KWAME NKRUMAH UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY,

KUMASI

INSTITUTE OF DISTANCE LEARNING

COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

ME 396 MECHANICAL ENGINEERING LAB IV

CANDIDATE NAME:……………………………………………………………….

CANDIDATE’S INDEX NUMBER:………………………………………………..

FACILITATION CENTER: KUMASI

FACILITATAOR: PROF. A. K. SUNNU

JULY, 2021
INTRODUCTION
Overview
Experimentation and testing are at the root of modern engineering practice. While computer
modelling allows significant analysis and design to be completed prior to hardware testing, the
need for proper testing and experimentation is as great as it has ever been. Laboratory work is
vital for improving and developing products and processes, validating designs and for gaining
fundamental understanding of how materials, parts, components or systems will behave under
a variety of conditions. As such it is essential that mechanical engineering students be able to
work productively in this setting.

This course is designed to expose students to experimental equipment, data collection and
reporting which supports the theoretical background obtained and to reinforce concepts
presented in the following courses: ME 366 Heat Transfer, ME 352 Fluid Mechanics II, ME
356 Strength of Materials II, and ME 362 Vibrations I.

The purpose of this booklet is to provide a reference for students that is applicable in all
engineering laboratories exposing students to the standards of laboratory practise and reporting.
This booklet is therefore a mandatory requirement before carrying out any Mechanical
laboratory experiment.

Course Objective
Students will work with pre-arranged experiments and new experimental setups designed,
supervised by a lab technician and will collect experimental results and analyze and interpret
the data. The objectives of the course is:
To understand how certain measuring devices are used for dynamic testing.
To teach students how to present experimental results clearly and succinctly written reports.
To teach standard lab procedures such as safety, use of computers in data acquisition, and
thoughtful interpretation of the results.
To integrate the concepts, laws, and methodologies from the previous semester course in
heat transfer into the analysis of cyclic processes.
To apply the thermodynamic concepts into various thermal applications like air
compressors and centrifugal pumps.
To supplement and apply the principles learned in kinematics and dynamics of machinery
and strength of materials.
To train and test students on data collection skills.
To provide an environment for students to work in teams.

Laboratory safety
Obviously, safety is of paramount importance and must never be compromised. Students must
NEVER work alone in any laboratory or workshop, and before working they must receive
permission from the lab technician or staff. Proper attire is mandatory in laboratory and
workshop settings.

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Report Writing
ME 396 is to both provide a personal experience of the physical principles and also teach
students practical communicate their findings in a clear, concise manner with easily identifiable
objectives, metrics, and results. All lab reports should be written using the same format.

Introduction
This briefly describes the experiment from the context of the background, problem/ parameters
to be investigated, relevance of the experiment to engineering design and processes and
industrial or real-life application of the concepts.
Aim and specific objectives.
This presents what the experiment seeks to accomplish and what parameters are to be measured
and analysed to achieve the aim of the experiment.
Setup and Equipment
All apparatus and materials used in carrying out the experiment are to be listed in this session.
Diagrams of the experimental setup or equipment are to be illustrated.
Theory
This explains the relevant theory that describes the physical principle of the experiment.
Equations are derived to show the relationship between variables measured and should explain
how the results are calculated and analysed to achieve the objective of the experiment. Students
are to demonstrate an understanding of the concepts behind the experiment as related to the
theoretical knowledge from the classroom.
Procedure
This explains the measurement techniques, equipment used, and procedures to be employed in
the experiment. All laboratory precautionary steps are to be observed accordingly and
documented under Precautions.
Results and Analysis
This section summarizes and display the results of the experiment. This section should be
purely factual, where the results are displayed primarily in the form of graphs. Describe the
results clearly and concisely. Do you see expected trends? Figures and graphs should be
numbered and have a caption/ title below. Use tables if appropriate and captioned at the top.
Discussion and conclusion
This examines whether the experiment satisfied the stated purpose, and explains observations.
Explain any differences observed between theory (or accepted experimental data) and
experimental results, what are the implications of the results? How could they be used in the
future? What different methods could you use in the future? The conclusion briefly states if the
aim and objectives of the experiment was achieved and its implication.
Reference
Information from external sources (i.e, other than the lab manual or your own work), should
be listed here and be sure to cite these references using appropriate bibliographic style.

Reference
University of Portland, School of Engineering, (2009) Mechanical Engineering Laboratory
Handbook
Lab Report Format, College of Engineering http://www.bu.edu/eng/departments/me/general-
resources-students/current-undergraduate-students/lab-report-format/#titlepage

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LABORATORY ATTENDANCE
S.N. EXPERIMENT NAME OF LAB. SIGNATURE DATE
TECHNICIAN
1 Buckling load of a pinned-
end strut
2 The effect of end
conditions on the buckling
load
3 Circular bending
experiment
4 Resonance frequency with
inactive dynamic absorber.
5 Heat transfer experiment
6 Performance characteristics
of the centrifugal pump
7 Effect of mass on a
vibrating system
8 Whirling speed of an
unloaded shaft with fixed-
fixed ends.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................................................... i
Overview .............................................................................................................................................. i
Course Objective.................................................................................................................................. i
Laboratory safety ................................................................................................................................. i
Report Writing .................................................................................................................................... ii
LABORATORY ATTENDANCE ........................................................................................................ iii
TABLE OF CONTENTS ....................................................................................................................... iv
LIST OF FIGURES ............................................................................................................................... vi
1.0 BUCKLING LOAD OF A PINNED-END STRUT ......................................................................... 1
1.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................................... 1
1.2 Aim and specific objectives .......................................................................................................... 1
1.3 Setup and Equipment .................................................................................................................... 1
1.4 Theory ........................................................................................................................................... 1
1.5 Procedure ...................................................................................................................................... 2
1.6 Results and Analysis ..................................................................................................................... 3
1.7 Discussion ..................................................................................................................................... 7
1.8 Conclusion .................................................................................................................................... 7
2.0 THE EFFECT OF END CONDITIONS ON THE BUCKLING LOAD.......................................... 8
2.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................................... 8
2.2 Aim and specific objectives .......................................................................................................... 8
2.3 Setup and Equipment .................................................................................................................... 8
2.4 Theory ........................................................................................................................................... 9
2.5 Procedure ...................................................................................................................................... 9
2.6 Results and Analysis ................................................................................................................... 10
2.7 Discussion ................................................................................................................................... 15
2.8 Conclusion .................................................................................................................................. 15
3.0 CIRCULAR BENDING EXPERIMENT ....................................................................................... 16
3.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................................. 16
3.2 Aim and specific objectives ........................................................................................................ 16
3.3 Setup and Equipment .................................................................................................................. 16
3.4 Theory ......................................................................................................................................... 16
3.5 Procedure .................................................................................................................................... 17
3.6 Results and Analysis ................................................................................................................... 18
3.7 Discussion ................................................................................................................................... 20
3.8 Conclusion .................................................................................................................................. 20
4.0 RESONANCE FREQUENCY WITH INACTIVE DYNAMIC ABSORBER. ............................. 21
4.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................................. 21
4.2 Aim and specific objectives: ....................................................................................................... 21
4.3 Setup and Equipment .................................................................................................................. 21
4.4 Theory ......................................................................................................................................... 22

