INFLUENCE OF VARIOUS ELEMENTS ON STRUCTURE AND PROPERTIES

OF CAST IRON
(Reference: Discussions with Mr. HCC).

Notes on the Influence of Various Elements on Structure and Properties of Flake

Graphite Iron

ALUMINUM:

It produces inter-dendritic graphite.

It increases state of nucleation when present in ferro-silicon.
It accelerates austenite formation.
It reduces dendrite arm thickness.
It refines austenite: short compact, random dendrites.
It increased arm thickness and spacing.
It decreased uniformity.
It increases eutectic cell count when added alone.
It promotes ferrite.
It reduces transverse strength.
It reduces BHN.
It reduces chill.

ANTIMONY:

Up to 0.05% it does not affect graphite size, shape or distribution.

Up to 0.10% it does not affect Type “A” graphite.
It refined and produced abnormal graphite.
It produces compacted graphite above 0.20%.
It accelerates austenite formation.
It decreased dendrite directionality and uniformity.
It increased dendrite arm spacing.
It has limited solubility in solid iron.
It restricts eutectic cell growth.
It promotes pearlite.
It increases hardness and fineness of pearlite.
It reduces transverse and tensile strength.
Up to 0.05% it increases tensile strength (25).
It increases BHN.
Up to 0.05% it has no effect on chill.

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ARSENIC:

Up to 0.025% it does not affect graphite structure.

It has limited solubility in solid iron.
It stabilizes pearlite.
Up to 0.025% it does not affect tensile strength.
Maximum tensile strength is observed with 0.10%.
It reduces tensile and transverse strength.
It increases BHN.
It increases chill depth.

BERYLENIUM:

It retards primary austenite formation.

It reduces pearlite content.

BISMUTH:

Increases in Bismuth change graphite from coarse flake to interdendritic.

It coarsens graphite and rounds flakes.
It forms under-cooled or compacted graphite.
Larger amounts might produce mesh or Widmanstatten graphite.
It accelerates primary austenite formation.
It produced refined, random, over-lapping dendrites.
It decreased dendrite directionality and uniformity.
It increased dendrite arm spacing.
It increases eutectic cell count.
It restricts eutectic cell growth.
It is practically insoluble in solid iron.
It decreases eutectic cell count.
It increases pearlite content.
Transverse strength decreases then increases.
It reduced transverse strength.
It increases BHN.
It increases chill.
It increases under cooling.

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BORON:

It decreased size and quantity of graphite.

It refines graphite.
It may nucleate graphite in presence of nitrogen (forms BN substrate).
It coarsens graphite up to 0.02%.
It produces Type “D” graphite.
In the range of 0.002 – 0.004%, it produced long oriented dendrites.
0.008% boron refined dendrites – short and random.
It increases eutectic cell count.
It restricts eutectic cell growth.
It increased eutectic cell count up to 0.004%.
It decreased eutectic cell count at 0.008%.
It increases pearlite content.
It increases transverse strength.
It decreases transverse and tensile strength.
It increases strength of ferrite containing irons.
Large additions of boron reduce strength.
It increases BHN.
It increases chill.
It increases under-cooling.

CADMIUM:

Practically it has no solubility in either liquid or solid iron.

It decreases transverse strength.
It increases hardness.
It increases chill.

CARBON EQUIVALENT (C.E.):

It slightly increased graphite nucleation with higher C.E.

Coarse graphite forms with higher C.E.
Graphite size increases with C.E.
% Type “A” graphite increases with C.E.
Higher C.E. gives fewer primary austenite dendrites.
Maximum eutectic cell count is seen at 3.90% C.E.
Slightly increases cell count with higher C.E.
Higher C.E. reduces tensile strength.
Higher C.E. reduces transverse strength.
Higher C.E. reduces BHN.
Higher C.E. decreased under-cooling.

