ARC 1435 Learning Module 1 - 1st Sem 2021-22

COURSE LEARNING MODULE
ARC1435: TROPICAL DESIGN

Far Eastern University 1st Semester SY 2021 - 2022
Institute of Architecture and Fine Arts
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION TO TROPICAL DESIGN ............................................................................................................. 5
MODULE 1 UNDERSTANDING CLIMATE ........................................................................................................... 7
Climate ........................................................................................................................................................................ 7
Radiation .................................................................................................................................................................. 8
Tilt of the Earth’s Axis .............................................................................................................................................. 9
Radiation at the Earth’s Surface ............................................................................................................................ 10
The Earth’s Thermal Balance................................................................................................................................. 11
Winds and Annual Wind Shift................................................................................................................................. 12
Influence of Topography ........................................................................................................................................ 13
Elements of Climates ............................................................................................................................................... 13

Temperature........................................................................................................................................................... 13
Humidity ................................................................................................................................................................. 14
Precipitation ........................................................................................................................................................... 15
Solar Radiation....................................................................................................................................................... 16
Wind ....................................................................................................................................................................... 17
Vegetation .............................................................................................................................................................. 18
Scales of Climate and their importance ................................................................................................................. 18

Deviations within the Zone ..................................................................................................................................... 19
Factors Affecting Local Climate Variations ............................................................................................................ 20
Major Tropical Climatic Zones ................................................................................................................................ 23
Climate in the Philippines ....................................................................................................................................... 26

Temperature........................................................................................................................................................... 26
Humidity ................................................................................................................................................................. 26
Rainfall ................................................................................................................................................................... 26
Prevailing Winds in the Philippines ........................................................................................................................ 27
The Seasons .......................................................................................................................................................... 27
Typhoons ............................................................................................................................................................... 28
Architectural Adaptations to Climate ..................................................................................................................... 29

Bahay Kubo............................................................................................................................................................ 30
Bahay na Bato........................................................................................................................................................ 32
Basic design principles for tropical design ............................................................................................................. 35
Useful Links............................................................................................................................................................ 36
References ............................................................................................................................................................. 36
MODULE 2 DESIGNING WITH NATURE ........................................................................................................... 37
Use of Energy in Buildings ..................................................................................................................................... 37

Energy Benchmarking ............................................................................................................................................ 38
Thermal Comfort ...................................................................................................................................................... 40

Thermal Comfort Factors ....................................................................................................................................... 40
Body’s Heat Production.......................................................................................................................................... 41
Body’s Heat Loss ................................................................................................................................................... 42
Psychrometric Chart............................................................................................................................................... 43
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Energy-efficient Building Systems ......................................................................................................................... 44
Active systems ....................................................................................................................................................... 46
Passive Systems .................................................................................................................................................... 47
Useful Links............................................................................................................................................................ 49
References ............................................................................................................................................................. 49
MODULE 3 GREENING THE CITIES .................................................................................................................. 50
Tropical Design and Sustainable Design............................................................................................................... 50

Urban Heat Island Effect ........................................................................................................................................ 50
Factors Contributing to the Heat Island Effect ....................................................................................................... 51
Strategies to decrease Urban Heat Island (UHI).................................................................................................... 52
Vegetation .............................................................................................................................................................. 52
Water bodies .......................................................................................................................................................... 54
Topography ............................................................................................................................................................ 56
Ground character ................................................................................................................................................... 57
Laws Related to the Use of Resources and Sustainable Design ........................................................................ 57

PD 1152: Philippine Environment Code ................................................................................................................. 58
PD 1067: Water Code of the Philippines................................................................................................................ 58
RA 6969: Toxic Substances, Hazardous and Nuclear Waste Control Act of 1990 ................................................ 58
RA 8749: Philippine Clean Air Act of 1999............................................................................................................. 58
RA 9003: Ecological Solid Waste Management Act of 2000 ................................................................................. 58
RA 9275: Philippine Clean Water Act of 2004 ....................................................................................................... 59
PD 1096 Referral Code: Philippines Green Building Code of 2015 ....................................................................... 59
PD 1586: Establishing an Environmental Impact Statement system, including other environmental management
related measures and for other purposes .............................................................................................................. 59
Sustainable Tropical Building Design Principles ................................................................................................. 59

Energy and emissions ............................................................................................................................................ 59
Water and waste water .......................................................................................................................................... 61
Indoor environment quality ..................................................................................................................................... 64
Waste and construction materials .......................................................................................................................... 64
Local environment .................................................................................................................................................. 66
Sustainability Benchmarks ..................................................................................................................................... 67

Stakeholders using sustainability benchmarks: ..................................................................................................... 67
Green building case studies ................................................................................................................................... 68

Zuellig Building ....................................................................................................................................................... 68
Sun Life Centre ...................................................................................................................................................... 70
Readings in Sustainable Tropical Architecture .................................................................................................... 70

01 Green Design in the Hot Humid Tropical Zone by Ken Yeang.......................................................................... 71
02 Socio-environmental dimensions in Tropical semi-open spaces of high-rise housing in Singapore ................. 71
03 Policy and evaluation system for green building in subtropical Taiwan ............................................................ 71
04 In search of a habitable urban space-built ratio: A case study of building and planning regulation in Dhaka City
............................................................................................................................................................................... 71
05 Designing high density cities - parametric studies of urban morphologies and their implied environmental
performance ........................................................................................................................................................... 72
06 Urban Heat Island Effect in Singapore .............................................................................................................. 72
07 Tropical Urban Street Canyons ......................................................................................................................... 73
08 Tropical and traditional: Inventing a new housing model for the old 36 Streets Quarter in Hanoi, Vietnam ..... 73
09 ECOPET 21: An innovative sustainable building system for ecological communities in tropical regions ......... 74
Useful Links............................................................................................................................................................ 75
References ............................................................................................................................................................. 75
MODULE 4 BUILDING STRUCTURES IN A HOT HUMID CLIMATE ................................................................... 76
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Bioclimatic Design ................................................................................................................................................... 76
Climatic Issues in a Tropical Climate ..................................................................................................................... 77
Tropical Design Strategies ...................................................................................................................................... 78

