HUMAN PHYSIOLOGY

LAB REPORT

ABCT2326

CVS Report

Name: Cheung Chi Ming

Student Number: 23086215D
Programme: Physiotherapy
Team member’s names:
Chau Cho Yin, Chen Hao, Cheung Chak Lam, Cheung Chi Kit
Blood Pressure
Results
AT REST AFTER EXERCISE
Sitting Standing Lying Slight Moderate Severe
Exercise Exercise Exercise
Blood Pressure (mmHg) 123/84 125/86 117/79 130/73 134/70 145/67
Systolic Pressure (mmHg) 123 125 117 130 134 145
Diastolic Pressure (mmHg) 84 86 79 73 70 67
Pulse Pressure (mmHg) 39 39 38 57 64 78
Pulse Rate (bpm) 88 92 88 96 104 112
Mean Arterial Pressure 97.0 99.0 91.7 92.0 91.3 93.0
(mmHg)
*Note that the data are corrected to 3 significant figures
a) Histogram showing the relationship between different degrees of exercise, blood pressure (systolic and
diastolic), and pulse rate.

Figure 1 Figure 2

With reference to the above histograms, it is observed that both the systolic pressure and pulse rate
increase with the intensity of exercise. Nonetheless, as the exercise intensity increases, the diastolic
pressure shows a decreasing trend.

Discussion
Blood pressure in general
Blood pressure consists of systolic and diastolic pressure. The systolic pressure is the peak pressure
measured during every cardiac cycle, while the diastolic pressure is the lowest pressure in a cardiac
cycle. Systolic pressure and diastolic pressure measure the degree of pressure exerted on the arteries
wall during ventricular contraction and those in between beats respectively. Blood pressure in
general increases when the intensity of activity increases.

Blood pressure at rest

According to Figure 1, the blood pressure at rest is the lowest in the lying position, followed by
sitting position and the highest in the standing position. The blood pressure measured at the
standing position is expected to be lower than that measured at the sitting position, while errors
might occur during the measurement process, and lead to a slightly different result that the blood
pressure at the standing position is higher than that at the sitting position.

In the lying position, the energy demand of the human body is the lowest as little muscle
contraction is needed. Hence, less oxygen is demanded for aerobic respiration to produce ATP, and
the heart just needs to generate the lowest pressure to supply oxygen to the skeletal muscles of other
body parts via the bloodstream. Other than that, most of the body parts are at the same level as the
heart, and the least blood pressure is needed for the blood to circulate through the entire body, as the
blood does not need to go against gravity.

In the sitting position, muscles at the back partially contract to maintain an upright position so that
the subject can sit. Therefore, there is a higher oxygen demand for aerobic respiration to provide
ATP for the contraction of the skeletal muscles at the back. The heart consequently has to pump
stronger to generate a higher blood pressure so the oxygen can be supplied to the regions requiring
oxygen faster.
Moreover, the blood has to go against gravity to reach the superior part of the body in the sitting
position. Hence, a larger blood pressure is needed.

In the standing position, it is expected that the blood pressure measured should be moderate within
the resting position. The effect of gravity matters in the difference in blood pressure at standing and
sitting positions. Contraction of skeletal muscles increases the speed of blood flow and further
increases the venous return, however, due to gravity, less blood could flow back to the heart from
the anterior part of the body at the standing position. Hence, the venous return of the subject at a
standing position should be lowered, the lower stroke volume should lead to a lower blood pressure.
Nonetheless, the experimental result slightly differs from the theoretical result. A possible error is
that the subject might have done additional movements while standing for five minutes so the blood
pressure at a standing position is measured to be slightly higher than that at a sitting position.
However, the blood pressure at a standing position is still higher than that at a lying position
because more oxygen is needed for the energy supply of muscle contraction, so the heart has to
pump stronger to give a higher blood pressure for the blood to transport oxygen more effectively.

Blood pressure after exercise

From slight exercise to moderate exercise to severe exercise, the level of activity of the subject
increases. Systolic pressure increases when the intensity of exercise increases while diastolic
pressure decreases when the intensity of exercise increases.

According to Figure 1, systolic pressure increases with the intensity of exercise. When doing
exercise, skeletal muscles contract more strongly and frequently. Aerobic respiration is first
conducted to supply energy for stronger and more frequent muscle contraction, more carbon
dioxide (CO2) is produced as a by-product. CO2 diffuses into the blood and lowers the pH of the
blood. As the intensity of exercise increases, anaerobic respiration is conducted by skeletal muscle
cells to supply a large amount of ATP in a short period of time, so lactic acid is produced as a by-
product and lowers the pH too. The decrease in pH in blood is detected by the chemoreceptors in
the carotid and aortic bodies. The cardiovascular center in the medulla oblongata will then receive a
nerve impulse. More noradrenaline will be released to the sinoatrial node by the more active
sympathetic nerve. Hence the heart pumps faster to transport more oxygen to the skeletal muscles to
remove the toxic lactic acid formed. Therefore, the heart produces a larger cardiac output to supply
oxygen to the skeletal muscles more efficiently so that the skeletal muscles can undergo aerobic
respiration to produce more energy for muscle contraction. Cardiac output is directly related to
systolic pressure, hence the systolic pressure increases with exercise intensity as the higher the
intensity of the exercise, the larger the cardiac output. In addition, skeletal muscles contract more
frequently and strongly during exercise, so the blood in the vein can return to the right heart faster.
Hence, the venous return increases with the strength of the muscle contraction, which is directly
correlated with exercise intensity. The larger the venous return, the larger the volume of blood in the
ventricle. Therefore, larger cardiac output and systolic pressure are resulted when the intensity of
exercise increases.

In accordance with Figure 1, the diastolic pressure decreases when the intensity of exercise
increases. During exercise, both aerobic and anaerobic respiration release heat, and the blood
temperature increases. The increase in blood temperature is detected by the thermoreceptors, so the
heat gain center in the hypothalamus will be stimulated to send more nerve impulses to the
arterioles near the skin, to facilitate vasodilation. Hence, there will be a larger blood flow to the skin
near the exercising body parts to increase the rate of heat loss. The body temperature could then be
restored to normal range. Considering vasodilation during exercise, the diastolic pressure will
decrease because the diameter of the lumen of arterioles increases. Therefore, the peripheral
vascular resistance decreases, and the diastolic pressure also decreases. The experimental results are
in line with expectations since the diastolic pressure decreases with the intensity of exercise.

Electrocardiogram

Results
Quantity ECG while resting
P-R interval 0.16s
QRS complex 0.08s
S-T interval 0.32s
T-P interval 0.48s
R-R interval 0.88s
P-P interval 0.88s
Heart Rate 68 bpm
Discussion
An electrocardiogram (ECG) provides information on the electrical signals of the heart. The cardiac
cycle can be recorded in the form of waves shown in the graph. Several events that happened in the
heart can be explained when observing the waves in the ECG.

Information from ECG

P wave is the start of the cardiac cycle, and it represents the depolarization of the atria. The interior
voltage becomes less negative as the atria contract. The P wave is followed by the QRS complex, in
which ventricles are depolarized and contract. There is a rapid increase in voltage during the QRS
complex. T wave follows the QRS complex, and the increase in voltage is observed due to the
repolarization of the ventricles. Between the QRS complex and the first half of the T wave, there is
an absolute refractory period, while the second half of the T wave is the relative refractory period. P
wave of the next cardiac cycle is observed after the T wave, indicating the start of the next cycle.

Abnormality part of the ECG of the subject

There is only one abnormality of the ECG, which is the