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CERIUM RARE EARTH METALS (REM) AND SILICON MISCHMETALL
(SMM):

Cerium in combination with sulfur (S) forms substrates for graphite nucleation.
It improves graphite shape and increases amount of graphite.
It eliminates interdendritic graphite.
Coarsens graphite when cerium is balanced with sulfur.
SMM promotes formation of uniformly distributed graphite.
Large amounts of SMM produce compact graphite.
REM additions blunt graphite flake-ends.
Increases in cerium produce finer, more branched dendrites.
Increases in cerium improve dendrite regularity.
Cerium refines eutectic cell structure and makes it more uniform.
Cerium increases eutectic cell count.
Excess cerium restricts eutectic cell growth.
SMM increases eutectic cell count.
Cerium promotes pearlite formation.
Increased ferrite with cerium.
SMM increases percentage of pearlite.
Cerium increases transverse strength.
SMM increases transverse strength.
REM increase transverse and tensile strength.
Large REM additions decrease strength.
Cerium maintains BHN.
Cerium increases BHN.
SMM increases BHN.
REM increases BHN when added in amounts greater than 0.10%.
Cerium reduces chill when balanced with sulfur.
Excess cerium increases chill.
Additions above 0.10% cerium promote large under-cooling and white iron
formation.
SMM reduces chill.
REM decreases chill.

CHROMIUM:

Flakes become shorter, and thinner with chromium additions.

Large chromium additions promote interdendritic graphite.
It increases amount of pearlite.
It refines pearlite.
Maximum transverse and tensile strength with 0.10% chromium.
It increases hardness.
It increases chill.
It increases transverse strength.

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COBALT:

It promotes primary austenite formation.

It reduces pearlite content.
It reduces chill.

COPPER:

It reduces graphite flake size variation.

It improves flake shape and distribution.
It reduces size of excess austenitic dendrites.
It reduces eutectic cell size.
It increases the eutectic cell count.
It increases pearlite content.
It refines pearlite.
It increases tensile strength.
It increases transverse strength.
It increases hardness.
It reduces chill.

HYDROGEN:

It coarsens graphite flakes.

It produces Widmanstatten graphite in combination with lead (Pb).
It reduces degree of graphite nucleation.
It restricts growth of eutectic cells.
It has little effect on eutectic cell count.
It decreases number of eutectic cells.
It promotes pearlite formation.
It increases hardness.
It increases under-cooling.
It increases chill.

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LEAD:

Lead produces spiky and mesh graphite.

It produces Widmanstatten graphite.
It produced finely branched Type “D” graphite.
It produces Widmanstatten graphite with other elements (H2, P).
Cerium (Ce) can eliminate effects of Lead on graphite.
It accelerates primary austenite formation.
Lead lacks solubility in both liquid and solid iron.
It restricts growth of eutectic cells.
It promotes pearlite formation.
It reduces tensile strength.
It reduces transverse strength.
It increases hardness.
It increases chill.
It increases under cooling.

MANGANESE:

Manganese balanced with sulfur serves as substrate for graphite nucleation.

Manganese balanced with sulfur promotes formation of Type “A” graphite.
Manganese, unbalanced with sulfur, promotes Type “D” graphite.
It refines graphite.
It accelerates formation of primary austenite.
It increases eutectic cell count.
It promotes pearlite formation.
It increases hardness.
When balanced with sulfur, manganese reduces chill and under-cooling.
Excess manganese increases chill and under-cooling.

MOLYBDENUM:

It refines graphite but retains flake structure.

It increases stability of austenite by lowering eutectoid transformation
temperature.
It segregates at eutectic cell boundaries and strongly refines eutectic cells.
It promotes pearlite formation.
In larger amounts it promotes bainitic and martensitic structures.
It increases tensile strength.
It increases transverse strength.
Higher molybdenum levels reduce tensile strength.
It increases BHN.

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NICKEL:

Nickel may produce more Type “A” graphite.

It refines graphite.
It increases graphite content by reducing primary carbides.
It may increase eutectic cell count.
It increases pearlite content.
It refines pearlite spacing.
It increases strength.
It increases hardness.
It reduces chill.

