Corros Rev 2023; aop
Review
Chaoran Ma, Zhuoyang Du, Xiaohan Wang, Peng Zhou*, Yang Zhao, Yong Hua, Cheng Su, Tao Zhang
and Fuhui Wang
Corrosion of stainless steels and corrosion
protection strategies in the semiconductor
manufacturing industry: a review
https://doi.org/10.1515/corrrev-2023-0051
Received April 21, 2023; accepted November 2, 2023;
published online January 4, 2024
Abstract: Stainless steels are used extensively in semi-
conductor manufacturing as chamber, structure component
and gas delivery systems. The corrosion in the aggressive gas
in the semiconductor manufacturing industry leads to par-
ticle release, contaminating wafers and limiting their
application. Moisture content can accelerate the corrosion
rate of stainless steel. In a high-temperature environment,
the corrosion is determined by the synergistic effect of the
vapour of the corrosion product and thermal ageing.
To eliminate corrosion, lots of efforts have been performed
and categorized into three aspects: (1) Material purification
using innovating metallurgy techniques, especially vacuum
induction melting (VIM) and vacuum arc remelting (VAR).
The ultra-pure stainless steel minimizes the inclusion in
stainless steel, suppressing the breakdown of the passive
film. (2) Smoothing the surface by polishing; the polishing
surface shows hydrophobic behaviour and decreases moisture
absorption. (3) Applying surface and coating techniques
against corrosion, including passivation treatment and elec-
troplating/electroless Ni-based coating. Herein, the techniques
mentioned above are reviewed, and the prospect and devel-
opment of stainless steel in the semiconductor manufacturing
industry are forecasted.
*Corresponding author: Peng Zhou, Shenyang National Laboratory for
Materials Science, Northeastern University, 3-11 Wenhua Road, Shenyang
110819, China; and The State Key Laboratory of Rolling and Automation,
Northeastern University, Shenyang 110819, China,
E-mail: zhoupeng@mail.neu.edu.cn
Chaoran Ma, Zhuoyang Du, Xiaohan Wang, Yang Zhao, Tao Zhang
and Fuhui Wang, Shenyang National Laboratory for Materials Science,
Northeastern University, 3-11 Wenhua Road, Shenyang 110819, China,
E-mail: fsmcr@163.com (C. Ma), zhaoyang7402@mail.neu.edu.cn (Y. Zhao),
zhangtao@mail.neu.edu.cn (T. Zhang), fhwang@mail.neu.edu.cn (F. Wang)
Yong Hua and Cheng Su, Corrosion and Integrity Centre, Zhejiang JIULI Hi-
Tech Metals Co., Ltd, Huzhou, China
Keywords: stainless steel; semiconductor; corrosion; gas
delivery system; moisture; surface treatment
1 Introduction
A bottleneck plaguing the semiconductor manufacturing
industry has been cleanliness. Particularly, the gas purity
requirements in the semiconductor manufacturing industry
are even more stringent, and to effectively improve the
technological level, the particle and chemical impurity con-
tent of wafer processing technology must be strictly regu-
lated. Contamination in semiconductor generation come
from various sources, including bare silicon wafer surfaces,
wet chemicals, process equipment, and gas delivery system
(Krishnan and Laparra 1997). The main contaminating
impurities negatively impacting process efficiency are
moisture, trace gases, particles, and metals.
Nowadays, stainless steel is widely applied in semi-
conductor manufacturing industries, concentrating on gas
delivery systems and mainly undertaking electronic special
gas delivery and distribution work (Kadonaga 1992; Miya-
zaki et al. 1996; Ohmi et al. 1998; Savadkouhi 2003; Xing et al.
2022). High-purity electronic special gases, such as HCl, HBr,
HF, HI, SiH4, CF4 and NH3, are used in the semiconductor
manufacturing industry for numerous processes, such as
wafer etching and vapour phase epitaxy. In addition, vac-
uum pumps cannot completely remove moisture adsorption
in a high vacuum environment. Although the residual
moisture is extremely low (ppb – ppm level), it is not negli-
gible in the semiconductor manufacturing industry. Stain-
less steel is characterised by high process accuracy, high
surface finish and excellent flexibility, offering outstanding
advantages of processability and cleanliness. However,
corrosion products are produced after prolonged exposure
to stainless steel with electronic special gases. The particles
generated by the corrosion are entrained in the gaseous
fluid, causing contamination of the processing system
(Accomazzo and Grant 1989; Laly et al. 1996).
2 C. Ma et al.: Corrosion and protection of stainless steels in the SMI
Stainless steel has also been used in gas filters (Amari
et al. 1999; Haider and Shadman 1989), mass flow controllers
(Ahn et al. 2008; Hirata and Esashi 2002) and valve
diaphragms (Kumagai 1990; Yamaji et al. 2013), important
components of the gas delivery system. Gas filters purify
electronic special gases by filtering out particles to ensure
high gas cleanliness. Mass flow controllers and diaphragm
valves ensure effective and precise control of special gas
flow. In addition to the gas delivery system, some structural
components in the chamber also comprise stainless steel,
providing excellent structural support (Berg 2014; Nemanic
and Setina 2000; Sefa et al. 2017). The gas pipeline, mass flow
controller, diaphragm valve and gas filter at ambient or low
temperature under high vacuum are all in service, except for
the delivery pipeline at the cylinder end with approximately
0.6 MPa pressure. Additionally, the chambers’ structural
components work well at high temperatures under vacuum.
Due to the prolonged direct exposure of stainless steel to
electronic special gases, ensuring the corrosion resistance of
stainless steel is crucial to maintaining a high purity level
throughout the system.
However, stainless steel’s corrosion mechanisms in
different service environments are distinct, requiring pri-
ority to elucidate the corrosion mechanisms in different
environments and develop targeted corrosion protection
solutions. Common grades and service conditions for stain-
less steel in the semiconductor manufacturing industry are
given in Table 1 (Amari et al. 1999; Ahn et al. 2008; Sefa et al.
2017; Yamaji et al. 2013).
This study reviews the corrosion mechanisms of stain-
less steel at ambient temperature and high-temperature
vacuum. Then, the anti-corrosion methods, including mate-
rial purification, polishing and surface and coating tech-
niques are introduced. Finally, the prospect and future
directions are discussed.
Table : Applications of stainless steel in the semiconductor
manufacturing industry.
Serial Material Components Process
no. grade technology
 LVV Gas input piping, exhaust gas ICP, CCP, PECVD,
output piping ISSG, DPN
 L Hinge assembly, structural ISSG, DPN, EPI
components, inner core of gas
filters, valve diaphragms, etc.
  Equipment framework ICP, CCP, PECVD,
ISSG, DPN
… … … …
ICP, inductive coupled plasma; CCP, capacitively coupled plasma; PECVD,
plasma enhanced chemical vapour deposition; EPI, epitaxial growth; ISSG,
in-situ steam generation; DPN, decoupled plasma nitridation.
2 Corrosion mechanisms of
stainless steel in semiconductor
manufacturing industry
Depending on temperature conditions, the corrosive envi-
ronment in the semiconductor manufacturing industry can
be divided into ambient and high temperatures. In ambient
environments, stainless steel is mainly applied in gas
delivery systems, including gas piping, diaphragm valves,
mass flow controllers and gas filters. While at high tem-
peratures, stainless steel is mainly applied for chambers’
internal structural components.
Pure corrosive gases sluggishly attack stainless steel, yet
some factors can accelerate the corrosion rate. Crucially, the
corrosion mechanisms’ acceleration is significantly distinct
under different temperature environments. Highly corrosive
gases are extremely sensitive to moisture for the gas delivery
system at ambient temperatures. Therefore, moisture can
significantly accelerate the corrosion rate and release
product particles. Prolonged high-temperature service can
cause thermal ageing of stainless steel for chamber struc-
tural components in high-temperature environments,
significantly reducing corrosion resistance. Therefore,
thermal ageing can significantly accelerate the corrosion
rate and release product particles.
2.1 Corrosion mechanisms in the gas
delivery system at ambient
temperatures
The gas delivery system is divided into gas cylinders, gas
pipelines, valve manifold boxes, gas filters, mass flow con-
trollers, diaphragm valves and other equipment. Some gas
cylinders, valve diaphragms, gas pipeline materials, filter
screens and other related components are stainless steel. In
the semiconductor manufacturing industry, gas pipelines
are mainly made of 316LVV after electrolytic polishing (EP)
(Krishnan and Laparra 1997), while gas cylinders, valve
diaphragms, and filter components are composed of 316L
after EP (Amari et al. 1999; Ahn et al. 2008; Yamaji et al. 2013).
316LVV is the high-purity 316L stainless steel after VIM and
VAR refinement. 316L has a composition per ASTM A 269 and
ASTM A 632, except for limited sulphur (0.012 %). Additional
composition requirements for 316LVV are shown in Table 2.
Prolonged contact with electronic special gases at room
or low temperatures (<100 °C) are the service conditions for
stainless steel. HCl, HBr, HI and HF are aggressive to stainless
steel with a high sensitivity to moisture content. The trace

