shu .~.l: dl) not tl'rtpose on others what you
yourself do not want" (Anuh•,·ts 15:24: Roger Ames: 189)

Here shu \\as understood iu the spiri1 of ncgnti\'c golden rule. "do
nor impose on others what you yourself do nm \\3nt", The same ncgali\'C
golden rule was repented b~· Confucius when answering, Zhonggong's
quesaion :~ bout n·n. (Analec-ts 12:2. Roger Ames 133) From this rcpclition
we can sec a very close rcl:uionship between n n and .1·/tu, {liven the fact that
they Ju,·c the same definition. On Lhc other hand. o rx:lSiti,·c golden rule was
g.h'en as answer to tl1c ques1ion about the e<)nccpt of humanity (l"t"o). also to
Zigong. thus we rc:~d... A man of hum3nity. wishing to eslablish his own
charncter. t1lso establishes others. wishing 10 be prominent himself, also
helps <>thcrs.'' (Analects. 6: 28. Chan. p.31)
As we can sec. bolh ncg.1tivc and positi\·c golden rules arc. in
Confucian tenns. based on a rccipr<N;a1 basis o~ to the relation between self
nnd other. With shu. one extends one ·s C;\:iStcnce 10 l:1rgcr and lnrgcr cir<:lcs.
h is the tlCI of going always beyond oneself 10 m l t')' others. from self to
f4mily. from family to commuu.it~·. from community to the sltltc, aud from
the SI:Jte 10 0111 under hca\'Cn. This is the act of "extending or strangi fyin~
from oneself to other people.. (1111 JiJi n•n). A Confuci3n existence is an
c,·er--cxp.1nding life based on self·cuJth·ntion. lu this pr(l(css. authenticity
and pcriCction of self arc in priority over dL·pcndcnce on otl1crs. 1l1at's why
Confucius emphasized learning ror pcrrccting onesclr. In the following
s.1~· i ngs emphasis wns put more on dtc side of self-perfection or
sc l f-p re 1~1.ration t.han on others:

Do not worry about not being recognized by olhcrs: worrr

about not haxing any reason for them 10 rccognit.c you:·
(Anat•m 14:30. Ames: 179}
296 I inc:ent Slwn

E;~cmpl:uy persons nrc distressed by their own (:t(;k of

ability. not by the failure of others to ncl.:nowlcdge him."
(tl11alws 15. 19. Amos: 188)

E;~emplary persons (jun:ti) make dcm:mds on themselves,

\\ hilc pcur persons mal:c dcmomds on c,lthcrs:· (Anulc:c:ls
15.21 , Amos: 189)

So it seems Lhat s.clf·culth·ation :1nd sclf·1-,crfe<:tion is more-on the

part of indi,·idtml, while ham10nious rcl:uion with otllers should be done in
the socinl context. The Confudan way of life. as extending one's existence
in the <:on text of larger Md larger c-ircles basing on the perfection of one ·s
self. E,·cn if self-<ultivtuion is in priority over o thers in the order of moral
perfection. strtmgific.:.'llion or .~hu is ah,~ys ncccssruy in the order of clhie31
nnd J}Qiitical implcmcmntion. Tluu·s \\hy Mcncius would Si')'. '"Hence one
who extends his bounty can brine peace to the Four Seas; one who docs not
CMllOt bring pc3ec e,·cn to his own frun.ily. There is j ust one thing in which
the ancients grc3lly surpa.,sed others. 3nd that is the \\3)' they extended
what they did."' (Mr:ncm.v 1: 7. l.au: 57)
In Confucianism. the tension bctwocn self and others is to be
soh·ed in reference to golden rules. both ncgath·c and t>osith·c. based
uhimatcly o n the principle of rcdprocity, In this sense. we can s:ty that. in
the ConJucian world. in which human bch:aviors ho,·e to be regulated by It,
<:,·en the act of going outside oncsdfco the other bunched by slru. and the
OTigin:d gc-nCtoSit)' il implied. h3Ve tO be rcsui:Ued b) l'~ciproc.ity.
111c principle of reciprocity becomes a guiding principle of social
and polit ical philosophy in the (in·t tf T-t·ami11g. TI1crc it is called the
principle ot'mensuring square (.ltqJIIZ}udao ~UHZ iU). There seems to be 3
posith ·c \'Crsion of the t>rindplc follo"cd by a ncgath·c version of iL They
me put in the context where it is cxpL1incd the extension from governing
l11e st;Ue to making ~.nee within all under heaven. The positive version
reads.

What is meant by sayittg thnt the peace of the world

depends on the order of the slate is: When the ruler ti"C:'tts
the elders with respect, then the people will be aroused
towards fi lial piety. When the ruler trcnts the aged with
resp(.."i:t then the people will be aro used towards brotherly
respect. When the ruler lrcals <:OmiXIssion.:ucly the young
;md the helpless. ihcn the common people will ool follo w
the opposicc cou.rsc. TI1crcforc 1he ruler hns o princiJ,lc
wil.h which, as with n measuring squnrc. he may rcgulale
his conduct. (ChM : 92)
 197

TI1e major point here is d1c go\ cmance b) ''t'n(htuuanity): when lh~:
nllcr governs his people b) rcspccl and humanity. people will «.-spond with
pence ru1d luumony. in fo nu of fili:tl piety. brotherly respect nnd
submissh·encss. The positi\C rc..:iprocity is here expressed in terms of the
filia l piety. bl'otherly respect :~nd compassionate for the young and the
hclplcss .. . ctc., initiated by the ruler. On the other hond. there is olso the
llCg.:tti\·c \'ctsion of the measure of squan::

What a mnn dislike in his superiors. let him not show it in

dealing with his inferiors. What he. dislikes in those in
fron t of him, let him not show it in preceding those who
arc behind: what he dislikes in those behind him. let him
not show il in follow ing those in front of him: what he
disliL:cs in those on the right. let him not ~p p l y it to those
on the left~ And what he d islikt-s in those on the len, let
him uot appl) it to those on the ri&ht. This is tl1c principle
of the me-:lsuring squ:lre. (Ch:ln: 92)

As it is clear. the reciprocity here is enlarged Malo gie<~ lly from one
side to the opposite side: from superior to inf~ rior. from inferior to superior;
from right to let\. from lcfl to right: from front to behind, from behind 10
front. and thereby fom1ing 3 cubic rclationshi1>. not merely a square. of
reciprocity. though alwa~·s taken in a neg;uivc sense, \Vi thin this cubic
structure of reciprocal rcl;ttionship, more: nttcntion hove been pnid to the
horizontal. that is. from right to l en. from lcf\ to ri~ht from front to behind.
from behind to front than the vertical relation h~twc-cn superior :'tnd inferior,
mentioned only once. Ne,·crthcless. Lhc concept of -extended reciprocity..
plows o m ~jor role. in this lo1rgest extens ion of hum::tn reliltion - from the
state 10 all under heaven.

Sill! AND STRANGIFIC A TION: KNOW O NE'S SE LF BY THE

II ETOUR Ot" KNOWING T HINGS

11te :l.pplicruion of slw is not lim ited to mom)' others as human.

therefore to human indi,,iduol and society only. but also to many others 3S
thin gs. This is wha.t Zhu Xi understood when he sa.ic.l. in giving commentary
on tJ1e concepts of t /UmK and shu. that zlumf{ deals " ith onc ·s self. whereas
~·h11 d ellls with thinss. For Zhu Xi. sln1 de~ ls with things and ~\·ents ~n d
leads to our knowledge of thcnt. In gh"ing commentary on Jllll as the
expression to act upon till the end of one's life. Zhu Xi said. ''E.'\Otcnd
oneself to things. the application \\ill ne\·e r end: that's why it can be r~c tcd
upon till !11< end of one's lift." (Zhu Xi: 2000) This reminds us of Zhu Xi's
idea of im estig;uing thi ngs one after nnothcr. c~ c h thing having in itself its
own principle.
This is n.lso what Wou:ts Fu:d mennt, \\ hen he fol.lowcd Zhu Xi i.n
commcming these two concepts in the context where Co•tfuciu$ said there
29.'? I inc:ent Slwn

was one !coding Om:ad pcnellating through his own <lao. For Wang f uLi.
"Zhong is to do one ·s best: shtt is to c~ teod (or strangify) from oneself lo
others." (Wtms, Vo1.6: 816)" .. lf one could do one's best~ to reason, then
one com pcnctrntc into all principles in the "orld: lf one could ex lend one ·s
feeling and underst::md empathctic:llly, then on wo...rld be nble to penetrate
into :.11 feelings in the world.'. (Ibid.). It·s a function of reason combining
'' ith feel ins to C:>itcnd to lhinss Jnd irm:stisatc them in order to acl1icn:
J..1\owledge of them. Wane Fu1J said,

l l1c principles arc in mind. if one do one's best :ts to mind.

one cxh:msts all prin ci ples~ nil feeli ngs folio\\ human
n.1turc, if one knows human ruuurc. one ' knows feeling ... lf
one exhausts one's prindplc. one '' ould auain 1111 feelings
under hNl\Cn: If one e~ tcnd one ·s feel ing. then one can
pcnetr:ne tlll principles under he.twco .. .Therefore to
cxhJust one ·s p rir.~ c i pl c und extend one ·s fcclin&. this is
how scholars lea.m how 10 im cstig:ue things 10 :rchie\·e
knowledge. (W<ln&. Vol.6: 8 16-817)