NIOBIUM:

It refines graphite by forming carbide or sulfide nuclei.

It produces thick, coarse graphite.
Niobium carbonitrides may act as graphite nuclei.
With niobium graphite flakes become shorter but remain Type “A”.
It reduces second order dendrite branching.
It reduces coarseness of dendrites.
Larger additions of niobium coarsen dendrites.
It increases eutectic cell count.
It produces isolated areas of pearlite.
More than 0.33% niobium reduced coarseness of pearlite.
It increases pearlite.
It increases pearlite content.
Maximum tensile and transverse strength is obtained at 0.023 – 0.060%.
Increases tensile strength to 0.030%.
It reduces BHN.
It increases micro-hardness.
It increases hardness especially in large sections.
It reduces chill.

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NITROGEN:

It produces shorter, more compact graphite.

It produces star-shaped graphite.
It rounded ends of graphite flakes.
It increased nucleation of graphite.
Selected nitrides (BN) may act as graphite nuclei.
It increased dendrite arm spacing and thickness.
It had little effect on dendrite directionality and uniformity.
It increased eutectic cell count.
It exerts mild growth restriction on eutectic cells.
It has little effect on eutectic cell count.
It promotes pearlite formation.
It increases tensile strength.
It increased and then decreased transverse strength.
It increased transverse strength.
It increases BHN and makes it more uniform in the casting.
It did not affect under cooling.
It increased chill slightly.

OXYGEN:

Oxygen coarsens graphite.

Treatment with oxygen reduces graphite nuclei.
It increases nucleation of graphite.
Lower oxygen activity produces larger and stronger graphite flakes.
High oxygen activity forms dendrites, which are massive, irregular, and bulbous,
and few in number.
Low oxygen activity increases the amount of dendrites.
High oxygen activity inhibits austenite nucleation and growth.
It inhibits growth of eutectic cells.
It refines eutectic cells.
It did not affect chill.

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PHOSPHORUS:

It may contribute to degenerate graphite formation in presence of lead (Pb).

It slightly coarsens flake graphite.
It slightly increases graphite nucleation.
It increases eutectic cell count.
It segregates ahead of eutectic cell formation and forms phosphide eutectic film.
It increases tensile strength.
It decreases transverse strength.
It increases hardness.
It reduces chill.
It slightly decreases under cooling.

SELENIUM:

It coarsens graphite.
It increases nucleation (acts similar to sulfur).
It produces mesh graphite.
In small amounts it produces compact graphite.
In large amounts it causes degenerate graphite formation.
It inhibits growth of eutectic cells.
It slightly increases eutectic cell count.
It promotes pearlite.
It increases under cooling.
It increases chill.

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SULFUR:

Sulfides serve as substrates for graphite nucleation.

Sulfides of Mn, Sr, Ce, Ba, Ca serve as substrates.
Optimum degree of nucleation without growth restriction is about 0.04 – 0.06%
sulfur in presence of 0.75% Mn.
Balanced Mn / S ratio produces Type “A” graphite.
At high levels sulfur produces clumpy Type “D” graphite.
Lower levels of sulfur produce undercooled graphite.
In presence of titanium, sulfur produces type “D” graphite.
It increases graphite thickness.
High sulfur levels aggravate effects of lead (Pb) in producing degenerate graphite.
Higher sulfur levels produce mesh and compacted graphite.
High Mn / S ratios result in fine Type “D” graphite.
It retards formation of primary austenite.
It increases eutectic cell count.
High or excess sulfur levels restrict eutectic cell growth.
It promotes pearlite formation.
Lower levels result in more ferrite.
Maximum tensile strength at 0.04% sulfur.
Too little or excess sulfur results in increased chill.
Minimum chill is observed at balanced Mn / S ratios.
It increases under cooling.

TELLURIUM:

It produces abnormal mesh and Widmanstatten graphite.

