Presentation on theme: "INTRODUCTION TO PHILOSOPHY"—

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1 INTRODUCTION TO PHILOSOPHY

2 INTRODUCTION:DOINGPHILOSOPHY
One of the key elements in many educational reforms is DIVERSITY, DIFFERENCE and CHOICE or
other proposals that establish separate curricular routes for different groups or
individuals.DIVERSITY , is the difference that makes each person unique, (e.g. BIOLOGY ,
ETHNICITY, and CULTURE, FAMILY LIFE , BELIEFS , GEOGRAPHY , EXPERIENCES and
RELIGION ).PHILOS – LOVESOPHIA – WISDOM“LOVE OF WISDOM”Wisdom is the goal of
Philosophy , science that by natural light of reason studies the first causes or highest principles
of all things.PHILOSOPHY IS SCIENCE, -investigation is systematic, follows certain steps or it
employs certain procedures, organized body of knowledge just like any other sciences .

3 PHILOSOPHY as NATURAL LIGHT of REASON Philosophy investigates things , not by using any
laboratory instrument or investigative tools, neither on the basis of supernatural revelation,
otherwise it becomes theology; instead the Philosopher uses his natural capacity to think or
simply, human reason alone or the so-called unaided reason . PHILOSOPHY as STUDY of ALL
THINGS This sets the distinction between Philosophy from other sciences. All other sciences
concern themselves with a particular object of investigation.

4 The reason is that Philosophy is not ONE DIMENSIONAL or PARTIAL , A philosopher does not
limit himself to a particular object or inquiry MULTIDIMENSIONAL or HOLISTIC. FIRST CAUSE or
HIGHEST PRINCIPLE. A principle is that from which something proceeds in any manner
whatsoever. PRINCIPLE OF IDENTITY It states that each thing is identical with itself. By this it is
meant that each thing (be it a universal or a particular) is composed of its own unique set of
characteristic qualities or features, which the ancient Greeks called its essence. WHAT IS IS ;
WHATEVER IS NOT IS NOT. EVERYTHING IS ITS OWN BEING. PRINCIPLE OF NON
CONTRADICTION, It states that contradictory statements cannot both be true in the same sense
at the same time, e.g. the two propositions "A is B" and "A is not B" are mutually exclusive.

5 PRINCIPLE OF NON –CONTRADICTION , It is impossible for a thing to be and not to be at the

same time and at the same respect. PRINCIPLE OF EXCLUDED MIDDLE, a thing is neither is or is
not; everything must e either be or not be; between being and not being, there is no middle
ground, It states that for any proposition, either that proposition is true, or its negation is true.
(principium tertii exclusi. Another Latin designation for this law is tertium non datur: "no third
(possibility) is given.) PRINCIPLE OF SUFFICIENT REASON , nothing exist without a sufficient
reason for its being and existence. states that everything must have a reason or a cause.

6 RECOGNIZE HUMAN ACTIVITIES THAT EMANATED FROM DELIBERATE REFLECTION

After examining the definition of Philosophy, it distinguishes the branches from where
recognition of various human activities emanated from deliberate reflections and dialogues.
Many of the most Vital issues of Philosophy are still disputed and have unsettled questions
today. Nevertheless one of the greatest needs of anyone seeking “wisdom” is a genuine
sympathy and an understanding of all the most diverse points of view(holistic perspective). A
narrow provincialism of mind, limited to the ideas and outlook of a single party or a single age
(partial perspective) is wholly incompatible with the real philosophical attitude.

7 WHY BECOME A PHILOSOPHER

WHY BECOME A PHILOSOPHER? ON ATTAINING A COMPREHENSIVE OUTLOOK IN LIFE One of
the key elements in many educational reforms is diversity, difference and choice or other
proposals that establish separate curricular routes for different groups or individual . Diversity
is the difference that makes each person unique and culture, family life , beliefs geography
experiences and religion. Educational challenge in the 21st century entails appropriate
acceptance of cultural and racial multiplicity. One does not engage in harassment of any form.

8 EXPANDING OUR PHILOSOPHICAL FRAMES: WESTERN and NON WESTERN TRADITION, many
philosophers hold that there are three great original centers of philosophy in the world
GREEK(WEST) , INDIAN and CHINESE, All three arose as critical reflections on their own cultural
traditions. Historically Speaking, Asian classics of the Indians and the Chinese predate the
oldest of Western Classics. Indian and Chinese Philosophers of note also lived earlier than their
Greek counterparts, during the first centuries , there was more philosophical activity in the east
than in the west. Before the Greek period, there was hardly an activity in the west. GREEK
BEFORE THALES did not have philosophy.

9 From the time of Greek triumvirate (SOCRATES , PLATO, ARISTOTLE ), There was a reversal.
Western Thinkers started to indulge in feverish philosophical speculation, whereas the Asian
thinkers began diminishing Philosophical activity . (NOW FROM WESTERN THINKERS). Culture of
the East is very different from that the WEST (PRIMARILY EUROPE , NORTH AMERICA) but that
does not mean each culture centers around the globe that are very different from our own.
Each society or culture has its own ideas of itself , a definition of what is important in life, and
its notion of what the world is like in general terms; thus each society or culture can be said to
have its own PHILOSOPHY.