Let's take the case or Zhu Xi. as c~a mplc . Zhu Xi's intercs« in
rmturnl knowledge is very fJruous to the extent that he may be seen ns the
greatest synthcsitcr of Chinese natural J....nowledgc in the 12t'l and lJih
Ccnlurics. This 10hould be understood in lhc ph il osophic:~l Ct)ntcxt of his
notion of •·invcstigution of tbi.ogs to extend kno" ledge:"". For Zhu Xi, H or
principle could be found in CH:rything. nnd \\US \\ OJ1b y of in\'CStigalion.
Ac~ordi n g, to mr interpretation. the- object of Zhu Xi's in,·e~t ig:u ion of
things \\OS the principle existing out there in things, ' 'hich presupposed
tlh~J cfore ce-rtain ··otJtcrncss·· of things and their principles. ''hcrcas the
auainmem of knowledge would ind udc kno" ledge or self and knowledge
of others. or better ~id. rctum to oneself \'in the detour of many others. so
thnt one might linally get sudden penetration into the nature of things and
atL1in tr.mspmcnt sdf·tmowlcdge. That is to say. investigation of things is n
process of detouring that. by first going outside of one ·s self to m;;my others
und by knowing n1.unr otJaers. one could come back to one·sown self,
Zhu Xi ·~ interest in n3Cur31 L:nowlcdgc should be understood in the
philosophic:tl contc:d of his notion of .. im·cstiga!.ion or things to extend
knowledge-. As I sec iL ll1cre is an im1>licit recognition of the principles
inside the othetncss of things nnd people. As to the extension of knowledge,
it should include both knO\\Icdgc about many others. either as physical
things or ns persons, and knowledge of one ·s self. Human beings should go
through the detour of L.,owing m~ny olhcrs in order to return to one's own
self. c,·en 10 the point ofb~Xoming tmnsparent nnd enlightened.
The fncltltnt humrm being is curious about things and lhJI there is
need of investigation of things prc~upposcs the existence of many ochers
and it is therefore not rcasonublc to reduce k~:~owlcdgc to co~:~tcnts totally
unfolded rrom one·s \\On mind. At the fi rst gh'mce. the reilson why hum~n
 199

being should approach things in order to investigate tJH::ir principles consists

in the facl that principl,:s thi."'llSclves arc invisible but thinss arc on the
comrnry equipped with material fomt and therefore cnsily ,·isiblc. Therefore
''C should inquire about im isiblc principles nnd h:we access to them
thmugh the mediation of,•isible things. Zhu Xi said,

TliC in\'cstigation o f things is ror the. purpose of inquiring

lheir principles. The l'hctthat there is such a thing. implies
ncccswilr lh3t there is such a principle. Yet. principles
arc im isiblc ::md hard to recogni.re. and things ha\'C
ph~·sicnl form and arc easily visible. therefore we should
inquire :~bout principles through thins.s. In this way. when
priucipJcs are understood through our eyes :md in our
mind without any tiny diSt3nce. then we cnn cope with
things withoul ::sny error. (Zhu Xi 2000. Vol 2 : 40CJ. My
transl"tion)

Nc,·enbclcss. during the process of knowing. there should be an

utuwoidablc relation bet\\ cen things known :md I.: nO\\ ing subject, the
l'llower and the l.llown. which should not be reduced to mere psychic
octhitics of the knowing subject. Zhu Xi W:tS consd ous of this and said.

What we call knowing i!i in my mind. whereas \\hal we

call principles arc i.n 1hi.ngs nnd events. From myself here
to know things O\'Cr there. there must be the n:lation of
subje<:t :md object, and in teading the Sc.ripturcs. "e
should not interpret tbo.t b~· this. lf we imerprcl the
'im·c stig.tnion of things' merely as ·contact with things'.
then there is still something we do not understand about
the ultimate UlHh. E''C[)'One has contact with things. but
some would contact them '' ithout im cstignting tl1em. or
in\'CStigatc them carelessly without in\'CStigating it 10 the
ultimate degree. therefore even if they .,_rc in c.ontncl with
things. still they do not understand their l>tinciplcs. Th e~·
do not know the rc.:~son why, Lhe ought-to-be. of things. If
you sny that once we Juvc contnc-t with things and all
principles arc thereby exhausted. this is too e~sy to be
possible. (Zitu Xi 2000. Vol.5: 1969. M)' u-.nslntion)

Since the relation between subject and o~j cet is not to be reduced.
there should be first an act of going outside of oneself fro m the subj ~t' s
p.1rt in order to ha,·c contact with things as object: yet. if there is only
COOIOCI with thingS \\illlOUt iiWCStigaLing lhCir prinCipleS. the objccti\'C Of
:m.1ining knowledge could not be achieved. Sintc principles need 10 be
inquired in order to enter into our rc.Jin:t of k.nowlcdg.c. th en in rq;nrds to
things unkno''" and not·)et·knowing subject. 1hey must be son of "'the
300 I inc:ent Slwn

other" or imbued \\ ith some otherness before getting tbcmschcs kno,,n. In

this sense. principle c-ould he seen as Jdnd of the other. Jn short we can call
'"things" t~s tltc -rent others'' or the -horiz.ontJI others··. to which we should
first go o utside of o ursch·cs in order to keep in tontnct "ith them. As 10
"principles··. thC) can be seen as kind of ''ideal o thers·· or ''\'Cr1ical o thcl's-,
:ll which we should mnkc cll'ort to arriYc thro ugh going beyo nd all kind$ of
paniculouity. maacriulity and cuncrc tcrl~S in order to aehic\·c unh crsality,
ideality and :tbstracUlcss. T hese should harC' dirrcrcnt l:tycrs or degrees
that's \\'by we should go fro m the sh.allon• to the deep. from lhc superficial
to the core. fmm tJJe low to the. high.
For Z.hu Xi. we hum:tn should always go beyond oursch·es and
move towards the other, to im·estigatc things and to inquire :tbout their
principles . In tl1is: \\tty. \\C will be able to return to ourselves with
self-u nderstanding :tnd thereby enlighten our own true sclrhood, The vision
that one cDn return LO one ·s self through 1he detour of many others nnd
nchic\'t self-understanding tltrou&b inquirins al>out m3ny Lhing·s principles.
that one cou ld ercntually attain sudden enlightenment by investigating one
thing afier another. presupposes thnt between principles of th inss ~d
pl'ineiplcs or mind there must be co-naturality. interrelatedness <lnd
responsiveness. which, though cannot be d iscussed here shon o f space.
should l>c seen as OOsic presuppositions o f the compatibility,
complementarity :md tommunicability among things and bct\\CC11 things
and self. PhiiOsophic:~lly spca~ing. these :~rc basic presuppositions or Zhu
Xi.s phiJo.sophy. h is probably bcc:mse of tbcsc bOlSic pn:suppositions that
Zhu Xi's tend ency to reduce d ille-renee for the interest of unity is much
strooger than his tl!ndenc:) 10 rl!spcct diffl!renc.c in itsl!lf or l!vcn to let others
be themselves.

CON FUCIAN GENEROSITY T O MANY OTHERS

Now. how about Confucian \'i rtue of ge:ncrosit) '! In cencr{ll.

generosity could be- u.ndcrstood i.o two senses: e ither :~s l.ibc ~lj ty o r as
magnanimity. When \\C look for Confucian \·irluc of generosity in the sense
oflibcrality o r gcnci'Osity as to the giring <W sharing o f o ne ·s material goods,
we might first think of Zilu. When 3ssisting Confucius with Y:tn Hui, ::.skcd
b)· Confucius. as 10 what they would like most to d o, Zilu s.3id. ·· 1 \Hiuld
like to share my horses and carriages, my clothing and furs. with my friend,
nnd if tl1cy damage them. to bear them no ill will." (At~(l/ccts 5.26. Ames
102) This shows Zilu b:tS a ,iuuc or Jibernlity. Ercn if it concerns the
sharing.. not the um::ooditional gwmg, nc \·cnhcless cxpres!' his
non-possessiveness :~nd g.cncrous sharing with many o thers in the sense of
friends. Zilu didn·t s.ay -share with any otl1cr in general" bUI ·'share with
mr friends,r \\'hO \\Crc equal one '' ith another and reciproc:.l in being good
to each other. So it seems thot Zilu cherished more fricnd.shjp than material
L,'OO<Is, Friendsh ip in shnril18 onc·s O\\ lt material ~oods. this is friendship in
 .Jill

strong sense. Ac<:ording 10 Aristodc. friendship is also n 1-..ind of vinuc. Zilu

therefore sho wed h is generosity in th~ C·Ontc:xt of friendship in n strong
sense.
But Zilu's generosity in terms of liberality ns to his 0 \\U mntcrial
&tOOds, C\'Cfl his ambition 10 govern "ell a slate of thousand chariots. \\WC
not highly cYaluatcd under Confucius eyes! in comparison with tho se of
others. This was the-case when Zilu. Zc:n:;.xi, Ra11~·ou and Gongxi hua wen:
asked by Confucius about how would the~· do if someone did recognize
their true sch'cs, ::unong all the ans,,crs. Confucius '''ould st~.y only ..I'm
with Zcng:~i.'' ·· That's to say Confucius \\aS more in prnise of Zcng~i's
free life style in union with Hc:wcn and earth: ··At th e end of s pring . with
the spring clothes h:n·ing already been finished, I would like. so.ys Zcngxi.
in the comp:m~ or li\'c or six young men ot sb: or SC\'en children. to cleanse
ourseh·es in the Yi Ri\'Ct , 10 rC\'CI in the cool brec:l'.eS tu the Alt.:lr for Rain,
ttnd then return home singing.'' (AnalcGts I I :26, Amc:s 150)
From this we cnn sec Confucius put emphasis on the c;"istcntiul
fl!cling as a whole :md tl1c spiritual horh:on chat COnlCS closer to the rhythm
or
of DlliUre. This shows the c.ostnic brc:uh Confucius tnind in the sense or
m:'lgnanimity. In gcncr:'ll Confucius would emphasize generosity thal is
genuine. and blame the f31sc liberality. That's probably the meaning of
Confucius' blrune of Wei Shcngao by saying -who said that Wei Shcngao is
upright? \Vhcn someone bcgged \incgar from him . he in turn bc~gcd it
from his neighbors and then prcscntt.-d it 10 the person who tm_._ asked him
for it." (Analuls 5.2-l. Arocs 101)
J nd c~d. Confucius mind wns so great thnt. his vinuc: of generosity
is not limi100 10 libc-ralitv. bu1 much c.loscr to \\ htn Aristotle $.'lid a...:;
"magnanimity." On the onC hand. Confucius did not c.are much :about the
gain or lose in material goods. his spirim,11 horizon "as mueh tony th:m uny
desire tOr fortw1c and position, as shO\\ll \\ hen he sa id~ "'To cat coarse food,
drink plain w:ncr. and pillow oneself on a bent !lllll •• there is plco1surc to be
found in these things. But wealth and position gaine-d through inappropriate
mea.ns ~· lhcsc :uc to me like flo:lting clouds." (A nalects 1; I6. Ames 114)
His own nmbi1ion W\lS much higher. which. according to his own words. is
"to bring peace and contentment to the aged. 10 sh:uc relationshiJ' or trust
:md conlidcncc with my friends, and 10 IO\'C ond pro te~t the young.''
(Aut•ltcJj· 5 :2<•. Ames 102) This mc:ms whut Confucius would most like to
do iS the CXistenlial comf'"ort or all people al a ll ages, which might COnte
from the dcm:.md ofunh·c rs:llizing the vinuc of humanness.
We should point out here that Confucius understand also generosity
in the sense or reciprocity. H.: said. when MS\\ Cring to Zi:zlumg's question
abomwn. "One who can pmctice five thincs wherever he may be is a man
of humnnity ... Enrnestncss. libcmlity. trutltfulncss. diligence. and
gcnerositr.- As WI! can see among these li\'c \ irtucs. /.:rrnn (libcrnlily) rmd
hui (gcncro$ity) ore reb ted to the 'irtuc of being generous, although nil fi\'c
arc rclotcd to r:cciprocal ,·i.uucs. as Confucius himself explain. "IJ one is
e11rncst. OCle will not be treated \\ith disrcSI)."CI: If one is liberal. one will
302 I inc:ent Slwn