It produces spidery, rosette and spiky graphite forms.
Lesser amounts of tellurium produce compact graphite.
It produces finely branched Type “D” graphite.
It coarsens graphite.
It retards formation of primary austenite.
It increased dendrite arm spacing and thickness.
It decreased dendrite uniformity.
It had little effect on dendrite directionality.
It increases eutectic cell count.
It markedly restricts growth of eutectic cells.
It decreases eutectic cell count at constant degree of under cooling.
It had little effect on eutectic cell count with constant cooling rate.
It may have ferritizing effect.
It reduces pearlite content.
It reduces tensile strength.
It increases chill.
It increases under cooling.

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TIN:

It did not affect Type “A” graphite formation.

It has favorable effect on graphite structure.
It has no pronounced effect on graphite.
Higher percentages refine graphite.
It retards primary austenite formation.
It exerts some restraint on eutectic cell growth.
In low phosphorus irons it increases eutectic cell count.
It stabilizes pearlite.
It increases tensile strength.
Beyond amount required to stabilize pearlite, it reduces tensile strength.
It increases BHN.
It does not appreciably increase chill in amounts up to 0.50% (20).
It does not increase chill.

TITANIUM:

It refined graphite.
It promotes formation of undercooled, Type “D” graphite.
It produces Types “D” and “E” graphite.
It reduces state of nucleation.
It refines secondary dendrite arm spacing in both malleable and ductile iron.
It refines secondary dendrite arm spacing in gray iron.
It nucleates austenitic dendrites.
It produces short, random, loosely packed dendrites.
It segregates out of the solidifying eutectic cells.
It coarsens eutectic cell size.
It reduces eutectic cell count.
It reduces cell growth restriction of sulfur.
It strengthens ferrite.
It increases percentage of ferrite.
Maximum transverse strength is obtained at 0.02% titanium.
Maximum tensile strength is obtained at 0.02% titanium.
It increases strength.
It reduces tensile strength up to 0.10% titanium and then increases it.
It increases hardness slightly.
Maximum hardness is obtained at 0.02% titanium.
For low sulfur iron, it reduces chill.
Large amounts of titanium increase chill.
It increases under cooling.
It increases chill.

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TUNGSTEN:

It stabilizes pearlite.
It increases tensile strength.
It increases BHN.
It has little effect on chill.

URANIUM:

Large amounts produce mesh-like graphite.

It might increase strength at or below 0.50%.

VANADIUM:

It refined graphite flake size.

Large additions reduced the number of flakes.
It produced branched dendrites.
Primary dendrite arms were slender and elongated.
Secondary dendrite arms were distinct.
It produced long, loosely packed, and oriented dendrites.
It decreased eutectic cell size.
It increased pearlite percentage.
It refined pearlite.
It improved transverse strength.
It improved tensile strength.
It increased hardness.

ZINC:

Up to 0.10%, it had no effect on graphite size, shape or distribution.

Up to 0.10%, it had no effect on eutectic cell count.
It increased ferrite content.
0.05% Zn with 1.00% copper had little effect on strength.
Larger amounts reduce strength.
It reduced strength.
Larger additions increase hardness.
Up to 0.10% it had no effect on chill.

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ZIRCONIUM:

It promotes formation of Type “D” graphite.

It retards primary austenite formation.
It refines secondary dendrite arm spacing.
It produces short, random, loosely packed dendrites.
It may nucleate austenite.
It decreased eutectic cell count.
It increases pearlite content.
It had little effect on strength.

CHARGE MATERIALS AND MELTING CONDITIONS:

Oxidized charge materials promote Type “D” graphite.