10 THE WEST HAS UT TO THEORIZE AND SPECULATE; NO APPLICATION TO LIFE IS NECESSARY,

SUCH ARE THE PLATONIC , HEGELIAN, KANTIAN, FICHTEAN theories to which the western
philosophers render lip service; their application to practice is still being contested y other
western philosophers. THE CONCEPT OF ALL-AT-ONCE-NESS WHICH IS THE HALLMARK OF THE
MIND OF ASIA IS ANNOYING TO THE WESTERN MIND WHICH CANNOT SHAKE OFF ITS
STRUCTURAL MODE OF THINKING IN TERMS OF BEGINNING AND END, OF BEFORE AND AFTER,
OF THEN AND NOW AND LATER. THIS IS NO DOUBT APPLICABLE TO INDIVIDUAL THINGS AND
EVENTS WHICH THE ASIAN MIND DOES NOT REJECT, BUT WHEN THE LINE OF

11 REASONING AND UNDERSTANDING IS RAISED FROM THE FRAGMENTARY TO THE TOTAL,

FROM THE PEACEMEAL TO THE WHOLE , FROM THE PART TO THAT ALL OF THE WORLD OF
THINGS, THE ASIAN MINDS BALKS AT THE ILLOGIC OF APPLYING THE SAME PRINCIPLES
PERTAINING ONLY TO THE FRAGMENTS TO THAT OF THE WHOLE. KNOWER AND THE KNOWN :
EAST and WEST DISTINCTION Easter Version Western
VersionKNOWNKNOWERKNOWERKNOWN

12 For The Eastern Version, life becomes illusory if we attached to the world and in which we
are ensnared is not what is. In terms of knowledge, our everyday experience of the world
present us with dualistic distinction---me/you or subject/object. However, this is artificial; our
egos fool us into seeing separation. The distinction between knower and known is essentially
artificial for the eastern version. If LOGIC , is no longer able to solve a life problem, ASIAN MIND
RESORTS TO INTUITION. From the very fact that it thinks in a cyclic all-at-once-ness, it must
resort to MEANS OTHER THAN THE USUAL MENTAL PROCESSES APPLICABLE TO THE PIECEMEAL
AND FRAGMENTARY. ONE SHOULD NOT THEREFORE BE SURPRISED AT ITS PROPENSITY TO
MYSTICISM, AT ITS USE OF SUPER – CONSCIOUSNESS, OR

13 OF THE EXISTENCE OF A THIRD EYE OR A SIXTH SENSE, WHEN THE SITUATION DEMANDS, IT
REVERSES THE LOGICAL PATTERNS. FILIPINO THINKING:FROM LOCAL TO GLOBAL It may sound
presumptuous to speak of FILIPINO THOUGHT , for the reason that the Philippines could not
very well speak of a tradition such as that of China , India , or Greco-Roman. Yet for the Filipino,
there has to be FILIPINO THOUGHT or none at all. Like any other people, the Filipino must
eventually take consciousness of his own particular life and his world, his society and his gods
in the light of truth and thereby realized his proper being, however, the pioneering attempts to
formulate a Filipino Philosophy share the fate of most pioneering works

14 The lack of refined tools and the lack of predecessors upon whom to stand; Nevertheless,
Filipinos do have their own Philosophy.LOOB : HOLISTIC and INTERIOR
DIMENSIONKAGANDAHANG-LOOB ; KABUTIHANG LOOB, KALOOBAN, Terms that shows
sharing of one’s self to others , pakikisama- The Filipinos as individual looks at himself as
holistic from the interior dimension under the principle of harmony. THE FILIPINOS LOOKS AT
HIMSELF , as a self as a total whole ---- AS A PERSON , CONSCIOUS OF HIS FREEDOM , PROUD
OF HIS HUMAN DIGNITY.

15 FILIPINO PHILOSOPHY OF TIME “GULONG NG PALAD” PAKIKISAMA “ CLOSE TO JAPANESE

AND CHINESE PHILOSOPHY OF LIVING HARMONY WITH NATURE INDIA’S “LAW OF KARMA”
CHINA’S YIN AND YANG-

16 Often Filipino time is mistakenly interpreted as always delayed, in the committed time of
arrival, this notion can be misleading since the Filipino farmers are early risers to go to their
field and waste no time for work. The concept of SIESTA TIME (POWER NAPS) is also important
for Filipino Culture that must not be necessarily considered negative. BAHALA NA, The pre-
Spanish Filipino people believed in a Supreme Being, BATULA OR BATHALA, However in this
regard, the originality of Filipino thought will probably be precisely in his personalistic view of
the universe, The Filipino seems to signify that ultimately in life, we have to reckon not only with
nature and human nature but also with cosmic presences or spirits
17 Seen to be the ultimate origin to the problem of evil
Seen to be the ultimate origin to the problem of evil . BATHALA , NOT AN IMPERSONAL ENTITY
BUT RATHER A PERSONAL BEING THAT KEEPS BALANCE IN THE UNIVERSE, For Filipinos, Bathala
is endowed with personality, evolved into the CHRISTIAN GOD. BAHALA NA PHILOSOPHY OF
THE FILIPINOS ACCEPTS IT AS PART OF LIFE , Literally leaving everything to GOD, one of the
most outstanding Filipino traits, FATALISM FILIPINO THOUGHT AND VALUES: POSITIVE and
NEGATIVE ASPECTS. UTANG NA LOOB (INDEBTEDNESS TO PATRONS) BAYANIHAN– POSITIVE
TRAITS

