INTRODUCTION TO PHILOSOPHY

No. of Units: 4 Units

Quarter 1
(S.Y. 2021 - 2022)

Chapter 2 (Part I)

ANCIENT PHILOSOPHY

Ms. Maricris C. Timbreza

Instructor

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 Ancient Philosophers: Architects of Civilization
Many Philosophers hold that there are three great original centers of philosophy in the world
– Greek (or Western), Indian, and Chinese. All three arose as critical reflections on their own cultural
traditions. In this sense, early Greek, Indian, and Chinese thinkers tried to prove their individual
theories by carefully defining their terms, drawing distinctions, and by constructing arguments for
their positions and counterarguments against the positions of their opponents.

Historically speaking, Asian classics of the Indians and the Chinese predate the oldest of
Western classics. Indians and Chinese philosophers of note also lived earlier than their Greek
counterparts (Quito, 1991).

One readily observes that during the first centuries, there was more philosophical activity in
the East than in the West. Before the Greek triumvirate (Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle), there was a
reversal. The Western thinkers started to indulge in feverish philosophical speculation, whereas the
Asian thinkers began diminishing philosophical activity. In our present century, almost all the major
philosophical ideas emanate from western thinkers (Quito, 1991).

This chapter looks at the major ancient philosophies of both East and West. Certainly, the
culture of the “East” is very different from the of the “West” (primarily Europe and North America),
but that does mean each culture is the incapable of understanding certain features of the other. As
the world becomes “smaller”. It is increasingly important to develop an understanding of culture
centers around the globe that are very different from our own. Insofar as each society or culture can
be said to have its own “philosophy” (Velasquez, 1999).

There are three attitudinal imperatives that we must bear in mind if we are to appreciate both
the Oriental or Eastern thought vis-à-vis the Occidental or Western mindset and to situate them in
their proper perspective:

1. In contrast to the propensity of the West to think in a linear manner, i.e., in terms of beginning
and end in a straight line, Oriental thought runs in a circular manner in which the end conjoins
the beginning in a cyclic style. In a manner of speaking, nothing actually begins absolutely or
ends absolutely. A man may have been born at a precise time and may have died at a precise
time but it cannot be said that his existence can congealed at a specific time, and when he
dies, his life continues in another form. This is indispensable to the understanding of Samsara
or Rebirth. There is a cycle of rebirths within the various spheres of life, the vegetative, animal,
and human.

The world in fact, did not have an absolute beginning but was merely a continuation of an
earlier world in an earlier time. There is therefore a succession of worlds and a succession of
lives.

2. The attitudinal imperative is the assumption that the East does not make a rigorous
distinction between religion and philosophy. Basic philosophical concepts are shrouded in
religious beliefs and myths.

However, it is a false conclusion that Eastern philosophies such as Chinese and Indian, are not
sufficiently philosophical to be considered philosophy but are more properly called “religion”
or “mythology”.

In the East, Philosophy is Religion and Religion is Philosophy. The Oriental does not cut off
philosophy that is thought, from religion that is life in action. Life for Oriental thinkers is a

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 translation of thought; it is philosophy in action. Orientals believe that life must be the
extension of thought, its fruit and its application.

For Quito (1991), it is not accurate to judge that Asia is poor because of religion. Rather, it is
poor because it cannot accept the polarization or division of theory and practice, of philosophy
and religion, of its way of thinking and its way of living. Quito suggested that only if Asia could
find a means of adjusting its vision by making religion and speculation go together, by
reconciling elusive theory with practice, then Asia too could become progressive like the West.

3. The third attitudinal imperative is the acceptance of validity of intuition and mysticism, the
readiness to revert to extralogical, if not illogical modes of thinking. Orientals are accused of
transcending the limitations of the human intellect and treading on a no-man’s land where
verification of one’s premise is not possible. By its very nature it cannot but be intuitive and
mystic.