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 4.5 Procedure: ................................................................................................................................... 22
4.6 Results and Analysis ................................................................................................................... 24
4.7 Discussions ................................................................................................................................. 25
4.8 Conclusion .................................................................................................................................. 25
5.0 HEAT TRANSFER EXPERIMENT ........................................................................................ 26
5.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................................. 26
5.2 Aim and specific objectives ........................................................................................................ 26
5.3 Experimental Setup ..................................................................................................................... 26
5.4 Theory ......................................................................................................................................... 27
5.5 Procedure .................................................................................................................................... 29
5.6 Results and Analysis ................................................................................................................... 30
5.7 Discussion ................................................................................................................................... 39
5.8 Conclusion .................................................................................................................................. 39
6. PERFORMANCE CHARACTERISTICS OF THE CENTRIFUGAL PUMP ............................ 40
6.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................................. 40
6.2 Aim and specific objectives ........................................................................................................ 41
6.3 Setup and Equipment .................................................................................................................. 41
6.4Theory .......................................................................................................................................... 42
6.4 Procedure .................................................................................................................................... 43
6.5 Results and Analysis ................................................................................................................... 44
6.6 Discussion ................................................................................................................................... 48
6.7 Conclusion .................................................................................................................................. 48
7.0 EFFECT OF MASS ON A VIBRATING SYSTEM ...................................................................... 49
7.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................................. 49
7.2 Aim and specific objectives ........................................................................................................ 49
7.3 Setup and Equipment ............................................................................................................ 49
7.4 Theory ......................................................................................................................................... 50
7.5 Procedure .................................................................................................................................... 52
7.6 Results and Analysis ................................................................................................................... 52
7.7 Discussion ................................................................................................................................... 54
7.8 Conclusion .................................................................................................................................. 54
8.0 WHIRLING SPEED OF AN UNLOADED SHAFT WITH FIXED-FIXED ENDS. .................... 55
8.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................................. 55
8.2 Aim and specific objectives ........................................................................................................ 55
8.3 Setup and Equipment .................................................................................................................. 55
8.4 Theory ......................................................................................................................................... 55
8.5 Procedure .................................................................................................................................... 56
8.6 Results and Analysis ................................................................................................................... 58
8.7 Discussion ................................................................................................................................... 62
8.8 Conclusion .................................................................................................................................. 62

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LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1. 1Experimental Layout (pinned ends) and Buckling load apparatus .......................... 2

Figure 2. 1 Experimental setup ................................................................................................. 8

Figure 2. 2 Diagrams on buckling load experiments ................................................................ 9

Figure 3. 1 Circular bending set-up schematics ...................................................................... 16

Figure 3. 2 Radius of curvature............................................................................................... 17

Figure 4. 1 Experimental setup……………………………………………………………21

Figure 5. 2 Schematic diagram of experimental setup ............................................................ 26

Figure 5. 1 Cross sectional view of circular pipe.................................................................... 27

Figure 6. 1 Schematic diagram of a centrifugal pump ............................................................. 40

Figure 6. 2 Curves for a typical Centrifugal pump .................................................................. 41
Figure 6. 3 Experimental setup ................................................................................................ 43

Figure 7. 1 Free body diagram ................................................................................................ 50

Figure 7. 2 Free body diagram ................................................................................................. 51

Figure 8. 1 Experimental set up .............................................................................................. 55

Figure 8. 2 Schematic diagram of shaft deflection ................................................................. 56
Figure 8. 3 Deflection in the various mode............................................................................. 57

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1.0 BUCKLING LOAD OF A PINNED-END STRUT

1.1 Introduction
A strut is a structural member (usually long and slender) that is loaded axially in compression.
It may be loaded vertically, horizontally, or even vertically. Depending on the kind of material
a strut is made of, its geometry, and the manner and extent to which it is loaded, a strut may
fail by buckling. Buckling is a phenomena characterized by the collapsing of a long slender
structural member by folding around the point of maximum deflection in the member.
Due to the catastrophic effects of buckling in structural struts in real life, it is prudent that
engineers be able to speculate the manner and extent to which structural struts may be loaded
without them buckling. Fortunately, enough, over the years, a lot of studies have been done in
this area and many equations have been derived to help engineers and designers predict the
failure or workability of struts even before they are applied to real design. Among the numerous
equations developed in the area of strut buckling are the Euler’s deflection equations which
have proven very useful to engineers in this field.
In the experiment that follows, the accuracy of Euler’s equations is tested by comparing some
theoretically calculated parameter (maximum lateral deflection) in the equation with actual
experimentally obtained values.

1.2 Aim and specific objectives

To compare the theoretical and experimental deflection curves of a strut subjected to:
• Establish the relationship between strut length and the buckling load.
1.3 Setup and Equipment
A Vernier caliper, Norwood strut testing apparatus, a meter rule, dial gauge, test rod (mild
steel)

In Fig. 1.1 below show the buckling of struts experimental setup.

1.4 Theory
The experiment was carried out to see if Euler's prediction could be relied upon in practice.
When the applied load reaches the critical load elastic buckling occurs. Euler prediction for
pin-end strut is given by

𝜋 2 EI
Pe = , where:
𝐿2

Pe = Euler’s Buckling load (N)

E = Young’s modulus (N𝑚−1)
I = Second moment of Area (𝑚4 )
L = Length of strut (m)

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Figure 1. 1Experimental Layout (pinned ends) and Buckling load apparatus

1.5 Procedure
1. Fit the bottom chuck to the machine and remove the top chuck (to give 2 pinned ends)
2. Select the shortest strut number 1 and measure the cross section using a Vernier and
calculate the second moment of area I for the strut.
3. Adjust the position of the crosshead to accept the strut using the thumbnuts to lock off
the slider and ensure there is maximum amount of travel available on the hand wheel
thread to compress the strut and tighten the locking screws.
4. Carefully back off the hand wheel so that the strut is resting in the notch with no load
transmission but setting the force meter to zero using the zero control.
5. Carefully start to load the strut. If the strut begins to buckle to the left, flick it to the
right to reduce some errors. Keep turning the hand wheel until there is no further
increase in load
6. Record the final load and repeat the same procedure for strut number 2, 3, 4 and 5
adjusting the crosshead as required to fit the strut.
7. Try loading each strut several times until a consistent result for each strut is achieved

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1.6 Results and Analysis

1.5.1 Experimental Results

Table 1.1 Results of load against deflection for offset loading
STRUT No Length (mm) Buckling load (N) Theoretical load (N) 1/l2 (mm-2)

1 320
2 370
3 420
4 470
5 520

1.5.2 Theoretical Calculations for Buckling Load

Height of strut, h = ……………………………………..
Breath =………………………………….
Length of strut, L
Modulus of Elasticity, E = 𝟔𝟗𝑮 𝑵/𝒎𝟐
𝑏𝑑3
Second moment of area for rod = = ……………………………
12
𝜋𝐸𝐼
Euler buckling load formula 𝑃𝑒 = 𝐿2
𝑙
Slenderness ratio = 𝑘

Where k=the radius of gyration.

Using the Euler buckling load formula determine the theoretical Pe for the following lengths
below:
For length 320mm=0.32m

For length 370mm=0.37m

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For length 420mm=0.42m

For length 470mm=0.47m

For length 520mm=0.52m

• Plot a graph of buckling load against 1/l 2 of the strut.

• Plot a graph of theoretical load against 1/l 2 of the strut.

• Compare your experimental values and discuss the results.

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TITLE:............................................................................................................................................... MECH ENG. - KNUST
Precautions
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1.7 Discussion
Analysis, Observations and Comments
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1.8 Conclusion
Additional comments, recommendations and conclusions;
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REFERENCES
Strength of Materials, Stephen P. Timoshenko, 1993.
engineeringtoolbox.com
earlier experimental work done by other groups

7
2.0 THE EFFECT OF END CONDITIONS ON THE BUCKLING LOAD

2.1 Introduction
Short compression members will fail once the stress exceeds the compressive yield strength of
the material. However, long compression members will fail due to buckling before the yield
strength of the member is reached. Buckling occurs suddenly, and is characterized by large
deflections perpendicular to the axis of the column. A simple way to demonstrate column
buckling is to hold a ruler at either end and to push your hands toward one another. The ruler
will buckle at the center.

In this experiment struts are loaded until they buckle, investigating the effect of the length of
the strut. To predict the buckling load we used the Euler buckling formulae.