18 PHILOSOPHY: TRANSCENDING and AIMING FOR A LIFE OF ABUNDANCE, Abundance comes

from the Latin word “abundare” , meaning TO OVERFLOW NON STOP, ABUNDANCE, is
outflowing than incoming. It is not about amassing material things or people but our
relationship with others, ourselves, and with nature. ABUNDANCE IS NOT WHAT WE GATHER UT
WHAT WE SCATTER, often always equated with materialism, but it is when we raise our empty
hands and surrender. ONLY IF WE HAVE EMPTY HANDS CAN WE RECEIVE FULL BLESSINGS.

19 PHILOSOPHICAL REFLECTION, In everyday language, is used to refer to being engaged in

thought, day dreaming, or recollecting/remembering an events in our mind. These definition
needs clarification REFLECTION , can never be separated from life. The concern of reflection is
everyday life, in which it is embedded, e.g. LOOSING CELLPHONE OR HOUSE KEYS, disruption
comes from the fact that the cellphone and the house key were considered as valuable,
recalling and disrupting of life of what had happened, In this case REFLECTION is a personal act
that is linked to the personal experience , no one could reflect it for me. REFLECTION is not all
about remembering external objects. Most of the time, it involves a memory of a friend , a
conversation

20 With a teacher, or bonding with family members, the question “WHAT AM I LIVING FOR?”
“WHAT DO I LIVE BY”, part of essentially being human, is the capacity not only to live with hardly
any self awareness but to experience life in a reflective way. ONLY THE HUMAN PERSON COULD
ASK ABOUT HIS EXISTENCE, “ MADALING MAGING TAO NGUNIT MAHIRAP MAGPAKATAO”.
REFLECTION , begins when man encounters a break from our everyday life. It is a discontinuity,
or a jarring disturbance in the experience, In this sense experience, turns into REFLECTION,
THAT EXPERIENCE IS NOT A PASSIVE ACCEPTANCE OF IMPRESSION, EXPERIENCE AND
REFLECTION IMPLICATE EACH OTHER, THE RELATIONSHIP IS CRUCIAL.

21 PRIMARY and SECONDARY REFLECTION, reflection raises experience to the level of

rationality. EXPERIENCE remains to be a source of material for philosophical reflection.
PRIMARY REFLECTION, breaks the unity of experience and is the foundation of scientific inquiry,
EDMUND HUSSERL (NATURAL ATTITUDE ) , scientific attitude predominant-belief that only
science is authoritative and all other points are invalid, REFERS , to the instrument of scientific
knowledge, it understands its object of abstraction, which implies a breaking into constituent
parts. Interested with the definition and with technical and methodological solutions to the
problems. ANSWER and JUDGEMENT ARE OBJECTIVE-which was derive from the LATIN
“OBIECTUM”– To throw against .
22 SECONDARY REFLECTION , On the other hand, is SYNTHETIC, It unifies rather than divides, it
recuperates the unity of original experience. PHENOMENOLOGIST (SECONDARY REFLECTION) is
the instrument of Philosophical reflection. GABRIEL MARCEL(ROUGHLY, THAT WHERE PRIMARY
REFLECTION TENDS TO DISSOLVE UNITY OF EXPERIENCE WHICH IS FIRST PUT BEFORE IT, , THE
FUNCTION OF SECONDARY REFLECTION IS ESSENTIALLY RECUPERATIVE, IT RECONQUERS THAT
UNITY), IT DOES THIS BY HIGHLIGHTING THE RECIPROCAL CONNECTION BETWEEN THE OBJECT
AND THE SUBJECT(THIS TIME FROM THE LATIN “SUBIECTUM” , LITERALLY TO THROW BENEATH.

23 REFLECTION, involves consciousness and consciousness is always a “CONSCIOUSNESS OF”

something, different object necessitate different kinds of reflection. PRIMARY REFLECTION, is
interested with that which is outside of me or before me; it dissects the experience into parts, it
dissolves the unity of the experience by emphasizing the parts, rather than approaching it as a
whole. SECONDARY REFLECTION , is concerned with that which is in me, which I am , or with
those area where the distinctions, “IN ME” and “BEFORE ME” , Tend to break down; it attempts
to recuperates the unity of the original experience. This is the attempt to see the parts in
relation to the whole ---- to interpret the parts with the whole in sight Philosophical reflection is
interested with secondary reflection, which

24 Is not contrary to primary reflection; it just refuses to accept primary reflection as final and
definite. SECONDARY REFLECTION provides an important aspect in accessing ourselves. It
becomes clear in the question of identity, WHO AM I? PRIMORDIAL QUESTION ON WHICH ALL
OTHER QUESTION IN THE PHILOSOPHY OF THE HUMAN PERSON HINGES. SECONDARY
REFLECTION , begins with what may be a feeling of silliness, also allows human consider apart
from biographic data.