win the heart of all. If one is trustful. one ''ill be trusted. lf one is diligent
one will be successful.. And if one is generous. one will be :tblc to enjoy the
sc:n.·icc of others."" (Armlc<:ts 17:6. Chom 46·2:17) Note thJt Confucius said
{111 these in the contcxl of conscqucncc. that ~ ou ·n not tx: lrcntcd with
disrespect, will win the hc.:~ rt of all. ''ill be trusted, will be successful. will
be able to enjoy the scn ·icc of others etc. This shows us Confucius
t:·Onsidcrcd mornl nliitlcl's fro m the conscqucntialist. not only fro m the
incentiort.11iSI point of view. But, libcr:dity <1nd generosity in Confuci:tn
sense, !IS to the' consequences they invite. still stand on rcciprocit~··
We can understand Confuci:m \ 'illues in I\\ O!i senses. ··relational
virtues" defined as hamtonii'ation of relationship: and '"aplitudinal ,·inuc"
defined :t.s cxcdlcncc in one 's nntural abilit~'· Reciprocity is the basis on
which was buill Coufu<:iM relational 'inucs and social rclationsbiJ' in
general. h is de:tr thal nil rda tion:.'l l vinues refer to others and response
from others. rehnit.:m which i..t; 10 be mea.liute by reciprocity. This is much
clc.nrc-r when we come 10 Other relational Yirtucs. such ns those in the ri\'C
cssenli:tl relationships. consisting ahr:ws in the b:trmonit'.3tion of human
relationship, ''hcthcr it concerns rcl:uion between husb:utd and wife. or
parents Md children, or brothers and sisters, or friends and lo\'crs, or
individual and socict)'. l11csc arc not to be seen merely as biological or
social rchuionsl:tip. on the contr.:uy. they :uc to be rcali;:cd ns ethically
meaningful relationship. Tile meaning of good relationship. such as pi ct~ .
fidelity. scurrility. royahy....ctc .. could be interpreted diO'crcntly acc-ording
to the custom of the times. but its essence as the harmoni ~o t ion of
rcbllionship SL1) s :1h' ays as ,·.,lid now and forcH:r.
The process of h:'lnnoniJ<.ation of rclou ionship is :\ process af
enlargement fmm rcc.iprocit~ to wt.iversoJiJ<.abilit) . Rcctprociw is essential
for human rcl:uionship ;,c-eording to Confucianism. Just as the wny
Confucius responded to Zaiwuo. one of his disciples. who proposed lWO
~gumcnts . one based upon the ncccssit~· of maintaining social order. the
other based upon the circle or natural process. against the maintenance of a
funcrnl rites. But Confucius answered him by the argument of human
rcciprocit)•. that in the earliest time of our childhood. we were taken care of
by our parents. and 1his \\aS the reason '' h)' \\ C observe those rites in
response 10 the IO\'C of our parents for us. The fonn of these ritunl practices
touJd be thnngt.-d :.tccording tO Lhc dcmund Of limC$, but the C'$$CRCC of
rcciproc it~· in human relationship remains.
But the good hum::.n relationship come ~ to its fulfillment when
enlarged fl'Otn reciprocity to unh'crsali1.ability. Tl1at's why Confucius. when
asl:cd by Zilu concerning ho\\ 3 exemplary person bch:ne.s. answered first
by the cultivation of oneself for one's dignity. then cuhiwation of oneself
for the happiness of other's. finnlly cultivation oneself for tl1c boppi.ncss of
nil the people. From reciprocity to uni \'ersn l ilabi li t~ . this ntC01ns that we
should tr:msc;cnd the; limit of special relationship to univcrs3li1.ablc
reliltionship. c\·cn to the point of sccins people within fo ur seas as brothers.
Which means humankind could treat other fellowmen, "ith no rcg.1rd of his
 .JIIJ

famib . profession. company. race and nntion. but just with Jcn. n
unin:rs.1lizing love. only bcc~msc he is ~i member of the humankind. And
with the act of S'lm. one can go out side of one's self through kUlgu.ngc
nppropria1ion and slrnng.ify from one's self 10 the o ther. simplr because he
is human. T1liS is the wa)' by which Confuciani~m enlarges the
hannoniz;ation of human ~ 13tionsh ip. the fully unfolding of which is the
process of fo rmatiQn of 'irtuous life. not merely o lire of obscr' in:;
nbsolutizcd oblig3tions.

CONCLUSION

from philosophical point of ,·icw. the process of globalization

should be seen n.s rut histo ricnl process of r~l i t.ing the c\·cr-uni\'c rsalizing
human n:uun: going bc~ond bonrders o f an~ kind. The d~ namis m behind
thi..~ is bum:m intelligence 4nd desire. their un\'Cr$aliZlhility nncJ
pcrfcctibilh). developed since lmmnn_ki_nd's hum<lnitAHion "' ith lnngl141&C
::md culture, funltcr in :l self-:1warc W:l)' :tOcr the philosophical
breakthrough. ln modernity. humnn lw been searching for the rcsoun:c in
his own subjectivity and the rational construc.tion of this ''orld by W3y of
representations. But now. in entering the process of globali7.ation. we need :t
new ethics fundamentally based on the generosity to the other through
untcasing strnngilication. Without globali:t.ation. hwntm uni\Ct'Sali:t.ability
to a higher lc,·cl will not be possibly implemented. But globalization itself
should pay rcspe<:t to and bring its resource-s from diiTcrcnt cultural
traditions. h should be an imitation. not nn imposition. ln this con l c~t.
Confucian concept of shu :'tnd 'inue of gcncro!>ity "ill be a r~ource of
inspir-ation. e\'Cn if they luwc some limit as to Lhei.r cmph.lSis on l'cGiprocity
c:tnd need fun her support from an original generosity. If human being is not
ready for runhcr strangilication and greater generosity ro many others. he
will not be rc.:~dy. not C\"'Cil wonh~·. of a real glob:1li-zntion. not to sny
entering in a higher fonn of uni\'crsaliz:nion in tcrn1s of the uni\'ersc or all
under hc~n·en. as Confucians would say.

REFERENCES

Ames. R. und Rosemont H. tr.msbtors. 1998. '/lu.t Analct:tJ. of

Ctn1}i1cius. A 1'/rilosvpiJ/t•a/l'rtmsiMion. New York: Ballanlinc Books.
Chan. \V.T. J963. A ,'}'tmrcc Book in Chmcse Philosophy. Prince-ton:
f>J'inecton Uni\CI'Sil}' Press.
Lau. O.C.. tmns lator. 1910.Mem:tiiS. New York: Penguin Bool;s.
Shcn. Vincent 2002. Conlrnsl. Suangificatwn nnd l)mloguc (in
Chinese). Taipei: Wmtnn.
Wang Fm•J . Clwtmslum Chu(mslm (Complete WoJl;S of Wrmg
Fu7-i). Chang Sb.1: Vue l.u Publishing House. Vol. 6.
Zhu Xi, 1?85. Si Shu Ji llw (Col.lcc:tcd Com.meotaric:s of the Four
Booh). Chang Sha· Yudu Publishing House.
.iO.J I inc:ent Sh;•n

Zhu XL Zltuzi Wet!P (Collected Writings of Master Zhu). proofrc:ul

by Chen Jumning. Taipei; Defu Foundation. 2000. Chapter 13. Vol. 2.
Zhu Xi. 2000. Zhuzi Wcty't (C'olle<:lcd Writings of Masccr Zhu):
proofread by Chen Junming. T;~ i pci; Dcfu Foundation. Chapter ~ ·t Vol.S.
 List of Contributors

