2.

2 CHEMICAL EQUATIONS

A. Equations show:
1. the reactants which enter into a reaction.
2. the products which are formed by the reaction.
3. the amounts of each substance used and each substance produced.

B. Two important principles to remember:

1. Every chemical compound has a formula which cannot be altered.

2. A chemical reaction must account for every atom that is used. This is an application of
the Law of Conservation of Matter which states that in a chemical reaction atoms are
neither created nor destroyed.

C. Some things to remember about writing equations:

1. The diatomic elements when they stand alone are always written H 2, N2, O2, F2, Cl2, Br2,
I2
2. The sign,  →  , means "yields" and shows the direction of the action.
3. A small delta, (D), above the arrow shows that heat has been added.
4. A double arrow,  ↔  , shows that the reaction is reversible and can go in both directions.
5. Before beginning to balance an equation, check each formula to see that it is correct.
NEVER change a formula during the balancing of an equation.
6. Balancing is done by placing coefficients in front of the formulas to insure the same
number of atoms of each element on both sides of the arrow.
7. If a reactant or product is a solid, (s) is placed after the formula.
8. If a reactant or product is a gas, (g) is placed after it.
9. If a reactant or product is in water solution, (aq) is placed after it.
10. Some products are unstable and break down (decompose) as they are produced during the
reaction. You need to be able to recognize these products when they occur and write the
decomposition products in their places.

Examples:

 H2CO3(aq)  →   H2O(l) + CO2(g)

Carbonic acid, as in soft drinks, decomposes when it is formed.

 H2SO3(aq)  →   H2O(l) + SO2(g)

Sulfurous acid also decomposes as it is formed.

 NH4OH(aq)  →   NH3(g) + H2O(l)

You can definitely smell the odor of ammonia gas because whenever "ammonium
hydroxide" is formed it decomposes into ammonia and water.

D. Rules for writing equations.

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 1. Write down the formula(s) for any substance entering into the reaction. Place a plus (+)
sign between the formulas as needed and put the yield arrow after the last one.
2. Examine the formulas carefully and decide which of the four types of equations applies to
the reaction you are considering. On the basis of your decision, write down the correct
formulas for all products formed, placing them to the right of the arrow.

Four basic types of chemical reactions:

A. Synthesis (composition)
 two or more elements or compounds may combine to form a more complex compound.
 Basic form: A  +  X  →    AX

Examples of synthesis reactions:

1. Metal  +  oxygen  →   metal oxide

2Mg(s)  +  O2(g)  →    2MgO(s)

2. Nonmetal  +  oxygen  →    nonmetallic oxide

C(s)  +  O2(g)  →    CO2(g)

3. Metal oxide  +  water  →    metallic hydroxide

MgO(s)  +   H2O(l)  →    Mg(OH)2(s)

4. Nonmetallic oxide  +  water  →    acid

CO2(g)  +  H2O(l)  →    ; H2CO3(aq)

5. Metal + nonmetal  →    salt

2 Na(s)  +  Cl2(g)  →    2NaCl(s)

6. A few nonmetals combine with each other.

2P(s)  +  3Cl2(g)  →    2PCl3(g)

These two reactions must be remembered:

1. N2(g)  +  3H2(g)  →    2NH3(g)

2. NH3(g)  +  H2O(l)  →    NH4OH(aq)

B. Decomposition
 A single compound breaks down into its component parts or simpler compounds.
 Basic form: AX  →   A  +  X

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Examples of decomposition reactions:
1. Metallic carbonates, when heated, form metallic oxides and CO 2(g).
CaCO3(s)  →    CaO(s)  +  CO2(g)

2. Most metallic hydroxides, when heated, decompose into metallic oxides and water.
Ca(OH)2(s)  →    CaO(s)  +  H2O(g)

3. Metallic chlorates, when heated, decompose into metallic chlorides and oxygen.
2KClO3(s)  →    2KCl(s)  +  3O2(g)

4. Some acids, when heated, decompose into nonmetallic oxides and water.
H2SO4  →    H2O(l)  +  SO3(g)

5. Some oxides, when heated, decompose.

2HgO(s)  →    2Hg(l)  +  O2(g)

6. Some decomposition reactions are produced by electricity.

2H2O(l)  →    2H2(g)  +  O2(g)
2NaCl(l)  →    2Na(s)  +  Cl2(g)

C. Replacement
 a more active element takes the place of another element in a compound and sets the less
active one free.
 Basic form: A  +  BX  →    AX  +  B  or  AX  +  Y  →    AY + X