2.2 Aim and specific objectives

Aim: This experiment test struts with different fixing conditions and compare results to the
Euler formulae.

Specific Objective: To investigate the effect of end conditions on the buckling load.

2.3 Setup and Equipment

Meter rule, Alan key, Struts of varying length, Chuck (see Fig. 2.1).

Figure 2. 1 Experimental setup

8
2.4 Theory
The strut provided have a slender ratio (l/k) of between 520 and 870 to show clearly the
buckling load and the deflected shape of the struts. In practice struts with an l/k ratio of more
than 200 are of little are of little use in real structures. We will use the Euler buckling formula
for a pinned strut:
Pe = πEI/L2
Pe = Euler buckling load (N)
E = Young’s modulus (Nm-1)
I = Second moment of area (m4)
L = Length of strut (m)

a. Experimental Layout for pinned-fixed conditions. b) Experimental Layout for fixed-

fixed end conditions rapport
Figure 2. 2 Diagrams on buckling load experiments

2.5 Procedure

1. Select the shortest strut, number 1, and measure the cross section using the vernier
provided and calculate the second moment of area, I, for the strut.
2. Adjust the position of the sliding crosshead to accept the strut using the thumbnuts to
lock off the slider. Ensure that there is the maximum amount of travel available on the
handwheel thread to compress the strut. Finally tighten the locking screws.
3. Carefully back off the handwheel so that the strut is resting in the notch but not
transmitting any load; rezero the forcemeter using the front panel control.

9
 4. Carefully start to load the strut. If the strut begins to buckle to the left, “flick” the strut
to the right and vice versa (this reduces any errors associated with the straightness of
the strut). Turn the handwheel until there is no further increase in load (the load may
peak and then drop as it settles into the notches).
5. Record the final load under “buckling load” and calculate the values of 1/L2 for the
struts. Repeat with strut numbers 2, 3, 4 and 5 adjusting the crosshead as required to fit
the strut. Take more care with the shorter struts, as the difference between the buckling
load and the load needed to obtain plastic deformation is quite small. Try loading each
strut several times until a consistent result for each strut is achieved.
6. Following the above procedure as experiment one, Remove the bottom chuck and
clamp the specimen using the cap head screw and plate to make a pinned – fixed end
condition. Record your results and calculate the new values of 1/L2 for the struts. Repeat
with strut numbers 2, 3, 4 and 5 adjusting the crosshead as required to fit the strut.
7. Now fit the top chuck with the two cap head screws and clamp both ends of the
specimen, again this will reduce the experimental length of the specimen. Record your
results and calculate the new values of 1/L2 for the struts. Repeat with strut numbers 2,
3, 4 and 5 adjusting the crosshead as required to fit the strut.

NOTE: Do not continue to load the struts after the buckling load has been reached
otherwise the struts will become permanently deformed.

b. Plot separate graphs of buckling load versus 1/L2 and calculate the gradient of each
line.
c. Establish ratios between each end condition (taking the pinned- pinned (Exp. 1)
condition as 1).
d. Conclude whether the Euler buckling formulae predicts the load for each condition
and if the experimental and theoretical ratios are similar.

2.6 Results and Analysis

Table 2.1 Pinned-fixed condition

Strut number Length Buckling load 1/L2
(mm) (N) (m-2)
1 300
2 350
3 400
4 450
5 500

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TITLE:............................................................................................................................................... MECH ENG. - KNUST
TITLE:............................................................................................................................................... MECH ENG. - KNUST
TITLE:............................................................................................................................................... MECH ENG. - KNUST
Theoretical buckling load (Pinned-fixed) Theoretical buckling load (fixed-fixed)
For length 300mm For length 280mm

For length 350mm For length 330mm

For length 400mm For length 380mm

For length 450mm For length 430mm

For length 500mm For length 480mm

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Precautions
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2.7 Discussion
Analysis, Observations and Comments
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2.8 Conclusion
Additional comments, recommendations and conclusions;
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2.9 References
Engineering Mechanics by Braja M. Das
Elements of Strength of Material by Timoshenko and Young
Strength of Material and Structures by John Case and A.H Chilver

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3.0 CIRCULAR BENDING EXPERIMENT
3.1 Introduction
Beams and shafts are important structural and mechanical elements in engineering. Members
that are slender and support loadings that are applied perpendicular to their longitudinal axis
are called beams. In general, beams are long, straight bars having a constant cross-sectional
area. Often, they are classified based on how they are supported. Beams are considered among
the most important of all structural elements. They are used to support the floor of a building,
the deck of a bridge, or the wing of an aircraft. Also, the axle of an automobile, the boom of a
crane, even many of the bones of the body act as beams.
3.2 Aim and specific objectives
Aim: In this experiment, we are applying the loads to a simply supported beam at its ends to
produce circular bending.
Specific Objectives: This experiment will establish the important relationship between M/I and
1/R and to derive the Young’s Modulus for each material.

3.3 Setup and Equipment

The Setup consist of a strut (aluminum brass and steel) mounted on two supports 400mm apart
which is loaded on the ends to induce circular bending in the material which will be detected
by the digital dial test indicator.

Figure 3. 1 Circular bending set-up

3.4 Theory
The following formula willing be used
𝑀 𝐸
1. =𝑅
𝐼
where;
M = Applied moment (Nm)
I = second moment of area of cantilever (m4)
R = radius of curvature (m)
E = Young’s Modulus for cantilever material (Nm-2)

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 𝐶 2 + 4ℎ2
R= 8ℎ

C = Chord (m),
h = Height of chord (m)/ Deflection in strut measured by the digital dial test indicator
𝑏𝑑3
2. I = 12
Where; b = width of the beam
d = depth of the beam

Figure 3. 2 Schematic of circular bending and Radius of curvature

3.5 Procedure
Using a vernier caliper, measure and record the width and depth of the aluminum, brass and
steel test beams.. For each material, record the values next to the results tables and use the to
calculate the second moment of area (I)
Setup the beam as shown in figure 3.1
Slide the digital dial test indicator into position on the beam and lock using the thumbnut at the
rear.
Slide the knife – edge hanger on each end of the beam as shown.
Tap the frame lightly and zero the digital dial test indicator using the ‘origin’ button. Tapping
the frame lightly each time, apply masses to the knife-edge hangers in increments of 100g.
Record the digital dial test indicator reading for each increment of mass
Repeat the procedure for each of the specimen materials filling in a new table.

17
3.6 Results and Analysis
Experimental results for Aluminum
Aluminum E=……Nm-2 b = ……mm d = ……mm I = …………………m4
Masses at Deflection Applied Curvature 1 𝑀
𝑥 109
each end (g) (mm) moment radius (m) 𝑅 𝐼
(Nm)
0
100
200
300
400
500

Experimental results for Brass

Brass E=……Nm-2 b = ……mm d = ……mm I = …………………m4
Masses at Deflection Applied Curvature 1 𝑀
𝑥 109
each end (g) (mm) moment radius (m) 𝑅 𝐼
(Nm)

Experimental results for Steel

Steel E=……Nm-2 b = ……mm d = ……mm I = …………………m4
Masses at Deflection Applied Curvature 1 𝑀
𝑥 109
each end (g) (mm) moment radius (m) 𝑅 𝐼
(Nm)

Calculate the applied moment in Nm. From the deflection calculate values for the radius of
curvature in m. Complete the table and Plot on the same graph M/I against 1/R for the 3
materials. Is this a linear relationship? If so what is the value of the gradient?