Excessive air – coke ratios (in cupola) promote Type “D” graphite.
Water vapor in melting atmosphere promotes Type “D” graphite.
Non – graphite containing materials (steel) or materials containing poorly
developed graphite promote Type “D” graphite.
Steel has lower state of graphite nucleation than pig iron.
Smaller scrap promotes formation of undercooled graphite.
Impurities in scrap and pig iron may affect graphite.
Oxidized charge materials coarsen dendrites.
Excessive air – coke ratios (in cupola) coarsen dendrites.
Water vapor in melting atmosphere coarsens dendrites.
Oxidizing melting conditions promote the formation of thick, short, random
dendrites.
Steel additions do not increase strength.
Steel additions increase tensile properties in both cupola and induction furnace
melted irons.
Increasing percentages of steel increase relative hardness.
Steel additions increase BHN in both cupola and induction furnace melted irons.
Non – graphite containing materials (steel) or materials containing poorly
developed graphite increase chill and under cooling.
Pig iron in charge reduces chill.

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SUPERHEAT:

Increasing superheat temperature destroys effective graphite nuclei.

Increases in superheat promote Type “D” graphite.
Too low superheat promotes Type “D” graphite.
There is an optimum superheat temperature below or above which there are less
effective graphite nuclei.
Increases in superheat coarsen dendrites.
Increases in superheat delay the formation of primary austenite.
Increasing superheat decreases eutectic cell count.
Maximum relative strength is obtained with 1500 – 1550 oC superheat.
Variation in superheat temperature has little effect on BHN.
Under cooling increases with superheat temperature.
Chill increases with increasing superheat temperature.

HOLDING TIME AND TEMPERATURE:

Increasing holding time reduces nucleation of graphite.

Increasing holding time refines flake graphite.
As holding time increases graphite coarsens.
Increasing holding time promotes Type “D” graphite.
Different holding times did not affect graphite size, shape and distribution.
Increasing holding temperature reduces graphite nucleation and refines flakes.
Increasing holding time coarsens dendrites.
Short holding times produce long dendrites.
Long holding times resulted in short, scarcely branched dendrites.
Increasing holding time reduces eutectic cell count.
Higher holding temperature causes decrease in eutectic cell count.
Eutectic cell count increased with holding time.
Different holding times did not affect matrix.
Increased tensile strength with higher holding temperatures since lower C.E.
Tensile strength decreases with longer holding time after inoculation.
Tensile strength decreased with holding time.
Increasing holding time slightly increase hardness.
Holding time had no effect on hardness.
Increasing holding time either increases or decreases chill.
Low holding temperature has little effect on chill.
Chill increases at higher holding temperatures.

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POURING TEMPERATURE:

Higher pouring temperature reduces graphite nucleation.

Higher pouring temperature coarsens graphite.
Lower pouring temperatures promote dendritic graphite formation.
Higher pouring temperatures produce long dendrites.
Lower pouring temperatures result in short, scarcely branched dendrites.
Higher pouring temperature decrease eutectic cell count.
Lower pouring temperatures increase eutectic cell count.
Lower pouring temperatures promote ferrite.
Variations in pouring temperature have little effect on matrix.
Lower pouring temperatures reduce tensile strength mainly in higher strength gray
irons.
Little change in hardness with pouring temperature.
Higher pouring temperatures reduce under cooling.
Chill increases with increasing pouring temperature.

GASSING AND VACUUM TREATMENT:

Gassing with argon (Ar), nitrogen (N2), ammonia (NH3) and carbon - dioxide
(CO2) produces increasing amounts of finer, interdendritic graphite.
Holding in H2 atmosphere produces long, coarse graphite flakes.
Holding in NH3 atmosphere produces short, coarse graphite flakes.
Holding in O2 atmosphere coarsened graphite flakes.
Vacuum degassing produces finer graphite and a more uniform distribution.
Vacuum degassing results in shorter graphite flakes.
Vacuum degassing reduces eutectic cell count.
Gassing with argon (Ar), nitrogen (N2), ammonia (NH3) and carbon dioxide (CO2)
increases the percentage of ferrite.
Holding in H2 and NH3 atmospheres resulted in pearlitic matrices.
Holding in O2 atmosphere resulted in the formation of slightly more ferrite.
Vacuum degassing increases ferrite content.
Gassing with argon (Ar) and CO2 decreased transverse strength.
Gassing with nitrogen (N2) and ammonia (NH3) increased transverse strength.
Vacuum treating increases transverse strength.
Depending on gas treatment, hardness can increase or decrease.
Vacuum degassing decreases hardness.
Vacuum degassing reduces chill.