Examples of replacement reactions:

1. Replacement of a metal in a compound by a more active metal.

Fe(s)  +  CuSO4(aq)  →    FeSO4(aq)  +  Cu(s)

2. Replacement of hydrogen in water by an active metal.

2Na(s)  +  2H2O(l)  →    2NaOH(aq)  +  H2(g)
Mg(s)  +  H2O(g)  →    MgO(s)  +  H2(g)

3. Replacement of hydrogen in acids by active metals.

Zn(s)  +  2HCl(aq)  →    ZnCl2(aq)  +  H2(g)

4. Replacement of nonmetals by more active nonmetals.

Cl2(g)  +  2NaBr(aq)  →    2NaCl(aq)  +  Br2(l)

D. Ionic
 occurs between ions in aqueous solution. A reaction will occurr when a pair of ions come
together to produce at least one of the following:
1. a precipitate
2. a gas
3. water or some other non-ionized substance.
 Basic form: AX  +  BY  →    AY  +  BX

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Examples of ionic reactions:

1. Formation of precipitate.
NaCl (aq)  +  AgNO3(aq)  →   NaNO3(aq)  +  AgCl(s)
BaCl2(aq)  +  Na2 SO4(aq)  →    2NaCl(aq)  +  BaSO4(s)

2. Formation of a gas.
HCl(aq)  +  FeS(s)  →    FeCl2(aq)  +  H2S(g)

3. Formation of water. (If the reaction is between an acid and a base it is called a
neutralization reaction.)
HCl(aq)  +  NaOH(aq)  →    NaCl(aq)  +  H2O(l)

4. Formation of a product which decomposes.

CaCO3(s)  +  HCl(aq)  →    CaCl2(aq)  +  CO2(g)  +  H2O(l)

NOTE: Use the solubility rules to decide whether a product of an ionic reaction is insoluble in water and
will thus form a precipitate. If a compound is soluble in water then it should be shown as being in
aqueous solution, or left as separate ions. It is, in fact, often more desirable to show only those ions that
are actually taking part in the actual reaction. Equations of this type are called net ionic equations.

Combustion of Hydrocarbons:

Another important type of reaction, in addition to the four types above, is that of the combustion of a
hydrocarbon. When a hydrocarbon is burned with sufficient oxygen supply, the products are always
carbon dioxide and water vapor. If the supply of oxygen is low or restricted, then carbon monoxide will
be produced. This is why it is so dangerous to have an automobile engine running inside a closed garage
or to use a charcoal grill indoors.

 Hydrocarbon (CxHy)  +  O2(g)  →    CO2(g)  +  H2O(g)

 . CH4(g)  +  2O2(g)  →    CO2(g)  +  2H2O(g)
 2C4H10(g)  +  13O2(g)  →    8CO2(g)  +  10H2O(g)

NOTE:

 Complete combustion means the higher oxidation number is attained.

 Incomplete combustion means the lower oxidation number is attained.
 The phrase "To burn" means to add oxygen unless told otherwise.

Exercise 2.2.1

Predict the products of the reactions below. Write its chemical formulae.

Synthesis:
1. hydrogen burned in oxygen
2. hydrogen gas + nitrogen gas
3. sulfur burned (complete combustion)

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 4. calcium oxide added to water

Decomposition:
1. barium hydroxide (heated)
2. sodium carbonate (heated)
3. electrolysis of aluminum oxide
4. sulfuric acid heated gently

Replacement:
1. iron filings added to copper(II) sulfate in solution
2. aluminum in hydrochloric acid
3. potassium metal added to cold water
4. zinc metal added to mercury(II) nitrate
5. chlorine gas bubbled through a solution of calcium bromide

Ionic:
1. potassium iodide added to lead(II) nitrate
2. sodium sulfite combined with acetic acid
3. barium nitrate added to sodium oxalate
4. sodium bicarbonate added to hydrochloric acid

Balancing a Chemical Equation

Method 1: By Inspection
1) Write correct formulae for all reactants and products.
2) Assign the most complex formula a coefficient of 1,

Or if an element occurs in only one compound on each side of the equation, balance this element
first,

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 Or balance the atoms of each element (except H and O)
The equation can be balanced only by adjusting the coefficients of the formulae, as necessary.
Never introduce any species that are not involved in the reaction.
Never change formulae for the purpose of balancing an equation. (consider polyatomic ions:
SO 24 , CO 32  , CN  , etc. as one unit)
When one of the reactants or products exists as the free element, balance this element last.

3) Then, work on the hydrogen and the oxygen.