25 “THERE WAS AN OLD MAN WHO LIVED BY HIMSELF

“THERE WAS AN OLD MAN WHO LIVED BY HIMSELF. HE FELT TIRED SO HE WENT INTO THE
BATHROOM, WENT TO THE TOILET, AND THEN TURNED THE LIGHT OFF BEFORE GOING TO
BED. THE NEXT MORNING THERE WAS A NEWS FLASH ON THE RADIO THAT A BOAT CRASHED.
THE MAN OPENED THE WINDOW AND JUMPED OUT? WHY? “ INTRODUCTION:METHODS OF
PHILOSOPHIZING The meaning and process of doing philosophy, emphasizing the importance
of holism, as well as learning how to construct philosophical essays, were introduced. IN
SEARCH FOR WISDOM, LEARNER MUST EVALUATE ARGUMENTS AND WAYS OF EXPRESSING
ONE’S BELIEFS , EMOTIONS AND OPINIONS.

26 PHILOSOPHIZING IS TO THINK OR EXPRESS ONESELF IN A PHILOSOPHICAL MANNER, It

considers or discuss a matter from a philosophical standpoint. PHENOMENOLOGY , TRUTH is
based on the person’s consciousness; while in EXTENTIALISM, TRUTH is based in exercising
choices and personal freedom. In post-modernism , it is accepted that truth is not absolute, and
in logic, truth is based on REASONING and CRITICAL THINKING. PHENOMENOLOGY
(CONSCIOUSNESS) EDMUND HUSSERL, founded phenomenology, which is essentially a
philosophical method, focuses on careful inspection and description of phenomena or
appearances, defined as ANY OBJECT OF CONSCIOUS EXPERIENCE, THAT IS
27 THAT WHICH WE ARE CONSCIOUS
THAT WHICH WE ARE CONSCIOUS. LOGICAL INVESTIGATION (EDMUND HUSSERL) ---
PSYCHOLOGISM; THE THESIS THAT THE TRUTH IS DEPENDENT ON THE PECULARITIES OF THE
HUMAN MIND, AND THAT PHILOSOPHY IS REDUCIBLE TO PSYCHOLOGY-----In other words, it
was an argument against the very thesis he himself argued METHOD WAS PHENOMENOLOGY.
PHENOMENON- APPEARANCE-use by a German philosopher by the name of IMMANUEL KANT ,
describing the world of experience. EDMUND HUSSERL– Intends a similar meaning except for
the crucial fact that for him, it does not imply a contrast between the appearance and some
underlying reality between the phenomenon and nounmenon or thing-in-itself,

28 That according to Edmund Husserl is where the trouble starts, when one supposes that one
experiences is not or might not be the truth. PHENOMENOLOGY is the scientific study of the
essential structure of consciousness, by describing it according to Edmund Husserl is that man
could find certainty, which philosophy had always sought. EDMUND HUSSERL’S
PHENOMENOLOGY IS THE THESIS THAT CONSCIOUSNESS IS INTENTIONAL IS DIRECTED AT
SOME OBJECT OR ANOTHER, POSSIBLY A MATERIAL OBJECT OR AN IDEAL OBJECT. E.g. dreams
and what is in the telenovelas.

29 The inspection and description, are supposed to be effected without any presupposition,
including any as to whether such object of consciousness are REAL or Corresponds to
something EXTERNAL , or to what their causes or consequences may be, This method uncovers
the essential structures of experience and objects. E.g. MATHEMATICS and LOGIC .PERCEPTION
AND EXPERIENCE AND EXPERIENCENOF THE SOCIAL WORLD; EXPERIENCE OF MAN’S BODY;
MORAL AESTHETIC AND RELIGIOUS EXPERIENCES. The phenomenological standpoint is
achieved through a series of phenomenological REDUCTIONS that eliminate certain aspects of
our experiences from consideration.

30 What interest the Phenomenologist, are the contents of consciousness, not on things of the
natural world as such. In IDEAS, EDMUND HUSSERL distinguishes between the natural world
and the Phenomenological standpoint. The former is our ordinary everyday viewpoint and the
ordinary stance of the natural sciences describing things and state affairs. The latter is the
special viewpoint achieved by the phenomenologist, as he or she focuses not on things but our
consciousness of things. EXISTENTIALISM : FREEDOM One’s search for truth might be based on
one’s attitude or outlook. Take for instance, EXISTENTIALISM, unlike Phenomenology ,
existentialism is not primarily a Philosophical Method. Neither is it exactly a set of

31 Doctrines but more of an outlook or attitude supported by diverse doctrines centered on

certain common themes, includes; 1. The Human Condition or the relation of the individual to
the world. 2. The Human Response to that Condition; 3. Being especially the difference between
the being of a person(EXISTENCE) and the being of other kinds of things; 4. Human Freedom; 5.
The significance(and unavoidability) of Choice and decision in the absence of Certainty and;