The West has but to theorize and speculate; no application to life is necessary. Such are
Platonic, Hegelian, Kantian, Fichtean theories to which the Western philosophers render lip
service; their application to practice is still being contested by other Western philosophers
(Quito, 1991).

If logic is no longer able to solve a life problem, Asian mind resorts to intuition. From the very
fact that it thinks in a cycle all-at-once-ness, it must resort to means other than the usual
mental processes applicable to the piecemeal and fragmentary. One should not therefore be
surprised at its propensity to mysticism, at its use of super consciousness, or of the existence
of a third eye or a sixth sense. When the situation demands, it reverses the logical patterns
(Quito, 1991).

The following section provides an introductory discussion that characterizes the

Chinese way of thought to enable the students to bridge the gap between

the Oriental and Western minds.

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 The Classical Age of Chinese Philosophy

Early Chinese Thought

Dr. Robert Eno of Indiana University wrote: “Since the beginnings of human civilizations,
people of all sorts have devoted energy to certain basic questions about how to make the best of life:
How can we know all that can be known? How can we get the most pleasure possible? How can we
become the best that people can be? How do or can our lives have meaning? All of us ask versions of
these questions sometimes, but even in simple and specific forms questions like these turn out to be
complicated and confusing when we actually start to think about them. [Source: Robert Eno, Indiana
University, Chinatxt]

Historically, the earliest answers to such questions were religious ones, and religion has never
failed to serve as a source for such answers for most people in the world. But since about 500 B.C.
religious approaches have been complemented by thinking that depends far less on beliefs concerning
actions taken or standards set by a deity. Traditions that attempt to answer questions about the
structure of the world and the nature of human beings without string reliance on religious concepts
are generally discussed as philosophical traditions. Philosophical traditions are devoted to the free
exercise of the intellect in the search for fully reliable answers to basic but elusive questions about the
world and about life. In the ancient world, three cultures emerged as distinctly active in the discourse
of philosophy: the cultures of Greece, China, and India. Perhaps by coincidence, philosophical activity
began to achieve momentum in all three cultures about the same time, roughly 500 B.C. Although in
this section we will focus solely on the development of philosophical thinking in early China, we will
begin with a brief overview of issues key to the development of philosophy in Greece, and we will note
throughout the course points at which the founders of Chinese thought may have built their enterprise
upon different foundations from their Greek counterparts and inheritors of the Western traditions.

Classical China

Dr. Eno wrote: “Classical China” extends from the beginning of Confucius’s career, about 520
B.C., until 221 B.C., the year of a great political upheaval that effectively ended China’s most fruitful

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period of philosophical inquiry. The world was in many ways a radically different place than it is today,
and it will be important to become used to conceiving this different world when you read what ancient
thinkers have to say.

Confucius and company lived at a time when few people normally traveled more than ten
miles from home (going further in your ox.cart meant finding a lodging place). Fewer books existed
altogether than you probably have in your home now, and there were no newspapers or other sources
of public information (but the luster of the night sky seemed to proclaim an urgent message from the
cosmos). Fatal disease struck early in nearly every family and malnutrition and illness made
disfigurement common and physical beauty rare. Most people were locked in a life-and-death struggle
with the land for food, and mass starvation and the brutality of desperation were common. In studying
ancient China it is crucial to avoid thinking that people had any firm concept of what the world was,
that information of any kind was widely available (or that most people even had a clear idea what
“information” was), that ordinary living entailed any sense of personal security, that experience
suggested that there was any nobility or even value in the mere fact of being human.

In such a world, what may seem to us now as among the simplest and most self-evident ideas
were often conceived only after exhaustive efforts of study, imagination, and debate. These ideas
were gleaming jewels to their discoverers, and looking at the world by their light made things seem
excitingly different. Our long familiarity with some of these ideas may make them seem routine and
dull to us. But that familiarity, which we owe to some of the people we study in this course, also
sometimes leads us to lose track of what we know, which can be little different from being ignorant
of it. There are times when, if we look at old ideas with fresh eyes, we can see not only how these
ideas changed the world, but how they still have power to change how we see our world and
ourselves. “A key to studying ancient Chinese ideas is to see how, despite their apparent simplicity,
they may guide us to new perspectives we had not before imagined.