Passive cooling through orientation ....................................................................................................................... 78
Passive cooling through site layout ........................................................................................................................ 79
Passive cooling through façade design.................................................................................................................. 80
Passive cooling through solar control devices ....................................................................................................... 83
Sun-shading devices .............................................................................................................................................. 86
Sun-path diagram................................................................................................................................................... 87
Passive daylight concepts ...................................................................................................................................... 91
Passive cooling by vertical landscaping ................................................................................................................. 95
Landscaping for cooling buildings .......................................................................................................................... 96
Passive cooling by wind and natural ventilation ..................................................................................................... 97
Basic ventilation concepts ...................................................................................................................................... 99
Wind concepts...................................................................................................................................................... 102
Useful links ........................................................................................................................................................... 106
References ........................................................................................................................................................... 106
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INTRODUCTION TO TROPICAL DESIGN
by Mar Lorence G. Ticao
The Tropical Design course introduces techniques for the design and planning of buildings within the technological and social
constraints prevailing in the hot-humid tropics. It emphasizes on the significance of climate considerations in the design process.
The course introduces to the students the bioclimatic principles, basic tropical design strategies, microclimate considerations, and
technologies-based strategies. And lastly, it integrates a sustainable approach highlighting on energy-efficient systems that are
applicable to the built and urban environments in the hot-humid tropics.
In this course, we will explore and answer the following:
• What does one have to know in designing for the tropics? How does climate serve as a significant factor in designing
buildings?
• Is making structures comfortable our only goal in designing buildings? How do we design our buildings to optimize natural
environment for maximum energy savings?
• Can local and traditional methods and resources for planning and building be adapted to an urban context? Conversely,
do existing technologies, skills and knowledge apply with the diverse local cultural traditions and lifestyles of the hot
humid tropical region?
• What tropical sustainable design strategies are suited for the high-density city living that take local environment and
social-cultural needs into consideration? What lessons can we glean from other tropical urban areas in other regions?
• How do we apply all these knowledge of tropical sustainable architecture to our design?
This course will be divided into four (4) modules:
Module 1 covers the basics of Climate. This includes Understanding Climate, where we define the term, look into the factors
that are shaping it, discuss its various elements, classify tropical climates, and establish the significance of site climate in
planning and design. We will also analyze the local architectural adaptations, looking back into their historic context, by learning
from the basic planning and design principles used by the bahay kubo and bahay na bato and how these structures were able
to adapt to the hot and humid climate conditions.
Module 2 takes us back on the fundamental question on why we design buildings. Designing with Nature will tackle energy
use in buildings and human thermal comfort, serving as starting point as well as reminder on why we have to build resources
efficient buildings. This module serves as an overview of the passive and active systems used for energy-efficient buildings.
Module 3 sets the backdrop of why we are studying this course by giving us a broader perspective on Greening the Cities to
include the impact of buildings to the environment and the consumption of resources due to these developments, but at the
same time highlighting the significance of building climate responsive structures as a response to these urban issues we
currently face due to climate change. It aims to give us a deeper understanding of how our individual design decisions can
cause a ripple effect to a whole city, urban region, and even globally.
Module 4 introduces the basic design strategies for building in a tropical climate in Building Structures in a Hot Humid
Climate. In this module, we will discuss bioclimatic design and relate it with the previous module concerning human comfort,
in the context of hot humid environments, and how we should respond as designers.
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For each module you will encounter these three emoticons, which will serve as reminders:
the thinking emoji means it is time to reflect, formulate, or answer questions; or read and
research some more
the lightbulb emoji indicates a summary of a topic, additional information, or things you need to
take note of
the working emoji is a reminder to answer the course assessments
At the end of each section all references, useful links, and reading sources are listed for your convenience.
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MODULE 1 UNDERSTANDING CLIMATE
Compiled and edited by Mar Lorence G. Ticao
This module covers the basics of Climate. This includes Understanding Climate, where we define the term, look into the factors
that are shaping it, discuss its various elements, classify tropical climates, and establish the significance of site climate in planning
and design. We will also analyze the local architectural adaptations, looking back into their historic context, by learning from the
basic planning and design principles used by the bahay kubo and bahay na bato and how these structures were able to adapt to
the hot and humid climate conditions.
At the end of the module, it is our aim that you will gain more understanding of the climate and how it affects our job as designers
in creating structures that respond to the various environments created by the different climate types. More importantly, our focus
is the tropical climate and hopefully, you will gain more insight on the climate conditions affecting our structures in the tropical
region.
Climate
Climate (from Greek: klima) is defined by the Oxford dictionary as 'region with certain conditions of temperature, dryness, wind,
light, etc.'. A somewhat more scientific definition is: 'an integration in time of the physical states of the atmospheric environment,
characteristic of a certain geographical location.' As weather is the momentary state of the atmospheric environment at a certain
location, climate could be defined as 'the integration in time of weather conditions.'
Climate Facts
• The sun's rays hit the equator at a direct angle between 23 ° N and 23 ° S latitude. Radiation that
reaches the atmosphere in this area is at its most intense.
• In all other cases, the rays arrive at an angle to the surface and are less intense. The closer a place
is to the poles, the smaller the angle and therefore the less intense the radiation.
• Our climate system is based on the location of these hot and cold air-mass regions and the
atmospheric circulation created by trade winds and westerlies.
• Trade winds north of the equator blow from the northeast. South of the equator, they blow from
the southeast. The trade winds of the two hemispheres meet near the equator, causing the air to
rise. As the rising air cools, clouds and rain develop. The resulting bands of cloudy and rainy
weather near the equator create tropical conditions.
• Westerlies blow from the southwest on the Northern Hemisphere and from the northwest in the
Southern Hemisphere. Westerlies steer storms from west to east across middle latitudes.
• Both westerlies and trade winds blow away from the 30 ° latitude belt. Over large areas centered
at 30 ° latitude, surface winds are light. Air slowly descends to replace the air that blows away.
Any moisture the air contains evaporates in the intense heat. The tropical deserts, such as the
Sahara of Africa and the Sonoran of Mexico, exist under these regions.
Source: https://www.thesustainabilitycouncil.org/resources/the-koppen-climate-classification-system/
Differentiate climate from weather.
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Tropical climates are those where heat is the dominant problem, where, for the greater part of the year buildings serve to keep
the occupants cool, rather than warm, where the annual mean temperature is not less than 20°C.
Before looking into the details of tropical climates, let us first find out the various factors that shape climate, on a global scale.
These factors include the solar radiation, the tilt of the earth’s axis, radiation at the earth’s surface, the earth’s thermal
balance, annual wind shifts, and the topography.
Radiation
The earth receives almost all its energy from the sun in the form of radiation, thus the sun is the dominating influence on
climates.
The spectrum of solar radiation extends from 290 to 2300 nm (nanometer = 10–9 m). According to human means of perception
we can distinguish:
a) ultra-violet radiation, 290 to 380 nm, producing photo-chemical effects, bleaching, sunburn, etc.;
b) visible light, 380 (violet) to 700 nm (red);
c) short infrared radiation, 700 to 2300 nm, radiant heat with some photochemical effects.
Figure 1 : Different wavelengths of radiation.

Image source: https://www.quora.com/What-percentage-of-the-light-spectrum-are-humans-able-to-see-with-their-eyes
The spectral energy distribution varies with altitude, due to the filtering effect of the atmosphere. Some of the shorter
wavelengths are absorbed by the atmosphere and reradiated at much longer wavelengths, e.g. long infrared, up to 10000 nm.
By the time the solar radiation reaches the ground, the maximum incident radiation of 1m2 of horizontal surface at an equatorial
location is close to 1,000 watts (1.0 kW). However, when the solar radiation is averaged over the entire day-night cycles and
over the whole summer-winter year, even the best locations here on earth only receive an average of only 250–300 W/m2.
That is less than 30% of what arrives at the top of the atmosphere.
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Some of this solar radiation that eventually does get through is further scattered and reflected as it travels down to the earth’s
surface. The scattered radiation that does eventually reach the earth’s surface is known as diffused radiation. Diffused
radiation is generally a weaker form of solar radiation, but nevertheless it can still be used to generate electricity and heat. The
portion of solar radiation that reaches the earth’s surface directly, having travelled a straight path from the sun without being
reflected or scattered is referred to as direct radiation and as such is a much stronger form of solar radiation capable of
producing more solar power.
What are the advantages of solar energy?
Tilt of the Earth’s Axis
The earth rotates around its own axis, each rotation making one 24-hour day. The axis of this rotation (the line joining the North
and South Poles) is tilted to the plane of the elliptical orbit, at an angle of 66.5° (i.e. a tilt of 23.5° from the normal) and the
direction of this axis is constant.
Maximum intensity is received on a plane normal to the direction of radiation. If the axis of earth were rectangular to the plane
of the orbit, it would always be the equatorial regions which are normal to the direction of solar radiation. Due to the tilted
position, however, the area receiving the maximum intensity moves north and south, between the tropic of Cancer (latitude
23.5°N.) and the tropic of Capricorn (latitude 23.5°S.). This is the main cause of seasonal changes.
Figure 2 : Tropic of cancer is located above the equator in the northern hemisphere while the tropic of Capricorn is
found on the southern hemisphere or below the equator
Image source: https://qph.fs.quoracdn.net/main-qimg-73896fc760b3ab3fc79eced2a083f29e.webp
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Things to Remember:
Given that the Earth is tilted and rotates around its own axis and revolves around the sun, we experience
the following phenomena in the Northern Hemisphere:
Summer solstice: Longest day of the year, falls around June 21
Winter solstice: Shortest day of the year, falls around December 22
Equinox: When day and night are of equal length, occurring twice around March 22 and September 22
Consequently, the southern hemisphere experiences the opposite.

You can also think about the solstices in terms of where on Earth the sun appears. When it is a summer
solstice in the Northern Hemisphere, the sun appears directly over the Tropic of Cancer, the latitude
line at 23.5 degrees North. During the Northern Hemisphere’s winter solstice, the sun appears directly
over the Tropic of Capricorn, the Tropic Cancer’s southern mirror image.
Source: https://www.nationalgeographic.com/science/space/what-is-summer-winter-solstice-answer-
might-surprise-
you/#:~:text=During%20the%20Northern%20Hemisphere's%20summer,Hemisphere%20gets%20its%2
0summer%20solstice.
Figure 3 : Solstice and equinox.