Chan, Ala n K.L.. Associate Pron~t (Undcrgrndu:.lc

Education) and Professor of Chinese Philosophy. Dcpanmc.nr of Philosophy.
National Singapore Uni\"'Crsily. Singapore.
Chan, Win~·cbcu k. Associate Professor. Dep:utmcnt of
Philosophy. Brock Uni·,·crsily. St. Catherine. Cnnada
Chong. Kln1-1:hong. Oi, ,ision of Humanities, The Hong Kong
Uni,·crsity of Sdcncc nnd Tcx:hnology. Hong Kong.
Cua, Anlonio S.. Professor Emeritus. Scl1001 of Philosophy.
Cntholic Uni\'ersit)' of America, Washington DC, USA.
l:luanJ:, Chun·chich, Distinguished Professor of History.
Ocpanmcot of History, N:uional Taiw11n Uni\'crsity. T3iJ)Ci, Taiwan.
Huanl!, Yon~ Professor. Department of Philosophy. Kut7.lown
Unh crsil~· . Kut:llo'' "· USA.
liu. J oh;uma. Professor. Department of East Asian Studies.
Unh·crsit)' of Toronto. Toronto, Cnn3d.1.
Lo, Vucl Kcunl!. Associntc Professor. Ocpnrtmcnt of Chinese
Studies. National Singapore Uni\crsity. Singapore.
Nu~·en, Anb Than, AssociAte Professor. Dcp:utrnent of Philosophy.
NulionuJ UniYcrsity of Singapore. Singuporc.
Slu.•n, Vinct~nt . Lee Chuir in Chinese Thought and Cuhure.
OcptU1mcot of East Asian $(udics ru1d Ocpnruncnt of Philosophy.
Univcrsit~· of Toronto. Toronto. Canada.
T~<ti. C hen·ftng, Associate Professor, Dcparuncnt of Chinese
Litcrnturc. National Taiwan UniYcrshy, Taipei. Taiwan.
Vidg. Curie. Assistrull Professor. Department of East Asian
Studies. Unh'ersity of Toronto. 'tOronto. Canada.
\Vee, Cecelia. Associ:uc Professor. Dcp:u1mcnt of Philosophy.
Nafionul Singapore UniYcrsity. Singapore.
Van, .Jinfcn. Assistant Professor. Otp311mcnt of Humnnities,
U ni\'CI'S it~· ofTorooto at Sc-atborough, Toron(o. Canada.
 INDEX

Ackrill. J.L , .l1 h<m..:Jiccncc, .1!!..2;\S-239.

udl'oilnc.-::.;s, Ui '.1'-'4'
al!slhl"l.IC plc3s:tn-e, 1L1:Lld lx'IK·•;ul<.,u:c. L 12. 8!4 2L I I~.
:;~c:~ thctics . L65....61.. US. ll2. 128 197 201 224
oll1'l."Ciion. 2..12. HI. 61. i0-71. 216-2,7 :Z,U.ll!l., 25.1-254
*' ()) ()() 108, lll..l 29. 219, 2..l&.. 26-1. 166.. 213,. 22&
m Dodhi. lf.:X. 208. 226-22i
Allills..m. Robcrl, 2..li Dodhls!nh·:••.l5lll. P)4 201 -'0~
:l\1nu:;m, 225. 'N ; 211 -2 19. 224 227
Ames. R(lgcr. ~ 225 295-296. /Juuk ofChange-S. JO. :I.L2J2
100-101 J01 ill
An H} wang, 232. 2d.S. HMk of.\ll1$ic. c; J.(j'J. 2L
.!lllalau. lit·h·. l..8..27-30. Ol)ok t~{Uitt:.Y , 62...65-(1()._~
:l2-37. ~0-45 48-57. i2..Ul. l.i.l22 229 211l..lll
67-6S. 72. 7-l. l.S!t IR7-18K Brtthn\:mi!'l-111. 115.1.12
12.L 195-197. 199.222. UuJJha. 41.45 lli. l 76.
224- 227. 222-2'\0. 2:\2- 2\l IRf>·IR ? .I.&L 190 205·206
2.11. 247-2-IX. 25il. 253-267. 20S-109. 21.l 217. 21•).
26!L 272-275. 27S-279. 2lU.. 226 -227,249.2(~~. 27 1
286..,?X8-2R9 22 5-2% AuJJhuhood. 17<;. l?l). IS3. 212.
1fXJ-301 1ll!.
:J.ntago nism, ?t)3 Buddh1sm. 1 3 '3 7-39. ·11 -12
ttppc!!rancc. !!:,llllill:L 1!iL :li. J7 I - I 7J !76.1 77
.l.fiil.. .114. 179. l.lil 179-!RZ J.&L 187. 2t!~·205
Aquin!lS. 192 220.225 207-208. 2 10-21-L 21~. 227
A1i~totlt:. U.. 2l:2=l... !Y... JQ2.. 230·2~ 1 235. 2-JS. 256.267.
.ua.. 19 H 1)1 , "0(. H.l 271 . 214. 27S. 276
22$-226. 'tO I
iitman. l!l2 c
amlH.·nlid l~·. lS. 6.:!.. 130. 22i
tl ll lOJl(\IU~', i\', !_ 217. ?80. 'NO tuus::~lity. 2!ll.. 22ll
,\;-.;il)lo~y. ..1.22 OCllltulit~'. ll. I J(i IJ5 ill.
Ch:m. Wing·L:>i1. ii1. 2:.l. 8..1!..
B 21. 3R-l9. d7. •19, 113, ili.
1lL 173 1~4 lJ!l!.. !%-! 97
h:•tlncss. 9~. ~ 22. 100-101. 199. 201 20S. 2 1R 22(• 227
IO:i-106. I~~ . 211. 22 1. 223 269-270. 21:L27' 295-291.
Ban, Gu, ;;t-:\2 ,,_ n 302·, 03 291
Ba<.1, Xian, 29-10 .31.. .'l4-)7. :UL Chen. D11qi. !l. .1!1.llL 2L.2.i
'''· 5H " 51-59_ ~ t:hcn, J.a1. l.S.1. 157. 166- !67
U:utlt('S. Roltmd. 62::6.1.16. Che n. J.i, .12. 3U:.ll
beau\}'. 19 (,? 72 14 m Ch.;;n. J.iong. !il
308 l"dex
Chen. Zh :;¢,l~·i n~• .ill2
Cheng. t;.~hun~;~~,m~ . 2L..l.il.
.1.6ti
Cheng. TT:1o, L..l.8...:18. ~
J:t0-135. l .J9. .1.lS. )(,~ -1 67
199. 222. 226
Cheng. Yi. L '8 .16-47 SO 5'
J.llL 140-14' .lAS. 147 I S~
166... .l!l8... 199. 200. 202. 2~ 9.
'>4.:;; 2G:L266 21!1
Cl1ing. Julin. .lfU
Chona, Yn~')'<)ng, h·. 1 222..2ll.
.,,, 23k-_2·13. lli
Chon~ . K im -dwn~. 2~9 ill
Chu:.ms Tzu, .14. :\9. J.1lU,.
12 1-122.121- m ns 210
C /UII/(j/11. J I. -lJ. 121-1 22. 128..
1!18.
ciliZ(."fl:;hi)l, l2l
cla:-.~ ic<tl l carnin g , 26:1
Clllllmonalily, I I7. 2S7
conun unJC~•bJiit)'. 300.
Cl>mmunity, .l!i.llL 144 147
'~ '
198.203. 27X, 294.29S
compassion, R0-8-t. 89-91. 2:!..
I 14. 190- 191.205. 207.
2 1 0-2 1 ~217-21R. 22 1. 22-I.
? (!{ 281
C<mfuci~:~nism. iii·i\', bL l l l l .
24. 27 Jf) <11-·12. ·15. 47.
6 1-62. 6.J. 76.92. 113. ) 17 .
123- 12-l. 129. \1'1 149. 161
17 1 -173 . 17~· 1 SO . I83·1K4 .
IS?-188, 19), 197.204·2fi$,
222.. " :I 22<i. 229-2:'\2. 215.
237. 2H 2-17 251 21\7-270
274·276.2R5.2S9 29 1
294·296 30) .1()1
C<,nfucllL' (Kon~~ i . Kong Qm).
iv. l. 3·4, 7-9, 11 - la. 16.
18-23.27-28.30.32-37. 39.
4 1-t2 . .tll5.J. 57-5R 63
6'1-69. 71-74. 76. ill2. ~
115-116 liS .1.2ll..l26-110
J..lli.. J..51l.ill.. 1.64. I k7- ~ ~~
l!!L JtJ.;.JQ7 ?(11.?U4
2!5·227. 230-231.235.
2-l7-2<18, 250-255. 251-lf>V.
271-28 1. 2S3-2S6. 28~-2&<J,
22i. 297! 100.103
C4)1l~i(lU;.;;Jii::>::t, :1i. 12J\ .lf:!l.
172-173. 179. 209, 2 11
~lll~qucn l iatism. l. 2d... m
J.2J.. 197-l'>f<. 22 1-2" ,1()2
t.'<mkmplahon. J.i.-t. 206
Cunt.c. Ed.. l.Ul.lli
OOStn\lS, J.20.. I ~8 140. .lJ!i. I 7:1.
ill
"tlurngc. !Ll..h !£. ll.l2i
Cousins. L S,, ZO!L2!l&.llti.
t:ua, J\nwnio, 3. 7 -9. 1:.\. 93.
? •V i6 ?S.? C) 101·102 )05
J!ll.I09-110. IR9. 291
culti\'<llion. l.l..f& 31. 4K 56..
61 M 67-(;9 72 74 87 9 1
.1.11. 11~ .LW. 14?-14 ~ .L5.i.
JQ$.1% ~03. 2GS.2 1 5. 219.
215 237-24 1 252-253 271
lli.. 2<) ) ..2Q(i 3fi2.
~·-ultur~.II . I\) J9 fi~ 6 ~ 71
l i 172. tf<1. 2JS. 277. 28l.
291 -292 10.1
D
n.n, i'.hcn, 23 1. ..,,, , ?i$.')i6
dnncc, ~12..2!
fJm), I I. J5. J9.<i4-65. 6S-70
1.S.:16,. .uu..
12:l- 120. !2 ~-111
lll. l 57 18!}. !~};;, 199·202.
22 1 245 250-2 '\3 257-2(14
Jfi7 'fl9 , , 1- 1i5
O:tolsm (Tnoi.sm). Ll..:!2.. 129.
172. 232. 247. 256. 267' 271.
ill. 21.!i
dll0Cong1 1fi1
Da-cut!. ll.. Sll. JD2... .US. .l1Z..
190. 203 2J9. 244 245
D:.z.uj Shunda1, 2li. 2J.i
J< D;try. WT.. 8._ :lli:12. :II. .162
de So•H<~. R.. I:l7. i l l
dchbcr3ti(ln, bb 3ft. 8~. 2..lli.

