Revision

Sample Questions
 Variation in Mechanical Properties
Assess the influence of the following on the mechanical properties such as hardness,
tensile strength, impact strength etc.

• Composition
• Heat Treatment
• Grain size
• Alloying

The two most important factors which affect hardenability of steel are:
1) alloy content:
2) austenite grain size
 Variation in Mechanical properties
• Austenite – Martensite: diffusion-less process
• Austenite – Pearlite: Diffusion based process
: Requires nucleation sites
Nucleation point : When 3 or more grain boundaries
Intersect

Small Grain Size:

Small grain size - more number of grains and more nucleation sites.
Easier to form pearlite. Hence with finer grain size the pearlite nose of the TTT diagram shifts
to the left which reduces the hardenability of the steel.

Larger Grain size:

Less number of grain boundary intersection points available
difficult to form pearlite
Therefore the nose of the pearlite curve of the TTT diagram shifts to the right and hence, the
hardenability of coarse grain structures is higher.
 Hardenability
Factors affecting Hardenability
• Slowing the phase transformation of austenite to ferrite and pearlite increases the
hardenability of steels.
• The most important variables which influence hardenability are
1. Austenite grain size – 2. Carbon content – 3. Alloying elements

The hardenability increases with increasing

austenite grain size, because the grain
boundary area which act as nucleating site is
decreasing.
This means that the sites for the nucleation of
ferrite and pearlite are being reduced in
number, with the result that these
transformations are slowed down, and the
hardenability is therefore increased.
 Hardenability
Carbon Content
• Carbon is primarily a hardening agent in steel.
• It also increases hardenability by slowing the formation of pearlite and ferrite.
• But its use at higher levels is limited, because of the lack of toughness which results in
greater difficulties in fabrication and, most important, increased probability of distortion and
cracking during heat treatment and welding.

Effect of Alloying Elements

• most metallic alloying elements slow down the ferrite and pearlite reactions, and so also
increase hardenability. Chromium, Molybdenum, Manganese, Silicon, Nickel and Vanadium all
effect the hardenability of steels in this manner.

• Boron can be an effective alloy for improving hardenability at levels as low as .0005%. –
Boron is most effective in steels of 0.25% Carbon or less. – Boron combines readily with both
Nitrogen and Oxygen and in so doing its effect on hardenability is sacrificed. – Therefore Boron
must remain in solution in order to be affective. – Aluminum and Titanium are commonly
added as "gettering" agents to react with the Oxygen and Nitrogen in preference to the Boron.
 Hardenability
Effect of Alloying Elements continued
• The most economical way of increasing the hardenability of plain carbon steel is to
increase the manganese content, from 0.60 wt% to 1.40 wt%, giving a substantial
improvement in hardenability.
• Hardenability of a steel increases with addition of alloying elements such as Cr, V,
Mo, Ni, W TTT diagram moves to the right. temperature Cr, Mo, W, Ni time.

The alloying elements delay the austenite-pearlite and/or bainite reactions, which
permits more martensite to form for a particular cooling rate, yielding a greater
hardness.
Increasing metals strength
 Problems on TTT and CCT diagram
Based on the transformation diagrams for eutectoid steel shown below, what microstructure
would result from the following cooling histories? Assume the steel starts above the eutectoid
temperature. Distiguish between coarse and fine pearlite when applicable.
 Problems on TTT and CCT diagram
a) Rapidly cooled to 600˚C, held for 7 seconds. Then rapidly cooled to 450˚C and held for
an additional 10 seconds. Quenched to room temperature.
80% Fine Pearlite, 10% Martensite, 10% Bainite.

b) Rapidly cooled to 600˚C, held for 1 minute, then rapidly cooled to 450˚C and held for 10
seconds. Quenched to room temperature. (2 pts)
100% Fine Pearlite. Once this transformation has occurred, no further transformation will.

c) Rapidly cooled to 600˚C, held for 7 seconds, then rapidly cooled to 170˚C and held for 1 hour.
Quenched to room temperature.
80% Fine Pearlite, 20% Martensite

d) Rapidly cooled to 700˚C, held for an hour and a half, then rapidly cooled to 570˚C and
held for 10 seconds. Quenched to room temperature.
50% Coarse Pearlite, 50% Fine Pearlite

e) Cooled at a rate of 10˚C/s.

100% Pearlite
Heat Treatment Processes
Alloying
Ferrous alloy microstructure
Cast irons