Image from https://www.timeanddate.com/calendar/june-solstice.html
Radiation at the Earth’s Surface
This earth-sun’s relationship affects the amount of radiation received at a particular point on the earth’s surface in three ways.
These are the incidence angle of the sun, atmospheric depletion, and duration of sunshine.
a) angle of incidence, angle of incoming solar radiation influences seasonal temperatures of locations at different
latitudes.
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b) atmospheric depletion, the absorption of radiation by ozone, vapors and dust particles in the atmosphere. The lower
the solar altitude angle, the longer the path of radiation through the atmosphere, thus a smaller part reaches the
earth’s surface. The atmospheric depletion is also affected by the momentary state of the atmosphere: purity, vapor,
dust, smoke, etc.
c) duration of sunshine, the length of daylight period
When the sun’s rays strike earth’s surface near the equator, the incoming solar radiation is more direct (nearly perpendicular
or closer to a 90˚ angle). Therefore, the solar radiation is concentrated over a smaller surface area, causing warmer
temperatures. At higher latitudes, the angle of solar radiation is smaller, causing energy to be spread over a larger area of the
surface and cooler temperatures. Because the angle of radiation varies depending on the latitude, surface temperatures on
average are warmer at lower latitudes and cooler at higher latitudes (even though higher latitudes have more hours of daylight
during the summer months).
Figure 4 : Solar radiation as it reaches the Earth’s surface varies on the latitude
Image source: http://www.ces.fau.edu/nasa/images/module_3/gLOBEsUNSrAYS.jpg
The Earth’s Thermal Balance
The total amount of heat absorbed by the earth each year is balanced by a corresponding heat loss. Without this cooling, the
thermal balance of the earth could not be maintained, the temperature of the earth and its atmosphere would increase and
would soon cease to be favorable to most life forms.
a) by long-wave radiation to cold outer space (some 84% of this re-radiation is absorbed in the atmosphere, only 16%
escapes to space)
b) by evaporation: the earth's surface is cooled, as liquid water changes into vapor and mixes with air
c) by convection: air heated by contact with the warm earth surface becomes lighter and rises to the upper atmosphere,
where it dissipates its heat to space
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Figure 5 : Detailed diagram showing incoming and outgoing energy in a balanced example of Earth's
energy budget, with incoming and outgoing values of 341 W/m2. General flows of energy on the surface
and in the atmosphere are shown as well.
Image source: https://energyeducation.ca/encyclopedia/Earth
If all that contribute to the temperature of the earth was the incoming, absorbed sunlight then the temperature of the earth
would rise nearly 1 million degrees in a billion years. Thus, it is critical that planets have a means to lose some energy to outer
space. Since earth is surrounded by the vacuum of outer space, it cannot lose energy through conduction or convection.
Instead, the only way the earth loses energy to space is by electromagnetic radiation. At typical planetary temperatures, this
energy being shed to space is in the infrared part of the electromagnetic spectrum. In fact, all objects with a temperature emit
some form of radiation, and the infrared emission to space results from contributions by the planetary surface and atmosphere.
Winds and Annual Wind Shift
Winds are basically convection currents in the atmosphere, tending to even out the differential heating of various zones. The
pattern of movements is modified by the earth's rotation.
At the maximum heating zone (which is somewhere between the tropics of Cancer and Capricorn) air is heated by the hot
surface, it expands, its pressure is decreased, it becomes lighter, it rises vertically and flows off at a high level towards colder
regions. Part of this air, having cooled down at the high level, descends to the surface in the sub-tropic regions, from where
the cooler, heavier air is drawn in towards the equator from both north and south.
The area where the air rises, where these northerly and southerly winds meet, where the tropical front is formed, is referred to
as the inter-tropical convergence zone (ITCZ). This area experiences either completely calm conditions or only very light
breezes of irregular directions and is referred to by sailors as doldrums.
During the course of each year the global wind pattern shifts from north to south and back again, remaining broadly symmetrical
about the inter-tropical convergence zone. The location of the ITCZ follows the maximum solar heating, i.e. the zenith path of
the sun, with a delay of about a month.
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As a consequence of this annual shift most regions of the earth experience seasonal changes not only in temperature but also
in wind directions and in rainfall (as a result of air movements which carry water vapor).
Let’s recall:
Winds: Convection currents in the atmosphere which balance the differential heating of various
zones
Inter-tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ): An area with completely calm conditions or only very
light breezes of irregular directions; also referred by sailors as doldrums
Influence of Topography
On a continental scale, wind and weather are the result of an interaction between broad global flow patterns and regional
pressure and temperature patterns created by the sun's differential heating effect on land, forest and water.
The force, direction and moisture content of air flows are strongly influenced by topography. Air can be diverted or funneled by
mountain ranges. Air flow deflected upwards, as it cools, releases its moisture content. A descending air mass will very rarely
give any precipitation, therefore rainfall characteristics vary sharply between locations on windward and leeward slopes of
mountain ranges. The humidity of air will vary with the rate of evaporation of moisture from the surface below, i.e. it depends
on the availability of water to be evaporated.
Air movements can be generated on quite a small scale, e.g. between a lake and its shores, between a quarry and a nearby
forest, between a town and the surrounding countryside or even between the sunny and shaded sides of a large building.
Note that…
Topography influences the:

a. force of air
b. direction of air flow
c. moisture content of air
What are the local terms for the two major wind systems in the Philippines?
Now that we know the factors that shape the climates, let us look at the characteristics that define them and how these can be
measured to serve as data for us designers to work with.
Elements of Climates
Temperature
The temperature of the air is measured in degrees Celsius (°C), most often with a mercury thermometer. The dry-bulb or true
air temperature is a value taken in the shade, the thermometer being mounted inside a louvered wooden box, known as the
Stevenson screen, at a height of 1.20 to 1.80 m above the ground. Readings can be taken at specified times of the day, or if a
maximum–minimum thermometer is used, one reading daily can give the momentary temperature as well as the maximum
and minimum temperatures reached in the past 24 hours. Alternatively a thermograph can be used, which is based on a
bimetallic thermometer and gives a continuous graphic recording of temperature variations.
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Figure 6: Stevenson screen

Image source: https://pt.slideshare.net/chua.geog/sec-1-stevenson-screen/2
Generally, monthly mean temperatures can be given for each of the 12 months. The average is taken between each day's
maximum and minimum and then the average of the 30 days' average is found (and possibly as many years' average for the
same month). To give an indication of diurnal variations, this can be supplemented by monthly mean maxima and minima.
(Monthly mean maximum is the average of 30 days' maximum temperatures.) These will establish the monthly mean range of
temperatures.
It may be useful to indicate the highest and lowest temperatures ever recorded for each month, i.e. the monthly extreme
maxima and minima, to establish the monthly extreme range of temperatures.
Note that…
ºC (degrees Celsius): Metric unit for air temperature

Thermometer: Instrument to measure air temperature
Dry-bulb / “true air temperature”: Reading taken in the shade with a thermometer inside a
Stevenson screen – a louvered box mounted at a height range of 1.20m to 1.80m
Humidity
The humidity of air can be described as absolute humidity (AH), i.e. the amount of moisture actually present in unit mass or
unit volume of air, in terms of gram per kilogram (g/kg) or gram per cubic meter (g/m3).
The relative humidity (RH) is, however, a much more useful form of expression, as it gives a direct indication of evaporation
potential. The amount of moisture the air can hold (the saturation point humidity: SH) depends on its temperature. Relative
humidity is the ratio of the actual amount of moisture present, to the amount of moisture the air could hold at the given
temperature – expressed as a percentage:
RH = (AH / SH) x 100%
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Humidity is usually measured with the wet-and-dry-bulb hygrometer. This consists of two ordinary mercury thermometers
mounted side by side. The first one measures the air (dry-bulb) temperature (DBT). The bulb of the second one is covered with
a gauze or wick and is kept wet. Moisture evaporating gives a cooling effect, thus the reading of the wet-bulb temperature
(WBT) will be less than the DBT. As in dry air the evaporation is faster, the cooling is more pronounced and the difference
between the two readings (the wet-bulb depression) is greater. In case of 100% RH the two readings will be identical, as
there is no evaporation. The rate of evaporation, thus the wet-bulb depression, is a function of the relative humidity.
Figure 7 : Wet-and-dry-bulb hygrometer

Image source: http://www.eatsleepbreathescience.org/uploads/3/2/2/6/32267915/packet_10_weather.pdf
Let’s recall what these terms mean….
Wet-and-Dry Bulb Hygrometer:

An instrument used to measure humidity
Absolute Humidity (AH):
Amount of moisture actually present in unit mass or unit volume or air, in terms of gram per kilogram (g/kg) or
gram per cubic meter (g/m3)
Saturation-Point Humidity (SH):
The amount of moisture the air can hold
Relative Humidity (RH):
Ratio of the actual amount of moisture present, to the amount of moisture that the air could hold at the given
temperature – expressed as a percentage:
RH = (AH / SH) x 100%
Precipitation
Precipitation is the collective term used for rain, snow, hail, dew and frost, that is, for all forms of water deposited
('precipitated') from the atmosphere. It is measured by rain-gauges, i.e. calibrated receptacles, and expressed in millimeter per
time unit (mm/month, mm/day).
Figure 8 : Rain gauge.