The entire force of Classical thinking was directed towards the certainty that the future would
replicate the past, that the utopia of the past would guide China through crisis to the utopia of the
future. This was not only a part of the elite intellectual tradition. It was an essential feature of a culture
keenly aware of its distinct role in the world, as it was known, deeply mired in incessant warfare, and
bereft of religious traditions of another world where one might escape entirely the cares and sorrows
of the world of people and needful ghosts. The only path of escape lay in the future.

CONFUCIANISM

If one world could characterize the entire history of Chinese philosophy, that word would be
humanism – not the humanism that denies or slights a Supreme Power, but one that professes the
unity of human beings and Heaven. In this sense, humanism has dominated Chinese thought from the
dawn of its history (Quito, 1991). Humanism was an outgrowth not of speculation, but of historical
and social changes. The conquest of Shang (1751-1112 B.C.) by the Chou in 1111 B.C., inaugurated a
transition from tribal society to feudal. To consolidate the empire, the Chou challenged human
ingenuity ability, cultivated new trades and talents, and encouraged the development of experts from
all levels of society. Prayers for rain were gradually replaced by irrigation. Humanity and their activities
were given greater importance. The time finally arrived when a slave became a prime minister.
Humanism, in gradual ascendance, reached its climax in Confucius.

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 “Confucius” is the Latinized form of this philosopher which means
K’ung-fung-tse, or “master kung.” Born in what is now the province of
Shantung of a noble family, Confucius was three years old when his father
died. There is nothing extraordinary about his life: married at 19, a
teacher at 22, and settled in Shantung after some years of teaching and
travel. At 52, he was appointed as governor of a province but went into
voluntary exile after the neighboring governor became jealous of him.
Confucius wandered about 13 years then returned to his native state at
69 and died three years later.

Confucius laid no claim to being more than a man. However, when he

died he was revered almost as a god. Temples were erected in his honor
in every state of China. His grave at Kufow, in Shantung province became a place of pilgrimage. A
temple of Confucius stands at every town and village of China. Every child commits his percepts to
memory from the tenderest age, and each year at the royal university of Peking the Emperor holds a
festival in honor of the illustrious teacher.

Though Confucianism is called a religion, it is rather a system of ethics or good conduct. He

did not teach about any god, rather his attention was centered on making humanity better in his life,
and his analects are wise sayings similar to the Proverbs in the Bible. Throughout Confucius’ whole
writings he has not even mentioned the name of God. He declined to discuss the question of
immorality. When he was asked about spiritual beings, he remarked, “If we cannot even know men,
how can we know spirits?”

Confucianism, Confucius’ based-teaching, laid emphasis on filial piety. For Confucius’ view, an
ideal individual lives a righteous life, harmonizes the family, brings good government to the country
and brings peace to the whole world. In pre-Communist China, one seldom met a Chinese who did not
profess to follow Confucius’ teachings.

With regard to the virtue of the individual, Confucius taught the following philosophical
principles:

1. Jen or Human-Heartedness. It is respect and love for humanity (the kindness of a ruler to his
subjects). It may be understood as the positive aspect of benevolence. It includes love for
one’s self. Jen is synonymous with moral character or integrity in general. It is considered a
value dearer than life itself. To Confucius, the man of jen is the perfect man.

2. Yi or “Oughtness” of Good Actions. This means righteousness for its own sake, duty for duty’s
sake, or doing a good thing for its own sake regardless of personal profit of utilitarian
consequences.

3. Li or Propriety. The Chinese word li, cannot be rendered by an English word but in a
generalized sense, it is the way things ought to be done. In a narrower sense, it means living
by the doctrine of mean or central harmony.