tk."'.wlt.:.'IQ~y. 1;!. l11
desire. !1..1~-15 ~U-~' l<6~~-
91 9R-90. 101. 10> .105.
107-109. 10 -11 4 ill.
J2<i-127. lln -1 ~~ 1.~5
140-142. 151..1iili.l62 2CJJ.
211 21() 21(1 212 250 262
266 281 -~Ks. 29' JO J. 30~
dc-h:nninism. ~2m.
tflwnua. 190 211 214
Dham1a1>.11a. 2.U.
Oichi. " I ~ 228.
(tignj ly. ?Q< .1Q2
/)QCiritN! <ifJII? J\f~tm, 1!1.19t";
22Y-?JO. ?32.-2J3. 237 -2~ ~-
2::l2... 256~25 7. ltil.. 2!ill... 22i
Don~. Zhongshu. l..f~. JJi8..
.l!l8.
double -::onscqucnc.cs, 1.2L 22!}
tluhklm, 209. lll
Duk.;: of Z.hl)U, 19. !2
l>Wt.)Jkin. 0.. 183.. 28!!.
E 21J~ , 30 !
Ll:L.li. ;U.. 6i.UZ..
t.-duC<~ tion.
~ 162. 166. 2<1 1. 277. 291
Einstein . .lfi
cmt.1lion. ~1Q..:;t2-in &i,B2-
I IO 12S 133 'Sl
.:-mphne~. ~ 190 211.2..3fi.
2j(l
enlightenment, .1.:19.. ll:!.. J..l::l
l~l- 1~ 1. 20(. 2(1~ 110-212
214-2 l? 21 g .~oo
\..11\'l h.'IUOC'I!I. .l2. i£. ~ 29J.
cqu:.hbrium. 141. 203. 2~A
C:~Sci\LWI ISl. ~ 1n,.9; 2L
)('5.1 Hl
ethics. i·1i, .,,,J 1:8.. :H. 23-24.
n
;c.. 9;. J.QQ.. ll!l. Jill. JJ.Q.
llL l.ll. 149 Uil. J.lil. .ill..
H:?-194. 199-207 212.
2 14-227 249-250 210 zso
277 28 1 2SS. lf.:9 791-294
:lll1
Imler 309
C\il. .l..2U...I5J.I;G-15K~
.lli2. IX4, IQ~ " 16 "IX
~'X<."Ci k'TICC.!L!.!b_ 187,l2,L I<};
197. 2-17.271, 302
C.'\ll'tn<lliNn , 7QSJl &b8i
F
f:u rbank. J.K., ~
faith. 2J!_ !2..121. 162- 163. 2ll
fm thfuhlC$5. 20.L.22.5.
(:uni Iy, 4ll. iii. 61.. 281.. 2~ -296.
:lll1
Fan. Chi. l:l 25 2S I
1-':m. Chung-y..·u, l i
Fan. Wuq1. 222
f:tn. Yc. 2!lll
Fsn, Zhongy:m. 4.:5.
F.Jog. Kcli. liL !(,C.. J.ll&
Fanwang, 214-215. 22S.
f •zang, I XCJ 211
fcxling. l !iL 70·75 &i..89·9l
.1D.2...l.UL 199 709 217 279
Fichtc. 11L ill.
Fidelity. 2.Sl. 2i1
figuroli \·cness, C!6
fili:ll pjcty. 2!1. ~ I I ~ .
t$0. 15? 16 1 2!S '16 -'17
239. 211 1-242. 296· 297
flli01hty. 8...258. 2li2_ 264-267 .
lli
f-'ing:'lrCIIC, .8, 277. lli, 2~ 1 .
283 ·2~6. 282
I;out, Ph • p't7, 20:1 221)
J·imr H.IJook.f, iv, 3.. iU. '5-;6 16.
229·234. 236-2,9. 241-243_
~ ?71 J.Q1
fr:•temily. "(;" .,64-"f•S 26.1..
lli
frc.'\:d()Jn, 2fL U!1. l!il.. 281.222
fl'tCI Xl~hip, j ji, .1. II! ,, J!i
.lL..1I. ll,. <1J!. S!Ud. 66. I 28.
193 239 300
funeral ri t ~. 3Jll
.i 10 l"dex

c harntou}'. 62. <-ii.-68.12..2!. 110.

1..24... 126. 14!l.l.44.. 24X-2J9,
Gordner, D, d&.ll.. 55-56 1!!6 259._270. 29 I, 297
G.Jrfidd. JJ.... 2!!i. 20 7. 210. I k Yon, l. 22.ll. !Ill. ;!1 ;;Q. .52.
22!i 121-127 p9.1 H
£1~0Cf0$"1l)'. \'J , ~ l..!..lfi..2L 212. hcun -mind. ~~ -~4. 86-~7 . 89-92
2?1 293 -2?6 1M-';Q1 101 !l;L W. !!?· m lli.
IJ.~-nllt;man. &28...82..!14100 J29. 13Q .Lll. J'\5 216 .,so.
.lLJ.2... 116 l.1L I J5. 256-25?. 252. 261,26-1. 270
261 264 268 279 281 hc:i*\ en. ill.!.!.11 J9-120. m
g.loba117ation. iv. i,. 291. lll. 114-IJS. J.S!l. 15R l2,L
2C)'l.293 2(11, 230. 25 1·252. 254. 2.'i9.
(iod, l72-(7.l .I78- J79 22 1 ' 61-263. u;s-2r.6. 2S!L
~olden rull!s, ll. J..l. 29:t '94-21)R m
,9,·1.'lt)6 hea\'t:n ly ptiu.ciplc, I jl9. J5.1.
Gou.lihlm N1. 62. 1Sl_ l64 230 2~ 272-273
g<mg. l.L 11. .1.6.. I&. ! () ?? ?j I lcid;.l!gcr. M . a. 2£L.Ll8.
.1.41 h<.-rmcncutics. 1:4_ 29. 4D. 5!S..
(ionJ;yons Goo. ~ ;g . .:,(, 116 ]J,)? 247-:N~
goc>tl will . .l.!U. I% 209 22-t "~ 1 'S~ 2(\n 2{,:\ 274-716
S,l."10dll¢i:S, d2_52. ~3 -95 . ~ llobbes, Tb . !l6.
99·101. llii.lii.i61·162 humo~cn cit~·- 2fl)
lllll.~ !~R- !99 202 I lou. Wailu. J.61
22 1-222. 230, 23~. 2J'l , 260. l lslln TYu (Xunzi) , ui, L l_ H.. JI .
211
'>(,.:; bL 11..1 9. 21 -24. 2<•. 30, 70.
g<lOd. wi II. 21.2. 75-'11-1 !0 11 2-114 i l l
sovcrnan~.o"C , 2.A 2. l:L22.. 2JS. 12f<-129. 187- l fl!-:. 21X. 2RO
?,t I ..,IV llu. Yu~m . .t "··16
Gnlh:nn. A . .1.&. 2.1.:.2i H)(. i l l I luan. Rong. li
Gw tll J.eammg , 1't0 2:\8 242 Huang. Chu-ch1clt, h·. ~ Jti.
~ 2<11
~IcC 74-75.1.2ll Huan~. Kan, 22..ll..~.l:L 115
Guo, Qmgf:m •.llL i l l !16. 12&
(iuo, X1:1!)~ , l.. J'??. 11 ~ I luang. Qlngchuun. li.
Guu,Yi. 111-11 8 Hua~·au. ISO ? JJ 2-19
/lui, JA. .52. 63.. 24. .u.L 2!U,.
li 'RQ 1QQ.
human condition . .iti..lll2.
llahn. l•.. l l human f~cbngs, 11L24.
l Jan. Yu, 38-·11 , -13-45, !12 S2. bUOl:'lRC mind, 21..2d.
S:L ~ 222. 2J + ')J.:; hu numity. l2..Si.G!L ~ 2!!L
fflmj~IZi, l(lJ.L2 22J 259 294 -2 1)5_ 2 1)7 30 1
ll:lOSlZ-0. Ch., 2H3. ~ hum:Jni?.ation, 10? l!ll
h appin~s:1 . Lli 154 192-l'>:l IIUI\IC. D.. 86.. 2§_. 187 1?fj
., 13 302 lmnu lity. l i
 lndt•x .'H I

1 K

tdcalism, .11.1.,. .11.1,. 177, l1!l,. Kolupnh:tna, 205-207. " '6

182.183 Kont. J£L J6lr10'1. 111 -172
ignoran~c. lll.. 1 7C1-1 7~ . 21 1 177- 17~ .J.lU. ) q] 20(>. 221
illuminJtJon. 126 lll K::~rct7.ky, 10-. 21l2
lmpm·ti:.thly. 1.i. :U.. J..lL. kLtnn(l. m.. 2.lll
13J. I3 1 )\~,;(mn. C. I).. I<Xt. ? 06- '0~.
mbom n:llure, ~.1.0.2... 116 -1 19 . 212-:Zl:J. 226
.122... .l2L 1.ll kindnl! ~. 2S1.
integrity. 2:1.. .LU King Xuan. l.!l 81.. 22. 221 . ? 'U
intelligence, ..L2.:1.. J11 , l.ll..l.:tl... K nohlm·k I 9~ % , 9&..l!ll.
2ill.. ,;, :ill1 l.!1l. I07·I 09. 114. J..ll. J.JlE.
inlcrnalism. 2.2:.82. 8:1:81. 1\JI(I\\'k"iJt:l!. l_ !L .Li.. .t1. 2.0.. 22,_
anh.1'prc.:.1ati(m. 12d.A..1L 29-:\0 :!6,.tl,.. ll.. 6~ -6(} ll.
32·13 37 H . ~9·5 I 53 57 11 5·ll6 ilL ) j l ) . 166
() 1. 71. 94. 115. 117· 11 R.J.22. 177- 179 196- 19S. 206
rn 146.150. 155-157.118.. 2<l R.213. 233. 239-242. 2SJ.
197.2 11. 223. ~1 0-213 . 215, 21!1. 293 ,91.21)2
2~g-239. 2 ~1 24J . 2~S 253 K•'n~. Yiugda, iS.. .lll.ll&. 222..
.26!.l,. .26d,. 26 7. 262.. lll l15 "·'J.'d'
2!2& Ko\'asu Nobukuni. 2il
intuition. 172-171 I 77 112.. Krble, ·a. L. &16
ktum, 9, I I. 16, 21·2.1 , 25, 3(J l
lshid:slchim. '> ~ I) Kuiji, 2 11 . 22R
ltt"dins.ai. i\', .1..231 2Jl.. KmnBrajh ·a, II-i•) 214
24:l-245 24 7-26X. 27 1-27(1 Kuu , lll
h'MlhiX. Ph.. !!... ll? 105-h.:.-;
.LI2. I SS-157 .1Jl.i. .1Jli. L