Image source http://www.weatherwizkids.com/?page_id=82
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Values indicating the total precipitation for each month of the year (and as many years' average) would show the pattern of dry
and wet seasons. Ever recorded maxima and minima would give an indication of the reliability of rains or deviations from the
average.
The maximum rainfall for any 24-hour period is a useful guide for the prediction of flooding, and for the design of surface
drainage (roofs, paved areas, gutters and downpipes) the maximum hourly rainfall intensity (mm/h) should be known.
Some terms to recall…
Precipitation:
All forms of water deposited (“precipitated”) from the atmosphere, such as rain, snow, hail, dew,
and frost
Rain gauge:
An instrument used to measure precipitation; reading is expressed in millimeters per a time unit
(e.g. mm/day or mm/month)
Solar Radiation
A simple sunshine recorder will register the duration of sunshine, which can be expressed in number of hours per day, as an
average for each month.
A variety of more sophisticated instruments (solarimeter, heliometer, actinometer and pyranometer) are used for the
quantitative recording of solar radiation, but reliable and comparable data is few and far between. Much of the available
literature gives recorded intensities in Btu/ft2h, in kcal/m2h or in langleys (cal/cm2) per hour, but the now accepted international
standard (SI) unit is the watt per meter square (W/m2). This is the instantaneous intensity, i.e. the incidence of energy in
joules per square meter of the surface per second (W/m2 = J/m2s, as W = J/s). Total radiation received over a longer period,
one day, for instance, will be expressed in J/m2day or the multiple MJ/m2day will be used (megajoule = 1 million joules).
Figure 9 : A sunshine recorder

Image source https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Campbell%E2%80%93Stokes_recorder
Note…
Sunshine recorder:
A device that records the amount of sunshine at a given location; reading is expressed in number of hours per
day
Watt per square meter (W/m2):
Metric unit for the instantaneous intensity of solar radiation, or the incidence of solar energy received by a
surface
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Wind
Wind velocity is measured by a cup-type or propeller anemometer, or by a Pitot tube (similar to the air-speed meters of
airplanes), and its direction is measured by a wind vane. An anemograph can produce continuous recordings of wind velocity
and directional changes.
Free wind velocities are normally recorded in open flat country at a height of 10 m. Measurements in urban areas are often
taken at a height of between 10 and 20 m to avoid obstructions. Velocities near the ground are a good deal lower than the free
wind speed. Directions can be grouped into eight or sixteen categories: the four cardinal (N., E., S. and W.) and four semi-
cardinal compass points (NE., SE., SW. and NW.) and possibly the eight tertiary compass points (NNE., ENE., ESE., SSE.,
SSW., WSW., WNW. and NNW). Velocities are measured in meters per second (m/s), but much data can still be found in
obsolete units, such as ft/min, mph or knot (nautical mile per hour).
Figure 10 : Anemometer.
Image source https://www.publicdomainpictures.net/en/view-
image.php?image=290618&picture=anemometer
Figure 11 : Wind Vane.