4. Doctrine of the Mean or Central Harmony. This refers moderation in one’s emotions and
actions, avoiding the two extremes of deficiency and excess. It is also called Principle of
Central Harmony because observing it is deemed by Confucius to induce inner harmony in
oneself.

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 Aristotle’s Golden Mean is the West’s equivalent of China’s Doctrine of the Mean, the
fundamental moral idea of which is moderation, balance, and equanimity (Quito, 1991). When there
is harmony, there would be balance in the universe.

5. The Five Relationships. Both human-heartedness (Jen) and propriety (Li) should operate in a
scheme of five relationships as follows:
a. Between father and son
b. Between elder brother and junior brother
c. Between husband and wife
d. Between elder friend and junior friend
e. Between ruler and subject

All these relationships imply mutual attitudes and responses. Kindness in a father, filial piety
in a son, gentleness in an elder brother, obedience in a younger, righteousness in a husband,
submission in a wife, kindness in elders, deference in juniors, benevolence in a ruler, loyalty in a
minister.

6. Wen or the Art of Peace. Wen stands for the totality of what is dubbed as a culture or the finer
things of life like music, poetry, history, and the arts that nurture the aesthetic sense, enliven
leisure, and ennoble the human spirit. Confucius acknowledged the advantages and the
moralizing value of the study of poetry and music.

7. Ten or Power. One day, as the story was told, Confucius and disciples passed a graveyard
where a woman was weeping at a new-made grave. They asked the woman why she wept.
She answered, “My husband’s father was killed here by a tiger, and my husband also, and now
my son has met the same fate.”

When they asked her why she did not leave so fatal a spot, she answered that in this place
there was no oppressive government. “Remember this, my children,” said Confucius, “oppressive
government is fiercer and more feared than a tiger.”

Ten means the power by which men are governed and the power by which rulers govern
human beings effectively. For Confucius such power is the power that comes from giving moral
example. Managing human beings effectively by the force of moral example is the epitome of political
power and success.

8. Confucius also emphasized the values of gravity, generosity, of soul, sincerity, earnestness,
and kindness.

Two centuries later, Mencius, another Chinese philosopher, proclaimed Confucius the
greatest sage. Although Mencius’ career was amazingly similar with Confucius, Mencius took a big
step forward. Canonized with the ya-sheng, First After Confucius, Mencius taught the same basic
Chinese and human ethical system found in the Analects but with argumentation and scholasticism
required by economic and political problems surrounding his time. While Confucius no more than
implied that human nature is good, Mencius declared definitely that it is originally good. For Mencius,
since human nature is good, love is therefore an inborn moral quality. Thus, if one develops his mind

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to the utmost, one can serve Heaven and fulfill one’s destiny. Evil is not inborn but due to humanity’s
own failures and inability to avoid external influence.

Today, Confucianism meets a still greater rival, not Christianity, but the entire system of
Western thought and life and the coming of a new social order, brought about by the industrial age.
As a political system aiming at the restoration of a feudal order, Confucianism will probably be put of
date by developments of modern political science and economics. However, as a system of humanist
culture, as a fundamental viewpoint concerning the conduct of life and society, it will still hold its own.
The doctrines of Karl Marx and Confucius no longer meet, or have longer a common meeting point.
Confucianism, as a live force in the Chinese people, is still going to shape its national conduct of affairs
and modify Communism in China.

ASSESSMENT
Let’s test yourselves! Identify what is being asked in each number. You can write your
answers after each statement.

1. _________ is the Latinized form of this philosopher which means K’ung-fung-tse, or “master
kung.”
2. It is also called a religion and a system of ethics or good conduct.
3. When did the Shang Dynasty reign?
4. Where is Confucius grave located?
5. It is one of the philosophical principles of Confucius which means righteousness for its own
sake, duty for duty’s sake, or doing a good thing for its own sake regardless of personal
profit of utilitarian consequences.
6. What does Doctrine of the Mean or Central Harmony refer to?
7. It includes love for one’s self.
8. What are the five relationships as described in Confucianism.
9. It is known as the Art of Peace.
10. What does ya-sheng mean?