32 6. The Correctness and subjectivity of life as lived, against abstraction and false
objectifications. EXISTENTIALIST share a concern for the individual and personal responsibility
and often thought to be anti religious; nevertheless, there has been a strong current of
Christian Existentialism, beginning with the 19th century Danish Philosopher ZORENN
KIERKEGAARD----the first EXISTENTIALIST , AND INSISTED THAT THE AUTHENTIC SELF WAS THE
PERSONALLY CHOSEN as opposed to public or “herd” identity. EXISTENTIALISM’S relationship to
PHENOMENOLOGY is a matter of some controversy. Some Philosophers JEAN PAUL SARTRE------
have employed phenomenological methods to arrive at or support their specific variation

33 on existentialism themes
on existentialism themes. Search for truth by means of critical thinking is rational choice.
EXISTENTIALISM, with JEAN-PAUL SARTRE(FRENCH PHILOSOPHER), Emphasizes the importance
of free individual choice, regardless of the power of other people to influence and coerce our
desires , beliefs , and decisions. EDMUND SARTRE argued that consciousness(being for itself) is
such that it is always free to choose(though free not to choose) and free to negate(or reject) the
given features of the world. ONE is never free of one’s situation and try to change it . TO BE
HUMAN , TO BE CONSCIOUS, IS TO BE FREE TO IMAGINE , TO CHOOSE, and RESPONSIBLE FOR
ONE’S LIFE. One may be shy or assertive , but such behavior is always a choice and one can
always resolve to change

34 e.g. One could be an American , or one could be an Asian , but it is an open question how
one could make of oneself (BE AN ADVANTAGE OR BE A DISADVANTAGE) , become challenges
to be overcome or excuses doing nothing. SARTRE’S PHILOSOPHY would have a particular
poignance in the midst of the horrors of war and occupation. The positive notion of authenticity
(Good faith) remained a problem for Sartre, however and one of the continuing criticism of
existentialism is the obscurity and the seeming elusiveness of the ideal of authenticity. The
Notion of authenticity is not new. Socrates already concerned with himself with authenticity of
the self----genuineness of the thoughts and action but virtue being true to oneself.

35 Socrates already concerned himself with the authenticity of self----- the genuiness of his
thoughts and actions, THE GOOD OF HIS SOUL , He sought not mere opinions but knowledge,
self-knowledge in particular, and prescribed not just right action but virtue, being TRUE TO
ONESELF. ST. AUGUSTINE, was concerned with the spiritual nature of the TRUE SELF as
opposed to the authentic demands of desire and the body. JEAN-JACQUES ROUSSEAU, was
adamant about the essential goodness of the NATURAL SELF in contrast to the corruption
imposed by society. EXTENTIALISM , has been on the wan since 1960, it has enjoyed exceptional
prominence, even popularity, for a philosophical movement, in part because of its literary
expressions by writers.

36 POST MODERNISM: ON CULTURES Has come into vogue as the name for a rather diffuse
family of ideas and trends that in significant respects, rejects, challenges, or aims to supersede
MODERNITY; convictions , aspiration and pretentions of modern western thought and culture
since the enlightenment. POSTMODERNISM , is not Philosophy. It is best a holding pattern,
perhaps a cry of despair. It rightly talks about world philosophy. THE PHILOSOPHY OF MANY
CULTURES, BUT SUCH TALK IS NOT A PHILOSOPHY EITHER. For instance, reality cannot be
known or described objectively by postmodernist. Postmodernist believe that humanity should
come at truth beyond the rational to the non-rational elements of human nature including the
SPIRITUAL. Postmodernist consider that to arrive at truth, humanity should realized the limits of
reason and objectivism

37 Beyond Exalting individual analysis of truth, postmodernist adhere to a relational , holistic

approach. Moreover, post modernist value our existence in the world and in relation to it.
ANALYTIC TRADITION “CAN LANGUAGE OBJECTIVELY DESCRIBE THE TRUTH?” For the
philosophers of this tradition, language cannot objectively describe truth. For LUDWIG
WITTGENSTEIN--- an analytic Philosopher, LANGUAGE is socially conditioned. THE WORLD
SOLELY IN TERMS OF THE LANGUAGE------LINGUISTICS, SOCIAL CONSTRUCTS, TRUTH AS WE
PERCEIVE, IT IS SELF SOCIALLY CONSTRUCTED

38 ANALYTIC PHILOSOPHY, is the conviction that to some significant degree, philosophical

problems , puzzles , and errors are rooted in language and can be solved or avoided by a sound
understanding of language and careful attention to its workings. ANALYSIS, refers to a method ;
owing great deal to the pioneers. LOGIC AND CRITICAL THINKING, Logic is centered in the
analysis and construction of arguments, LOGIC and CRITICAL THINKING serve as paths to
freedom from half-truths and deceptions. CRITICAL THINKING is distinguishing facts and
opinions or personal feelings. In making rational choices, FIRST SUSPENDSNBELIEF and
JUDGEMENTS until all facts have been gathered and considered.

39 Though facts are important, CRITICAL THINKING also takes into consideration cultural
systems, values and beliefs. Critical Thinking help us uncover bias and prejudice and open to
new ideas not necessarily in agreement with the previous thought.TWO TYPES OF
REASONING,INDUCTIVE REASONING, is based from observation in order to make
generalizations-----THIS REASONING IS OFTEN APPLIED IN PREDICTION, FORCASTING OR
BEHAVIOR.DEDUCTIVE REASONING, draws conclusion from usually one broad judgment or
definition and one more specific assertion, often an inference.