Image source https://physics.stackexchange.com/questions/524846/why-
does-a-weather-vane-arrow-point-in-the-direction-of-the-wind
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Let’s recall what these instruments are for…
Anemometer:
Instrument used to measure wind velocity in meters per second (m/s)
Wind Vane:
Instrument used to indicate wind direction
Anemograph:
Instrument used to measure wind velocity and directional changes
Vegetation
Vegetation covers a considerable portion of the earth and has an effect on weather and climate. Although generally regarded
as a function of climate, vegetation can in its turn influence the local or site climate – ground temperature, amount of water
vapor and carbon dioxide. It is an important element in the design of outdoor spaces, providing sun-shading, and
protection from glare.
Note:
With vegetation covering about 20% of our planet, it is no surprise that plants affect climate. However, it is surprising
how much plants affect weather. Plants process and release water vapor (necessary for cloud formation) and absorb and
emit energy used to drive weather. Plants also produce their own micro-weather by controlling the humidity and
temperature immediately surrounding their leaves through transpiration. Most plants and forest soils have a very low
albedo, (about .03 to .20) and absorb a large amount of energy. However, plants do not contribute to overall warming
because the excess warmth is offset by evaporative cooling from transpiration.
Since climate is basically an average of the weather over a long period of time, vegetation is important to climate. In fact, the
process of photosynthesis is responsible for building up atmospheric oxygen to the level we enjoy today (21%
concentration). Plants also help keep our climate stable over time by offsetting temperature and moisture fluctuations
through transpiration. Plants also use carbon dioxide during photosynthesis, which slightly offsets the amount of greenhouse
gas being released in the atmosphere through the burning of fossil fuels. Vegetation is necessary for normal weather and
climate.
Scales of Climate and their importance
Understanding that the geographic location has a significant effect on climate. The location, relative to the equator, determines
climatic variations.
Figure 12 : Map showing the different climates in the different regions in the world
Image source: https://people.uwec.edu/ivogeler/w111/articles/climateworldregions.gif
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In the figure above, the map shows the various climate zones around the world. These are determined based on recorded data
that have been studied for longer periods of time such as the soil, temperature, humidity, and precipitation. Regions found along
the equator are generally classified as having tropical climates.
Deviations within the Zone
Knowledge of the climatic zone to which a city or settlement belong and possession of published regional climatic data does
not eliminate the need for careful investigation of the site climatic conditions. It does, however, usually provide enough
information for the designer to make a preliminary assessment of the climate and may be sufficient to form the basis
of sketch designs.
Every city, town, or even a barangay may have its own climate, slightly different from the climate described for the region. This
information published by PAG-ASA describes the macroclimate. This information may be a useful guide to the climate of the
site, but it is seldom sufficient in accuracy as conditions can vary considerably within a short distance from the point of
observation.
Figure 13 : Regional differences create different meso climate conditions in the Philippine archipelago
Image source: https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Climate-types-in-the-Philippines_fig8_294104577
Small scale patterns of climate resulting from the influence of topography, urban forms, water bodies, vegetation, etc. are
known as microclimates. Microclimate deals with the climatic features peculiar to small areas and with the physical processes
that take place in the layer of air very near to the ground. Soil-ground conditions, character of vegetation cover, aspect of
slopes, and state of the soil surface, relief forms – all these may create special local conditions of temperature, humidity, wind
and radiation in the layer of air near the ground which differ sharply from general climatic conditions. One of the most important
tasks of agricultural meteorology is to study the properties of air near the ground and surface layer of soil, which falls under
the micro climate.
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The scale of meso-climate falls between micro and macro climates. It is concerned with the study of climate over relatively
smaller areas between 10 & 100 km across. Regions may have varying meso-climates as a result of elevation differences,
slope aspect, bodies of water, vegetation, urban areas, and the like. For instance, due to varying conditions, different regions
around the Philippines would have different climatic conditions resulting to regional differences in vernacular architecture.
Figure 13.
If any weather system develops under different types of climate, it persists longer periods under the macroclimate while smaller
periods under micro climates.
In a nutshell…
Microclimate:
Refers to the climate of a site or location. It implies any local
deviation from the climate of a large region or zone
Meso-climate:
Falls between the microclimate and macroclimate
Macroclimate:
Climate of a larger area such as a region or a country
Factors Affecting Local Climate Variations
The factors governing the climate of a zone have been surveyed in the previous sections. Factors which may cause local
deviation from this are:
a) Topography: slope, orientation, elevation, exposure, hills/valleys at or near the site
b) Ground Surface: whether natural or man-made, its reflectance, permeability, and the soil temperature, as these
affect vegetation and in turn affects the climate
c) Three-dimensional objects: trees, fences, walls, buildings – these may influence air movement, may cast a shadow,
may subdivide the area into smaller units with distinguishable climatic features
A logical method will be to follow the sequence of climatic elements that we have examined previously and see how each of
these may be affected by the above mentioned factors.
• Air Temperature
At any point near the ground the air temperature is dependent upon the amount of heat gained or lost at the earth's
surface and any other surfaces with which the air has recently been in contact. Heat exchange at surfaces varies between
night and day, with the season, latitude and the time of year, always influenced by the amount of cloud cover.
During the day, as surfaces are heated by solar radiation, the air nearest to the ground acquires the highest temperature.
In calm conditions the air within 2 m of the ground remains stratified in layers of differing temperatures. Mixing of the
hotter and cooler layers takes place as the heat build-up of the lowest layer becomes great enough to cause an upward
eddy of warmer, lighter air.
At night, particularly on clear nights, the ground loses much heat by radiation and soon after sunset its temperature falls
below that of the air. The direction of heat flow is reversed: from the air to the ground. The lowest layer of air becomes
cooler.
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• Humidity
The relative humidity (RH) depends as much on the air temperature as on the actual amount of water vapor present in
the air.
During the day, as the lowest layer of air is being heated by the ground surface, its RH is rapidly decreased. With a lower
RH the rate of evaporation is increased, if there is water available to be evaporated. An open surface of water or rich
vegetation would provide an abundant supply of water – in such a case strong evaporation would increase the absolute
humidity (AH) of the lower layers of air.
With air movement the rate of evaporation is increased, but with the mixing of air the temperature and humidity differences
tend to be evened out.
At night the situation is reversed. Especially on a clear night with still air, as the lowest layer (of the highest AH) cools, its
RH increases, the point of saturation is soon reached and with further cooling the excess moisture condenses out in the
form of dew (thus the term dewpoint).
When the dewpoint temperature is reached the formation of fog will start, and if there is no further rapid cooling and no
air movement, a deep layer (up to 40 to 50 m) of fog can develop near the ground.
• Precipitation
When moisture bearing winds occur frequently from the same direction, the effect of hills on rainfall patterns can be very
pronounced. Where the ground changes level by more than 300 m, the windward slope can be expected to receive a
rainfall more 34 than the regional average, and the leeward slope correspondingly less. With the increase of height or
steepness of the hill formation, the effect will be more pronounced. In an extreme case it can happen that on a large site
located on the top of a hill and extending down to both slopes, the leeward half receives only 25% of the rain received by
the windward side.
Figure 14 : Precipitation on hills (Koenigsberger)
The cause of the above phenomenon is that the hill forces the air mass to rise, as it rises it cools and can no longer
support the moisture carried. Conversely, a descending air mass increases in temperature and it can absorb more
moisture, rather than to precipitate any. A similar situation can develop over towns, where the more absorbent surfaces
reach a high temperature and can produce an upward air movement. Such an upward current may divert any horizontal
air movement in an upward direction, with similar effects to a hill slope.
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Figure 15 : Precipitation over towns (Koenigsberger)
• Solar Radiation
The amount of solar radiation may be influenced by local factors in three ways:
a) The intensity on a theoretical horizontal plane above the ground is affected by local variations in the transparency of
the atmosphere. Atmospheric pollution, smoke, smog or dust and local cloud formations can produce substantial
reductions
b) The intensity on the actual ground surface is influenced by the slope and orientation of the site, this effect being
negligible around the Equator, but increasingly important towards higher latitudes. At mid-latitudes a site sloping
towards the pole will receive much less radiation than one sloping towards the Equator
c) The daily total amount of radiation may also be influenced by the slope (later sunrise and earlier sunset for a northern
slope on the northern hemisphere) but also by nearby hills or even trees and existing buildings, which may cast a
shadow over the site at certain times of the day. This effect is most pronounced when such obstructions lie on the
east or west of the site. When the sun is on these sides, it is at low angle and casts a long shadow
Radiation on a vertical building surface will be affected by its orientation, but not by the slope and orientation of the site.
The factors under a, b, and c above will still show an effect. The magnitude of thermal effects of such incident radiation
will, of course; depend on the surface qualities of the recipient ground or objects. If it is vegetation, some of the solar
energy is converted into chemical energies and the heating is also mitigated by evaporation, but a stone, concrete or
especially an asphalt surface can reach a temperature up to 44 °C higher than the surrounding air temperature.
• Air Movement
Wind speed can be reduced after a long horizontal barrier by 50% at a distance of ten times the height and by 25% at a
distance of twenty times the height. In addition to this, air flowing across any surface is subject to frictional effects. The
type of ground cover affects the wind speed gradient. Near the ground the wind speed is always less than higher up, but
with an uneven ground cover the rate of increase in speed with height is much more than with an unbroken smooth
surface, such as water.
On a hilly site the greatest wind speeds will be experienced at the crests of hills. Small valleys and depressions will
normally experience low velocities, except in cases where the direction of the valley coincides with the direction of wind.
The more pronounced the form of the valley, the greater is its effect both in sheltering the valley floor from cross-winds
and in funneling the parallel winds. The effect of long, tall slabs or rows of buildings may be similar to this.
In regions where wind can provide a welcome relief from sultry heat, the crests and windward slopes are preferable as
building sites to the leeward sides of hills.
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The day-time heating of air over barren ground often gives rise to local thermal winds, especially in hot-dry regions. These
may be whirlwinds or local breezes, normally hot and carrying fine dust. Observations can usually reveal a pattern of their
course during certain seasons of the year.
Large stretches of water can give rise to local coastal breezes. On-shore breezes (from water to land) during the day may
lower the maximum temperature by as much as 10 °C, but are likely to increase the humidity. On lake shores these
breezes are rarely effective beyond about 400 m inland, but on the sea coast the effect may reach much further inland if
topography is favorable.
Air Movement in a nutshell…
a. Wind speed is always less near the ground than with the higher portion
b. The type of ground cover affects wind speed gradient
c. On a hilly site, the greatest wind speed is at the crest (top)
d. Day time heating of air oven barren ground gives rise to local thermal winds
(whirlwinds or local breezes)
e. Long stretches of water can give rise to local coastal breezes
• Special Characteristics
a) Thunderstorms: Top of hills or tall buildings are subject to lightning strikes
b) Dust and sandstorms: Influenced by the ground surface providing sand and dust to be carried by the wind
c) Smaller dust-storms: Small-scale whirlwind carrying dust
• Vegetation
Trees and vegetation form an intermediate layer between the earth's surface and the atmosphere. Their moderating effect
on the site climate has already been referred to in the context of air temperature, humidity, radiation and air movement.
By covering the ground with vegetation, the surface of contact is transferred to a higher layer and is increased four to
twelve times. In all hot and dry regions of the earth the beneficial climatic effect of even the lightest plant cover is quite
considerable.
• Urban Climate
Man-made environments can create microclimates of their own, deviating from urban climate the macroclimate of the
region to a degree depending on the extent of man's intervention. Such intervention with the natural environment is
greatest in large towns or cities, thus it is justifiable to speak of an 'urban climate'.
Major Tropical Climatic Zones
The interaction of solar radiation with the atmosphere and the gravitational forces, together with the distribution of land and sea
masses, produces an almost infinite variety of climates. However, certain zones and belts of approximately uniform climates can
be distinguished. It is essential for the designer to be familiar with the character and location of these zones, as they are indicative
of the climatic problems that he/she is likely to encounter.
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The classification given below was suggested by G.A. Atkinson in 1953. The basis of this classification is given by the two
atmospheric factors which dominantly influence human comfort: air temperature and humidity. The main criterion is: what
extremes of these two factors are likely to cause discomfort. Accordingly the tropical regions of earth are divided into three, major
climatic zones and three subgroups:
1) Warm-humid equatorial climate – subgroup: warm-humid island or trade-wind climate
2) Hot-dry desert / semi-desert climate – subgroup: hot-dry maritime desert climate
3) Composite or monsoon climate (combination of the first two classifications) – subgroup: tropical upland climate
The table below shows the characteristics of each type of tropical climate based on air temperature, humidity, and annual
precipitation. Locations exhibiting each certain type of tropical climate are also listed. For example, a warm-humid climate in Lagos
(a city of Nigeria) can have a daytime temperature range of 27°C – 32°C. At night, a cooler temperature can be felt between 21°C
– 27°C. It has an average (55%) to high (100%) humidity and experiences an annual precipitation of 2000mm to 5000mm which
makes it the wettest type of tropical climate among the others listed.
The Philippines belong to the warm-humid island subgroup of the warm-humid equatorial climate.
Table 1 : Tropical Climate Classification, Atkinson
Tropical Climate
Air Temperature Annual
Classification, Humidity Location / Cities / Countries
Precipitation
Atkinson Day Night
Lagos, Dar-es-Salam, Mombasa,
A. Warm-humid 55% - 2000mm –
27°C – 32°C 21°C – 27°C Colombo, Singapore, Jakarta, Quito,
climate 100% 5000mm
Pernambuco
Warm-humid 55% - 1250mm – Caribbean, Philippines, Pacific
29°C – 32°C 18°C – 24°C
island 100% 1800mm Islands
B. Hot-dry desert
50mm – Assuan, Baghdad, Alice Springs,
climate / semi- 27°C – 49°C 10°C – 30°C 10% - 55%
150mm Phoenix
desert climate
Hot-dry maritime
21°C – 38°C 10°C – 30°C 50% - 90% Very low Kuwait, Antofagasta, Karachi
desert climate
C. Composite or 500mm – Lahore, Mandalay, Kano, Asuncion,
27°C – 43°C 4°C – 27°C 20% - 95%
monsoon climate 1300mm New Delhi
Tropical upland Less than Addis Ababa, Bogota, Mexico City,
24°C – 30°C 10°C – 13°C 45% - 99%
climate 1000mm Nairobi
Koppen climate classification, a more widely used climate classification system defines a tropical climate as a region where the
temperature of the coldest month is greater than or equal to 18 ℃ (64.4 ℉), under which three types sub-climate zones are
identified:
1) Tropical Rainforest – Tropical Moist Climates (Af)
2) Savanna – Tropical Moist Climates (Af)
3) Chaparral Biome – Mediterranean Climates (Cs)
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Table 2 : Tropical Climate Classification, Koppen Climate Classification
Tropical Climate Average Annual Precipitation Latitude Range Global Position