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TITLE:............................................................................................................................................... MECH ENG. - KNUST
Precautions
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3.7 Discussion
Analysis, Observations and Comments
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3.8 Conclusion
Additional comments, recommendations and conclusions;
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Reference
TecQuipment,2008. STR4 Defection of Beams and cantilevers

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4.0 RESONANCE FREQUENCY WITH INACTIVE DYNAMIC ABSORBER.
4.1 Introduction
When an absorbing mass-spring system is attached to the main mass and the resonance of the
absorber is tuned to match that of the main mass, the motion of the main mass is reduced to
zero at its resonance frequency. Thus, the energy of the main mass is apparently "absorbed"
by the tuned dynamic absorber. It is interesting to note that the motion of the absorber is
finite at this resonance frequency, even though there is NO damping in either oscillator. This
is because the system has changed from a 1-DOF system to a 2-DOF system and now has two
resonance frequencies, neither of which equals the original resonance frequency of the main
mass (and also the absorber).

4.2 Aim and specific objectives:

To determine through experimental running, and to compare this to theoretical values.

4.3 Setup and Equipment

HAC90 – Tachometer
HAC110- Speed controller
HAC130
HVT12F
Spring
Viscous Damper
Electric Motor
Suspension weight (100g each)

Figure 4. 1 Experimental setup

21
4.4 Theory

𝒌𝒎
𝝎𝒎 = √
𝒎𝒄

𝑪𝒎
ζm =
(𝟐√𝒎𝒄 𝒌𝒎 )

2
𝝎𝒅 = 𝝎𝒄 √𝟏 − ζ𝑐
1
T=𝐹

Wm = g/l

Where
Wm = natural frequency
Km = spring constant
Mc = mass
Wd = Damping frequency
T = period of oscillation

4.5 Procedure:
1. Setup the apparatus as shown in figure 1. Firmly tighten all screws and ensure the
beam is levelled.
2. Make all connections to the HAC90, HAC110, and HAC130.
3. With the dynamic absorber attached as shown in figure 2 make sure that the mass
holder and the suspended weight are fitted as close to the beam as possible by sliding
and fixing them towards the beam. This will make the dynamic absorber inactive and
induce minimal effect on the beam vibrations.
4. Ensure the damper stem is installed and the damping discs fitted. Make sure oil is
present in the damping tub.
5. By using a two-channel storage oscilloscope (or optionally available HVT12k data
acquisition system- see separate instruction manual) check that the tachometer and
the LVDT displacement response transducer are generating signals.
6. The tachometer signal (square wave) should be used to trigger the time base.
7. Slowly rotate the HAC120 eccentric masses using the controller and check the
relative sense of the LVDT signal and the proximity sensor (exciter force) by tapping
the free end of the beam with a finger and observing the sign of the initial response

22
 on the monitoring system being used. Note that the exciter force is in the direction
opposite to the location of the holes in the disc.
8. Using the potentiometer on the front of the HAC110 speed controller, vary the exciter
speed (excitation frequency) slowly through its available range and observe the
variation of the amplitude of the beam response. A clear increase in response
(resonance) should be observed within a small speed range. If not, something is
wrong. Also, by overlaying the proximity sensor and beam response traces check that
the phase between the two signals varies rapidly with frequency in this range. By
viewing the approximate frequency at which resonance occurs, it is possible to find
the range of frequencies over which it is useful to take results so that you are not
taking results with minimal output.
9. Increase the speed range by suitable increment, say 0.10 Hz (6rpm). Allow the
vibration to stabilize after each speed change. At each speed, record the tachometer
frequency (Hz) and the peak-to-peak amplitude of the response signal. Record these
values in the table. The peak to peak output can be seen below and will be given in
mV.

10. Make some repeatability checks and then turn the system completely off.

Excittion frequency (Hz) Beam response (Peak to Peak) mV

Normalized
Inactive DA Inactive DA

23
 4.6 Results and Analysis

TABLE 1

Time (us)

(V)
Channel A
Channel B (V)

TABLE 2

Time (us)

(V)
Channel A
Channel B (V)

Table 3

Time (us)

(V)
Channel A
Channel B (V)

Table 4

Time (us)

(V)
Channel A
Channel B (V)

ATTACH EXCEL PRINTED GRAPHS

24
SAMPLE OF THE CODE

4.7 Discussions
Analysis, Deductions and Comment;
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4.8 Conclusion
Additional Comments, Precautions, Recommendations and Conclusions;
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REFERENCES;
Daniel A. Russell, (2011).The Dynamic Vibration Absorber,
https://www.acs.psu.edu/drussell/Demos/absorber/DynamicAbsorber.html, Accessed: 2021-
06-12

25
5.0 HEAT TRANSFER EXPERIMENT
5.1 Introduction
Heat transfer deals with the analysis of heat flows in systems, which generally arise due to
temperature difference. The transfer of heat is usually accomplished by means Heat exchangers
such as boilers, condensers, radiators, etc. Common application of heat exchangers includes
fan coolers, cooling of water heat exchanger and condenser. The basic design of a heat
exchanger normally has two fluids of different temperature separated by some conducting
medium. Heat is transfer through the tube wall by conduction. On either side of the tube, heat
is transferred by convection.
5.2 Aim and specific objectives
The objective of the experiment is to evaluate various non-dimensional numbers and thus
characterize the heat exchanger for air to water heat transfer.
5.3 Experimental Setup

Figure 5. 1 Schematic diagram of experimental setup

The Apparatus
The apparatus consists of two double pipe units which are fitted with thermocouples. One unit
has a fouling coating on the outside of the outside of the inner pipe. Hot air is supplied from a
blower gun unit. Both pipe units are connected to a cooling water supply which is fitted with a
flow meter on the inlet. The flowrate can also be measured by finding the average time taken
to fill a one-liter container at the outlet. A valve square is used to select parallel or counter flow
and each pipe unit has a shut-off valve.
Thermocouple are fitted to the various parts of the exchanger and linked to a selector unit with
a digital readout.
Location Clean tube Fouled tube
Water, left-hand end 1 7
Air inlet 2 8
Pipe surface left- hand 3 9
Pipe surface right- hand 4 10
Air outlet 5 11
Water, right – hand end 6 12

26
5.4 Theory
Heat transfer in a tabular heat exchanger is essentially a process of conduction. In this case
where we have tubes, the heat flow is governed by:
𝒅𝟐 𝑻 𝟏 𝒅𝑻
+ =𝟎
𝒅𝒓𝟐 𝒓 𝒅𝒓

Integrating we get the condition that the total heat flow per unit length is constant, i.e.
𝒅𝑻
𝑸 = −𝟐𝝅𝒓 𝒌 𝒅𝒓

Inserting the boundary conditions, we find that the total flow of heat Q per unit length is:
𝟐𝝅𝒌(𝑻𝟏 −𝑻𝟐 )
𝑸= 𝒓
𝒍𝒐𝒈𝒆 𝟐⁄𝒓𝟏

For heat transfer through the wall of a circular pipe as per the diagram

Figure 5. 2 Cross sectional view of circular pipe

Three conditions exist:

Heat transfer at the inner surface:
Q = 2πR1h1 (TA – T1)
Conduction through the wall:
(𝑻𝟏 − 𝑻𝟐 )
𝑸 = 𝟐𝝅𝒌 𝑹
𝒍𝒏( 𝟐 )
𝑹𝟏

Heat transfer at the outer surface:

Q = 2πR2h2 (T2 – TB)

Hence:

𝟐𝝅(𝑻𝑨 − 𝑻𝑩 )
𝑸= 𝟏 𝟏 𝑹 𝟏
[ + 𝒍𝒏( 𝟐 )+ ]
𝑹𝟏 𝒉𝟏 𝑲 𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟐 𝒉𝟐

The bottom part of the above equation is termed the overall heat transfer factor, ho, and is
written as:
𝟏 𝟏 𝑳 𝟏
= + +
𝒉𝟎 𝒉𝟏 𝑲 𝒉𝟐

27
Where L is the length of the conduction path and k is the thermal conductivity of the conduction
material in our case the pipe wall. For a tubular heat exchanger if the overall heat transfer factor
is referred to the inner surface area we have:
𝟏 𝟏 𝑹𝟏 𝑹 𝑹𝟏
= + 𝒍𝒏 [𝑹𝟐 ] +
𝒉𝒐 𝒉𝟏 𝒌 𝟏 𝑹𝟐 𝒉𝟐

And if the overall heat transfer factor is referred to the outer surface area we have:

𝟏 𝑹𝟐 𝑹𝟐 𝑹 𝟏
= + 𝐥𝐧 [𝑹𝟐 ] +
𝒉𝒐 𝑹𝟏 𝒉𝟏 𝒌 𝟏 𝒉𝟐

Fouling factor

In addition to the individual heat transfer resistances mentioned above there may be an
additional resistance associated with the formation of film of dirt or scale deposit on the surface
of the tube. This is usually allowed for by including a ‘foul factor’ when calculating the overall
heat transfer. Fouling is of major importance in industrial process plant where fouling impairs
the efficiency of the plant, reducing product yields and thus leading to significantly greater
costs.