Table : Additional composition requirements for LVV.
Element C S Mn
Range-wt% (max) . . .
amounts of moisture can significantly accelerate the stain-
less steel corrosion. Subsequently, the corrosion products
enter the high-purity gas as particles, causing contamination
and affecting the wafer quality (Accomazzo and Grant 1989;
Laly et al. 1996). Therefore, investigating the moisture
behaviour in the semiconductor manufacturing industry is a
priority to reveal the corrosion mechanisms of stainless steel
in ambient environments.
2.1.1 Moisture adsorption on material surfaces
When the equipment is in contact with the atmosphere,
moisture, impurities, and gas molecules are adsorbed on its
surface (Figure 1) (Saito 1997). Before the semiconductor
process, the chambers and pipelines are pumped down to
ensure a vacuum inside the equipment. The pumping pro-
cess can be divided into the following stages: (1) A vacuum
pump expels the air inside the equipment. (2) Some gases are
adsorbed on the surface at atmospheric pressure and then
slowly desorbed under vacuum. H2O dominates the process,
and the desorption rate depends on various gases’ surface
binding energy, temperature, and surface coverage. (3) Some
gases are dissolved in the material during manufacturing
and slowly diffused in a vacuum. The process is mainly H2,
and the emission rate depends on material properties,
temperature, gas solubility and diffusion rate. (4) Extremely
small amounts of gas can penetrate the vacuum chamber
walls and enter the chamber. The emission rate depends on
Figure 1: Vacuum systems of semiconductor manufacturing industry.
(a) Percentage of vacuum system gas types; (b) sequence of pumping.
C. Ma et al.: Corrosion and protection of stainless steels in the SMI 3
Cu Nb Al Ca Ti Se
. . . . . .
the material’s properties and the chamber walls’ thickness
(Weston 1975).
Figure 1 shows that moisture is a major component of
pumping down and is not easily dislodged by desorption on
the material’s surface. Most high-purity corrosion gases
(such as HCl, HBr, etc.) must overcome the bond energy to
react with stainless steel; therefore, the corrosion rate is
small. However, when the moisture adsorption is large on
the stainless steel surface, some corrosion gases dissolve,
and electrochemical corrosion occurs (Fine et al. 1995;
Lequien and Moine 2021). Therefore, moisture can signifi-
cantly contribute to stainless steel corrosion. Therefore,
moisture adsorption and desorption on the material sur-
face is a condition that must be considered in the gas
delivery system.
The moisture adsorption can be physical and chemical.
Physical adsorption occurs under van der Waals forces
between the molecules’ surface, while chemical adsorption
involves the chemical bonding of molecules to surface atoms.
When sufficient energy is obtained, the adsorbed molecule
desorbs under vacuum, called the adsorption energy. Under
ideal conditions, the adsorption energy (desorption activation
energy) is a single value. However, the adsorption energy is
not a single value since the adsorption state is complex due to
material surface roughness, surface chemistry, etc. (Figure 2).
Molecules with adsorption energy below 100 kJ/mol desorb
rapidly at room temperature (Saito 1997).
The moisture adsorption capacity is affected by various
factors, including partial pressure, surface properties of
the specimen and the gas flow rate containing moisture.
Siefering and Whitlock (1994) reported that the moisture
adsorption capacity is significantly related to the moisture
partial pressure. Under constant ambient pressure, the
partial pressure of moisture changes by varying the mois-
ture concentration, and experimental results are shown in
Figure 3.
More moisture is absorbed on the material’s surface
when the partial pressure of moisture is high and the tem-
perature is lower. The surface moisture coverage of the
material was 2.2 × 1014 mol/cm2 at a moisture concentration
of 357 ppb and a temperature of 273.15 K (Figure 3). At this
point, it is sub-monolayer adsorption, where multiple
adsorption layers exist on stainless steel surfaces (EP) at
higher partial pressures. For example, seven monolayers of
4 C. Ma et al.: Corrosion and protection of stainless steels in the SMI
Figure 2: Moisture adsorption model: (a) ideal surface, (b) actual surface.
Figure 3: Isobaric adsorption lines for moisture molecules at different
temperatures and partial pressures (Siefering and Whitlock 1994).
Reprinted with permission; copyright 1994 American Vacuum Society.
moisture are formed on stainless steel surfaces at a moisture
concentration of 100 ppm in argon (Siefering and Whitlock
1994).
Siefering proposed a semi-empirical model of the
Langmuir relationship to fit the results obtained with the
following equation.
γ1 PH2 O exp[(γ2 + γ3 PH2 O)/T]
H2 O coverage =
1 + γ4 PH2 O exp[(γ5 + γ6 PH2 O)/T]
Figure 4: Semi-empirical model fitting lines for moisture molecules at
different temperatures and partial pressures (Siefering and Whitlock
1994). Reprinted with permission; copyright 1994 American Vacuum
Society.
where PH2 O is the atmospheric partial pressure of moisture,
γ1 , γ2 , γ3 , γ4 are positive fitting constants, γ5 , γ6 are fitting
constants, and T is the absolute temperature. The fitted
curves enable extrapolation of surface adsorption at
different temperatures and different partial pressures of the
moisture, as shown in Figure 4.
Surface properties, including roughness, treatment pro-
cesses and chemistry, significantly impact moisture adsorp-
tion. Dylla et al. (1993) found that the gas emission rate
increased with the surface roughness factor (the ratio of true
surface area to geometric surface area), i.e. the content of
adsorbed moisture molecules increased, attributed to the
increased number of adsorption sites on moisture molecules.
Tsuji et al. (2017) described the moisture adsorption
process on the pipe’s inner wall and calculated the amount
of moisture adsorption by integral calculation. Figure 5
shows a delay time between the moisture-injected and
outflowed sides. This is the time required for the moisture
adsorbed on a specimen surface to reach saturation. The
amount of moisture adsorption is related to the surface
state of different materials during this time interval.
After different surface treatments, the initial phase
exhibits the same adsorption rate, as shown in Figure 6. The
final stage of moisture adsorption significantly differs due to
the surface properties, i.e. the smoother surface properties
absorb less moisture.
2.1.2 Moisture condensation in the corrosive gases
When the stainless steel surface is exposed to atmospheric or
(1)
residual moisture from various valves, moisture adsorption
 C. Ma et al.: Corrosion and protection of stainless steels in the SMI 5

where PH 2 O is the moisture partial pressure (mmHg), and T is

the dew point (K).
When the dew point temperature of the gas mixture
drops, moisture condenses on the surface after mixing with
HCl, HBr, HF, etc. The equation to calculate the dew point
temperature for different gases is as follows (Kiang 1981);
3.7368 − 0.0326 ln(PHCl ) − 1000
ln(PH2 O) = T
(3)
0.1591 − 0.00269 ln(PHCl )

3.8503 − 0.02398 ln(PHF ) − 1000

ln(PH2 O) = T
(4)
0.1728 − 0.001135 ln(PHF )

3.5639 − 0.0398 ln(PHBr ) − 1000

ln(PH2 O) = T
(5)
Figure 5: Schematic diagram of the moisture delay adsorption process 0.1350 − 0.00235 ln(PHBr )
(Tsuji et al. 2017). Reprinted with permission; copyright 2017 Japan Society
where T is the dew point temperature (K), PH2 O is the partial
of Applied Physics.
pressure (mmHg) of the moisture, PHCl , PHF and PHBr are
partial pressures (mmHg) of HCl, HF and HBr, respectively.
For ideal gaseous conditions, the partial pressure and
concentration are converted. Therefore, plotting moisture
concentration versus dew point temperature for different
gaseous environments is feasible.
Significant differences exist between dew point tem-
peratures of different gases at ambient temperature. Cor-
rosive gases can significantly increase the dew point
temperature of a gas mixture. The higher the dew point
temperature, the greater the condensation tendency for
moisture. HBr, HCl, and HF gases can significantly increase
the condensation tendency of moisture, with HBr being the
greatest (Figure 7).
In the gas delivery system, there are cases of replace-
ment cylinders, maintenance pipelines and damaged valves,
resulting in contact between the inner surface of the gas
Figure 6: Moisture adsorption capacity of different surfaces (Tsuji et al.
2017). Reprinted with permission; copyright 2017 Japan Society of Applied
Physics.

is inevitable. Moisture condensation occurs under certain

conditions on the surface as moisture adsorption reaches a
critical value.
There is a correlation between the moisture molecules’
condensation on the surface and the dew point temperature
of the gas mixture (Tsuji et al. 2017). Moisture condensation
occurs once the dew point temperature is above the ambient
temperature. Conversely, the moisture molecules remain in
a gaseous state. The dew point temperature is calculated from
the moisture partial pressure by the following equation
(Kiang 1981);
5038.13
ln(PH 2 O) = 20.1424 − (2) Figure 7: Dew point temperatures of different gas mixtures at an total
T pressure of 1 atm and moisture partial pressure of 0.01 atm.
6 C. Ma et al.: Corrosion and protection of stainless steels in the SMI
pipelines and the atmosphere. The moisture in the gas con-
denses on the material surface, when the temperature is
different between the material surface and the gas mixture.
Figure 8 depicts that a tiny amount of moisture is mixed with
HBr upon introducing high-pressure HBr, forming a high-
propensity gas mixture for moisture condensation, resulting
in secondary condensation in the gas delivery system.
2.1.3 Corrosion mechanism of moisture interaction with
stainless steel
Lange’s Handbook of chemistry suggests that corrosion gases
have extremely large solubility in moisture. Corrosive gases
have a high propensity to dissolve in moisture (Fine et al.
1995). Many corrosive gases are dissolved in the condensate
moisture, forming a supersaturated acidic solution, gener-
ating electrochemical effects to accelerate the corrosion
reaction. Thus, the corrosion products in the form of parti-
cles contaminate high-purity gas, reducing the wafer quality.
Taking an H2O and HCl mixture as an example, water
molecules are adsorbed on the stainless steel surface as a
monolayer. The water molecules condense when the dew
point temperature is higher than the ambient temperature,
gradually forming a precursor film (Figure 9a). As moisture
condensation proceeds, droplets tend to form at depressions,
defects or inclusions (Tsuji et al. 2017). Due to the high
affinity of HCl gas for water, it dissolves into droplets,
Figure 8: The adsorption behaviour of moisture
in gas delivery system.
forming a supersaturated acidic and a chloride ion concen-
trated electrolyte (Figure 9b), inducing a rapidly developing
droplet corrosion (Figure 9c). In addition, a certain amount of
gas is dissolved into the precursor film, causing certain
corrosion on the material’s surface. The droplet volume
gradually increases as the water molecules condense, while
the film thickens, prompting the metal ions dissolution and
accelerating the corrosion rate (Figure 9d). Under the
influence of gravity and gaseous fluids, condensation droplets
move and stagnate along the specimen, thus, accelerating the
corrosion reactions. The high-purity gas is contaminated.
When HCl concentration in the condensed droplets increases,
the surface tension gradually decreases, flattening the
condensed droplets. In the presence of high water content, it
may continuously concentrate the solutes in the precursor
film on the material surface over time, gradually evolving into
a thin liquid film morphology (Figure 9f) (Askey et al. 1993;
Lequien and Moine 2021; Mizushima 2007; Weissenborn and
Pugh 1996).
Lequien and Moine (2021) proposed that the corrosion
morphology can be significantly altered by intermingling
moisture with the HCl gas. A distinct droplet corrosion
pattern characterises the initial stage of corrosion, and
traces of micro-droplet formation can be observed. The
droplet corrosion morphology disappears and transforms
into a liquid membrane-covered corrosion morphology
(Figure 10). The above corrosion mechanism was verified.
 C. Ma et al.: Corrosion and protection of stainless steels in the SMI 7

Figure 9: Corrosion mechanism of H2O and HCl gas mixtures.