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 TAOISM

Taoism (also known as Daoism) is a Chinese philosophy attributed to Lao Tzu (c. 500 BCE)
which developed from the folk religion of the people primarily in the rural areas of China and became
the official religion of the country under the Tang Dynasty. Taoism is therefore both a philosophy and
a religion.

It emphasizes doing what is natural and "going with the flow" in accordance with the Tao (or
Dao), a cosmic force which flows through all things and binds and releases them. The philosophy grew
from an observance of the natural world, and the religion developed out of a belief in cosmic balance
maintained and regulated by the Tao. The original belief may or may not have included practices such
as ancestor and spirit worship but both of these principles are observed by many Taoists today and
have been for centuries.

Taoism exerted a great influence

during the Tang Dynasty (618-907 CE) and
the emperor Xuanzong (reigned 712-756
CE) decreed it a state religion, mandating
that people keep Taoist writings in their
home. It fell out of favor as the Tang
Dynasty declined and was replaced
by Confucianism and Buddhism but the
religion is still practiced throughout China
and other countries today.

Lao-Tzu believed in the harmony of all things and that people could live easily together if they
only considered each other's feelings once in a while and recognized that their self-interest was not
always in the interest of others. Lao-Tzu grew impatient with people and with the corruption he saw
in government, which caused the people so much pain and misery. He was so frustrated by his inability
to change people's behavior that he decided to go into exile.

As he was leaving China through the western pass, the gatekeeper Yin Hsi stopped him
because he recognized him as a philosopher. Yin Hsi asked Lao-Tzu to write a book for him before he
left civilization forever and Lao-Tzu agreed. He sat down on a rock beside the gatekeeper and wrote
the Tao-Te-Ching (The Book of the Way). He stopped writing when he felt he was finished, handed the
book to Yin Hsi, and walked through the western pass to vanish into the mist beyond. Sima Qian does
not continue the story after this but, presumably (if the story is true) Yin Hsi would have then had
the Tao-Te-Ching copied and distributed.

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The Tao-Te-Ching

The Tao-Te-Ching is not a 'scripture' in any way. It is a book of poetry

presenting the simple way of following the Tao and living life at peace with
one's self, others, and the world of changes. A typical verse advises, "Yield and
overcome/Empty and become full/Bend and become straight" to direct a
reader to a simpler way of living. Instead of fighting against life and others, one
can yield to circumstances and let the things which are not really important go.
Instead of insisting one is right all the time, one can empty one's self of that
kind of pride and be open to learning from other people. Instead of clinging to
old belief patterns and hanging onto the past, one can bend to new ideas and
new ways of living.

The Tao-Te-Ching was most likely not written by Lao-Tzu at the western pass and may not
have been written by him at all. Lao-Tzu probably did not exist and the Tao-Te-Ching is a compilation
of sayings set down by an unknown scribe. Whether the origin of the book and the belief system
originated with a man named Lao-Tzu or when it was written or how is immaterial (the book itself
would agree) and all that matters is what the work says and what it has come to mean to readers.
The Tao-Te-Ching is an attempt to remind people that they are connected to others and to the earth
and that everyone could live together peacefully if people would only be mindful of how their thoughts
and actions affect themselves, others, and the earth.

Yin-Yang Thought

During the Shang era Shang Dynasty (1600-1046 BCE), the

practice of divination became more popular through the reading
of oracle bones which would tell one's future. Reading oracle bones
led to a written text called the I-Ching (c. 1250-1150 BCE), the Book
of Changes, which is a book still available today providing a reader with
interpretations for certain hexagrams which supposedly tell the
future.