J l:mguagc. (,6.1!L1:L, 22.. 177

207. 29 1-29~ ~Ol
,lap:mcsc Con(uct31115lll, 3. l.th), Sigllt11lg·. l1i2
.h:tQ, Xun,21S. laozi. :iLUl..!iL 125. 128·129.
jing, !J.ll. .Lt.. J.L2i.l.li .1!1.. 26~ 271
.Ia 197-200. 202 2lS I.:HI , D.C.• &.U.'d ,, 'S ,.)
joy. 2l!..ll. 70.12. 7~. I 10. 114. 51. 93.1 13 .l!iZ..li!1. 1SS.
12L 124- l l5 ~ 14 !-l.p .:uu. m m.. 256·257.
.U.S..15R lf"l(l. 191 ?~1 259-262 26::1.... 266 -267.272.
jmd . 2..La l2.. J7-25, 61.6-1, 21~-219. 2&L.. 2&i. 289.
G~ 70 12 76. !!.U..!.!i. llL 21H -2%. 3Q1
.l.lil.l.58.. I(>R J..!U.. 121. 197 karning nund, 22
l.tgFc. D.C .. &.12-23. 65,.69-70.
iu:>tl<.:'C. ~ 22.. 114 JC!fl 2n iS !W l!l6.
26l.28.1. II. h-. I. 1·4. 7· 11. ll.l(•·2 1.
23-25. f 1J'14-fi5. 69-1.l li.
.i/ 2 l"dex

77. S1-Sl. 26. lJll.,lll. !40. 51. 54. 56-59. )) .t-116.1.2.0..

.liU...u9.. 156-157 ) (,~ 173
.L8lL !<JO- L91. J.!l.5, L97
200-20 I. 21 1. 222. '2:'2.
2>5-2lf>. 219.24 2-244
277-27X. 2MO. 2&L 296 ~
l.i. A<.l . 4!1
L.i. l)i:;h(..-ng. !U. ! M . Hn
Li, Gong, !
l i. Jingc.lc. ..J9-51 53
?l.Q 2;1;1.
Li, Kou·s S<'lhnu.m, ..li}
I.i. l.ing. , 1 c...1 7<; ill
I.i . Tinnhi'~n~, ll2
Li, Xue Qm. 62.a16
Li. Xuc4in. lll.ll.S
I.i. Yanping. ll
hang, 149-1 51 . li5.....11!8
libcrolity. 21. 287. 100.'\Q I
126· 130. 19'). 24K. 250-251 .
2G1., 26·1, 266,27 1-271
l.uo. Consyan. :Udl
M~·. Ch...'Oll)' U ~IO . 119 .Ul
M(l. Rllng. 23-(1. lli_
~ lSl!l.. M udnh·rc. A.. 203. ??6
Mncquarric• .1.• .lSl
M ndhp lmika, 11i.J.m
mn;mnnimily. 2.... !L. J.!i... ~
300. 301
M'•hii)'iina. i u . l,.~ 173.
187-19 1 194 2(>.1-207
210-215 224 22(>
Milo, Qiling. 56-"l)
M tlUSS. M ?().t

l.y·i , 20-21 2S ~ I ~ 6-37 40 Maw:mt>~dui . 1?'-123

5fi-5X. 121-1 22. 11:S. l.:U. m ~"<.hlation,
204-206 2l.lS.... 2..1fr
2;1.4. mclt.>dy, 1l.d2
Liu. B~m . 1i Mcnctus. iii. I l 7~8 ~
Liu, H:mnan, 21..2S!! 5 1 ·5~ sr-. 58. 62..6~. 76.
l iu, Chnn;;, :Lbt!'i..:l!l.il 19-S4 ~.!Jl!L 102- )())
l.i u. M ian. W lJll,JOQ IL:l 14'1-150. 15'.
Liu. Shao, l2i I 59-16 L. l61. llL I 87. J..lill._
Liu. Xi:lltui. l!l. 197-200 22<1. 229·2~3. 237
Liu. Xlu. ?1() ill 2.!7 '; J.z.;s ?;8 2(il. .7C.'\
Lin, Xiusheng, m, 267. 270-27 1. 271-27(\. 290
Le<ke, J60. J62.161. ~.l!ll
l.4.1u. Yuhc. Ul.. Ull. Men'>, Pciy UIU1. .1.52.. lUZ.
IO\'C, 12.. 1ft. 70 . 79·RO, >t.:l. R7, metnphy:;ic$. S2.. i5..lfi1,..
10•1- 10.$, 12 1,1 -10- 14 1 146. 171-172 l1L J.1!L I ~4 20 I.
J.£1. j(;J. Jf>2 !9.1, 221.224, 209 221 210 26 1 2(J')
260. 2(vt 270. 273 '\01 -~(13 Mi.:hlh.· Way, iii, l.. lli7-19 J 1%
IO\' i.tt~·~indnc,s s., J..6...1D 2f!!l203-2<M. 707.'><18 2..l!l.
loy.,Jt) . Jl.. U:J..:!.. 1(, 98 223 215. 218.223.225.236
1~(,.?~1 2..12 25 1-252 Mill, J.S , 193- 19-t 199. 2m.
262-263. 2m. 2li. m ~121
l..LL Deming. " 1'\ 2d:t modcralion. l.i 6!i
I .u, Xil~l\g,shan . l.. 167- IOR. mtw..lt.'fruty. 291 lOl
11 1-173 mtxli.'$1\'. 15. 10. ~G. 94
l.ll. Zll<~ian. !l1.. 2!!:1. M(l111aign c. 1\'. 4...277-778
Lunvrt, 7. 9. !l...lk.li.ll. J•)-2U 2R0·2R3 28"\.·19n
.,., 1:i,. 2&22. 34 :1!bl.L :~..'!.. M0<1CC, Uc, 191. !94 227
 Imler 3B

uwral :~t:..:nc~·. 142+1:\ HG-147 ohlit;atolinc.:s:s. J.Sa. l'Xt· l91 .