Tomari (1997) dried SUS316L (EP) in the air to adsorb

sufficient moisture to the specimen surface and exposed it to
HCl gas. Granular deposits development, observed by SEM,
revealed that higher atmosphere temperatures resulted in
more serious corrosion. SUS316L is a stainless steel for
semiconductors produced following the standard of semi-
conductor manufacturing industry (SEMI F20).
The corrosion of stainless steel is linked to the moisture
concentration in the gas mixture (Fine et al. 1995; Smudde
et al. 1995). As shown in Figure 11, in H2O and HBr mixture,
the corrosion rate increases exponentially when the mois-
ture concentration exceeds a critical value (10 ppm). The
typical corrosion morphology is the presence of a thin layer
of granular deposits in the central part, surrounded by a
circular area of 5–10 μm, consistent with the shape of droplet
corrosion. EDS analysis determined the deposited crystals
in the central part of the feature to be FeBr3-χH2O, and Figure 10: Corrosion morphology of 316L (EP) with a mixture of H2O and
elemental bromine (Br) was detected in the corrosion pit HCl: (a) 720 h, (b) 1848 h, (c) 4224 h (Lequien and Moine 2021). Reprinted
wall below the crystals. with permission; copyright 2021 John Wiley and Sons.

2.1.4 Corrosion mechanism in welded joints of gas
pipelines
Welding is inevitably used to connect gas pipelines in gas
delivery systems. However, welded joints are vulnerable
to corrosion, so clarifying their corrosion mechanisms in
the semiconductor manufacturing industry is necessary.
The austenitic stainless steel weld zone metal (WM) is a cast
iron structure (Cui and Lundin 2005) consisting of an
austenitic with 2–10 % δ-ferrite. The welded joints are divided
into weld, fusion and heat-affected zones (HAZ), each with
different characteristics, as shown in Figure 12 (He and Xing
2019).
Cui and Lundin (2007) deposited 316 on the base metal
304 by shielded metal arc welding (SMAW). Subsequently, a
3 % FeCl3 solution was used for immersion testing. The initial
corrosion attack is in austenite instead of ferrite. Cleslak
et al. (1982) investigated the chromium (Cr) and nickel (Ni)
8 C. Ma et al.: Corrosion and protection of stainless steels in the SMI
segregations within dendrites in austenitic weld metal,
suggesting that solidification produces Cr and Ni-depleted
zones in the crystal core, thus, reducing the corrosion
resistance of austenite.
In the welded joint, the HAZ is an obvious weak corro-
sion site due to the sensitization of austenitic stainless (Lu
et al. 2020; Trigwell and Selvaduray 2005). The sensitisation
of weldments refers to the rapid carbon diffusion to grain
boundaries in the temperature range of 450 and 850 °C,
precipitating the Cr-rich carbides (M23C6) near the grain
boundaries (Kumar et al. 2015). Cr concentration reduces to
well below 12 wt% due to the precipitation of M23C6 near the
grain boundaries, known as the Cr-depleted zones. At this
point, the corrosion resistance at the grain boundary is
reduced and prone to intergranular corrosion (Kumar et al.
Figure 11: Corrosion morphology of 316L (EP)
with hydrogen bromide gas containing
different moisture concentrations:
(a) 0.2 ppm, (b) 10 ppm, (c) 100 ppm,
(d) 1000 ppm, (e) enlarged view of area λ
(Fine et al. 1995). Reprinted with permission;
copyright 1995 IOP Publishing.
2015). The susceptibility to intergranular corrosion depends
on the Cr concentration variation and the width of the
Cr-depleted zone (Zhang et al. 2013).
In addition, the molten zone shrinks during the cooling
and solidification of pipe welding, and the base material
adjacent to HAZ produces residual tensile stresses to resist
deformation, further increasing the corrosion susceptibility
of the heat-affected zone.
Smudde et al. (1995) and Fine et al. (1995) described that
the corrosion rate of 316L (EP) welded specimens increased
with moisture content in HBr gas through gas mixture
exposure experiments, as shown in Figure 13.
The heat tint appears after welding stainless steel in the
joint area, and its colouring depends on the welding condi-
tions (Łabanowski and Głowacka 2011). After welding, a
 C. Ma et al.: Corrosion and protection of stainless steels in the SMI
Figure 12: Microstructure of welded joints by TIG: (a) heat affected zone,
(b) weld (He and Xing 2019). Reprinted with permission; copyright 2019
IOP Publishing.
thicker oxide layer is formed on the surface with colour
variation due to the light interference effect. During the
oxide layers formation, the Cr content in the material
decreases, thus, reducing the corrosion resistance of the
welded joint (Fuertes et al. 2017). Removing the heat tint in
the semiconductor manufacturing industry is necessary. The
removal of heat tint can be divided into three stages:
(1) Removal of oxide film by mechanical grinding, (2) the
removal of Cr-depleted surface via chemical cleaning or
electrolytic polishing, and (3) the improvement in corrosion
resistance by passivation, found in ASTM A380/A380M and
ASTM A967 (Łabanowski and Głowacka 2011).
When the thermal source acts on the weld material
surface, it experiences a sharp heat-up. Without considering
the vaporization of elements in the melt pool, the stainless
steel melt pool soon boils (Zacharia et al. 1991), as shown in
9
Table 3. However, the cooling effect accompanying evapo-
ration limits the temperature of the melt pool; therefore, the
welded joint exhibits partial vaporization and uneven dis-
tribution of elements.
Block-Bolten and Eagar (1984) suggested that the higher
percentage of manganese (Mn) in the stainless steel results
in faster vapourization, with Mn being the main element in
the melt pool. Figure 14 illustrates that Mn has the highest
vapour pressure from a thermodynamic viewpoint, and
vaporization occurs preferentially. The composition of melt
pool vapour is examined. In the initial melting stage, the Mn
element dominates the gas phase composition, and after a
sustained period, the Fe element gradually rises.
Trigwell and Selvaduray (2005) found a blue–brown
discolouration in the HAZ region associated with the Mn
deposition near the weld after evaporation. In 316L stainless
steel, the vapour pressure of Mn is higher than other ele-
ments, and it tends to evaporate during the welding process
and is subsequently deposited in the HAZ adjacent to the
weld, accelerating the corrosion.
Hattori et al. (1994) reported Mn deposits downstream of
the weld centre, resulting from post-vapour deposition of
Mn during welding. Subsequently, experiments were per-
formed on stainless steel welded joints with different Mn
contents. They also proposed a mechanism to deposit Mn
after vapourization to accelerate corrosion. Figure 15 shows
a surge of Mn content downstream of a high Mn stainless
steel weld, where the peak was at 5 mm. Mn coexists with
iron (Fe), Cr and Ni oxides in the form of MnO2. MnO2 results
from oxidizing extremely fine Mn particles by residual
moisture or oxygen on the surface. The corrosion rate is
further accelerated by H2O, produced by the MnO2 reaction
with HBr.
2.2 Corrosion mechanisms of structural
components inside chambers at high
temperatures
In the early 1990s, stainless steel was used as a chamber
material in the semiconductor manufacturing industry.
With the development of aluminium alloy technology,
surface-treated aluminium alloys are now gradually used
as a component material in reaction chambers. However,
several structural components in chambers are still made
of stainless steel. Since the stainless steel structural com-
ponents are inside the chamber, their environment differs
significantly from the stainless steel in the gas delivery
system. The corrosion resistance of stainless steel in this
service environment and the corrosion mechanisms need
10 C. Ma et al.: Corrosion and protection of stainless steels in the SMI

Figure 13: Corrosion morphology of 316L (EP)

welded specimens: (a) 0.5 ppm, (b) 10 ppm,
(c) 100 ppm, (d) 1000 ppm (Fine et al. 1995).
Reprinted with permission; copyright 1995 IOP
Publishing.

Table : Melting and boiling points of major elements at welded joints. to be investigated. In vapour phase epitaxy equipment, the
gas temperature in the chamber’s centre reaches 500 °C. The
Elements Melting point (°C) Boiling point (°C) stainless steel parts are at a certain distance from the reac-
Fe   tion centre in the cavity, and the stainless steel is at a lower
Mn   temperature range than the gas temperature due to the heat
Ni   propagation path of thermal radiation in the vacuum.
Cr  
Since the temperature is above the boiling point of
Mo  
water, the water molecules are stored as a vapour phase