A person would ask a question and then throw a handful of

yarrow sticks onto a flat surface (such as a table) and the I-Ching would
be consulted for an answer to the person's question. These hexagrams consist of six unbroken lines
(called Yang lines) and six broken lines (Yin). When a person looked at the pattern the yarrow sticks
made when they were thrown, and then consulted the hexagrams in the book, they would have their
answer. The broken and the unbroken lines, the yin and yang, were both necessary for that answer
because the principles of yin and yang were necessary for life.

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 Although Taoism and the Tao-Te-Ching were not
originally associated with the symbol known as the yin-
yang, they have both come to be because the philosophy
of Taoism embodies the yin-yang principle and yin-yang
thought. Life is supposed to be lived in balance, as the
symbol of the yin and the yang expresses. The yin-yang is a
symbol of opposites in balance - dark/light,
passive/aggressive, female/male - everything except good
and evil, life and death, because nature does not recognize
anything as good or evil and nature does not recognize a
difference between life and non-life. All is in harmony in
nature, and Taoism tries to encourage people to accept and
live that kind of harmony as well.

Beliefs

Other Chinese texts relating to Taoism are the Chaung-Tzu (also known as the Zhuangzi,
written by Zhuang Zhou, c. 369-286 BCE) and the Daozang from the Tang Dynasty (618-907 CE) and
Sung Dynasty (960-1234 CE) which was compiled in the later Ming Dynasty (1368-1644 CE). All of
these texts are based on the same kinds of observation of the natural world and the belief that human
beings are innately good and only needed a reminder of their inner nature to pursue virtue over vice.
There are no "bad people" according to Taoist principles, only people who behave badly. Given the
proper education and guidance toward understanding how the universe works, anyone could be a
"good person" living in harmony with the earth and with others.

According to this belief, the way of the Tao is in accordance with nature while resistance to
the Tao is unnatural and causes friction. The best way for a person to live, according to Taoism, is to
submit to whatever life brings and be flexible. If a person adapts to the changes in life easily, that
person will be happy; if a person resists the changes in life, that person will be unhappy. One's ultimate
goal is to live at peace with the way of the Tao and recognize that everything that happens in life
should be accepted as part of the eternal force which binds and moves through all things.

This philosophy corresponds closely with the Logos of the Roman stoics
like Epictetus and Marcus Aurelius. They claimed the Logos was a force of reason and that nothing
which happened according to the Logos could be bad; only people's interpretations of what happened
made those circumstances seem bad. Taoism claims the same thing: nothing is bad in itself, only our
self-interest makes us think that some events in life are bad and others good. Actually, all things
happen in accordance with the flow of the Tao and, since the Tao is natural, all things are natural.

Unlike Buddhism (which came from India but became very popular in China), Taoism arose
from the observations and beliefs of the Chinese people. The principles of Taoism impacted
Chinese culture greatly because it came from the people themselves and was a natural expression of
the way the Chinese understood the universe. The concept of the importance of a harmonious
existence of balance fit well with the equally popular philosophy of Confucianism (also native to
China). Taoism and Confucianism were aligned in their view of the innate goodness of human beings
but differed in how to bring that goodness to the surface and lead people to act in better, unselfish,
ways.

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 The philosophy of Taoism grew into a religion of the peasant classes of the Shang Dynasty,
who lived closely with nature. Their observations of the natural world influenced their philosophy, and
one of the things they incorporated was the concept of eternity. The tree which seemed to die came
back to life in the spring season and the grass grew again. They concluded that when people died they
went somewhere else where they continued to live, they did not just disappear. Everyone's ancestor
who had ever died still lived on in another place and in the presence of the gods; Confucians believed
in this same concept and revered their ancestors as part of their daily practices.

Ancestor worship became a part of Taoist rituals, although the Tao-Te-Ching does not support
it outright, and a reverence for nature and the spirits in nature - very similar to the Shintoism of Japan -
came to characterize Taoist observances. Even though Taoism and Confucianism are very similar in
many core beliefs, they are different in significant ways. A refusal to participate in strict rites and
rituals sets Taoism apart most dramatically from the philosophy of Confucius.