Classification, Temperature
Koppen
Amazon Basin; Congo Basin of

A. Tropical Rainforest
equatorial Africa; East Indies, from
– Tropical Moist 18 °C (°F) 262 cm. (103 in.) 10° S to 25 ° N
Sumatra to New Guinea.
Climate (Af)
0.25 cm. (0.1 in.). All India, Indochina, West Africa,

B. Savanna - Wet-Dry
16 °C months less than 15 ° to 25 ° N and S southern Africa, South America
Tropical Climates (Aw)
0.25 cm. (0.1 in.) and the north coast of Australia
Central and Southern California;
C. Chaparral Biome -
Coastal zones bordering the
Mediterranean
7 °C (12 °F) 42 cm (17 in). 30° - 50° N and S Mediterranean Sea; Coastal
Climate (Cs)
Western Australia and South
Australia; Chilean coast; Cape
Town region of South Africa.
Because a substantial part of the Sun’s heat is used up in evaporation and rain formation, temperatures in the tropics rarely exceed
35°C; a daytime maximum of 32°C is more common. At night the abundant cloud cover restricts heat loss, and minimum
temperatures fall no lower than about 20°C (Koppen Climate Classification). This high level of temperature is maintained with little
variation throughout the year. The average humidity is between 77 and 88%. It has an average rainfall yearly of 50 to 260 inches
(125 to 660 cm). There is usually a brief season of less rain. In monsoonal areas, there is a real dry season. Almost all rain forests
lie near the equator.
The Philippines located at a latitude of 14° 34' 59.99" N and a longitude of 121° 00' 0.00" E belong to the Tropical Moist Climate
(Af).
Figure 16 : Tropical Moist Climates (Af)

Image source: https://www.thesustainabilitycouncil.org/tropical-rainforest-biome.html
Formative Assessment 1: What is a tropical climate?
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Climate in the Philippines
The Climate of the Philippines is tropical and maritime (PAG-ASA). It is characterized by relatively high temperature, high humidity
and abundant rainfall. Temperature, humidity, and rainfall, which are discussed hereunder, are the most important elements of the
country's weather and climate. (Philippine Atmospheric, Geophysical and Astronomical Services Administration (PAGASA).
Temperature
1. Based on the average of all weather stations in the Philippines, excluding Baguio, the mean annual temperature is
26.6o C.
2. The coolest months fall in January with a mean temperature of 25.5o C while the warmest month occurs in May with
a mean temperature of 28.3o C. Latitude is an insignificant factor in the variation of temperature while altitude shows
greater contrast in temperature. Thus, the mean annual temperature of Baguio with an elevation of 1,500 meters is
18.3o C.
3. The difference between the mean annual temperature of the southernmost station in Zamboanga and that of the
northernmost station in Laoag is insignificant.
4. In other words, there is essentially no difference in the mean annual temperature of places in Luzon, Visayas or
Mindanao measured at or near sea level.
5. Generally small diurnal temperature ranging from 2 to 5 degrees only.
Humidity
1. Humidity refers to the moisture content of the atmosphere.
2. Due to high temperature and the surrounding bodies of water, the Philippines has a high relative humidity.
3. The average monthly relative humidity varies between 71 percent in March and 85 percent in September.
4. The combination of warm temperature and high relative and absolute humidities give rise to high sensible temperature
throughout the archipelago.
5. It is especially uncomfortable during March to May, when temperature and humidity attain their maximum levels.
Rainfall
1. Rainfall is the most important climatic element in the Philippines.
2. Rainfall distribution throughout the country varies from one region to another, depending upon the direction of the
moisture-bearing winds and the location of the mountain systems.
3. The mean annual rainfall of the Philippines varies from 965 to 4,064 millimeters annually.
4. Baguio City, eastern Samar, and eastern Surigao receive the greatest amount of rainfall while the southern portion of
Cotabato receives the least amount of rain. At General Santos City in Cotabato, the average annual rainfall is only
978 millimeters.
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Prevailing Winds in the Philippines
Northeast Monsoon – locally known as Amihan. It affects the eastern portions of the country from October up to late March,
starts over Siberia as a cold, dry air mass but gathers moisture as it travels across the Pacific Ocean before reaching the
eastern sections of the Philippines is characterized by widespread cloudiness with rains and showers.
The North Pacific Trades gradually replaces the NE Monsoon in March, appears in all seasons and blows dominantly from
March to April, giving strong convective activity.
Southwest Monsoon – locally known as Habagat. It affects the country from July to September, is very warm and humid,
occurs when warm moist air flows over the country from the southwest direction, is characterized by heavy rainfall that may
last for a week.
It brings the rainy season to the western portion of the country.
The Seasons
Using temperature and rainfall as bases, the climate of the country can be divided into two major seasons (PAG-ASA):
1. the wet (rainy) season, from June to November; and
2. the dry season, from December to May. The dry season may be subdivided further into:
a) the cool dry season, from December to February; and
b) the hot dry season, from March to May.
Based on the distribution of rainfall, four climate types are recognized, which are described as follows:
Figure 17 : Modified Corona classifications of the seasons in the Philippines

Image source: http://www.lcp.org.ph
Typhoons have a great influence on the climate and weather conditions of the Philippines. A great portion of the rainfall,
humidity and cloudiness are due to the influence of typhoons. They generally originate in the region of the Marianas and
Caroline Islands of the Pacific Ocean which have the same latitudinal location as Mindanao. Their movements follow a
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northwesterly direction, sparing Mindanao from being directly hit by majority of the typhoons that cross the country. This makes
the southern Philippines very desirable for agriculture and industrial development. (PAG-ASA)
Did you know…
A monsoon is a seasonal rain and wind pattern.