Figure 14: Vaporization of Mn elements in the

process of welding. (a) Curves of temperature
versus vapour pressure for different elements,
(b) curves of melt pool vapour composition
versus time (Block-Bolten and Eagar 1984).
Reprinted with permission; copyright 1984
Springer.
 C. Ma et al.: Corrosion and protection of stainless steels in the SMI
Figure 15: Elemental composition of the upper and downstream
surfaces of high manganese stainless steel after welding (Hattori et al.
1994). Reprinted with permission; copyright 1994 Japan Society of Applied
Physics.
during service. The mechanism of moisture-accelerated
corrosion of stainless steel in the ambient/low-temperature
environment is not valid in the service environment. When
stainless steel materials are placed in the above service
environment for a long time, the material undergoes
thermal ageing, dominated by spinodal decomposition and
carbide precipitation. Therefore, the impact of thermal
ageing on the stainless steel materials’ performance needs
to be explored as a priority.
2.2.1 Thermal ageing behaviour of stainless steel
Nowadays, the austenitic stainless steel manufacturing tech-
nology is excellent. However, owing to the limitations of non-
equilibrium rapid solidification of the manufacturing process
(Hong et al. 2002), a slight amount of ferrite is inevitable in
austenitic stainless steels (Elmer et al. 1989; Li et al. 2021a,b;
Warren et al. 2015). Ignoring these ferrites in the semi-
conductor manufacturing industry with ultra-high purity re-
quirements is not recommended, even if the ferrite content is
extremely low. Moreover, austenitic stainless steel welds have
duplex microstructures consisting of an austenite substrate
with approximately 5–12 % ferrite (Chandra et al. 2012).
Ferrite in welds can effectively avoid thermal cracking
(Chandra et al. 2012; Gill et al. 1989; Lee et al. 2018). However,
when stainless steel is under long-term service at 280–330 °C,
ferrite undergoes structural transformation, increasing the
strength and hardness, decreasing the plasticity and tough-
ness, and thermal ageing embrittlement (Lin et al. 2019; Sahu
11
et al. 2009). Microstructural changes due to thermal ageing
can facilitate corrosion (Was et al. 2011).
Microstructural changes in thermal ageing at 280–330 °C
are characterized by unstable ferrite decomposition (spi-
nodal decomposition) and the G phase precipitation (Lee
et al. 2018). The unstable decomposition of ferrite is char-
acterised by Fe-rich (usually noted as α) and Cr-rich (usually
noted as α′) zones. BCC structure’s iron-rich and Cr-rich
phases have similar lattice constants (Chandra et al. 2012).
The difference in Cr content between α and α′ phases in-
creases with thermal ageing. The α-phase contains a small
amount of Cr and is susceptible to corrosion. Figure 16
illustrates the unstable decomposition morphology of ferrite
with an orange peel appearance (Jeong et al. 2022). The G
phase is a intermetallic nickel silicide that correlates well
with Ni. The G phase precipitates in the ferrite phase during
thermal ageing, with a lattice constant four times that of
ferrite, as FCC intermetallic silicides. Figure 17 shows the G
phase precipitation morphology and composition (David
et al. 1996; Kong et al. 2023). The G-phase is preferentially
nucleated at α and α′ phase boundaries and acts synergisti-
cally with ferrite spinodal decomposition. Ni are repelled by
α and α′ regions, diffusing and aggregating in the middle of α
and α′ phases, forming clusters, precipitating into G-phase
(Jeong et al. 2022; Kong et al. 2023).
Since the sluggish thermal ageing rate, behaviour un-
der service conditions is studied by accelerated methods.
The materials’ structural transformation (thermal ageing
mechanism) occurring under service and accelerated
thermal ageing temperatures are consistent (Lin et al. 2019;
Pumphrey and Akhurst 1990). Chung and Chopra (1986)
demonstrated the effectiveness of accelerated thermal
ageing, which is generally considered a thermally activated
process in stainless steel and obeys the Arrhenius Formula.
Temperature and time for accelerated thermal ageing are
determined in the laboratory to simulate the thermal
ageing behaviour at service temperature. Although the
activation energy is a function of temperature, the thermal
ageing activation energy is approximated as a constant
over a suitable temperature (Lin et al. 2019).
The structure variation due to spinodal decomposition
possesses the highest embrittlement rate at 475 °C, known as
the 475 °C embrittlement phenomenon (Sahu et al. 2009). The
thermal ageing characteristics of structure variation are
transformed when the temperature is higher than 475 °C.
Thermal ageing structure transformation of stainless
steel at 500–850 °C is characterized by carbide precipitation
(Trillo 1997). Carbon remains in austenite in a supersatu-
rated state, and when heated to an appropriate temperature
for a sufficient period, this supersaturated carbon element
precipitates as a carbide. As shown in Figure 18, there is a
12 C. Ma et al.: Corrosion and protection of stainless steels in the SMI

Figure 16: TEM analysis results of ferrite in the

316L: (a and b) untreated, (c and d) ageing at
400 °C for 5000 h, (e and f) ageing at 400 °C for
10,000 h, (g and h) ageing at 400 °C for
20,000 h (Jeong et al. 2022). Reprinted with
permission; copyright 2022 Elsevier.

Figure 17: TEM analysis results for ferrite at

400 °C for 20,000 h: (a) HRTEM image,
(b) resultant FFT taken in (a), (c) STEM/EDS
mapping, (d) compositional line scan profile
(Kong et al. 2023) (no permission is required).
 C. Ma et al.: Corrosion and protection of stainless steels in the SMI 13

decrease in Cr content at grain boundaries. Ding et al. (2009)
described that precipitate phases at grain boundaries are
chromium-rich carbides (M23C6) by thermodynamic calcu-
lations and TEM.
The temperature range for M23C6 precipitation during
thermal ageing is 500 °C to 850 °C (Trillo 1997). In addition,
the precipitation kinetics of M23C6 is associated with the
stainless steel chemical composition and processing his-
tories (Allahyari et al. 2005; Ding et al. 2009; Li 2014; Li et al.
2021a,b). Figure 19 shows that the corrosion resistance of
stainless steel is significantly reduced after thermal ageing,
and the longer time result in worse corrosion resistance
(Wang et al. 2021).
The precipitation time for carbides varies at different
temperatures. The carbide precipitation times of stainless
steels at 500 °C to 850 °C are summarized in the literature
(Allahyari et al. 2005; Ding et al. 2009; Li 2014; Li et al.
2021a,b). The higher the temperature, the more rapid the

Figure 18: Element distribution of stainless at 650 °C under different ageing time: (a, b) 0 h, (c, d) 1 h, (e, f) 5 h, (g, h) 48 h (Wang et al. 2021). Reprinted
with permission; copyright 2021 Elsevier.
14 C. Ma et al.: Corrosion and protection of stainless steels in the SMI
Figure 20: Statistics and fitting of carbide precipitation times for
stainless steels at different temperatures (Allahyari et al. 2005; Ding et al.
2009; Li 2014; Li et al. 2021a,b).
diffusion and the shorter the time for carbide formation, as
shown in Figure 20.
2.2.2 Vaporisation behaviour of corrosion products at
high temperatures
The reaction mechanism between corrosive gases and
metals in a high-temperature vacuum environment signifi-
cantly differs from that in a conventional atmospheric
environment. Under conventional corrosive environments,
corrosive species dissolve in water to produce ionic con-
ductors, resulting in electrochemical corrosion. However,
under a high-temperature vacuum environment, water exists
in trace amounts of gas phase molecules, depicting a weak
Figure 19: Corrosion morphology of specimens
immersed in 1 M hydrochloric acid for 7 days
after the different thermal ageing time at 650 °
C: (a) 0 h, (b) 1 h, (c) 5 h, (d) 48 h (Wang et al.
2021). Reprinted with permission; copyright
2021 Elsevier.
accelerating effect on corrosion, and the overall reaction is
predominantly chemical. Taking the corrosion of stainless
steel in HCl gas as an example, the reactions are as follows:
Fe + 2HCl → 2FeCl2 + H2 (6)
Cr + 2HCl → 2CrCl2 + H2 (7)
Ni + 2HCl → 2NiCl2 + H2 (8)
Metal halides are extremely volatile, and their vapou-
rization at high temperatures and low pressures must be
considered (Speight 2005).
Ihara et al. (1981, 1982a, 1983) investigated the corrosion
behaviour of metals in pure HCl gas at high temperatures
and 1 atm in a confined stationary space. Figure 21 indicates
that the corrosion behaviour of Fe/Cr/Ni in HCl gas at high
temperatures is determined by the formation and sublima-
tion of ferrous chloride. Below a certain temperature,
corrosion products are constantly attached to metal surfaces
and do not undergo vaporisation. When the temperature ex-
ceeds a certain level, corrosion products undergo vapor-
ization. The gaseous reaction products leave the surface, and
almost no corrosion product adheres to the specimen surface.
The middle-temperature range is a transition zone; some
corrosion products undergo vaporization, while others adhere
to the surface. The reaction of Cr with HCl at 800 °C undergoes
complex weight changes. It is speculated that gaseous CrCl3 is
supersaturated in the chamber during the final reaction stage,
resulting in redeposition on the specimen surface.
However, the interaction between Fe, Ni and Cr must be
considered for alloys such as stainless steel. When the per-
centage of Ni content in the alloy increases, it could signifi-
cantly inhibit the product vaporisation of the alloy (Ihara
et al. 1982b), as shown in Figure 22. Therefore, elements in
stainless steel influence the corrosion product vaporisation.