40 Take for instance; All Philosophers are wise

Take for instance; All Philosophers are wise . (MAJOR PREMISE) CONFUCIUS IS A PHILOSOPHER.
(MINOR PREMISE) THEREFORE CONFUCIUS IS WISE. (CONCLUSION). VALIDITY and SOUNDNESS
OF AN ARGUMENT Based on the example given(SYLLOGISM), IF TWO PREMISE ARE
CONSTRUCTED LOGICALLY, THEN THE CONCLUSION MUST FOLLOW LOGICALLY, THE
DEDUCTIVE ARGUMENT IS VALID, This does not mean that the conclusion is true or false.
VALIDITY comes from a logical conclusion based on logically constructed premises.

41 STRENGTH OF AN ARGUMENT, INDUCTIVE ARGUMENT, cannot prove if the premise are true
which will also determine the truth of the conclusion, it proves only probable support to the
conclusion, further inductive argument that succeeds in providing such probable support is a
strong argument. While an inductive argument that fails to provide such support is weak, a
strong argument with true premises is said to be cogent. For example: Jay: Do you think
Congressman Gerry will be re-elected? Yna: I doubt it. His district has become more
conservative in recent years. Also, 63% of the registered voters in his district are in the
opposition.

42 The said argument is both a statistical argument and a predictive argument, which are two
common patterns of inductive reasoning. Also, the conclusion does not follow necessarily from
the premises. FALLACIES A defect in an argument other than its having false premises To detect
fallacies, it is required to examine the argument's content. Usually comitted errors in reasoning
thus, coming up with false conclusions and worse distorting the truth

43 FALLACIES, Are a defect in an argument other than its having false premises. To detect
fallacies, it is required to examine the argument’s content.APPEAL TO PITTY ( ARGUMENTUM
ADMISERICORDIAM) , A Specific kind of appeal to emotion in which someone tries to win
support for an argument or idea by exploiting his or her opponents feelings of pity or guilt.

44 APPEAL TO IGNORANCE (Argumentum Ad Ignoratiam) Whatever has not been proven false
must be true, and vice versa. E.g. There must be intelligence in other planets. But No one has
proven that there isn’t. E.g. Researchers have not yet conclusively proven that there is no Loch
Ness Monster at the bottom of the sea, therefore we should expect to see the monster
anytime.

45 EQUIVOCATION This is a logical chain of reasoning of a term or a word several times, but
giving the particular word a different meaning each time. Example: Human have hands; the
clock have hands. He is drinking from the pitcher of water; he is a baseball pitcher. All Trees
have barks. Dog Barks. Therefore Dog is a tree.

46 This infers that something true of the whole from the fact that it is true or some part of the
whole. The reverse of this fallacy is division. DIVISION One reasons logically that something true
of a thing must also be true of all or some of its parts.COMPOSITION

47 AGAINST THE PERSON(Argumentum Ad Hominem)This fallacy attempts to link the validity

of a premise to a characteristic or belief of a person advocating the premise. However, in some
instances, questions of personal conduct, character, motives, etc., are legitimate if relevant to
the issue. -An attempt to refute another’s argument by attacking the arguer’s circumstances ,
situation or motives.

48 An argument where force, coercion, or threat of force, is given as a justification for a

conclusion.
APPEAL TO FORCE(Argumentum Ad Baculum)

49 An argument that appeals or exploits people's vanities, desire for esteem, and anchoring on
popularity. E.g. Appeal to populace Joining the band wagon FALSE CAUSE (Post Hoc) Since that
event followed this one, that event must have been caused by this one. This fallacy is also
reffered to as coincidental correlation, or correlation not causation.APPEAL TO THE
PEOPLE(Argumentum Ad Populum)

50 One commits errors if one reaches an inductive generalizations based on insufficient

evidence. The fallacy is commonly based on a broad conclusion upon the statistics of a survey
of a small group that fails to sufficiently represent the whole population. BEGGING THE
QUESTION (Petitio Principii) This is a type of fallacy in which the proposition to be proven is
assumed implicity or explicity in the premise.HASTY GENERALIZATION

51 ANALYZE SITUATIONS THAT SHOW THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN OPINION AQND TRUTH
Applying Logic and Fallacies in determining Truth and Opinion: At the beginning of the
TRACTATUS, LUDWIG WITTGENSTEIN speaks of the picture that we can form of reality , and in
which, by way of a model , represents the existence and non-existence of state affairs.
TRACTATUS, identifies the relationship between language and reality and to define the limits of
science. It is recognized as a significant Philosophical work of the 21st Century. It is in the
possibility of Agreeing or Disagreeing with reality, thus being true or false, that the meaning of
the picture lies.

52 Same thoughts occur later when LUDWIG WITTGENSTEIN, describes spoken and written
language, that is proposition, as one of these pictures and defines its meaning in terms of its
capacity for being true or false, the limits of what can be said, therefore are defined by the logic
rules. The limits of my language mean the limit of my world . The logic of language shows how
elements fits state of affairs and how state of affairs in wider constellations can be linked
together, we could decide on the basis of this logic. Moreover, LUDWIG WITTGENSTEIN, argues
that the world consist of state affairs, and not of things. These constellations , can be
reproduced in a picture, rather as the course of events in car accident , might be retraced in

53 court of law by the use of models.

