Data Rate Limits & Transmission

Impairment

Sanjaya Kumar Jena

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Data Rate limits

How fast data can be sent, in bits per second, over a channel?

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Data Rate limits

How fast data can be sent, in bits per second, over a channel?
Data rate depends on three factors:

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Data Rate limits

How fast data can be sent, in bits per second, over a channel?
Data rate depends on three factors:
The bandwidth available

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Data Rate limits

How fast data can be sent, in bits per second, over a channel?
Data rate depends on three factors:
The bandwidth available
The levels of signals used

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Data Rate limits

How fast data can be sent, in bits per second, over a channel?
Data rate depends on three factors:
The bandwidth available
The levels of signals used
The quality of the channel

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Data Rate limits

How fast data can be sent, in bits per second, over a channel?
Data rate depends on three factors:
The bandwidth available
The levels of signals used
The quality of the channel

Two theoretical formulas:

1 by Nyquist: for a noiseless channel
2 by Shannon: for a noisy channel

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Noiseless Channel: Nyquist Bit Rate

The Nyquist Bit Rate Formula

BitRate = 2× BW × log2 L

Where
BW - the bandwidth of the channel in Hz
L - the number of signal levels used to represent data
BitRate - bit rate in bits per second

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Example-1

Consider a noiseless channel with a bandwidth of 3000 Hz trans-

mitting a signal with two signal levels. Calculate the maximum
bit rate.
BitRate = 2× 3000 × log2 2 = 6000 bps

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Example-2

Consider a noiseless channel with a bandwidth of 3000 Hz trans-

mitting a signal with 4 signal levels ( two bits can be sent for each
level). Calculate the maximum bit rate.
BitRate = 2× 3000 × log2 4 = 12000 bps

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Example-3

We need to send 265 kbps over a noiseless channel with a band-

width of 20 kHz. How many signal levels do we need?

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Example-3

We need to send 265 kbps over a noiseless channel with a band-

width of 20 kHz. How many signal levels do we need?
Ans: 265000 = 2 × 20000 × log2 L
L = 98.7 levels
Since this result is not a power of 2, we need to either increase
the number of levels or reduce the bit rate. If we have 128 levels,
the bit rate is 280 kbps. If we have 64 levels, the bit rate is 240
kbps.

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Noisy Channel: Shannon Capacity

The Shannon’s Channel Capacity Formula

Capacity = BW × log2 (1 + SNR)

Where
BW - the bandwidth of the channel in Hz
SNR - the signal to noise ratio
capacity - capacity of the channel in bits per second

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Note: Shannon Channel Capacity

No indication of signal levels

A high data rate can not be achieved than the capacity of
the channel
formula defines characteristics of the channel not the
method of transmission

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Example-1

Consider an extremely noisy channel in which the value of the

signal-to-noise ratio is almost zero. In other words, the noise is
so strong that the signal is faint. Calculated the capacity of the
channel.

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Example-1

Consider an extremely noisy channel in which the value of the

signal-to-noise ratio is almost zero. In other words, the noise is
so strong that the signal is faint. Calculated the capacity of the
channel.
Ans: C = BW × log2 (1 + SNR) = BW × log2 (1 + 0) =
BW × log2 1 = BW × 0 = 0

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Example-2

A telephone line normally has a bandwidth of 3000 Hz (300 to

3300 Hz). The signal-to-noise ratio is usually 3162. For this
channel calculate the capacity

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Example-2

A telephone line normally has a bandwidth of 3000 Hz (300 to

3300 Hz). The signal-to-noise ratio is usually 3162. For this
channel calculate the capacity
Ans: C = BW ×log2 (1+SNR) = BW ×log2 (1+3162) =
3000 × log2 3163 = 3000 × 11.62 = 34860 bps

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Example-2

A telephone line normally has a bandwidth of 3000 Hz (300 to

3300 Hz). The signal-to-noise ratio is usually 3162. For this
channel calculate the capacity
Ans: C = BW ×log2 (1+SNR) = BW ×log2 (1+3162) =
3000 × log2 3163 = 3000 × 11.62 = 34860 bps
This means that the highest bit rate for a telephone line is 34.860
kbps. If we want to send data faster than this, we can either
increase the bandwidth of the line or improve the signal-to-noise
ratio.

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Example-3:: Using decibel

The signal-to-noise ratio is often given in decibels. Assume that

SNRdB = 36 and the channel bandwidth is 2 MHz. Calculate the
theoretical channel capacity.

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Example-3:: Using decibel

The signal-to-noise ratio is often given in decibels. Assume that

SNRdB = 36 and the channel bandwidth is 2 MHz. Calculate the
theoretical channel capacity.
Ans: SNRdB = 10 log10 SNR
SNRdB
=⇒ SNR = 10 10
=⇒ SNR = 103.6 = 3981
Capacity: C = BW × log2 (1 + SNR) =
BW × log2 (1 + 3981) = 3000 × log2 3982 = 24
Mps

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Example-3:: Using decibel

The signal-to-noise ratio is often given in decibels. Assume that

SNRdB = 36 and the channel bandwidth is 2 MHz. Calculate the
theoretical channel capacity.
Ans: SNRdB = 10 log10 SNR
SNRdB
=⇒ SNR = 10 10
=⇒ SNR = 103.6 = 3981
Capacity: C = BW × log2 (1 + SNR) =
BW × log2 (1 + 3981) = 3000 × log2 3982 = 24
Mps

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Example-4:: Using both the limits

We have a channel with a 1-MHz bandwidth. The SNR for this

channel is 63. What are the appropriate bit rate and signal level?