The influence of the vaporization behaviour of HCl gas is
more prominent in the gas mixture. Chlorosilane gas
streams are frequently used at high temperatures (>500 °C)
in semiconductor, polysilicon and fumed silica sectors. The
chlorosilane gas streams mainly consist of hydrogen, tetra-
chlorosilane and HCl. The main reaction equations are as
follows;
Fe + SiCl4 + 2H2 → FeSi + 4HCl
Fe + 2HCl → 2FeCl2 + H2
Aller et al. (2015, 2016) reported that the corrosion of
316L stainless steel completely differs in chlorosilane gas
streams at different temperatures. When the temperature
exceeds ferrous chloride’s solid gas transition temperature,
the vaporization phenomenon occurs, prompting the
corrosion products to be rarefied and easily dislodged. With
the increase in HCl concentration in the chlorosilane gas
Figure 21: Curves for thermogravimetric experiments in a confined stationary space: (a, b) pure Fe, (c) pure Ni, (d) pure Cr (Ihara et al. 1981, 1982a, 1983).
Reprinted with permission; copyright 1981, 1982a, 1983 Elsevier.
C. Ma et al.: Corrosion and protection of stainless steels in the SMI 15
stream, the protective properties of corrosion products
sharply decrease (Figure 23).
When the HCl content in the chlorosilane gas stream is
minimal and no vaporisation occurrs, the corrosion prod-
ucts are composed of dense FeSi after etching by the chlor-
osilane gas stream (Figure 24), protecting the material and
slowing down the corrosion. HCl in the chlorosilane gas
stream is a key factor affecting the corrosion resistance of
(9)
stainless steel.
(10)
3 Anti-corrosion technology for
stainless steel in the
semiconductor industry
To face the semiconductor manufacturing industry’s stain-
less steel corrosion challenge, many anti-corrosion
16 C. Ma et al.: Corrosion and protection of stainless steels in the SMI
Figure 22: Curves for thermogravimetric experiments in a confined
stationary space: (a) pure Fe, (b) Fe–12Ni, (c) Fe–20Ni (Ihara et al. 1982b).
Reprinted with permission; copyright 1982b The Japan Institute of Metals
and Materials.
Figure 23: Corrosion morphology of a gas mixture (SiH4 and HCl) with
Fe–Cr alloy at 550 °C for 100 h: (a) 0.014 mol/L HCl, (b) 0.025 mol/L HCl,
(c) 0.057 mol/L HCl (Aller et al. 2016). Reprinted with permission; copyright
2016 IOP Publishing.
technologies have been developed based on identified
corrosion mechanisms. Anti-corrosion technologies can be
summarised in three aspects. First, the purification of the
material using metallurgical innovations, particularly VIM
and VAR technologies. The ultra-high purity stainless steel
 C. Ma et al.: Corrosion and protection of stainless steels in the SMI
Figure 24: Corrosion morphology of a gas mixture (without HCl) with Fe–
Cr alloy at 550 °C for 100 h (Aller et al. 2016). Reprinted with permission;
copyright 2016 IOP Publishing.
minimizes these inclusions, thus, inhibiting the breakdown
of passivation film (Krawiec et al. 2006; Szummer et al. 1993;
Wang et al. 2023). Second, smoothing the surface via pol-
ishing technology reduces the damage due to abrasive chips,
stress and improves corrosion resistance. The polished sur-
face exhibits “hydrophobic” behaviour, reducing moisture
adsorption and indirectly improving the condensation
threshold for moisture (Tsuji et al. 2017; Siefering and
Whitlock 1994). Third, surface treatment and coating tech-
nology can improve the stainless steels corrosion resistance,
such as passivation (He et al. 2009; Liu et al. 2015) and elec-
troplating/electroless nickel-based coatings (Kim et al. 2022;
Shozib et al. 2022).
3.1 Material purification
Stainless steel produced by conventional melting techniques
exhibits excellent corrosion resistance; however, it does not
satisfy the corrosion resistance requirements of the semi-
conductor manufacturing industry. After smelting, non-
metallic inclusions, such as MnS and Al2O3, are inevitably
retained inside the material. MnS inclusions are favourable
nucleation sites of pitting for chlorides and other deleterious
species in the aqueous solution (Eklund 1974; Krawiec et al.
2006). Similarly, Al2O3 is among the most important
inclusions in reducing the corrosion resistance of stainless
steel (Lim et al. 2001; Park et al. 2003). The pits initiate at
micro-crevices around Al2O3 inclusions (Wang et al. 2023). In
addition, the rapid change in temperature prompts Cr and
carbon (C) to precipitate at the grain boundary position in the
form of Cr23C6 during the pipeline welding process. Carbide
precipitation depleted chromium at grain boundaries. Thus,
17
the intergranular corrosion resistance is reduced. Therefore,
the material’s purity can be improved by reducing these in-
clusions and the carbon content, thus effectively improving
the stainless steel’s corrosion resistance.
Enhancing the purity of stainless steel in the semi-
conductor manufacturing industry with excellent metal-
lurgical techniques to strictly control the C, sulphur (S), Mn
and aluminium (Al) content is possible. Common process-
ing processes include argon oxygen decarburization (AOD),
AOD/VAR, vacuum oxygen decarburization (VOD)/VAR or
VIM/VAR. Stainless steel produced by primary melting
technology normally transports relatively non-corrosive
gases. Stainless steels for transporting corrosive gases must
be produced using secondary or vacuum melting technol-
ogy (Collins 1997).
AOD can reduce material consumption and economic
costs while increasing stainless steel productivity (Collins
1997). Figure 25(a) shows that the charge from the electric arc
furnace is moved to the AOD vessel, forming a slag layer at
the top of the furnace charge. Argon, oxygen and nitrogen
are injected from the bottom at sonic velocity, and the gas
blown from the bottom can reduce the carbon content
without excessive Cr oxidation (Hu et al. 2020; Wei and Zhu
2002).
VOD is similar to AOD except that the melting process
occurs under a 10–100 mbar vacuum, and only a small
amount of Ar is injected from the bottom, mainly for agita-
tion. The cleanliness of VOD material is similar to that of the
AOD (Ding et al. 2000; Xu et al. 2009).
VIM is a primary melting process where furnace
charge is melted in an inductively heated crucible under a
vacuum of 10-3-1 mbar. VIM has a wide application range in
producing high-temperature alloys. The melting equipment
is shown in Figure 25(c). Under atmospheric conditions,
violent oxidation reactions occur during high-temperature
alloys’ melting. Under vacuum, almost no oxidation
reactions occur, reducing the oxide inclusions. The extent
of VIM metallurgical refinement is inferior to that of AOD in
decarbonisation, deoxidation, phosphorus removal, and
desulphurisation. VIM is more expensive than AOD due to
the furnace charge’s purity requirements and the equip-
ment’s vacuum maintenance (Frenzel et al. 2004; Otubo
et al. 2006; Tan et al. 2014).
VAR is a secondary melting process of melting ingots
(AOD or VIM melting) utilizing a direct current arc under a
high vacuum of 104-10-2 mbar. High-quality ingots with ho-
mogeneous organization and no component segregation
are produced by VAR technology, and the melting equip-
ment is shown in Figure 25(d). Nitrogen and hydrogen are
dissolved during the vacuum arc remelting process, while
impurity elements with high vapour pressure (arsenic,
18 C. Ma et al.: Corrosion and protection of stainless steels in the SMI

Figure 25: Smelting and refining methods of stainless steel. (a) Schematic diagram of argon oxygen decarburisation (AOD), (b) schematic diagram of
vacuum oxygen decarburization (VOD), (c) schematic diagram of vacuum induction melting (VIM), (d) schematic diagram of vacuum arc remelting (VAR).

lead, tellurium, selenium, bismuth, silver, copper) and ox-
ygen/oxide content are also reduced. During VAR, a portion
of the ingot is solidified, another portion is molten, and the
other portion is getting ready to melt. The solidification rate
can be kept stable to control the ingot structure (Davidson
et al. 2000; Wang et al. 2008; Zanner and Bertram 1985).
316LVV with double vacuum melting (VIM + VAR) exhibits
a minimal C content compared to conventional 316L, pre-
venting intergranular corrosion caused by gas pipeline weld-
ing, as shown in Table 4. Extremely low Mn content prevents
elements evaporation from the melt pool and reduces
inclusions content. The extremely low S and Al content and the
increased molybdenum (Mo) content can improve corrosion
resistance. Therefore, metallurgical melting can purify stain-
less steel and improve its corrosion resistance.
3.2 Polishing techniques for smoothing
surface
In semiconductor manufacturing industries, the vacuum
and purity requirements are extremely high. In addition,
the corrosion mechanism shows that corrosion is relevant
from moisture in stainless steel. Therefore, preparing
smooth surfaces to reduce background vacuum, grinding
and impurity hiding, and moisture adsorption are impor-
tant directions in anti-corrosion technology.
3.2.1 Mechanical polishing (MP)
Mechanical polishing is a surface treatment with micro-
abrasives and soft tools that reduces surface roughness and
 C. Ma et al.: Corrosion and protection of stainless steels in the SMI 19

Table : Table of elemental composition of L after melting.

Material Chemical composition (mass %)

C Si Mn S Ni Cr Mo Al

L (VIM-VAR) . . Ultra low Ultra low . . . Ultra low
L (AOD-VAR) . . . Ultra low . . . Low
L (AOD) . . . Low . . . Low
SEMI F HP/UHP grade ≤. ≤. ≤. ≤. .–. .–. .–. ≤.
General L . . . . . . . .

enhances gloss. Three processes are involved in micro-
abrasive particles and the products’ surfaces; sliding,
ploughing, and cutting. After mechanical polishing, a work-
hardened layer is formed on the material’s surface, the
grain size is reduced, and a Beilby layer appears, as shown
in Figure 26 (Kaneko and Sato 1990). The Beilby layer is a
amorphous surface layer formed during mechanical pol-
ishing, with thickness ranging from a few nanometres to
a micron. The surface roughness in semiconductor
manufacturing is more demanding, and a fine surface fin-
ish is required. A lower surface roughness value indicates a
smaller difference in height between the raised and
depressed surfaces; thus, impurities, debris and pollution
cannot hide on the material surface, reducing the specific
surface area and slowing down the corrosion rate (Yu 2017).
To meet these requirements, electrolytic polishing is used
to modify the stainless steel surface in the semiconductor
manufacturing industry.
3.2.2 Electrolytic polishing (EP)
Electrolytic polishing (EP) forms a smooth surface by
selective dissolution of microscopic projections on the
anode in an electrolytic cell (Hernando et al. 2012; Lee
2000). Figure 27 illustrates that the metal for polishing at
the anode undergoes a dissolution reaction, and the inert
electrode undergoes a hydrogen evolution reaction.
Decreased surface roughness and increased surface
gloss during electrolytic polishing are attributed to the
selective dissolution of concave and convex areas on the
material surface. Therefore, the electrolytic polishing pro-
cess can be further divided into the anodic smoothing pro-
cess to reduce surface roughness and the anodic brightening
process to increase surface gloss (Li et al. 2005, 2008; Łycz-
kowska-Widłak et al. 2020; Zhao et al. 2002). The schematic
diagram of the two processes is shown in Figure 28.
The anode smoothing process is a macro-level modifi-
cation. At the anode, dissolved metal ions constantly enter
the adjacent solution and the generation rate of metal ions is
higher than that of migration by diffusion into the solution.
Various metal ions gradually accumulate on the anode sur-
face. Eventually, a viscous liquid film structure is formed
between the electrolyte and metal surface, and the reaction
is controlled by diffusion. The viscous liquid film (diffusion
layer) is the Jacquet layer. The higher viscosity of the pol-
ishing solution facilitates the formation of Jacquet layers.
The diffusion rate of metal ions into the electrolyte in
the Jacquet layer depends on the concentration gradient
between the liquid film and electrolyte, i.e., the current
remains constant with increasing voltage. The overall reac-
tion rate depends on diffusion current density. The Jacquet
layer is thicker in metal surface depressions and thinner in
bumps. The thinner the Jacquet layer, the greater the con-
centration gradient, resulting in a higher current density.