56 Human Being as an Embodied Spirit

What is Human Being? Embodied spirit is the living animating core within each of us, the driving
force behind all that we think, say and do. Sensations, feelings, insights, fancies -- all these are
private and, except through symbols and at second hand, incommunicable. We can pool
information about experiences, but never the experiences themselves. From family to nation,
every human group is a society of island universes. What is Embodied Spirit? "Every embodied
spirit is doomed to suffer and enjoy in solitude" The human being is a complex matter and
many believe that just trying to understand life and what it means to be human is a futile
undertaking. by Aldous HuxleyHuman Being as an Embodied Spirit

57 WHAT IS MY BEING RELATIONSHIP TO MY BODY

OUR BODIES Bodies are in time and space, body functions in accordance with natural laws, our
bodies are subject to the laws of physics, involving mass, inertia, torque and other things.
Bodies also work in accordance with the laws of biology and chemistry, and our abilities are
also determined by our anatomy as a species which has continually evolved throughout time.
We function in accordance with the natural laws. Subject to the Laws of Physics, involving mass,
inertia, torque and other things. Our bodies also works in accordance with the laws of biology
and chemistry, and our abilities are also determined by our anatomy as a species which has
continually evolved throughout time. The bodies that man has, in the context of being a species
which are also creatures of time and space, are physically conditioned by and subject to natural
laws, simply because our bodies are physical things.WHAT IS MY BEING RELATIONSHIP TO MY
BODY

58 Most of the time , we do not notice how utterly physical our bodies are in our pre
occupation with the everyday grind of things. When do we encounter necessarily material
explanation for the body, involving the science, body may be move to marvel at or regret the
mechanics and anatomy of our bodies, and then maybe, rest content with the scientific
explanation and go about with our daily lives. WE ALSO ORDINARILY SUPPOSE THAT THERE ARE
MUCH MORE TO OURSELVES THAN OUR BODIES. We also say that we have minds apart from
having our bodies. , we also intuitively hold that we have minds that are not limited the same
way that our bodies are. OUR INTELLECT, OUR WILL , OUR IMAGINATION, OUR RATIONALITY,
ALL OF WHICH we take to be aspects of the mind----seems to be both less spatio-temporarily
constrained as compared to our bodies and are also part and parcel of who we are. On one
hand , I have a body and on the other hand , I also have mind, which is different from my body.
We ordinarily suppose that the mind controls the body.

59 Or maybe this controller is the soul, which is the essence of ourselves, and the body
contains it, perhaps similar to how jar contains water, Put these two metaphor together and say
that maybe were like Iron Man or the gundam Pilots---our bodies are perhaps like mecha-suits ,
Mind-Body problem is concerned with this very same idea. Briefly stated, it asks what the
relation is between the Physical and the Mental, WHAT PRECISELY IS A THOUGHT, IS IT ITSELF A
MENTAL PROCESS , OR IS IT A PHYSICAL PROCESS. HAVING BODIES PHILOSOPHERS Throughout
History have also talk about the body, although when they do so, they do so within the
discussion of their very diverse philosophical system----This is important to note, because first
and foremost, the body is discussed in the context of or interrelated with a larger system of
thought, FRENCH MATHEMATICIAN RENE DESCARTE , usually credited as the thinker who
systematically articulated the modern dualism between the

60 mind and the body, although his main concern were formulating a comprehensive account
of how we come to know, inspired by the clarity and distinctive accuracy of the physical and
mathematical sciences.

61 EXISTENTIALISM : FREEDOM
One’s search for truth might be based on one attitude or outlook. Take for instance,
EXISTENTIALISM, unlike phenomenology, existentialism is not primarily a philosophical method.
Neither is it exactly a set of doctrines but more of an outlook or attitude supported by diverse
doctrines centered on certain common themes. THE THEMES INCLUDE;The Human condition or
relation of the individual to the world;The Human response to that condition;Being , especially
the difference between the being of person and being of other kind of things;
62 Human Freedom;The Significance(and avoidability) of choice and decision in the absence of
certainty;The Concreteness and Subjectivity of life as lived, against abstractions and false
objectifications.If we may generalize for just a moment, we might suggest that the existentialist
share a concern for the individual and personal responsibility. Existentialism is often thought to
be anti-religious; nevertheless, there has been a strong current of Christian existentialism
beginning with the 19th century danish Philosopher KIERKEGAARD, as the first existentialist,
insisted that the authentic self was the personal chosen self , as opposed to the public or
“HERD” identity. NIETZSCHE TOOK THIS VIEW OF

63 Of opposition of the genuine individual versus the PUBLIC HERD IDENTITY. Both
KIERKEGAARD AND NIETZSCHE influence HEIDEGGER whose conception of ownness came to
dominate contemporary existentialist thought.