So instead of the equation on the previous page for overall heat transfer factor we have:

𝟏 𝟏 𝒍 𝟏
= + +𝒉 +𝑹
𝒉𝒐 𝒉𝟏 𝒌 𝟐

R is sometimes written as 1/f to be in keeping with the equation. The total heat transfer rate for
a heat exchanger of surface area A is given by:

q=Ah Tm

T m is the logarithmic mean temperature difference. Its derivation is given in almost any
good textbook on heat transfer.

∆𝑻𝟏 − ∆𝑻𝟐
Tm= ∆𝑻𝟏
𝒍𝒐𝒈𝒆
∆𝑻𝟐

Heat Transfer Analysis with Dimensionless Numbers

A series of dimensionless numbers are used to aid heat transfer calculations. They are based on
various physical parameters of the case in question. As the parameters are always are always
used in a general equation they enable a series of configurations to be examined rapidly for a
given heat transfer situation.
𝑞𝐷 ℎ𝐷
Nusselt Number (Nu) = ∆𝜃𝑘 = ∆𝜃 is used in place of ∆𝑇𝑚
𝑘

28
 𝐶𝑝 𝜕𝑢𝑚 𝐷
Peclet Number Pe = 𝑘

𝜕𝑢𝑚 𝐷
Reynolds Number Re = 𝑘
𝜇𝜕𝐶𝑝
Prandtl Number Pr = 𝑘
𝑘
Stanton Number St = 𝐶
𝑝 𝜕𝑢𝑚

The Nusselt number is a dimensionless heat transfer co-efficient which gives a measure of the
ratio of the heat transfer rate q to the rate a which heat would be conducted within the fluid
∆𝜃
under a temperature gradient .
𝐷

The Stanton number is an alternative heat transfer coefficient and given a measure of the heat
transfer factor h to the flow of heat along the pipe per unit temperature rise, due to the heat
capacity of the fluid.
The Prandtl number is the ratio of kinematic viscosity to thermal diffusivity.
Note that St = Nu/ Re Pr
It has been experimentally established that for turbulent flow in a long tube and where the
Prandtl number of a fluid is greater than 0.5, heat transfer rates can be calculated to within +/-
10 % from Nu = 0.023 Re 0.8 Pr 0.4 .

5.5 Procedure
Select a tube to test, the clean one is at the rear and the front tube has the fouling coating. Do
not exceed a wall temperature of 80°c or the fouling coating, thermocouples and adhesive
bonding may be damaged.
Set the cooling water flowing. Then start the hot air blower. Monitor the thermocouples

29
at the tube inlet, both air and pipe surface 2, 3 or 8, 9 as appropriate. Allow conditions to
stabilize.
Then for a range of water flow-rates note the flow-rates and the thermocouple
readings. Allow sufficient time for readings to stabilize after each adjustment of water flow.
Try parallel and counter flow and compare your temperatures with the profiles on pages 12
&13. Then evaluate the various non-dimensional numbers outlined from the theory section
and the following pages.

5.6 Results and Analysis

Table 5.1 Clean tube – parallel flow
o
LEVEL OF TIME/ s TEMPERATURE C
WATER IN
TANK 1 2 3 4 5 6

5/5

4/5

3/5

2/5

1/5

Table 5.2 Clean tube – counter flow

o
Level of water Time / s Temperature C
in tank
1 2 3 4 5 6

5/5

4/5

3/5

2/5

1/5

30
Table 5.3 Fouled tube – parallel flow
o
Level of water Time/ s Temperature c
in tank
7 8 9 10 11 12

5/5

4/5

3/5

2/5

1/5

Table 5.4 Fouled tube – counter flow

o
Level of water Time/ s Temperature c
in tank
7 8 9 10 11 12

5/5

4/5

3/5

2/5

1/5

Calculation
Inner Tube: Outside diameter = ………………….
Inside diameter = ………………….
Outer Tube: outside diameter =…………………
Inside diameter =……………….
Fouling layer: 0.5mm thick, radially
Length of inner tube in contact with cooling water: ………………….
Tube material, copper k = 3.97 W/mK
Calculating the equivalent diameter for the annular passage
DE = D2 – D1

31
Where D2 = inside diameter of the outer tube
D1 = outside diameter of the inner tube.
Therefore,
DE = ……………………..
Area of the annular passage is
𝐷 2
𝐴 = 𝜋 ( 2𝐸 )

Volume of flask to fill = 1litres = 10-3 m3

𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 10−3
Flow rate = = m3/s
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑡

Q
Water velocity u = m/s
A
DE
Reynolds Number, Re = u υ

hD
Nusselt Number, Nu =
k
Prandtl Number, Pr =  Cp k
υ = is the kinematic viscosity and may be obtained by interpolation from the table.
The Prandtl number may be obtained by interpolation from the table also for the relevant
temperature.
Properties of water are evaluated at the average values of the flow rate Q and ∆Tlm as shown
in Table 5.5.

Table 5.5 Type of flow and properties of water

Flow Tav Qav Flow Density Specific Thermal Dynamic Prandtl
type 
( c) 3
( m /s velocity ρ Heat conductivity viscosity Number
U ( kg / m 3 ) Cp k ν × 10 -5 Pr
)
(m/s) (J/kgK) (m2/s)

Clean
Parallel
Clean
Counter
Fouled
Parallel

Fouled
Counter

32
For parallel and counter flow for clean and St =…………………………………
fouled tube:
h = ……………………………..
Ta1= temperature of hot air at inlet
q= ……………………………….
Ta2 = temperature of hot air at outlet
TL1= temperature of water
Fouled tube: Parallel flow
TL2 = temperature of water
Re = ……………………..
ΔT1 ΔT2
ΔTlm = Pr = ………………………..
 ΔT 
In 1  Nu = 0.023 Re0.8 Pr 0.4
 ΔT2 
=…………………………………………
……….
Clean tube: Parallel flow St = ………………………….
Reynolds Number,Re h = ……………………………..
=…………………………………………
q= ……………………………….
………………….
Prandtl Number, Pr
=………………………………………… Fouled tube: Counter flow
…………………….
Reynolds Number, Re
Nu = 0.023 Re0.8 Pr 0.4 =…………………………………………
=………………………………………… ………………….
……………….
Prandtl Number, Pr
h Nu =…………………………………………
St = = = ............
ρUC p Re× Pr …………………….
………………... Nu = 0.023 Re0.8 Pr 0.4
=…………………………………………
h = ρUC pSt = .......................................
……………….

q = h ΔTlm = ...................... St =
h
=
Nu
= .................................................
ρUC p Re× Pr
………………...

Clean tube: Counter flow

h = ρUC p St = ..............................................................
Reynolds Number, Re
=…………………………………………
………………….
Prandtl Number, Pr
=………………………………………… q = h ΔTlm = ..........................................
…………………….
Nu = 0.023 Re0.8 Pr 0.4
=…………………………………………
………………….