Figure 26: Schematic diagram of the Beilby layer after mechanical

polishing. Figure 27: Equipment of electrolytic polishing.
20 C. Ma et al.: Corrosion and protection of stainless steels in the SMI
Figure 28: Mechanisms of electrolytic polishing: (a) anodic smoothing,
(b) anonic brightening.
Generally, Jacquet layers are approximately 20 to 80 μm
thick. When the surface roughness is within the above range,
the selective dissolution of the metal surface occurs (Hick-
ling and Higgins 1952; Landolt 1987; Magaino et al. 1993;
Mohan et al. 2001; Uhlig 1940; Yang et al. 2017).
The anodic brightening process is a micro-level modifi-
cation inducing a mirror glossiness on the metal surface and
further reducing the surface roughness. Glossiness is the
metal surface’s ability to reflect light. On an ideally smooth
surface, the light reflection angle is equal to the light inci-
dence angle, whereas multi-directional scattering occurs on
a non-glossy metal surface. More light is reflected when the
light is less scattered, and then the surface gloss is high. A
surface can exhibit mirror-quality glossiness if the uneven-
ness of the polished surface is less than the wavelength of
visible light. In the Jacquet layer, electrolytic polishing
generally results in smoothing, not brightening. After the
anodic smoothing, the surface roughness of the metal is
approximately 0.01–0.1 µm, attributed to incomplete
structures near the grain boundaries. During the micro-
modification phase, continuously maintained at a high
potential, the anode surface generates a thin film. The
created film layer is located between the Jacquet layer and
the metal surface, distributed at approximately the same
thickness. The film allows the crystalline incomplete grains
to be preferentially dissolved, removing the microscopic
unevenness of the polished surface, further reducing the
surface roughness and achieving an anodic brightening on
the metal surface (Alkire and Cangellari 1983; Beck 1982;
Grimm and Landolt 1994; Grimm et al. 1992; Russell and
Newman 1986; West et al. 1992; Williams and Barrett 1956).
Electrolytic polishing is recommended to be only suit-
able for refining low-roughness surfaces (Lee 2000). To
reduce surface roughness, the surface must be mechanically
polished before the electrolytic polishing process. Electro-
lytic polishing usually reduces the roughness by 50–80 %;
therefore, the effect of mechanical polishing on surface
roughness cannot be ignored. The lower the initial surface
roughness after mechanical polishing, the smoother the final
polished surface under the same electrolytic polishing pa-
rameters, as shown in Figure 29.
Electrolytic polishing is sensitive to non-metallic
inclusions in stainless steel (Lowery and Roll 1998; Sutow
1980). Electrolytic polishing usually attacks these non-
metallic inclusions, with sulphide inclusions being the pri-
mary attack location. Sulphide inclusions act as anodes in
the electrolytic polishing and are selectively removed.
Several pits remain on the surface in the presence of a high
amount of sulphide (Figure 30). Therefore, efficient melting
technology can reduce the volume percentage of elemental
sulphur, generally limiting it to 0.003 % and below (Collins
1997).
Figure 29: Effect of initial surface roughness on electrolytic polishing.
 C. Ma et al.: Corrosion and protection of stainless steels in the SMI
Figure 30: Surface morphology after electrolytic polishing: (a) 0 min,
(b) 15 min, (c) 25 min (Sutow 1980). Reprinted with permission; copyright
1980 John Wiley and Sons.
Gibb’s free energy calculations result in a preferred
reaction order: MnS < Fe < Al2O3. Oxide inclusions in the
electrolytic polishing act as cathodes without dissolution.
However, due to the Fe dissolution, the oxide inclusions also
fall off the metal surface. After refining and cold working of
stainless steel, plastic deformation layers are formed with
particle contamination and residual gas adsorption on the
metal surface. Degreasing and cleaning are commonly used
21
in semiconductor manufacturing to remove contamination,
and baking removes adsorbed gases from surfaces. More-
over, residual stresses and amorphous layers (Beilby layers)
are present on the surface after mechanical polishing.
Electrolytic polishing techniques can effectively remove
these residual stresses and Beilby layers while forming a
dense passivation film on the surface (Watanabe et al. 1989).
Figure 31 shows a 10 nm work-hardened layer on the
metal surface before electrolytic polishing. Electrolytic
polishing removes contamination and work-hardened
layer from the original surface, achieved by stripping the
material surface layer by layer. Finally, the surface after
electrolytic polishing is similar to the internal organisation
of the substrate. Hardness experiments have effectively
verified the surface stripping process.
Electrolytic polishing creates a dense and thin passiv-
ation layer, significantly better than the passivation film
formed by air and nitric acid. Lee and Lai (2003) and Awad
et al. (2012) found that Fe dissolved before Cr and Ni, and the
Cr content of the passivated film was significantly increased
during the electrolytic polishing process (Figure 32), infer-
ring that the main component of the film was Cr2O3, which
can improve the corrosion resistance of stainless steel
substantially.
3.2.3 Electrochemical buffing (ECB)
Baba and Sato (1990) proposed that mechanical and elec-
trolytic polishing can create a finer surface, further reducing
surface roughness and changing the surface stress state,
known as electrochemical buffing (ECB). Figure 33 depicts
the ECB technology can achieve lower surface roughness and
can handle 316L ultra-high purity components to obtain a
bright, contamination-free, micro-crack-free surface (Tsuji
et al. 2017).
ECB can significantly reduce surface roughness, change
the metal surface’s stress state, and eliminate defects caused
by cold working, as shown in Table 5.
The ECB mechanisms was described by Baba and Sato
(1990) and Tsui et al. (2007). During the electrolytic process,
the metal surface dissolves, and a passivation film is subse-
quently formed. Due to the grinding of the abrasive particles,
the passivation film is stripped from the surface bumps,
leaving the bumps in a dissolved state again, thereby dis-
solving the metal. Figure 34 illustrates that the iterative
electrochemical and mechanical processes between the
workpiece and grinding edge shorten the polishing time and
smooth the bumps on the metal surface, finally polishing the
surface to a mirror finish. The average and maximum sur-
face roughness is further reduced.
22 C. Ma et al.: Corrosion and protection of stainless steels in the SMI
Figure 31: Schematic diagram of the surface stripping process in electrolytic polishing.
A distinct advantage of ECB over EP exists is that ECB
creates a fine grain structure on the stainless steel surface
due to the synergistic effect of electrolytic and micro pol-
ishing with viscoelastic abrasives. Shirai et al. (1996) and
Ohmi et al. (1996) found that the α-phase appeared on the
ECB-treated stainless steel surface, as shown in Figure 35. In
addition, Baba and Sato (1990) revealed the appearance of an
amorphous structure on the ECB surface via high-energy
electron diffraction and that the amorphous structure posi-
tively affects corrosion resistance.
3.3 Passivation and coating technology
With the continuous development of the semiconductor
manufacturing industry, melting technology and surface
polishing of stainless steel cannot meet the extremely
corrosion-intensive application requirements, such as fluo-
rine exhaust gas output piping (Maeno et al. 1992a,b; Miki
et al. 1990) and ultra-high purity gas filters (Amari et al. 1999;
Haider and Shadman 1989) etc. Therefore, excellent surface
treatment of stainless steel is required to improve the sur-
face properties, extend the service time, and ensure the
cleanliness of gases and chambers. The surface treatment
can be divided into two (1) preparation of a complete
passivation film and (2) application of stainless steel surface
coating.
3.3.1 Passivation of stainless steel
Stainless steel can form a passivation film in the atmo-
sphere for excellent corrosion resistance (Zhao et al. 2020).
The structural denseness of the passivation film, chemical
composition, and other factors determine its corrosion
resistance (Ge et al. 2003; Wang et al. 2019). Nowadays,
certain methods make obtaining passivation film struc-
tures with excellent properties possible. The higher the
percentage of Cr in the film’s chemical composition, the
higher the corrosion resistance (Wallinder et al. 1998). In
the semiconductor manufacturing industry, however,
stainless steel has to meet corrosion resistance re-
quirements and requires significant attention regarding
moisture absorption and desorption (Tomari et al. 1990).
This review highlights methods on improving passivation
film performance (Table 6).
The passivation film of stainless steel is composed of
Cr2O3 and Fe2O3. When the Cr percentage increases, the
corrosion resistance improves significantly (Ohmi et al. 1998;
Shirai et al. 1994). The reasons can be divided into two parts:
(1) When the temperature is below 170 °C and above 400 °C,
the Gibbs free energy change in Cr2O3 reacting with corro-
sion gases is significantly higher than Fe2O3, as shown in
Figure 36a. The Cr2O3 stability in the corrosive gases envi-
ronment is better. The higher Cr2O3 percentage in the film
demonstrates the film’s better corrosion resistance. (2) The
passivation film (Cr2O3) exhibits excellent moisture release
properties, i.e., minimal moisture remains on the Cr2O3
after purging. Water molecule adsorption is an important
factor affecting the corrosion rate; therefore, increasing the
Cr2O3 percentage contributes to reducing the effect of the
condensation water in accelerating corrosion.
Tomari et al. (1990) suggested that obtaining excellent
surface passivation films on 316L (EP) stainless steel was
possible by dry passivation treatment. The passivation film’s
 C. Ma et al.: Corrosion and protection of stainless steels in the SMI
ability to release moisture is significantly improved compared
to 316L (EP), and the dry passivation treatment is strictly
temperature dependent, with excellent hydrophobic
properties achieved in the appropriate interval, as shown
in Figure 37. In addition, the passivation film is exposed to
35 % HCl solution, and the corrosion resistance is evaluated
by observing the hydrogen generation time. As shown in
Figure 38, the material’s corrosion resistance increases
23
Figure 32: Characterisation of the surface
composition of electrolytic polishing: (a) XPS
depth profiling, (b) surface SEM/EDS
characterisation (Awad et al. 2012; Lee and Lai
2003). Reprinted with permission; copyright
2012 Elsevier; reprinted with permission;
copyright 2003 Elsevier.
significantly in the corresponding temperature interval,
i.e., the lower the moisture concentration in dry passiv-
ation treatment, the better the film’s corrosion resistance.
Composition analysis of passivation films prepared at
different moisture concentrations indicated that at lower
moisture concentrations, the Cr percentage in the passiv-
ation film is high; thus, the corrosion resistance is higher
(Tomari 1995).
24 C. Ma et al.: Corrosion and protection of stainless steels in the SMI

Figure 33: Surface morphology of different surface treatments:

(a) bright annealing, (b) electrolytic polishing, (c) electrochemical buffing
(Tsuji et al. 2017). Reprinted with permission; copyright 2017 Japan Society
of Applied Physics.