65 A human person is an embodied spirit (a "soul") whose nature has numerous bodily,
affective, cognitive, volitional and gender capacities, the expression of which may lead by
freedom to flourishing in a harmony with one's nature or dysfunction against one's nature,
ultimately shaped by and finding their relational telos in the love of neighbor and union with
God, relationships made possibly by our nature but realized only by the ministry of the
indwelling Spirit of God.for St. Thomas:

66 A human person is a personal being possessing its intellectual nature as joined in a natural
unity with a material body. this unity called "man" as "a rational animal." The Human Being as
an Embodied Spirit is one which is expressed fully, shining for all the world to see. It is our right
and responsibility to give our Spirit its fullest expression in this body. The opportunity to
become embodied and whole begins at birth and continues throughout life.A human being is a
biosocial being and represents the highest level of development of all living organisms on earth,
the subject of labour, of the social forms of life, communication and consciousness.

67 Spirit VS SoulSpiritit consist of our mind, will and emotions.it is our personality, thoughts,
attitudes, and what makes us unique.immaterial part of a human being or animal, regarded as
immortal.soul is mortal, meaning it dies. Soulthe real person inside us.it is our life forceit gives
life to the body.has no feeling and cannot thinkthe part of us that never dies, that is eternal,
infinite and limitless.

68 Where does the spirit go after death?

Speaking about man’s death“The dust returns to the earth just as it happened to be and the
spirit itself returns to the true God who gave it.”Ecclesiastes 12:7Christian:Islam:the Angel of
Death or Izraeel comes to take the spirit out of the body and puts it in a place called the
"Barzakh".

69 BRANCHES OF PHILOSOPHY METAPHYSICS, is really only an extension of a fundamental

and necessary drive in every human being to know what is real. The question is how to account
for this unreal thing in terms of what you can accept as real. THUS A VERY BIG PART OF A
METAPHYSICIAN’S TASK IS TO EXPLAIN THAT PART OF OUR EXPERIENCE , WHICH WE CALL
UNREAL IN TERMS OF WHAT WE CALL REALITY. Both the idealist and the materialist
metaphysical theories are similarly based on unobservable entities; MIND and MATTER. We
could see things made of matter such as book or a chair; but we cannot see the underlying
matter itself. Although we can experience in our minds , thoughts , ideas, desires and fantasies,
we cannot observe or experience the mind itself that is having these thoughts, ideas and desire.
It is this tendency to explain the oservable in terms of the unobservable that has given
metaphysics a bad name to more down-to-earth philosophers.

70 ETHICS, HOW DO WE TELL GOOD FROM EVIL / WHAT IS RIGHT FROM WHAT IS WRONG? , Is
that branch of Philosophy that explores the nature of moral virtue and evaluates human
actions. ETHICS , is generally a study of the nature of moral judgments. PHILOSOPHICAL ETHICS
, attempts to provide an account of our fundamental ethical Ideas. Whereas RELIGION , has
often motivated individuals to obey the moral code of their society, philosophy is not content
with traditional or habitual ethics but adopts a critical perspective. It insists that obedience to
moral law be given a rational foundation. In the thought of SOCRATES we see the beginning of a
transition from a traditional

71 Religion-based morality to philosophical ethics

Religion-based morality to philosophical ethics. REFLECTION, MEDITATION and
CONVERSATIONS THAT ROCKED THE WORLD, WHAT CONSTITUTE A HUMAN PERSON PLATO ,
SOCRATES , ARISTOTLE SOCRATES- to be happy, a person has to live a virtuous life. VIRTUE is
not something to be taught or acquired through education, but rather, it is merely an
awakening of the seeds of good deeds that lay dormant in the

72 Mind and heart of a person

Mind and heart of a person. KNOWING What is in the mind and heart of a human being is
achieved through self-knowledge. Thus knowledge does not mean only theoretical or
speculative , but a practical one. Practical knowledge means that one does not only know the
rules of right living, but one lives them. Hence for SOCRATES , TRUE KNOWLEDGE MEANS
WISDOM, which in turn , means VIRTUE. The Greek word ARETE , which means translate as
virtue, seems originally to have been associated with valor in battle and may be connected with
the name of the GREEK GOD OF WAR, ARETE and its English equivalent, VIRTUE has connotation
of MACHISMO and MANLINESS.

73 So when Socrates came to define VIRTUE, he thought of COURAGE as one of its prime
components, and he came up with the proposition that courage, therefore as VIRTUE IS ALSO
KNOWLEDGE. EPISTEMOLOGY meaning (logical discourse') is the branch of philosophy
concerned with the theory of knowledge. studies the nature of knowledge, justification, and the
rationality of belief. Much of the debate in epistemology centers on four areas: the
philosophical analysis of the nature of knowledge and how it relates to such concepts as
(1)truth, belief, and justification, (2) various problems of skepticism, (3) the sources and scope of
knowledge and justified belief, and (4) the criteria for knowledge and justification.
74 EPISTEMOLOGY , Explains, 1. HOW WE KNOW WHAT WE CLAIM TO KNOW 2
EPISTEMOLOGY , Explains, 1. HOW WE KNOW WHAT WE CLAIM TO KNOW 2. How we can find
out what we wish to know 3. How we can differentiate truth from falsehood, epistemology
addresses varied problems: the reliability, extent, and kinds of knowledge , truth, language ,
and science and scientific knowledge.