"Monsoon" is from the Arabic word, "mawsim" which means season.
A switch in wind direction is the primary indicator for the change between one monsoon to the
other. It usually takes place during nighttime.
At some periods, the two monsoons switch several times before settling into a pattern for the
season. Amihan and Habagat are also characters in Philippine mythology.
Source: https://www.divescotty.com/underwater-blog/amihan-habagat-monsoon.php
Typhoons
Typhoons have a great influence on the climate and weather conditions of the Philippines. A great portion of the rainfall,
humidity and cloudiness are due to the influence of typhoons. They generally originate in the region of the Marianas and
Caroline Islands of the Pacific Ocean which have the same latitudinal location as Mindanao.
Their movements follow a northwesterly direction, sparing Mindanao from being directly hit by majority of the typhoons that
cross the country. This makes the southern Philippines very desirable for agriculture and industrial development.
Figure 18 : PAG-ASA's revised public warning system and updated tropical cyclone classifications
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During the 59 year period, 19 to 20 tropical cyclones is the annual average occurring in the Philippine Area of Responsibility
(PAR) with the annual average intensity distribution of:
a) tropical depressions,
b) to 6 tropical storms; and
c) 10 typhoons.
The most number of tropical cyclones occurred in 1993 which recorded 32 while the least number of tropical cyclones occurred
in 1998 which recorded 11 (PAG-ASA).
Architectural Adaptations to Climate
Architectural history tells us that man began to build structures primarily to provide him with the necessary shelter against climatic
elements. Since architecture began 10,000 years ago, there were hardly any changes for the next 6,000 years. This was quite
expected because the built structures were able to satisfy the physiological need for shelter at time (Salvadori, 2002).
Without any of even our most basic technologies today, the built structures of our ancestors were designed to take advantage of
its environment to provide the maximum comfort for its occupant. In other words, these ancestral structures were conceived using
Passive Design Concepts.
During the Late Stone Age period, tent settlements were made of animal skins. This provided an insulated coating for the tent able
to keep out heat from solar radiation during warm seasons and kept air heated inside during cold weather.
As early as 1300BC, ancient Egyptians have begun to incorporate malqaf (literally “wind scoop”) which are shafts that rises above
the buildings acting as scoops to funnel in wind into building’s interior. Because of the hot arid climate and sandy environment in
Egypt, large windows are not effective means of ventilating buildings because they will let both hot air and sand in. By using wind
scoops, the Egyptians were able collect fast moving air free from dust.
Similarly, the Persians also used shafts known as badgirs to catch breezes and channel them into the building to cool its rooms
(Battle-McCarthy, 1999). The Egyptian and Persian “wind scoops” are effective passive cooling techniques that have been applied
in modern buildings using sophisticated wind tunnel simulations and analyses.
In the tropical setting of the Philippines, passive cooling techniques have been in use since pre-colonial times. The bahay kubo is
designed as an adaptation to its tropical environment. Later when the Spanish colonizers arrived in the archipelago, they
introduced western form of building, especially in the use of stones. Unfortunately, they learned the hard way after the destruction
of numerous structures due to earthquake. The bahay na bato can be seen as an evolution of a structure to adapt to the local
environmental conditions in the Philippines.
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Bahay Kubo
Figure 19 : Bahay kubo's climate adaptation

Image source: https://asfriedrich.wordpress.com/
Among the bahay kubo’s adaptations are:
• The living platform is elevated on stilts as an adaptation to damp ground conditions brought about by the seasonal
monsoon in the Philippines.
• The roof has a high pitch so that rain water can be quickly drained
• Large windows facilitate cross ventilation within the living space
• Operable window awnings protect the windows from rain and at the same time provide shade when they are open.
• The high pitch of the roof creates a large air space serving as an insulation between the roof and living space
• The pitch of the roof creates an angle that allows the heat to radiated at an angle rather than directly on living space
below
• Roof provides wide overhangs for the windows to protect them for solar radiation and rain
• The walls and roof are constructed of thatch (nipa) with low U-values allowing heat to be released immediately.
• Time lag for the porous materials becomes negligible.
• The flexible framing system and materials allow the bahay kubo’s frame to sway during earthquakes thus dissipating
forces that would otherwise cause the building frames to break or buckle.
• The bamboo flooring material creates gaps between the slats which allows air to breeze upward into the living space.
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Figure 20 : Bahay kubo’s adaptation to climate