Table : Influence of ECB on surface stress variations.

Serial Treatment X-directional stress Y-directional stress

no. (MPa) (MPa) Figure 35: Structural differences between ECB and EP surface crystals:
(a) ECB surface, (b) EP surface (Ohmi et al. 1996). Reprinted with
A- Bending +. +
permission; copyright 1996 American Vacuum Society.
A- Bending + ECB −. −
B- Welding +. +
B- Welding + ECB −. − Table : Passivation treatment methods.

+: tensile stress; −: compressive stress.

Serial Methods Process condition References
no.

 Dry passivation High temperature treat- Tomari et al.

treatment ment ( °C– °C) in (), Tomari
 % oxygen & argon (, )
(dew point tempera-
ture: − °C) for  h
 Iron-free (low) High temperature treat- Shirai et al. (,
passivation ment ( °C) with ), Ohmi et al.
treatment  ppm HO in  % H & (, )
Ar gas for  h
 Fluorinated Fluorination in  % fluo- Maeno and Naka-
passivation rine gas followed by ther- gawa (), Miki
mal modification in  % and Maeno (),
nitrogen gas, where the Miki et al. ()
temperature range is
Figure 34: Equipment and mechanisms of ECB.  °C– °C for
 min– min
Therefore, the lower the moisture content of dry
passivation treatment, the higher the Cr content of the pre-
pared passivation film and the better the corrosion resis- composition is predominantly Cr2O3. Meanwhile, the Cr2O3
tance. The decrease in corrosion resistance at excessively passivation film exhibits excellent corrosion resistance, su-
high temperatures is attributed to the microstructural perior to nickel-based alloys. Figure 40 shows no corrosion
changes caused by thermal ageing. after 120 h of exposure to HBr (20 cc/min) gas at 120 °C.
Shirai et al. (1996) and Ohmi et al. (1996) demonstrated Stainless steel forms excellent passivation films by
the successful formation of passivation films without Fe el- oxidation. Fluorinated passivation films can also be prepared
ements on the ferritic stainless steel (FS9) and austenitic using F2 (Maeno et al. 1992a,b; Miki et al. 1990). Fluorinated
stainless steel (316L) surface. The percentage of Fe elemental passivated films demonstrate excellent corrosion resistance.
on the surface is zero, and the chromium-to-oxygen ratio is The equation for the reaction between F2 and stainless steel is
2:3 (Figure 39), suggesting that the passivation film as follows;

Figure 36: Moisture sensitivity of material composition: (a) curves of Gibbs free energy, (b, c) curves of moisture release of different specimens surfaces
(Shirai et al. 1994). Reprinted with permission; copyright 1994 IEICE.
Figure 37: Curve of moisture adsorption capacity versus temperature
(dry passivation treatment) (Tomari et al. 1990). Reprinted with
permission; copyright 1990 Elsevier.
Fe + F2 → Fex Fy (y : x = 2.00∼2.79)
where the FexFy is a mixture of FeF2 and FeF3. Here, there is an
excess of fluorine in the interstitial and lattice positions of the
fluorinated film and between the fluorinated film and stain-
less steel. Since the solid-gas transition temperature of FeF3
is much lower than that of FeF2, the FexFy has a loose struc-
ture, unsatisfactory corrosion resistance and hydrophobic
C. Ma et al.: Corrosion and protection of stainless steels in the SMI 25
properties, requiring post-treatment. Transformation of FeF3
to FeF2 by surface modification is done according to the
following equation;
Fe + FeF3 → FeF2 (12)
Miki et al. (1990) reported that when the modified fluo-
rinated films were exposed to a high-pressure chlorine
environment (Cl2, 490 kPa, 25 °C, 72 h) and a hydrogen fluo-
ride environment containing moisture (HF: H2O: N2 = 5: 1: 94,
98 kPa, 25 °C, 72 h), no corrosion is observed (Figure 41).
3.3.2 Coating technology of stainless steel
Nickel alloys exhibit excellent corrosion resistance but
cannot be used widely due to their high expense. Therefore,
nickel is deposited on the stainless steel surface in the
(11)
semiconductor manufacturing industry by electroless
plating for excellent corrosion resistance. Nowadays, the
widest application of electroless nickel is the Ni–P coating.
The electroless nickel plating allows a uniform coating on
irregularly shaped workpieces, uniformly coating the
entire surface and depositing into depressions and internal
areas (Narayanan et al. 2006; Sarret et al. 2006).
26 C. Ma et al.: Corrosion and protection of stainless steels in the SMI
Figure 38: Effect of different moisture concentrations during
preparation on the corrosion resistance of passivated films: (a) curves for
hydrogen generation time, (b) curves for the percentage of chromium in
passivation films prepared with different water concentrations during
preparation (Tomari et al. 1990). Reprinted with permission; copyright
1990 Elsevier.
Electroless Ni–P coatings’ microstructure and corro-
sion resistance depends primarily on phosphorus content
(Shozib et al. 2022). The microstructure of low phosphorus
coating comprises a mixture of amorphous and micro-
crystalline, with relatively high mechanical properties.
High phosphorus coatings have high corrosion resistance
due to their homogeneous amorphous microstructure;
however, their mechanical properties are relatively weak
(Gu et al. 2005; Sahoo and Das 2011). Electroless Ni–P coat-
ings with 1–5 wt% phosphorus (low phosphorus) are crys-
talline, while electroless Ni–P coatings with 6–9 wt%
phosphorus (medium phosphorus) are a mixture of crys-
talline and amorphous structures and electroless Ni–P
coatings with 10–13 wt% phosphorus (high phosphorus) are
amorphous. With the increase in phosphorus content, the
structure of the coating changes gradually from crystalline
to amorphous. The amorphous structure of nickel–
Figure 39: XPS depth profiles of iron-free passivation film: (a) 316L (EP),
(b) Passivation (Cr2O3) (Ohmi et al. 1996). Reprinted with permission;
copyright 1996 American Vacuum Society.
phosphorus solid solution is extremely homogeneous,
without any dislocations, twins, grain boundaries, and
other defects. The surface oxide film also does not show
faults and other defects (Shozib et al. 2022). The high
phosphorus coating possesses an extremely high toughness
that makes it difficult to fracture, while the non-crystalline
surface oxide film is produced and repaired quickly once
damaged. The oxide film is a phosphate film, preventing
corrosion and therefore enhancing the corrosion resis-
tance of the coating. However, this coating is susceptible to
corrosion by strong oxidizing acids. The amorphous
structure of nickel–phosphorus is initially deposited on
grain boundaries and then slowly spreads in all directions,
as shown in Figure 42, gradually forming a cellular
morphology with time, densely and compactly aligned with
each other (Guo et al. 2017).
Figure 43 shows unavoidable pores on the coating sur-
face; therefore, the corrosion medium diffuses from the
surface to the substrate through meandering pores. At this
point, there is a potential difference between the coating and
the substrate, with a larger cathode (coating) and a smaller
anode (exposed substrate), resulting in an extremely rapid
corrosion rate.
Electroless Ni–P is sensitive to temperature. When held
at lower temperatures, the amorphous structure trans-
forms from a higher energy sub-stable amorphous struc-
ture to a lower energy sub-stable amorphous structure,
 C. Ma et al.: Corrosion and protection of stainless steels in the SMI 27

Figure 40: Corrosion morphology of stainless steel with different surface treatments after 120 h of exposure to HBr (20 cc/min) gas at 120 °C:
(a, b) 316L-EP, (c, d) HASTELLOY-EP, (e, f) FS9-EP-Cr2O3, (g, h) 316L-ECB-Cr2O3 (Shirai et al. 1994). Reprinted with permission; copyright 1994 IEICE.

Figure 41: Corrosion morphology of the

fluorinated film: (a, b) Cl2, 490 kPa, 25 °C, 72 h,
(c, d) HF: H2O: N2 = 5: 1: 94, 98 kPa, 25 °C, 72 h
(Miki et al. 1990). Reprinted with permission;
copyright 1990 Elsevier.