33
We know the diameter and the thermal
conductivity so we must evaluate the
overall heat transfer coefficient, h.
First we must calculate the heat gained by
the water.
Q = m Cp ∆𝑇 where ∆𝑇 is the temperature
rise from inlet and outlet, m is mass flow
rate and Cp is the specific heat.
Then using the equation Q = 2πR2h2 (T2 –
TB) evaluate h2
Evaluate h2 T2 = average wall
temperature, TB = the average water
temperature.
The same amount of heat as is gained by
the water is lost by the air.
So by using equation 1

Graphs
PARALLEL FLOW

Clean Tube Nu log10 Re Fouled Tube Nu log10 Re

log10 log10
Pr 0.4 Pr 0.4

5/5 5/5

4/5 4/5

3/5 3/5

2/5 2/5

1/5 1/5
COUNTER FLOW

Clean Tube Nu log10 Re Fouled Tube Nu log10 Re

log10 log10
Pr 0.4 Pr 0.4

5/5 5/5

4/5 4/5

3/5 3/5

2/5 2/5

1/5 1/5

34
TITLE:............................................................................................................................................... MECH ENG. - KNUST
TITLE:............................................................................................................................................... MECH ENG. - KNUST
TITLE:............................................................................................................................................... MECH ENG. - KNUST
TITLE:............................................................................................................................................... MECH ENG. - KNUST
Precautions
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5.7 Discussion
Analysis, Observations and Comments
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5.8 Conclusion
Additional comments, recommendations and conclusions;
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5.9 References
The mechanical lab manual
Heat exchangers article on Wikipedia
Engineering Thermodynamics, third edition. R.K Rajput

39
 6. PERFORMANCE CHARACTERISTICS OF THE CENTRIFUGAL PUMP

6.1 Introduction
Description of the Centrifugal pump
The Centrifugal pump is the type of pump most commonly used for pumping water or similar
liquids of low viscosity.The main characteristics of a Centrifugal pump are:
• High flow rate at moderate pressure
• Flow that can be varied simply using valve (closing the valve does not cause problems)
• Not self priming so the pump suction should be flooded at all times
• Flow that falls wth increasing system pressure and reducing pump speed
• Simple design with no close tolerances necessary and no inlet or outlet valves
• required for sealing
• Performance can be adjusted by changing impeller diameter, impeller width
• etc
The Centrifugal pump supplied consists of a single impeller incorporating radial blades that
rotates inside snail-shaped volute casing. Water enters axially at the eye of the impeller, spirals
outwards and discharges at the periphery of the impeller into the volute casing. As the fluid
passes through the pump, energy is imparted to it by the blades of the impeller resulting in fluid
leaving the impeller with an increase of both pressure and velocity
The Centrifugal pup is not inherently self-priming but on the C3-MKII it is installed so that it
operates with flooded suction, i.e. the pipework upstream of the pump and the pump volute
will fill with water from the reservoir when the suction control valve is opened The discharge
from the pump is returned to the reservoir via a flow control valve and paddle-type flowmeter.

Centrifugal pumps are capable of transferring large volumes without any dependence on valves
or fine clearances and can be run against a closed valve without developing a very high pressure
They can be designed to handle wide ranges of slurries, or solids in suspension, in addition to
liquids with moderate viscosities.

Figure 6. 1 Schematic diagram of a centrifugal pump

40
Characteristic Curves
The operating characteristics of a Centrifugal pump are best illustrated using graphs of the
pump performance The most commonly used graphical representations of centrifugal pump
performance are
• Total lead produced by the pump against Discharge Volume Flow rate
• Power input to the pump against Discharge Volume Flow rate
• Overall Efficiency of the pump against Discharge Volume Flow rate
Curves for a typical Centrifugal pump are shown in the diagram
below

Figure 6. 2 Curves for a typical Centrifugal pump

Note that the Total head decreases but the power input increases as the Discharge flow rate
increases. For this type of pump the Power input is minimum at zero flowrate which is why it
is usual to start a fixed speed Centrifugal pump with the outlet flow control valve fully closed.
The overall Efficiency curve shows how the pumps is most efficient over a relatively small
range of flow rate. When selecting a pump for particular application it is sensibe to choose the
pump that will be at or near its maximum efficiency when at its normal operating condition
Head / flow from the pump matches the Head/Flow in the system at the design point)
6.2 Aim and specific objectives
To investigate the performance characteristics of a Centrifugal pump
Specific Objective
Running the Centrifugal pump (C3MKII-20) under different operating conditions (by throttling
the discharge valve) in order to obtain its operating characteristics
Repeating this at different operating speeds to give a family of performance curves when
plotted graphically
6.3 Setup and Equipment
C3-MKII Multi Pump Test Rig (Centrifugal Pump fitted permanently)
User supplied PC with C3-MKII-306 Software installed

41
Optional Equipment
Thermometer gable for fluid temperature measurement (not supplied)
6.4Theory
Total Head Vout = V2 =,Measured fluid velocity at
outlet in m/s
The change in total head produced as a
result of the work done by pump can be In this application the fluid is
calculated as: incompressible and the cross sectional area
at both pressure tappings is the same so Vin
Ht = Change in static head + change in = Vout and Hv =0
velocity head + change in elevation
He = change in elevation = vertical distance
= Hs + Hv + He between inlet and outlet sensors but
Where He = 0 m (because both sensors calibrated
Hs = change in static head =
𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡−𝑃𝑖𝑛 to read 0 m with reservoir full)
𝜌𝑔
Power input
where Pin = P1 =,Measured fluid pressure at
inlet in N/m2 The mechanical power input to the pump
may be calculated as
Pout = P2 =,Measured fluid pressure at outlet
in N/m2 2𝜋𝑁𝑇
𝑃𝑚 =
60
Where N = N1 = measured rotational speed
𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡−𝑉𝑖𝑛
Hv = change in velocity head = of pump in revolutions per minute
2𝑔
T = T1 = measured torque in Nm
where Vin = V1 =,Measured fluid velocity at
inlet in m/s

Overall Pump efficiency

The overall efficiency of the pump is an indication of how well the power input to the pump
(the motor power input) is transferred to the process fluid ( the hydraulic power produced). It
may be calculated as:
𝑃ℎ
Eo = 100 𝑥 𝑃𝑚 %

Where
Ph = Hydraulic Power imparted to fluid by the pump
= 𝜌𝑔𝑄𝐻𝑡 Watts
Where Q = Discharge volume flow rate in m3/s
The total Head, Power input and overall efficiency are calculated from the appropriate
measured values by the software supplied with C3- MKII. The software also allows these to be
plotted against the Discharge volume flow rate through the pump. Different sets of curves can
be plotted for each setting of the pump speed.

42
Experimental Setup
The Centrifugal pump is permanently fitted to the C3-MKII and no changes are required for
this exercise. It is advisable to retain the end caps.on the unused piping unless additional pumps
have been connected to the low pressure system.
Check that the reservoir on the C3-MKII has been filled with clean water and that the
equipment is connected to an appropriate mains electricity supply.
If a thermometer is available remove the reservoir lid and measure the temperature of the water.
Remove the thermometer replace the reservoir lid.
Cheek that the USB cable is connected from the electrical console to the PC. Load The C34KII
software the choose the Centrifugal pump from the main menu. Check that IF:vCOM(x)m is
indicated in the bottom right hand corner of the screen where x is the number of the USB port
Set the valves as shown in the following diagram:

Figure 6. 3 Experimental setup

6.4 Procedure
Use the outlet valve only to adjust the discharge from the Centrifugal pump The other walves
should remain open or closed throughout the exercise, as marked on the diagram above. Start
with the outlet valve fully open.
Connect the main supply to the equipment then switch on the power switch on the electrical
console.
If ‘Low level’ is displayed on the mimic diagram fill the reservoir to approximately 75mm
from the top then confirm that the warning has disappeared.
If the temperature of the working fluid in the resevoir is known enter the value in the box
provided on the mimic diagram. The valve will default to 20.0oCif the actual value is not
entered.
The pump will be run at maximum speed for the first part of this exercise. Gradually increase
the speed of the pump from 0% to 100% by clicking the ‘Pump Speed’ Up button (Δ) until the
pump is running at the maximum speed of 100%. Will the pump running at 100% speed allow
the pump and pipework to fully prime. When the flow reading is steady, click the …. Icon to
record all of the instantaneous measured and calculated variables into the results table.
Gradually close the outlet valve until the flow reading falls slightly, allow the conditions to
settle then record another set of readings by clicking Go Continue to close the outlet valve in
steps and record a set of values at each step until a flow rate of 0l/min is reached. Record one
more set of readings for zero flow conditions.