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Example-4:: Using both the limits

We have a channel with a 1-MHz bandwidth. The SNR for this

channel is 63. What are the appropriate bit rate and signal level?
Shannon formula for upper limit: C = BW × log2 (1 + SNR) =
BW × log2 (1 + 63) = 106 × log2 64 = 6 Mps
The Shannon formula gives us 6 Mbps, the upper
limit. For better performance we choose
something lower. Let 4 Mbps,
Nyquist formula: 4 × 106 = 2 × BW × log2 L
=⇒ L = 4

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Example-4:: Using both the limits

We have a channel with a 1-MHz bandwidth. The SNR for this

channel is 63. What are the appropriate bit rate and signal level?
Shannon formula for upper limit: C = BW × log2 (1 + SNR) =
BW × log2 (1 + 63) = 106 × log2 64 = 6 Mps
The Shannon formula gives us 6 Mbps, the upper
limit. For better performance we choose
something lower. Let 4 Mbps,
Nyquist formula: 4 × 106 = 2 × BW × log2 L
=⇒ L = 4

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TRANSMISSION IMPAIRMENT

Signals travel through transmission media, which are not perfect.

The imperfection causes signal impairment. This means that the
signal at the beginning of the medium is not the same as the
signal at the end of the medium. What is sent is not what is
received. Three causes of impairment are;
Attenuation
Distortion
Noise

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Causes of Impairment

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Attenuation
Attenuation means a loss of energy.
When a signal, simple or composite, travels through a medium,
it loses some of its energy in overcoming the resistance of the
medium.
To overcome the loss, amplifiers are used to amplify the signal.

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Decibel

The decibel(dB) measures the relative strengths of two signals

or one signal at two different points.
P2
dB = 10 log10
P1
Variables P1 and P2 are the powers of a signal at points 1 and 2
respectively.

Note: decibel is negative if the signal is attenuated and positive if

signal is amplified.

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Example:

1 Suppose a signal travels through a transmission medium

and its power is reduced to one-half. This means that P2 is
( 12 )P1 . Calculated the attenuation (loss of power).
0.5P1
Ans: 10 log10 PP21 = 10 log10 P1
= 10 log10 0.5 =
10(−0.3) = −3dB
A loss of 3 dB (3 dB) is equivalent to losing one-half the power.
2 A signal travels through an amplifier, and its power is
increased 10 times. This means that P2 = 10P1 .
Calculated the amplification (gain of power).
P2 10P1
Ans: 10 log10 P1
= 10 log10 P1
= 10 log10 10 =
10dB
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Decibel in several points

decibel numbers can be added (or subtracted) when we are mea-

suring several points (cascading) instead of just two.

A signal travels from point 1 to point 4. In this case, the decibel

value can be calculated as dB = −3 + 7 − 3 = +1

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decibel: Used to Measure Signal Power in
Milliwatts

When signal power is measured in milliwatts, it is referred to as

dBm and is calculated as dBm = 10 log10 Pm

Calculate the power (Pm ) of a signal if its dBm = −30.

Ans: dBm = 10 log10 Pm = −30
log10 Pm = −3
Pm = 10−3 mW

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Example: Loss in cable

The loss in a cable is usually defined in decibels per kilometer

(dB/km). If the signal at the beginning of a cable with 0.3 dB/km
has a power of 2 mW, what is the power of the signal at 5 km?
The loss in the cable in decibels is 5 × (0.3) = 1.5 dB. We can
calculate the power as
dBm = 10 log10 PP12 = −1.5
P2
P1
= 10−0.15 = 0.71
P2 = 0.71P1 = 0.7 × 2 = 1.4 mW

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Distortion
The signal changes its form or shape.

Distortion can occur in a composite signal made of different frequencies.

Each signal has its own propagation speed through a medium and therefore,
its own delay in arriving at the final destination. Difference in delay may
create a difference in phase if the delay is not exactly the same as the period
duration.
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Noise

Several types of noise: thermal noise, induced noise, crosstalk,

impuse noise may corrupt the signal.

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Signal-to-Noise Ratio(SNR)

average signal power

SNR = average noise power

SNR is actually the ratio of what is wanted (signal) to what is not

wanted (noise)

SNR is often described in decibel units, SNRdB is defined as

SNRdB = 10 log10 SNR

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Example:

The power of a signal is 10 mW and the power of the noise

is 1 µW; what are the values of SNR and SNRdB ?
µW
Ans: SNR = 10,000
1 mW
= 10, 000
SNRdB = 10 log10 10, 000 = 10 log10 104 =
40
The values of SNR and SNRdB for a noiseless
channel.(Noise= 0)
Ans: SNR = signal power
noise power
SNR = average signal
0
power
=∞
SNRdB = 10 log10 ∞ = ∞
We can never achieve this ratio in real life; It is an ideal
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