called structural relaxation. It can reduce the internal
stress in the coating, increasing the hardness, precipitating
hydrogen, reducing the porosity and improving corrosion
resistance. At a higher temperature, the coating atoms
gain enough energy, enhancing the diffusion ability,
overcoming the potential barrier of amorphous trans-
formation into crystals and generating a new crystal phase
(Ni3P) crystal defects (grain boundaries and segregation),
and reducing corrosion resistance (Georgiza et al. 2013;
Zhang et al. 2008).
28 C. Ma et al.: Corrosion and protection of stainless steels in the SMI
Electroless Ni–P can be applied on aluminium alloys, steel,
and polymers, etc. (Shozib et al. 2022). However, even after the
coating fails in the semiconductor manufacturing industry,
stainless steel remains stable compared to other substrates.
Therefore, considering safety, cost and semiconductor profit,
stainless steel is a suitable substrate in the semiconductor
manufacturing industry.
In semiconductor manufacturing, Ni–F coatings on
stainless steel exhibit excellent corrosion resistance in
fluorinated environments. Ni–F coatings are suitable in
fluorinated gas environments. However, directly depositing
Ni–F on stainless steel surfaces is not conducive; therefore,
priority is given to the electroless Ni–P and subsequent
modification by fluorination (Ohmi 1994).
Maeno et al. (1992a,b) described that the composition of
the Ni–F coating is NiF2. In a fluorinated environment, the
phosphorus in the Ni–P coating is oxidized by the fluorine
gas to PF5. PF5 is volatile in a fluorinated environment and
detaches from the coating, as shown in Figure 44, while the
fluorine combines with nickel to form a stable NiF2 struc-
ture, according to the following reaction equation;
5
P + F2 → PF5 (gas) + 1592 kJ/ mol
2
Ni + F2 → NiF2
The corrosion resistance of the coating substantially im-
proves by fluorination. No corrosion is observed after expo-
sure to high-pressure chlorine and wet HF gas (Figure 45).
Figure 42: Morphology of electroless Ni–P:
(a) surface, (b) cross-section (Guo et al. 2017).
Reprinted with permission; copyright 2017
John Wiley and Sons.
Figure 43: Schematic diagram of the corrosion
failure mechanism of electroless Ni–P.
4 Conclusions
This paper reviews the semiconductor manufacturing
industry’s stainless steel corrosion mechanisms and anti-
corrosion technologies. Stainless steel is used primarily in
gas delivery systems, including components such as gas
delivery pipelines, valves and filters, in ambient or low-
temperature environments. The moisture adsorption and
condensation in the gas delivery system are important
factors in accelerating the corrosion of stainless steel. The
moisture adsorption in the gas mixture is associated with
partial pressure and temperature. In addition, the higher
dew point temperature results in a greater tendency for
moisture condensation. Stainless steel is also used for
structural components in chambers, including gas phase
epitaxy equipment, serving in high-temperature environ-
ments. Considering the thermal ageing and corrosion
products’ phase state is necessary. Thermal ageing, mainly
manifested by spinodal decomposition and carbide precipi-
tation, creates Cr-depleted zones and sensitization, reducing
corrosion resistance. The phase state of the corrosion
product directly influences the particle release.
(13) Anti-corrosion technologies in the semiconductor
manufacturing industry are classified into three aspects. (1)
(14) purity of the material is improved by reducing stainless
steel impurities and controlling the harmful elements’
contents, thus, increasing the corrosion resistance. Mate-
rial can be purified by advanced metallurgical techniques
(AOD/VIM/VAR). (2) Surface smoothing is achieved by
 C. Ma et al.: Corrosion and protection of stainless steels in the SMI
Figure 44: Conversion of phosphorus to fluorine in electroless Ni–P:
(a) XPS depth profile, (b) FTIR spectroscopy (Maeno et al. 1992a,b).
Reprinted with permission; copyright 1992 IOP Publishing.
polishing technology. Reducing surface roughness and
surface undulations can effectively lower contaminants
and moisture adsorption, enabling the stripping of in-
clusions, thus improving corrosion resistance. (3) Protection
of stainless steel is achieved by preparing passivation films
and coatings. Exclusive passivation films and coatings can be
created for different gas environments to improve the mate-
rial’s corrosion resistance.
5 Future perspective
5.1 Experimental equipment
The semiconductor manufacturing industry has had no in-situ
corrosion and particle release equipment. Therefore, it is
29
necessary to manufacture relevant equipment to simulate the
service environment in the semiconductor manufacturing
industry. Better corrosion experiments can be conducted with
the assistance of this equipment.
5.2 Testing methods
Due to the trace amount of moisture in the semiconductor
gas environment, corrosion is dominated by chemical re-
actions rather than electrochemical reactions, resulting in
a very slow corrosion rate of stainless steel. Conventional
accelerated methods, such as potentiodynamic polariza-
tion, can only be used in liquid environments, but cannot be
used in semiconductor gas environments. Therefore, it is
necessary to develop accelerated experimental methods to
evaluate the materials’ corrosion resistance, such as con-
trolling moisture content in the environment and prepar-
ing heat-aged samples in advance.
5.3 Basic data
The major attention is focused on the evaluation of stain-
less steel corrosion resistance in the semiconductor
manufacturing industry, resulting in the lack of basic data
about the corrosion mechanism of stainless steel, including
thermodynamic and kinetic data. Thermodynamic data,
including solid-gas transition threshold, moisture adsorp-
tion, Gibbs free energy, and dew point, can be obtained
from theoretical computations and relevant software,
while kinetic data, such as activation energy and reaction
rate constant, can be derived through the first principle
calculations and molecular dynamics.
5.4 Lifetime prediction models
Although lifetime prediction models for stainless steels have
been comprehensively studied, developing new lifetime pre-
diction models for unique environments in the semiconductor
manufacturing industry is necessary. Both temperature and
moisture content should be considered for such models. Based
on the new life prediction model, maintenance and replace-
ment periods for stainless steel can be developed.
5.5 Anti-corrosion technologies
Improving the corrosion resistance of stainless steel sur-
face through nitriding technology has not been tried.
30 C. Ma et al.: Corrosion and protection of stainless steels in the SMI
Nitriding could improve the material’s corrosion resis-
tance. It is necessary to strengthen the in-depth under-
standing of electrolytic polishing mechanisms to reveal the
key factors affecting polishing performance. It is required
to model anode dissolution and develop new polishing so-
lutions to improve electrolytic polishing capacity and
reduce economic costs. Finally, preparing passivation films
with low moisture adsorption and high corrosion resis-
tance can be attempted by chelate and alternating voltage
passivation techniques. Preparing coatings with low
porosity by supercritical fluid electroless plating tech-
niques can also be attempted.
Research ethics: Not applicable.
Author contributions: Chaoran Ma: literature
investigation, formal analysis, methodology, validation,
visualization, writing – original draft. Zhuoyang Du:
literature investigation, data collation. Xiaohan Wang:
data analysis and calculation. Peng Zhou: resources,
supervision, validation, writing – reviewing & editing.
Yang Zhao: investigation, validation, visualization,
supervision, writing – reviewing & editing. Yong Hua:
conceptualization, writing – reviewing & editing. Cheng
Su: writing – reviewing & editing. Tao Zhang: project
administration, conceptualization, supervision, funding,
acquisition, writing – reviewing & editing. Fuhui Wang:
vonceptualization, supervision, funding acquisition.
Figure 45: Corrosion morphology of the Ni–F
coating: (a, b) Cl2, 2 kg cm−2, 25 °C, 168 h,
(c, d) HF: H2O: N2 = 5: 1: 94, 1 kg cm−2, 25 °C,
72 h (Maeno et al. 1992a,b). Reprinted with
permission; copyright 1992 IOP Publishing.
Competing interests: The authors declare that they have
no known competing financial interests or personal
relationships that could have appeared to influence the
work reported in this paper.
Research funding: The authors would express their
gratitude for the financial support from Huawei
Company, LiaoNing Revitalization Talents Program (no.
XLYC2002071), the Key Laboratory of Preparation and
Applications of Environmentally Friendly Materials (Jilin
Normal University), Ministry of Education (2020011), the
Youth Program of the National Natural Science Foundation
of China (grant no. 52001061), the Young Elite Scientist
Sponsorship Program Cast (grant no. YESS20200139), the
Fundamental Research Funds for the Central Universities
(grant no. N2202016) and Huzhou Key Research and
Development Program (no. 2023ZD2001).
Data availability: Not applicable.
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Bionotes
Chaoran Ma
Shenyang National Laboratory for Materials
Science, Northeastern University, 3-11 Wenhua
Road, Shenyang 110819, China
fsmcr@163.com
Chaoran Ma received his M.Sc. Degree in Materials Science and Engineering
in 2019 from China University of Petroleum. He is currently a Ph.D. student
at Northeastern University, China. His research focuses on the corrosion
and protection of stainless steel in semiconductor manufacturing industry.
His area of expertise includes design of experiments, EIS, thermodynamic
calculation. He has several journal publications and received some awards
about corrosion.
Peng Zhou
Shenyang National Laboratory for Materials
Science, Northeastern University, 3-11 Wenhua
Road, Shenyang 110819, China
The State Key Laboratory of Rolling and
Automation, Northeastern University, Shenyang
110819, China
zhoupeng@mail.neu.edu.cn
Peng Zhou is a lecturer at Northeastern University, China. He obtained his
Ph.D. in Materials Engineering from Pierre and Marie Curie University,
France. His research focuses on design of corrosion-resistant magnesium
alloy, chemical conversion film for magnesium alloy, passivation technology
for stainless steel, rolling technology for stainless steel. He has published
several high impact journals and received a lot of awards during his
academic life.
Yang Zhao
Shenyang National Laboratory for Materials
Science, Northeastern University, 3-11 Wenhua
Road, Shenyang 110819, China
zhaoyang7402@mail.neu.edu.cn
Yang Zhao is currently an associate professor at Northeastern University,
China. He obtained his Ph.D. in Materials Engineering from Harbin
Engineering University, China. His research focuses on the corrosion of
stainless steel in the petroleum industry. His area of expertise includes
lifetime prediction, thermodynamic calculations, simulation, programming,
surface modification. He has published several high-impact refereed
journals and attended many conferences.
Tao Zhang
Shenyang National Laboratory for Materials
Science, Northeastern University, 3-11 Wenhua
Road, Shenyang 110819, China
zhangtao@mail.neu.edu.cn
Tao Zhang is a professor and doctoral supervisor at Northeastern
University, China. He obtained his Ph.D. from Institute of Metals, Chinese
Academy of Sciences. His research areas include surface treatment
technologies for magnesium alloys, corrosion and protection in the
petroleum industry, and corrosion and protection in high-precision
microchip manufacture. He has published 90 high-level scientific papers, 15
national invention patents, and 1 monograph.
 C. Ma et al.: Corrosion and protection of stainless steels in the SMI 35

Fuhui Wang
Shenyang National Laboratory for Materials
Science, Northeastern University, 3-11 Wenhua
Road, Shenyang 110819, China
fhwang@mail.neu.edu.cn
Fuhui Wang is the chairman of the ninth and tenth sessions of the Council of
the Chinese Society for Corrosion and Protection, and the director of the
High Temperature Professional Committee. He is a professor and doctoral
supervisor at Northeastern University, China. His research areas include the
chemical stability of nanomaterials, high-temperature corrosion and
protection of advanced materials, and surface modification of materials. He
has published more than 350 papers in influential academic journals and
conferences, with over 3000 citations and over 30 invention patents.