mor.ll t.:Ol:!Ritt<m, ~ 19S·I96 • .12S
morn! JUdgment, 7Q-R I. ~ Odi!J. 29-30. lili. ~ 5 3, lli
R(o...~7 l RR. 215. 2JR Og.f\i Snc'Ui. 2.12.. m '>4:f. ?4.:;
m"ml knO\\ Iedgc, 149- 15(1 ont olo~y, 17~- 179 29J.
J59-163. 1fl!i 6tsula No\'1\l)'f.lshi. ~
mom! t h~ll)'. 2..12..16.. 22!i. ou~htnc:is.18S- I? I 1?~ - l? i
m'1wl ity. !l. 2.1-22._ ..1.00.. .US.. 2!J.l
lill..l!l:L 171-tn lt~:7. 190 Ouyang, Jingl\U, ..1.8!'.!
~ 199 2!Xl 204-208 Our ang. X1u, :UL. i i
210-216 218.225. 2.l2. Ou)·ang. Xun. 3.:1.
2Mi-237. 239. lli nxtoby, \V . 12.$. 21(j
lll(Hivntion. £!:82.. R·i-22.
1%-ICJR 2CI:l. 21 1 21:'\ p
MlHI, /.tlflg:wn, i1l. l.2.1_ Li2..
167-168.171· 174 175-1 84 l'allg. Pu. 63..16..lll
1\'lot.J. II . 6 7 pdl1ik1, 20&
Munro. D • 27 . ..illi p !kSIQll, 4d. ~2. lli
IUU$iC, !_~!il..:!!!!. 7 1.1.:; l!W.. ~mticncc. 212.
ll2.. 2:\5-217 ll2.. .,.p. '.!3 pc:~ . U2..~ 1'5 2()(; 2 1n.
22~ . 2~6 2~6-297. 301
/)ellJO'OU• .3ll.ll_li.5.8.
pc:lf<.'(h01l . .J..(i;t. I QI 21 2
N!g:li)Uil:l, 201. ., Ill-" 11 2 14·215. 2 18.223-224 .
n.:unclc.s..mc!CS, ,.,, ' 9"-'96
ll.a(l"dli\·~. 66.. 2.68. Pi. Xlmi. lli
na1urnlncss. 127. i l l piandc. 10.
Nci)..C('!nfucimut>Jn. Jit. Lb ~ Pk\t(l. 16 1· 162 to3. t9.1
ol!i...il. J'7- )1 il I J6 ln.. )>Ieasure. 28.. 6.L.1iL ID:12..
.l.d.2. l& I 7 1. I.S2,. I•J0 -19 1 l..d..1.5.,. 11::; 120 -122. 12J-125.
l!l:1..19 7. 199- 20 1. 204 -205. I '?7. I '>8 )'\fl J.3.2.. ti.L I(),
225.227. 248. 251 . 269. 275 213 )0 1
N'mc Coun;.c Ac:1dcrny. 2ll plethora, 2A.1
nirwmtr, ..1.16. 190-19 1,208 ph•t alism. l!ll
Nivi~n . D.S.• 13-14 Al -J\3. 22,_
105- IM _ 155.J.ii2...1.6l
I"'"'755-256
!i.l..!i:l..!12. 71 76
J) •
2l8.. 2.ll
Norden. W. V:m.. Ll. 21,. J4-.J5 fKl$l·modcmity, .221
J.ii2..l.BL m Puxin~. Zh.1ng. 20:1.
nothin8nes:o. 12?-PC. >c.R l9A. Prajn~J.:aramati. lli
Nuycn, A nh l u.:m, 1i1, 3-4. 22. property, M5. t ll't ll.ll
221 rm.lpru.:ty• .2.. ~ 6&6!!. 11..:12..
lll. .!!.h 195. 201. 2,'\S 2.l 7_
0 ?18.?79
pur-il)'. Jl.l. 156 JG4 20J 222.
t*"·:dii.'11Cc. 2Q. 2'lft-2~7. 2l!.L 114
·'J.t t .?.t ? .,X8
.i/.J l"dex
Qion Mu. ~ ~ '65 ':1 6·'
q;,,, l. UJ.. ~G:l..ZQ:ll.ll.l1
94 ()7.28 lni - IM. .l.fm..l.!.L
113-114. 120 -J2 l.l21.
126-11; 117- !18 ~
14'-14' U4
Qiu, Xigm. !.lH
(JUrJJi ty. 8_.!1. 16. J? '74.75
.1.:1:1.. 1)'\ 16.l-lli5. 188. 192
194,202-203.201,224. '254
R '35 2-17 251. 2Stl 260 .,6~
n mg.. l&.l!t. 26... i l l
ralionality. li.:Z.U.U 137.ru
R:mls, J , 165. lf2.
rcn.son ablcn~. ll,.282.
I'Ct:iprtl<:il)', 236 2:U.. 25 1-252
21S,. 293-294 2Y6-297.
10 1-103
rcddt:~n«.-ss. l2li
r<.X't11!CCI10n, _.w&..J.ll2.
rclip.ion. lB. 22.1
1\W. I.:\. 7-17. 19 2 1-2-L 26. 68.
79-:-tl. :n.f.:4. R7. g() 9.1-94.
102- WJ. tn7 .!1L 113.
w~l47 J..!!JU?i-J<JS, 20 1
25 1. 258. 26 2. 264-261
270-272.273 -275. 194-295.
221.. .3lll.
22. 2.:L 2.fi.
n!II,'W I,
respect, l..h l(i-18. 21. J?-.W . 4;;.
46--17 59 66 1 2 14 1.21.
UiJ,.llil, 19 1 200_203. 236
239.243.278-281 2R4 286
288.. 2%-?QZ 1illl J.ill.
ri~ h lc.:ou:-<n<.-ss. l...l&.1.U..L4.1..
llilL12L 195-196, 199,
20 1-203, 22-t 249. 25:\, 25R
2C2., 26i, 271 22J,
riphtncss. L 21. Sl. ~ 1. 114. 122.
m l!6L 158 189 217 221
ritual mu~ic. M.. Cii:iU.li
R<'l1) , R., J.n2.,!El
3lli.
Ross_ D., l81. 19 1- 194, 199-200.
,.,; l l l
Ruan, Yu<'n. ~0- 31 . l l l i m.
;1.5_ :\:!.:ilL21.i
s
.J.!1L S<Jdnc:ss, 1!l.. 142. l:l.i
sagchood. iii. 1. ~ l2.. i i Z!l.
II ~ · I I•J.III'l, 124. 126·127
1)0-D•I, 153-154, lf!_JBl..
~1)\':it l OD , .i:S,. 1~2. 2 1 ~
S;tnhJc\'U. 211.113 226
Scrutll•ll , Tit, 192 227
Schw:u1z. B., 8..28i
~lf-Jctcnuinat ion. 1.18.
~:-ir-d\\cllint:; . l8.t
self-grounding, .111
sdli.sh. 13 1 lS.L.lll.ISS
' "7-1<;8 !<j().J(j) !(i .;. t(.(.
2U'3, 214
~lt'-pl!rfi.'\:tion. 22~ . ? t))
:-;df-sufftt: it:nt, 127 J..ll.11.i.
1!!1
~.lf·uuJerstanJi.ng. 113 J.!lD.
~1lSibi Jity. Ul.li2.. I 8 1 247
Scnns~;ylm -g:mlll, 2'' 2l1.i
seriousness, ~ ..1.8.. '61 210.
shilnh:, 17 :lR R'\ 9-1 i l l
~"hfm. .l.!n. l tt . JI 2 123.15fi.
!Iii. I(>R IMJ-1\1<1 2!);
Sl1ao. Oon(l. p 1.2n
$hen. •9 ?? 16 IJ~ Ul,. ISd
ill!. 112, i l l
Shcn. Vinc..:nt, i·iv. L :L l.ll..
75-76. 125. 291. 10~
shcng.rcn, i l l
~h..:nmin~. ill
Shi. Xinngzi . .11.
Jim, U-15 . .Yi,. 29. 3.S,.6-1 -6S 62.
l i !H..lliL 133 -135 !:!1.
.lB.L 19.$-1% . 226. 24K 250.
291. 29.&-298. 303
 Imler 315

Shuu. Kwong-loi. ii. ~ 2.2.. lt'U~l li., 236·2:l7. 239 242. 28{),
:zw. .!Jll
Shum n.'n Jiczi, .12-~~ S1 tru.stworthmcsJ>. 2...!1. 13.. ~ 28.
Sidcril:;, M , rg2. 190 20.i. 207. 14 1. 2RS
211 2 1.\ 227 1n11h. :!1, tiS. IQO. 2!1l. llh 2m
Samn. (.)ian. I . ~I . 35. 222. 227. 'f~i . Chcn·ll:ns. h·. 3d..~
22!!..246 12? 2?1
sinc~.:ri t~·. ~ ,lSL 201 222.. 2lL. 'fS(m~ ·Kh:-t-Pa ,
2.U.l2l
?iS 2d2. 287-2S8 2!lS. twofold truth. 1).;9 .J9 1. !f\:1 207.
SJiugcrland. t£<1 0.. 1&&.. 19:; 209 -210.2 12-213. 225
195-196 227 tyranny. 127.26 1. 286-2,1\7
Son (lf He-wen. !i6. ~
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~ln\l\\ . 10..1:1.l.!f!. i l l
12U-1 2 1.1 2J -J 2S.127 - 1 2 ~. uhim.:ttc pnnL·ipiC', ~
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stillness. 126. J.lQ.. 132·B5. .U.S. u.n i\·c a~li7al i on , 292.llll
.ill. i l l Uno Scuctu, 2.6.!l
:j.lrnngificotklfl, 2!>1, 293-2%. Upr~r". l&!L 2illl2 J 2- 2.L1...lli
:llll uh lil:rrkmism. l.2:L l!i!llll.
11,. tl::.2!l illl..llL
~"'11b::1an ce, 2.16
I24 •I 2S U!l..li!l.. 177 .J1Q.
JQ? 201 2 10 225 2Mt-2S(l v
264-265. 210. n:;. 2i9. 2~ L
~ \'Uiuc. 10. ~ 19. 33. G2 6(j.67
:.'1lb~la n t i ali:-l. 175. 1ll rJl.?o 11.zs pa.p 2 lll.
SuchnCliS, l 73-17S, 111 111.154. ~ J()].l \)3 1!15_
l)llft~ing. 79-S<?. 88.:.!ll. 208-209. .l2L 199·2<X) 2U2·2(l3. 2-i;l.
2 11 2 !.1 21(.-? !9 ?2'\. ?')4 2d.8.. 2~7 '191.?24
:., lpcrior man, &..69.. 73-1<1 89. Vil'ltg, Curie, iii. 137. 29 1
~-ymplltb~·. ~l:l,. ill.,..2l.l \'trlOC.'i, 2..:1.,. 7-13 . .J.6...!& 20-24
5 I 68 74 .L1.L 11i. .182...
T lf(]. J ~9 J.9J... 1%-197
2(10 -20.'\ 2tX.- 209 21:1 ~215
Takeuchi Y~)~hj ,J, lli ,U.L 225. 252-253 lli..
T~)ng, Jun~' J , 150. l..i2.. J..i:L 2{)2-264 21.i.2Sl.. 2c.q .295
J67 . 16S; l Q I .'102
Tmtg,. Ytjic. 1!l1l!
h:chnnl og~· . J.i2. .l.j!.. 2!l.L 2!lJ. w
Tdfcr. ll
lhing.i -in-IJJcm.scl,·cs. !1.1.l1L wuillli, 221.
.119. \\'alcv. A.. S. ll
'lianHu. ilL U~ J.J X4. 21 1 Wnlsh\!, M , 2ili.. 2t)t). 22l
lran~cc.:ndcnl:~l. L llL I i4 171 Wang. An..'ibi. 4B.
17'1- IXO l k2-I R' 192 Wanp. Oi. 1. 12l-! 24 126- 110
1'(M.?tl.; "' 1'1 11?. 1!3
.i l fi l"dex

Wan~ . Chi. J.!l1 Xwg Z; .\1;,~ C/lu. l..hl.. 62.. !il.