To Lao-Tzu (the name is used here as an expression of Taoist thought), the more regulations
one demanded, the harder one made one's life and the lives of others. If one relaxed the artificial rules
and regulations which were supposed to improve life, only then would one find that life naturally
regulates itself and one would fall into pace with the Tao which runs through and regulates and binds
and releases all things naturally.

Rituals

This belief in allowing life to unfold in accordance with the Tao does not extend to Taoist
rituals, however. The rituals of Taoist practice are absolutely in accordance with the Taoist
understanding but have been influenced by Buddhist and Confucian practices so that, in the present
day, they are sometimes quite elaborate. Every prayer and spell which makes up a Taoist ritual or
festival must be spoken precisely and every step of the ritual observed perfectly. Taoist religious
festivals are presided over by a Grand Master (a kind of High Priest) who officiates, and these
celebrations can last anywhere from a few days to over a week. During the ritual, the Grand Master
and his assistants must perform every action and recitation in accordance with tradition or else their
efforts are wasted. This is an interesting departure from the usual Taoist understanding of "going with
the flow" and not worrying about external rules or elaborate religious practices.

Taoist rituals are concerned with honoring the ancestors of a village, community, or city, and
the Grand Master will invoke the spirits of these ancestors while incense burns to purify the area.
Purification is a very important element throughout the ritual. The common space of everyday life
must be transformed into sacred space to invite communion with the spirits and the gods. There are
usually four assistants who attend the Grand Master in different capacities, either as musicians, sacred
dancers, or readers. The Grand Master will act out the text as read by one of his assistants, and this
text has to do with the ascent of the soul to join with the gods and one's ancestors. In ancient times,
the ritual was performed on a staircase leading to an altar to symbolize ascent from one's common
surroundings to the higher elevation of the gods. In the present day, the ritual may be performed on
a stage or the ground, and it is understood from the text and the actions of the Grand Master that he
is ascending.

The altar still plays an important part in the ritual as it is seen as the place where the earthly
realm meets with the divine. Taoist households have their own private altars where people will pray
and honor their ancestors, household spirits, and the spirits of their village. Taoism encourages
individual worship in the home, and the rituals and festivals are community events which bring people
together, but they should not be equated with worship practices of other religions such as attending

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church or temple. A Taoist can worship at home without ever attending a festival, and throughout its
history most people have. Festivals are very expensive to stage and are usually funded by members of
the town, village, or city. They are usually seen as celebrations of community, though are sometimes
performed in times of need such as an epidemic or financial struggle. The spirits and the gods are
invoked during these times to drive away the dark spirits causing the problems.

Taoism significantly influenced Chinese culture from the Shang Dynasty forward. The
recognition that all things and all people are connected is expressed in the development of the arts,
which reflect the people's understanding of their place in the universe and their obligation to each
other. During the Tang Dynasty, Taoism became the state religion under the reign of the emperor
Xuanzong because he believed it would create harmonious balance in his subjects and, for awhile, he
was correct. Xuanzong's rule is still considered one of the most prosperous and stable in the history
of China and the high point of the Tang Dynasty.

ASSESSMENT
Let’s test yourselves! Identify what is being asked in each number. You can write your
answers after each statement.

1. Who is the founder of Taoism?

2. Which dynasty did Taoism rule?
3. It emphasizes doing what is natural and "going with the flow".
4. It is a cosmic force which flows through all things and binds and releases them.
5. He was the emperor of the Tang Dynasty who mandated people to keep Taoist writings in
their home.
6. Who was the gate keeper who stopped Lao Tzu from leaving China?
7. The book written by Lao Tzu.
8. The six broken lines on the Hexagram
9. Who officiates a Taoist religious festival?
10. What are two (2) texts relating to Taoism?