43
If time is available, additional sets of results may be taken for different pump speed settings,
for example at 90%, 80% etc until the flow and pressure readings are minimal
Each set of readings at a different pump speed can be recorded on a separate results table using
the icon. If time is limited then different groups of students could each produce results for
different speed setting to produce a full range of characteristic curves.
The effect of suction losses can also be investigated by taking sets of readings with the inlet to
the pump restricted by gradually closing the inlet valve instead of the outlet valve. Do not leave
the pump running with the inlet valve restricted as this will cause cavitation and possible
damage to the pump or pipework
When sufficient reading have been taken reduce the Pump Speed to 0% to stop the pump.
Save your results using ‘Save As’.from the File menu. Use a descriptive filename such as the
date, equipment and exercise, so that the results can be easily retrieved later if required.
Data
The performance of the Centrifugal pump can be observed by viewing the following
graphs for each speed setting of the pump:
Total head (Ht) against Volume flow rate (F1)
Power Input (P1) against Volute Flow fate (F1)
Hydraulic Power (Ph) against Volume Flow rate (F1)
Overall efficiency (Eo) against Volume flow rate (F1)
To view the graphs choose ‘View’ then ‘Graph' or click the Graph icon…..
Choose ‘Format' then ‘Graph Data' and move the required variable into the Primary
or Secondary axis as required
If it is required to analyse the performance from first principles then it will be necessary to
construct tables as shown below. Record the measured variables under the following headings:

6.5 Results and Analysis

Table 6.1 Table of measured performance characteristics
Pin pout F T N t ρ
kN/m2 kN/m2 ℓ/min Nm rpm OC kg/m3

Table 6.2 Table of calculated performance characteristics

Q HS He Hv Ht Pm Ph EO

m3/s m m m m watts watts %

44
Remember to convert the sensor outputs into the correct unit before using them in the
Calculations. Pressures should be in N/m2(Pa), the Flow rate in m3/s, Torque in Nm and all
Heads in m when performing the calculations. When using the software, this is done
automatically. To obtain a value for the water density, ρ refer to the table ‘Change in Density
of Water with Temperature’ section 14.3. If a thermometer is not available assume the value to
be 998kg/m3 corresponding to a water temperature of approximately 20oC

Comments and discussion

Compare the graphs obtained against the example given in the Theory section.
Comment on the efficiency figures obtained, and mark on the head/flow curve the point of
maximum pump efficiency. This point indicates the duty point or normal operating point of the
pump at maximum efficiency.
lf results were taken at a range of speed settings, describe the similarities and differences of the
characteristic curves obtained at each constant speed. Suggest the optimum operating speed of
the pump, and explain the reasoning behind the choice.

Table showing the performance characteristic of a centrifugal pump

Pin Pout F T N t ρ
kN/m2 kN/m2 I/min Nm RPM oC Kg/m3

Q Hs He Hv Ht Pm Ph Eo
M3/s m m m m watts watts %

45
TITLE:............................................................................................................................................... MECH ENG. - KNUST
TITLE:............................................................................................................................................... MECH ENG. - KNUST
Precautions
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6.6 Discussion
Analysis, Observations and Comments
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6.7 Conclusion
Additional comments, recommendations and conclusions;
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Reference:

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7.0 EFFECT OF MASS ON A VIBRATING SYSTEM
7.1 Introduction
Vibrations are oscillations in mechanical dynamic systems. Although any system can oscillate
when it is forced to do so externally, the term “vibration” in mechanical engineering is often
reserved for systems that can oscillate freely without applied forces. Sometimes these
vibrations cause minor or serious performance or safety problems in engineered systems. For
instance, when an aircraft wing vibrates excessively, passengers in the aircraft become
uncomfortable especially when the frequencies of vibration correspond to natural frequencies
of the human body and organs.
The reason that mechanical systems vibrate freely is because energy is exchanged between the
system’s inertial (masses) elements and elastic (springs) elements. Free vibrations usually
cease after a certain length of time because damping elements in systems dissipate energy as it
is converted back-and-forth between kinetic energy and potential energy.
The role of mechanical vibration analysis should be to use mathematical tools for modeling
and predicting potential vibration problems and solutions, which are usually not obvious in
preliminary engineering designs. If problems can be predicted, then designs can be modified
to mitigate vibration problems before systems are manufactured. Vibrations can also be
intentionally introduced into designs to take advantage of benefits of relative mechanical
motion and to resonate systems (e.g., scanning microscopy).

7.2 Aim and specific objectives

To study the effect of a massive spring on the period of vibrations of a spring mass system.
7.3 Setup and Equipment
Heavy steel spring, weights, stand, stopwatch.
Draw and label the experimental setup here

49
7.4 Theory
In a free vibrating system without damping, the total energy of the system must remain constant
since no external forces are acting.

Figure 7. 1 Free body diagram

In equilibrium position force on mass due to gravity = Mg

In equilibrium position force on mass due to spring = Mg

In deflected position force on spring = mg-λx

(−mg ) 2 (mg ) 2
Energy stored in spring in equilibrium position = 1/2λ(δs)2= 1 / 2 = 1/ 2
 
(mg − x) 2
Energy stored in spring in deflected position = 1 / 2

1
Reduction of strain energy stored in deflected spring = (mg ) 2 − (mg ) 2 + 2mgx −  2 x 2
2
Gain of potential energy of potential energy by mass = max in deflected position.
1
Net gain change of potential energy in deflected system = x 2
2
The maximum kinetic energy is at the instance when displacement is zero and the potential
energy is zero.
1 2
x = MW n2 x 2
2

Wn=
M

50
Figure 7. 2 Free body diagram
Considering a spring of mass m. assume the shape of the displacement curve of the spring,
namely the amplitude of motion of an element … (distance (the amplitude of M and L is whole
length of the spring. This assumption is incorrect. Why? The strain energy stored in the spring
1
in the deflected position is x 2
2
1
The K. E of the mass M at the med-position= M (Wn x) 2
2

1 (ml ) 
2
x
The mass of element δl =m δl/L, so that its kinetic energy at the mid-point is Wn 
2 L  L

1
The kinetic energy of the whole spring = MWn2  0L l 2 dL
2
1m 2 2
= Wn x
2 3
1 m
So the total kinetic Energy in the system is ( M + )Wn2 x 2
2 3
But the maximum strain (assuming that deflection as any point in the spring is proportional to
1
its distance from the support) is given by x 2
2
1 m 1
Equating the above two expressions we have ( M + )Wn2 x 2 = x 2
2 3 2

 Wn2 =
M +m/3


Wn =
M + m/3


 Wn = A
m

51
7.5 Procedure
Measure and weigh the spring. Calculate the stiffness of the spring and check this by measuring
the static deflections for a number of loads.
Now, hang a series of loads on the spring and obtain the period in each case by timing as many
vibrations as possible.
Check all results by repeating observations possibly with a change of observer.