\V;mg. <.:hong . .U3. (lJ, 67.69. 70, 71. 72. 74. 75
\\!:tng; Fu:tj , ~ 1lll Xu, Shcn, 3.2..11
\Vu.ns . M~,1gou. 20. Xu. Yun, 1L 1.2.8.
Wnng, Nt;sll:OUJl, 36. 50. :C'II(ltl.\71t: . 1.2.2.
\\'an~. TUlsxit~ng, 2.1L 2!16.
Wanj!. Yanl!minJ!. iii. Lli. iii.. y
.1.42.. 154 16 1_ I (-,(,. l<l~
17 1-173. 199. 2~~ 246 Yan. Yuan. L 16 ?f. 2.1 121..
Wang. Yw1ping,. 220. .t.m. 111.pJ
w~nn-h carl cd ness. .1.6 Y~ng. Bojun. 115. 12:5. 1.2.2.
\Vatson. B.. &..:\*. 1!l~.l&&... Y:mg. Rubin, 2({), 21ll
JSCI " ' Yang. Shi, U
Wc..-c, Cc<:cl ia. iv. 3..::!. ?77 282. Yc Shi, ':0 1 "4-1 2d6
2lG.. ? np.?'l 1 Y.::n. Yuan. 23 1. 2<1•1. 2J.6.
Wci.s::i. P.. l l lS. y i. I ) 7· 11 li-16·24. 26 44
\\df~1ism. J..!U. 7fl-71 79-lll. R.l-84 87. <>5
wen, II , 16. 19-20, 26, 62. 98. Hl2-103.10S-106. t<l7. )()g_
.!1.1 I 17 -I 1ft I')f.- p 7 111· 112 liS !28.. 1·1>1 148
\\ isJmn. :t. II. 2."i. ~0 -12 122 .J..S.S.. 191)-!<) L 195- 192 'm
.l.lS,.ld.l.. l•~l. lim..l.ll. IX~ 2CL.L 22 .~ 228. 211
l!l!L 195-1 96. 198 20 I Yt Slck. .ll2..216.
704- 210 1 11 214 ZIS 22\ Ym. I k jing. S2.
22f,-227. 23.7, 24~. 253, 29 1. Ymgh10, 2..U.
~ Yogacnra, Jl!!..J!fr
Wi!tg(;ll.':ilcin. L.. 8.5. )(mg. iii. .1. 10 62. 70-71 1 '\
\VI)Ilg. D . ~1 -~tt . ~6 -X 1 . .2b.Ql. 1-19. 2:6:1 29 1
106.283. 285. 2R9-290 Yu. Xiug""u. ll
Wrii_!ht. ill.L...J..2l. 2ll )'tiC. iii. ' 6 I ·62 6 .!·6i 70·7'~
\Vu. Ru~fl.l , s.1 l.i..ll
Wu. Tinstw.n. 231 . 246 )ireji, 13S. lll.l.:l&
\Vu. l.hcn. l!d. )iifia. 2J..i
Wu Wdfiln '2 16 Jil}wshultlun, l l i

xiao. 8...lfl. 26. i l l
.'Ciu. ~Q.. ll. ll.. l6....1 9 H-26
51< 70. K."; X6.t{7 Wl QJ !J.!..
llL.w..i. l•l7. J.!il. ll:i9, 259,
m Zh:~n~.Vi . .S!l
:clug. I I. 16. 26 71. 9.'-1 24.
126-135. 140. 142- 143. 146.
I 5<\.1 57 J.S!l..llii. ~ l1L
Ul. J7S-176 18'-183
Xing, Bmg, SJ.
Zt...tF Zi, "''fl 2.1a.. 246. ? 'ii) .,,J
lli
Zh:ln, Qtn, .Y
Zhao, Ruoslmi. l.!l.L.!..@.
Zh:mg. Yu, 2!.!
Zh""S· Zoi. L JI .J. lJJl. 138-1,10.
1 ~' · 1 44 1 ~8 .15lU!i!l
i',h:lo, l'u. 4..k:l2.. .lR ll
Zh:1Q, Q1, .128.22&
 Imler 317

ZhetJl_t. Ruxic, 28..il ZhuXi. Ll.IJ -14. !8 .p Ji

Zh<."TTg. X1wn. ~o-~n ll.. !ill.. .u..s... .lX-53. 55·59. 70. 76, J15,
2&(, llL 133- 135, 111'>-l .!t) ~
: hi. !1 lL I9-20. 22. 25-26. 2lt U8_1(,9 lll.~ 195-1 97
'\? 37 23 1()2. 103. 107-IOK 199-204 222 22-1 227.
111 -112.117- llK 120- 12 1. 229-234. :nx-244. ~lllL
l2:L 12(,.)27 J4c).J"Q 750-25.1 2.55 2.57-261
154-1 55 15& 160-16 1 IM 7~4-2(:16 2(19-276 791- ~00
168-169. I 7>. 171-17S. 'tm.1nd
IRS-189 196 201 228-"9 Zllu. 17. 26 . 32. 68. 196.
244-2--I.S 2.51. 264. 270 2.67-268 1(X1. 30?
Zhi~· ~ . 1m Zu-nmcml:tn, M., l22.. 221
:IWIIX, !1.±!.. ~ IR 26 70, 1!1. Zirxxyn, 0, i l l
liS. 1 7~ . 001 050 097
Lhougrong. 21. 21.. 26., S6.,. 145.
196 201 204 222. 257
Z.h,).U, Ounyi. l.. DR· I:l9 .U.S..
2lll
ZIM.m n. l.8....!ll.
Zhouli, \ 0- 11 'i7
 THE C OIJNCIL FOR RESEA R C H
I N VALlJ£8 AND PHlLOSOI'HY
r u .nros•~
Tttd~ y 1 bo1r~ i~ urg.-:n t nNd h) ~u~nd hl t h~ n at•trl} and !li(l.mty(lf th ~ r.:-•·s.,n,
10 the qu:ahl y of huntnn llf~. to lh ~ ru rpo ~ ..: and 11.0~ 1 of the phy~ t cal
trataforn t:uion of (IUr C:tl''ironnH:nt , .)1111 tlu: rd :llillD o f ull t b i.; to thO! .:Jc \'d<lp·
l(l
11\Cll\1 o f ~q.: i.11 l .ltld pQiitiul lift-. Tlt i~ , ift tu rn, to!q niH:~ rhiiV , (I plti.: ~ l :u i fic ..Ui\ltl
of the b;u.: upo n " ·bidt l'r udum 111 cx.:r.: i,ll:d. tb11t is. of the \'llu u whic h prll\'idc
tn:tbdilr and 8JIId:an .,:-o} 1o iJno} ' ll d ~ci~i(ln~
Suc h ~ludics musl bl.' ;1blo: h • r.::u:b dccrl:>- tn lu itQe ·~ ~ulturc .nul th:.t nf
otb.:t' ,,,uts o f tb.: wurld 3.!1 mu tuall y t dnfutcmg and rn1il:hins, i n uul cr h'l un .:t~n:r
t~c rQOI$ ~r !lu, Jiul)i ty o f ,,.:ruma ~nd of thci•· u ,.:it-ti.:& Titer (l.)lt.$1 l>c ;~h i .. ••.•
1de nt ify the cuncl'ptual fcnm ~> i n h:nm flf wb i::-h mndun indul'lril)l ,.nd t.:o: h .
fH)IOG;io.:.J, I dV\'dO!)IU{'I)(S :Hl' ~lrUCIUNd :u"l fltm llh'!IC ullpll ~'l 11{'1011 1\U!IHl (l
~.:J r.und o:ut:uufinu. ;\bow.: :.II , lh<l}' mht b.: abk I<• brine tbo: s.: do:lll<.'lll'!' h•t:..:!hc::r
in l lu: .;:u·•ti\1.: \l lldf J Hnndw~ n~~nt i.tl fur lJclliu,; UUI ;uab aolf o.l<lCnuiuin;. <H.>r
mode, of iot<:f:a.:t iun, In th~: pt,..\1~01 O:t)lnJ•I~<t t.l c>b:.l d rcmii&U n.:o:,s tl1i' ill a
t'tlndtltan ior gr(l1-inr; t ogtlh..-r with twill .11nd ju~li<~<t, ht~n.:i<l d.:~oll ca t1 i•n .and mu•
t•a l C(lno:crn
TIJ ~ Coun.:il f ou S t ud i<:~ in \';~lu.:~ .and PhiiiMil'rb} ( RV I') un ito;::s ...:1\IJ IM .S
11h 0 11har.: lh.:•c (' Oot· ~· tn~ a nd Mf in tn .:!ltn l in th<" app liutl<ln tlto:rctu of ~:x i sl ill S
ca p:abi litic~ in tbt (Jo:ld ~o•i'rh• l our hy nd otho:r disuplin u. Its: w •>rt: istn id cnll()·
:ctC:Ill i n " ' ho c h .~lu d~· h n<t<tdo:d, thc mtdlo:..-:1 ual H.<.:utrCl'J: v.hi c h tan h.: bn•ut:ht h)
t>...Jr thereupon. and rllt• mo:1U H f~~t publio:.Jl to.IJI ,,n,J uuc:r~ban::c: of t hl!' \\ <1rk fro11•
tllc: \' .aliuu• rc;im.u uf th e wu1 ld. Jn b riu;.in; thu~ h •,;cthtt' ib gu:.l ,_. ,dcntill.:
di •~:cw~: r y liiHl p\lbli.:ut ion wbi,·b O:Cintri lo ~o~ t \a til tht pr;,,~n t p r<~ m 9t •Ou llf
hunun k •nd,
h i !lUll\. (Ill( tii'U<I~ prt:!l~tll hDlh Tho: 1\Nd ~111<1 lbt: ht'IIC!r\Ufllt) fM d.:;.:p~r 31ld
C\ cr mo1c: pHigt'<l~i ~· ,. l.lllii,.Utalldtu:,; uf lhc ''"'ut~n 1md uf ll'l~; fu und.atio.ms of
)Od:tl lift:. The J c,·d up mCIIl ur
liUI!b un clcuiJ ildin s j, the gua.l of t h.: R\'1'.

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A Ul of 1da1o:d U .' :l\:31'.:11. o:ffO I"H 1~ " UfN•tUI)' lt1 J)f\ll.'f'S~
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d:)Uoru ,foT Sonull. tfr. Potl.l ~cJ. mnt u :.ll y .;.un n.Jiu.atcd r.:,cll.rc h l e.H!U i n unh·cr•
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~d r·unCI.- h l>'n J ing J ilf.:-r.: nth.t.:d b~ ~ul t u u :~~ml cH't li Zal t(•ll. 'rtul's.- cn.h•(! m ur~
"d<qualc: Ulhh:r~l ~ u ll i l\~~ \ If lb~; tleJH.lll in .H•dct y 1111i.l h•UI.: to the (:Uitu r.al ltuilugc:
'.If .:ad.) f "r lhll S O:$\,IUf~<)\1 h) l'hfhltld h> lb.: ;;:h:alleOf:C:e' Of iU 01'1'(1 ~po:c:ifi.;
Ctllll l tm p<,r<~ t'~ tn•ngf<n'm:•t i\'ln
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