4) Check and make sure the total numbers of the atoms of each element is the same on both sides.
5) Eliminate the fractional coefficient by multiplying a factor (an appropriate integer) on each
coefficient in order to get the smallest set of whole number coefficients.
6) The states of the reacting substances and products can be included in small brackets after the
formulae.

Exercise 2.2.2:

Balance the following chemical equations by applying inspection method.

1) NH3 + CuO ¾® Cu + N2 + H2O

2) C6H6 + O2 ¾® CO2 + H2O
3) AgNO3 + Na2CrO4 ¾® Ag2CrO4 + NaNO3
4) Fe(OH)3 + H2SO4 ¾® Fe2(SO4)3 + H2O
5) N2O5 + H2O ¾® HNO3
Method 2: The Ion – Electron Method
(Mainly for balancing the oxidation – reduction equations)
Reactions that involve both REDuction and OXidation are called REDOX reactions

Oxidation is an Increase in the oxidation number and the substance Loses one or more electrons (OIL).
Reduction, conversely, is the process in which some substance gains one or more electrons and the
oxidation number of an atom in that substance decreases.

Oxidation Agent (Oxidant): A substance that gains electrons and brings about oxidation in other
substances. Reducing Agent (Reductant): A substance that loses electrons and brings about reduction in
other substances.

The sequence of steps used in balancing a redox equation in acidic solution is as follows:
1) Identify the oxidizing agent and its reduced form as well as the reducing agent and its oxidized
form, and write two skeletal half-reaction.
2) In each half-reaction, balance the atoms of the elements undergoing changes in oxidation number.
3) Balance oxygen atoms by using H2O.
4) Balance hydrogen atoms by using H+(aq).
5) Balance the charge in each half-reaction by adding electrons to equalise the ionic charges. The
number of electrons to be added is determined without reference to the oxidation number. Electrons
are added simply to balance the charge.

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6) Multiply the half-reactions by appropriate integers to ensure that the number of electrons lost in
oxidation is equal to the number of electrons gained in reduction.
7) Sum the half-reaction. Simplify the overall equation algebraically so that any H 2O or H+(aq)
appears on only one side of the equation. Check the charge balance as well as the balance of all
atoms.
[Balancing the redox reactions in basic solution: Balance the equation first as if the solution were
acidic, and then add enough OH - to both sides of the equation balanced so that wherever H +(aq)
appears, it can be combined with OH - to form H2O. The number of hydroxide ions added is equal to
the number of hydrogen ions in the equation. Be sure to combine H 2O if it appears on both sides of
the equation.]

Exercise 2.2.3:
Balance the following chemical equations by applying the ion-electron method.

1. MnO 
4 + C2O 24  + H+ ® Mn2+ + CO2 + H2O (acidic solution)
2 2+ + 3+ 3+
2. Cr2O 7 + Fe + H ® Cr + Fe + H2O (acidic solution)
 + 2 2+
3. MnO + 4 SO2 + H ® SO + 4 Mn + H2O (acidic media)
2-
4. Cr(OH)3 + IO3 + OH ® CrO3 +
- -
I- + H2O (basic media)
5. ClO +
-
S 2 O32 ® Cl- + SO42 (basic media)
6. Cl2 ® ClO3 + Cl-
7. NO2 ® NO3 + NO
8. P + Cu2+ ® Cu3P + H3PO3

Method 3 : Algebraic method

Example 1 : Iron oxide reacts with carbon monoxide to give metallic iron and carbon dioxide.
Fe2O3 + CO = Fe + CO2

1) Write the equation with unknown coefficients (e.g. m, n, p, q):

m Fe2O3+ n CO = p Fe + q CO2

2) Equate the coefficients for each element

Left Side Right Side

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 Iron, Fe 2m = p (1)
Carbon, C. n = q (2)
Oxygen, O. 3m + n = 2q (3)

We have three equations and four unknowns, but can solve in terms of m: by (1)
p = 2m; by subtracting (2) from (3) we get q = 3m, and (2) n = 3m.
(3) 3m + n = 2q
- (2) n=q
-------------------------------------------------------------
3m = q
from (2) n = q = 3m
If we let m = 1, then n = 3, q = 3, p = 2, and the equation reads:
Fe2O3 + 3CO = 2Fe + 3CO2
If the equation contains ions (charge atoms), the algebraic sum of the charges must be the same on
both sides of the equation.
(Note that nothing is said about the total number of charges; one might have 6 positive and 5 negative
charges on the left, and 1 positive and no negative on the right; the algebraic sum on both sides would be
positive. )