Image source: https://asfriedrich.files.wordpress.com/
When the Spanish colonization of the Philippines began, numerous construction projects had to be undertaken by the
colonizers. Naturally, their designers built structures as they did in Europe. Successive earthquakes destroyed many buildings
forcing the designers to rethink their structures. Over a period of time, their architecture evolved in order to adapt to local
environmental conditions in the Philippines. To some extent, the designers had to “copy” some of the adaptive features of the
bahay kubo. This became the evolutionary birth of the Philippine Ancestral House or more commonly known as the Bahay na
Bato.
Figure 21 : Regional variations of the bahay kubo
Around the Philippine archipelago, our ancestors have built shelters that respond to their local climate conditions. Ivatan
houses in the Batanes regions that experience strong winds and typhoon most times of the year have evolved from using just
local thatch and wood to using stronger materials like stone with lime to withstand typhoons and harsh winds. In the uplands
of the central regions of Luzon, the temperatures are generally lower than the rest of country and dry for most times of the
year. Ifugao houses are designed with thick layers of cogon to serve as insulation from the heat of the sun and torrential rains
but would also keep the warmer air inside during the coldest months. The Visayan houses in the lowlands experiencing
warmer and humid air have large windows, steep roofs, and on stilts to let in natural ventilation inside their structures. The
seafaring Badjaos and other tribal groups living in the sea or along the coastal areas live in boats or have dwellings on high
platforms, and made from recycled materials that can easily be procured, as their dwellings may succumb to the harsh torrential
rains and winds, so re-building would be easier for them.
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Bahay na Bato
Contrary to what many people think, the bahay na bato is not Spanish in its architecture. It is very much a Filipino design that
has been tailor-made to adapt to the climatic and geographic features of the Philippines.
Figure 22 : The bahay na bato been tailor-made to adapt to the climatic and geographic features of the Philippines
Image source: Santos (2008)
Among the adapted passive cooling features of bahay na bato are:
• The living platform is elevated from the ground just like the bahay kubo. Instead of stilts, the bahay na bato has a
heavy stone walled ground floor acting as a base. This ground floor level is usually used as a storage and garage
because occupants avoid being exposed to the dampness near the ground.
• The roof has a high pitch just like the bahay kubo so that rain water can be drained quickly
• The high pitch roof creates a large air space between the roof and the ceiling. The air in this cavity insulates the
interior space from heat.
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• Similar to the bahay kubo, the pitch of the bahay na bato’s roof creates an angle that allows the heat to be radiated
at an angle rather than directly on living space below
• The bahay na bato also has wide alero (eaves) that provides the necessary sun shading for its window openings.
• The underside of these wide eaves was fitted with latticed vents. The vents allow breeze to enter the roof cavity
preventing hot air from accumulating within the cavity.
• Windows of the bahay na bato were large measuring 1.8 meters high and up to 5.4 meters wide (Zialcita, 1980). This
effectively facilitates cross ventilation.
• Since the living space is elevated, dust, which usually travels near the ground, is prevented from directly entering the
living spaces when the wind cross ventilates through the bahay na bato.
• Additional grilled openings called ventanillas are built below the window sill extending down to the floor. Ventanillas
further increases the cross ventilating capacity of the bahay na bato.
• To further protect the spaces from heat gain, a double wall system operating on the principle of a thermos jug was
built into the bahay na bato. The solution was to install a cantilevered gallery along the perimeter of the second floor.
This gallery was separated by a series of inner double doors from the interior spaces and had the exterior wall on its
other side. The heat striking the outer wall was essentially trapped within the cavity of the volada. This feature is now
known as a double layered façade system (this will be discussed in Module 3) used in many of our modern buildings.
• In certain cases, the volada had operable louvers or jalousies on its exterior. This allowed solar heat to be stopped
while permitting ventilation. The operable jalousies operate on the principle we now recognize as dynamic exterior
louvres (this will be discussed in Module 3). While the venting of its cavity between the double layered façade
(volada) is now known as ventilated double façade (VDF).
Figure 23 : The Bahay na Bato has numerous adaptations to the Philippine climate using only the
technology of its time and was able to cool its living
Image source: Zialcita, F. and Tinio, M. Jr. (2002). Philippine ancestral houses. Manila: GCF Books.
ARC 1435 33
___________________________________________________________________________
• Cross ventilation between the rooms was facilitated by providing latticed openings above the interior walls called
calado.
• The bahay na bato employed passive daylight concepts (this will be discussed in Module 4). The large windows
permitted the interiors to be naturally lit. During rain and the windows are closed, the capiz window panels continue
to allow daylight to penetrate the interiors.
• Rain water from the roof was collected through a duct called aljibe and channeled into a collecting cistern. This allowed
the owners to have water supply even in areas where deep wells are not available.
• The upper storey of the bahay na bato was constructed of wood and timber frame. With its heavy stone base, the
house was able to survive during earthquakes by swaying which allowed the force of the earthquake to be dissipated.
• The wooden walls have a low U-value and short lag time that helps in reducing the heat gain of the living spaces.
Climate-adapting features of the bahay na bato…
The bahay na bato employs a system of double layered The bahay na bato has large windows and ventanillas
façade called volada to provide an extra layer of below the windows to take full advantage of cross
insulating air for cooling the house. ventilation.
ARC 1435 34
___________________________________________________________________________
The bahay na bato’s living platform is elevated The bahay na bato has wide eaves to provide solar
from the damp ground by a stone base on the shading for its large windows.
ground floor. This is often used as storage and
garage.
Basic design principles for tropical design
(Source: https://business.inquirer.net/19613/tropical-architecture#ixzz6Tzp2ruGs)
Tropical design is the strategic arrangement of elements in buildings and structures to respond to specific conditions of weather,
sun and climate prevalent in the tropical regions. Tropical architecture is all about achieving thermal comfort through the use
of passive design elements like sunshades, cavity walls, light shelves, overhangs, roof and wall insulation and even shading
from large trees to block the sun.
For the Philippines, having a warm humid climate, there are a few basic design principles regarding natural ventilation to cool
a home or a building. These are:
• External features of the building envelope and its relation to the site should be designed to fully utilize air movement.
Interior partitions should not block air movements.
• Air velocity can be reduced when the interior walls are placed close to the inlet opening or each time it is diverted
around obstructions.
• If interior walls are unavoidable, air flow can still be ensured if the partitions have openings at the lower and upper
portions. In the bahay na bato, this is achieved with the use of transom panels covered with intricate wood carvings
or wood louvers.
• Maximize window openings for cross ventilation of internal spaces. Vents in the roof cavity can also be very effective
in drawing out heat from the room interiors.
• Since hot air goes upward, and cool air goes downward, openings at the top of staircases and in clerestory windows
facilitate air change.
• It is generally cooler at night, so ventilation of internal spaces can be continuous for nighttime cooling. This means
designing the building with operable windows to let hot air escape at night and to capture prevailing night winds.
• To supplement natural ventilation, fans can be placed at various heights and areas to increase comfort
conditions. Fans are effective in generating internal air movement, improve air distribution and increase air velocities.
• Window openings are advisable at the body level for evaporative human body cooling. And room width should not
exceed five times ceiling height for good air movement.
ARC 1435 35
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• Sunshades and sun protection devices on openings reduce heat gain and glare, and also help in internal
daylighting. Louvres that are adjustable can alter the direction of air flow and lighting.
Tropical Climates such as the Philippines essentially present problems of heat, high humidity, rain and typhoon, and damp
ground conditions. In recent times, buildings have become dependent on mechanical means to overcome these problems. But
now, the issue of dwindling global energy resources has become paramount. This has caused everyone to begin looking at all
possible means of conserving energy. The latter will be tackled in the succeeding module.
Additionally, you may also read the following articles found in the Reading Materials folder: Adaptive Potential
of Traditional Buildings and Cities; The Failure of Modern Buildings.
Formative Assessment 2: How does climate influence architecture?
Useful Links
Philippine Atmospheric, Geophysical and Astronomical Services Administration (PAGASA).
http://www.pagasa.dost.gov.ph/index.shtml
Land breeze and sea breeze
http://www.differencebetween.net/science/difference-between-land-breeze-and-sea-breeze/#ixzz6SREEFL37
Radiation at the earth’s surface
http://www.ces.fau.edu/nasa/module-3/why-does-temperature-vary/angle-of-the-sun.php
Solar Radiation
https://www.alternative-energy-tutorials.com/energy-articles/solar-radiation.html
The Köppen climate classification system
https://www.thesustainabilitycouncil.org/resources/the-koppen-climate-classification-system/
Tropical architecture
https://business.inquirer.net/19613/tropical-architecture#ixzz6Tzp2ruGs
References
Battle-McCarthy Consulting Engineers. (1999). Wind towers: Detail in building. London: Academy Press.
Koenigsberger, O.H., Ingersoll, T.G., Mayhew, A., & Szokolay, S.V. (1974). Manual of tropical housing and building.
London: Longman Group Limited
Salvadori, M. (2002). Why buildings stand up: The strength of architecture. Southampton: WW Norton Company.
Santos, J.R. (2008). Tropical design handout. Quezon City: CDEP.
Zialcita, F. and Tinio, M. Jr. (2002). Philippine ancestral houses. Manila: GCF Books.
ARC 1435 36

ARC 1435 Learning Module 1 - 1st Sem 2021-22

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COURSE LEARNING MODULE

ARC1435: TROPICAL DESIGN

INTRODUCTION TO TROPICAL DESIGN ............................................................................................................. 5

MODULE 1 UNDERSTANDING CLIMATE ........................................................................................................... 7

Elements of Climates ............................................................................................................................................... 13

Scales of Climate and their importance ................................................................................................................. 18

Major Tropical Climatic Zones ................................................................................................................................ 23

Climate in the Philippines ....................................................................................................................................... 26

Architectural Adaptations to Climate ..................................................................................................................... 29

MODULE 2 DESIGNING WITH NATURE ........................................................................................................... 37

Use of Energy in Buildings ..................................................................................................................................... 37

Thermal Comfort ...................................................................................................................................................... 40

MODULE 3 GREENING THE CITIES .................................................................................................................. 50

Tropical Design and Sustainable Design............................................................................................................... 50

Laws Related to the Use of Resources and Sustainable Design ........................................................................ 57

Sustainable Tropical Building Design Principles ................................................................................................. 59

Sustainability Benchmarks ..................................................................................................................................... 67

Green building case studies ................................................................................................................................... 68

Readings in Sustainable Tropical Architecture .................................................................................................... 70

MODULE 4 BUILDING STRUCTURES IN A HOT HUMID CLIMATE ................................................................... 76

Climatic Issues in a Tropical Climate ..................................................................................................................... 77

Tropical Design Strategies ...................................................................................................................................... 78

In this course, we will explore and answer the following:

This course will be divided into four (4) modules:

the working emoji is a reminder to answer the course assessments

Differentiate climate from weather.

b) visible light, 380 (violet) to 700 nm (red);

Figure 1 : Different wavelengths of radiation.

What are the advantages of solar energy?

Tilt of the Earth’s Axis

Consequently, the southern hemisphere experiences the opposite.

Figure 3 : Solstice and equinox.

Radiation at the Earth’s Surface

c) duration of sunshine, the length of daylight period

The Earth’s Thermal Balance

Winds and Annual Wind Shift

Topography influences the:

Figure 6: Stevenson screen

ºC (degrees Celsius): Metric unit for air temperature

RH = (AH / SH) x 100%

Figure 7 : Wet-and-dry-bulb hygrometer

Let’s recall what these terms mean….

Wet-and-Dry Bulb Hygrometer:

Figure 8 : Rain gauge.

Some terms to recall…

Figure 9 : A sunshine recorder

Figure 11 : Wind Vane.

Let’s recall what these instruments are for…

Scales of Climate and their importance

Deviations within the Zone

Factors Affecting Local Climate Variations

a) Topography: slope, orientation, elevation, exposure, hills/valleys at or near the site

Figure 14 : Precipitation on hills (Koenigsberger)

Figure 15 : Precipitation over towns (Koenigsberger)

Air Movement in a nutshell…

a) Thunderstorms: Top of hills or tall buildings are subject to lightning strikes

c) Smaller dust-storms: Small-scale whirlwind carrying dust

Major Tropical Climatic Zones

1) Warm-humid equatorial climate – subgroup: warm-humid island or trade-wind climate

2) Hot-dry desert / semi-desert climate – subgroup: hot-dry maritime desert climate

Table 1 : Tropical Climate Classification, Atkinson

1) Tropical Rainforest – Tropical Moist Climates (Af)

2) Savanna – Tropical Moist Climates (Af)