7.6 Results and Analysis

SPRING 1
Mass of spring =
Outside diameter of spring, D =
Thickness of spring, t =
Spring mean diameter, dm =
Number of coil (turns), n =
Number of Oscillation =
Free length of spring =
Length of spring with mass =

Insert table of experimental results here

R(mm) R2 (mm)2 I (kgmm2) Time for 20 Period, T T2 (s2)
oscillations(s) (1/s)

Plot graph of T2 versus m

Plot graph of T2 versus m for the spring here

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7.7 Discussion
Analysis, Observations and Comments
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7.8 Conclusion
Additional Comments, Recommendations, and Conclusions
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7.9 REFERENCE

D. E. Adams, (2010). Mechanical Vibrations,

54
8.0 WHIRLING SPEED OF AN UNLOADED SHAFT WITH FIXED-FIXED ENDS.
8.1 Introduction
In actual practice, a rotating shaft carries different mountings and accessories in the form of
gears, pulleys etc. when the gears or pulleys are put on the shaft, the center of gravity of the
pulley or gear does not coincide with the center line of the bearings or with the axis of the shaft,
when the shaft is stationary. This means that the center of gravity of the pulley or gear is at a
certain distance from the axis of rotation and due to this, the shaft is subjected to centrifugal
force. This force will bend the shaft, which will further increase the distance of center of gravity
of the pulley or gear from the axis of rotation. The bending of shaft not only depends upon the
value of eccentricity (distance between center of gravity of the pulley and axis of rotation) but
also depends upon the speed at which the shaft rotates. The speed, at which the shaft runs so
that the additional deflection of the shaft from the axis of rotation becomes infinite, is known
as critical or whirling speed.

8.2 Aim and specific objectives

To determine the whirling speed (critical speed) of unloaded shafts with fixed-fixed ends.
8.3 Setup and Equipment
Critical Speed Investigation Apparatus, Vernier Caliper, Rule, Control Unit, Shafts with
different diameters and different lengths.

Figure 8. 1 Experimental set up

8.4 Theory
Machine components at a standstill may behave very differently when they are moving, even
at relatively low speeds. A solid shaft able to support a hundred times its own weight plus the
weight of the components mounted on it may bend and vibrate when rotating at certain speeds,.
The speeds are called ‘critical speeds and the bending and the vibration is known as ‘whirling’.
If this ‘critical speed of whirling’ is maintained then the resulting amplitude becomes sufficient
to cause buckling and failure. However, if the speed is rapidly increased before such
deleterious effects occur then the shaft is seen to restabilize and run true again until at another
specific speed a double bow is produced. Whirling is usually associated with fast-rotating
shafts. When a shaft rotates it is subjected to radial or centrifugal forces, which cause the shaft
to deflect from its rest position. These centrifugal forces are unavoidable, since material
inhomogeneities and assembly difficulties ensure that the center of gravity of the shaft or its
attached masses cannot coincide with the axis of rotation. Dunkerley first investigated the
centrifugal forces involved and determined that the only restabilizing or restoring force was
that due to the elastic properties or stiffness of the shaft. Hence, he was able to deduce the
speed at which the shaft would suffer an infinite deflection due to whirling. When the speed
of rotation is increased the centrifugal force also increases and so does there storing force.

55
Below the critical speeds, the restoring forces increase with increasing shaft deflection faster
than the centrifugal forces, so the deflection is held in check. At the critical speeds, the
restoring forces increase at the same rate as the unbalance forces, so they cancel each other
out. Shaft deflection is unchecked and the shaft behaves as though it is very flexible. Above
the critical speeds the unbalance forces hold sway, and the shaft rotates about the center of
mass of the assembly. Shaft deflection depend upon the following:
a) Material Stiffness and number of supports
b) Self-Weight and mountings
c) Unbalanced centrifugal forces
d) Lubricant viscosity.
Therefore, calculation of critical speed for any shaft is necessary in order to avoid the
resonance.

Figure 8. 2 Schematic diagram of shaft deflection

8.5 Procedure

1. Obtain a 3mm diameter, 1000 mm long sample. Check that the sample is not bet or
deformed. The diameter of the shaft is determined using Vernier calliper.
2. Mount the shaft in the machine by fixing the ends in the chucks by means of collets.
3. Make sure the apparatus is well tightened to the main frame by tightening the screw
using allen keys. Once the sample is in place and the guard is closed, turn on the
control box ensuring that the speed controller is set to its lowest speed.
4. Start the motor and test specimen rotating slowly.
5. Next step is to switch on the speed control and rotate the control knob slowly in a
clockwise direction until the first natural frequency is observed. When the speed is
increased further the shaft begins to vibrate violently as it nears the critical speed.
Record the first whirling speed in the table. If necessary reduce the speed and
increase it again to verify the first whirling speed.

56
 6. Continue to increase the speed of rotation. Once the critical speed is passed the shaft
restabilizes and on further increase on speed the second natural frequency is reached
which is indicated by the double bow. Record the second whirling speed.
7. The maximum speed for the experiment is 5,900rpm. After this speed is reached,
slowly bring the shaft to rest.
8. Repeat the procedure for the other type of shaft.
9. Determine the average speed of each shaft and use to estimate the natural frequency
of shaft with different diameters.
Note:
DO NOT TEST SAMPLES PAST THE SECOND MODE OF WHIRL. This can lead to
permanent deformation of samples, for the 3 mm sample it is possible to clearly see results for
the third mode of whirl. Doing so is likely to damage the sample but can be a good visual
representation of the effects of whirl.
For some of the samples at certain lengths you will not be able to see the second mode of whirl.
DO NOT OVER SPEED THE MOTOR; EXCESSIVE VIBRATIONS CAN DAMAGE THE
UNIT.
For some specimens for certain speeds/ lengths / safety ring setup, the whirling mode may have
to be surpassed then brought back to view the whirling mode effectively.
On some occasions the sample may be required to let settle at a certain speed before continuing
testing.
Depending on the sample different variables it can be quick or require fine adjustment to view
the whirling points clearly.

Figure 8. 3 Deflection in the various mode.

57
8.6 Results and Analysis

FORMULA USED
1. For bending mode

22∗𝑎
Angular speed (ω)= 𝐿2
𝐸∗𝐼
Where 𝑎 = √( 𝑀 )

𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 (⍵)∗60

Theoretical speed= 2𝜋

(𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑−𝑒𝑥𝑝𝑡 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑)

% error= ∗100
𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑

2. For twisting mode

61.7∗𝑎
Angular speed (ω)= 𝐿2
𝐸∗𝐼
Where 𝑎 = √( 𝑀 )

𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 (⍵)∗60

Theoretical speed= 2𝜋

(𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑−𝑒𝑥𝑝𝑡 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑)

% error= ∗100
𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑

TERMS USED

E → Young’s modulus of the material (GPa) = 2*1011

m → mass of the shaft ( Kg/m)
L→ length of the shaft (m)
d→ diameter of the shaft in m
𝜋∗𝑑4
I → moment of inertia of the shaft. m4 =
64

DIAMETER LENGTH SPEED IN RPM SPEED IN RPM

OF
OF (1ST MODE) (2ND MODE)
SHAFT(MM)
SHAFT (MM)

3 80

3 80

58
 3 80

AVERAGE

3 100

3 100

3 100

AVERAGE

5 80

5 80

5 80

AVERAGE

5 100

5 100

5 100

AVERAGE

6 80

6 80

6 80

AVERAGE

6 100

6 100

6 100

AVERAGE

Plot natural frequency in (rpm) against diameter of shaft in (mm) for mode 1 and 2.

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TITLE:............................................................................................................................................... MECH ENG. - KNUST
TITLE:............................................................................................................................................... MECH ENG. - KNUST
Precaution
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8.7 Discussion
Analysis, Observations and Comments
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8.8 Conclusion
Additional comments, recommendations and conclusions;
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REFERENCES;
Dept of MECH, SCCE, Kinematics And Dynamics Lab Manual

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