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COOLING RATE / SECTION SIZE:

Increased cooling rate increases graphite nucleation and strongly refines graphite.
Faster cooling results in more Type “D” graphite.
Graphite flake length increases with section size.
Faster cooling rates (thin sections) produce fine dendrites.
Slower cooling rates (thick sections) produce coarser, divorced dendrites.
Increased cooling rates increase eutectic cell count.
When solidification occurs over a wide temperature range there is a large
variation in eutectic cell size.
Eutectic cell count decreases with increasing section size.
Slower cooling rates (thick sections) increase the amount of ferrite.
Tensile strength decreases as section size increases.
Transverse strength decreases as section size increases.
Hardness decreases with increasing section size.
Increased cooling rate increases undercooling.

VIBRATION AND ROTATION:

Vibration increases nucleation and coarsens graphite.

Vibration produces uniform graphite distribution.
Rotation enhances Type “D” graphite formation.
Vibration produces shorter graphite flakes.
Vibration breaks up primary austenitic dendrites which then act as nuclei for
additional austenite solidification.
Rotation produces long, columnar dendrites.
Vibration increases eutectic cell count.
Vibration produces eutectic cells of more uniform size.
Rotation reduces eutectic cell count.
Vibration decreases eutectic cell count in inoculated irons.
Strength increased with vibration of uninoculated irons.
Strength decreases in vibrated inoculated irons.
Vibration reduces differences in hardness across a casting.
Vibration decreases undercooling.
Rotation promotes undercooling.

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INOCULATION:

Inoculation coarsens graphite.

It increases percentage of Type “A” graphite.
It improves graphite distribution.
Increases number and potency of graphite nuclei.
Dendrites become smaller, more uniform and evenly distributed but lack
directionality.
It produces long, oriented, compact dendrites.
It decreased dendrite arm spacing and thickness.
It increased dendrite uniformity.
It had little effect on directionality.
It reduced dendrite arm spacing.
It increases eutectic cell count.
It promotes formation of coarse pearlite.
It improves tensile strength with improvement increasing at lower C.E.’s.
It increases tensile strength.
More effective inoculants generally produce higher hardness.
It increases BHN.
It decreases chill.
It decreases undercooling.

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 MAXIMUM TOLERABLE LIMITS OF VARIOUS ELEMENTS (%)

Element Gray Iron Ductile Iron

+ ½ -inch -½ -inch Ferritic Pearlitic
(+ 12.5 mm) (- 12.5 mm)
Sulfur 0.120 0.100 0.040 0.040
Phosphorus 0.200 0.200 0.050 0.080
Manganese 1.000 1.000 0.250 0.500
Chromium 0.500 0.200 0.050 0.100
Copper 1.500 1.500 0.150 1.500
Nickel 3.000 3.000 0.500 3.000
Tin 0.150 0.100 0.020 0.100
Lead 0.001 0.004 0.002 0.004
Antimony 0.030 0.030 0.002 0.030
Bismuth 0.001 0.002 0.001 0.030
Boron 0.050 0.100 0.005 0.050
Tellurium 0.001 0.001 0.010 0.010
Selenium 0.060 0.040 0.030 0.030
Vanadium 0.500 0.100 0.020 0.100
Molybdenum 1.000 0.250 0.050 0.500
Zinc 0.200 0.100 0.100 0.200
Aluminum 0.010 0.010 0.020 0.020
Arsenic 0.100 0.050 0.020 0.100
Titanium 0.050 0.050 0.050 0.050
Cobalt 3.000 3.000 0.500 3.000
Cadmium 0.005 0.005 0.005 0.005

Each level quoted is as an individual element but care should be exercised with
respect to the additive effects of elements.

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