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 BUDDHISM

Buddhism is one of the world’s major religions. It originated in India in 563–483 B.C.E. with
Siddhartha Gautama, and over the next millennia it spread across Asia and the rest of the world.
Buddhists believe that human life is a cycle of suffering and rebirth, but that if one achieves a state of
enlightenment (nirvana), it is possible to escape this cycle forever. Siddhartha Gautama was the first
person to reach this state of enlightenment and was, and is still today, known as the Buddha. Buddhists
do not believe in any kind of deity or god, although there are supernatural figures who can help or
hinder people on the path towards enlightenment.

Siddhartha Gautama was an Indian prince in the fifth century B.C.E. who, upon seeing people
poor and dying, realized that human life is suffering. He renounced his wealth and spent time as a
poor beggar, meditating and travelling but ultimately, remaining unsatisfied, settling on something
called “the Middle Way.” This idea meant that neither extreme asceticism or extreme wealth were
the path to enlightenment, but rather, a way of life between the two extremes. Eventually, in a state
of deep meditation, he achieved enlightenment, or nirvana underneath the Bodhi tree (the tree of
awakening). The Mahabodhi Temple in Bihar, India—the site of his enlightenment—is now a major
Buddhist pilgrimage site.

The Buddha taught about Four Noble Truths. The first truth is
called “Suffering (dukkha),” which teaches that everyone in life is suffering
in some way. The second truth is “Origin of suffering (samudāya).” This
states that all suffering comes from desire (tanhā). The third truth is
“Cessation of suffering (nirodha),” and it says that it is possible to stop
suffering and achieve enlightenment. The fourth truth, “Path to the
cessation of suffering (magga)” is about the Middle Way, which are the
eight steps to achieve enlightenment: Eightfold Path.

Briefly, these eight steps are (1) right belief in and acceptance of
the “Four Noble Truths”; (2) right aspiration for one’s self and for others;
(3) right speech that harms no one; (4) right conduct, motivated by goodwill toward all human beings;
(5) right means of livelihood, or earning one’s living by honorable means; (6) right endeavor, or effort
to direct one’s energies toward wise ends; (7) right mindfulness in choosing topics for thought’ and
(8) right meditation, or concentration to the point of complete absorption in mystic ecstasy.

Buddhists believe in a wheel of rebirth, where souls are born again into different bodies
depending on how they conducted themselves in their previous lives. This is connected to “karma,”
which refers to how a person’s good or bad actions in the past or in their past lives can impact them
in the future.

The Transplanting of Buddhism into China

Chinese Buddhism is one of the oldest forms of Buddhism in history and China’s oldest foreign
religion. Chinese Buddhists believe in a combination of Taoism and Mahayana Buddhism, the latter of
which teaches that enlightenment can be achieved in a single lifetime.

Mahayana Buddhism was originally founded during the Kushan Empire and spread to China
where various school sects were developed; before spreading farther and becoming popular in other
Asian countries like Japan.

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 The impact of Buddhist philosophy on the Chinese mind was felt down through the centuries
from the Later Han (ca. A.D. 200) into the late Sung dynasty (ca. A.D. 1250). The present section deals
with the period of strongest Buddhist influence.

When Buddhism first arrived in China, it was mixed up with popular religious beliefs and
practices. As translation of Buddhist scriptures began in the middle of the second century, Buddhist
thought started to develop in China. By the first quarter of the third century, there had been two
Buddhist movements of thought: dhyana (concentration) and prajna (wisdom). The objective of
dhyana was to meditate and to achieve calmness of mind as to remove ignorance and delusions, while
that or prajna was to gain wisdom that things possess no self-nature (svabhava) (Puligandla, 1997).

The transplantation of Buddhism to Chinese soil dates by tradition from the return of a group
of Chinese emissaries from India to China in A.D. 67, accompanied by two Indian monks –
Kasyapamatanga (Sho Mo-teng) and Gobharana (Chu fu-lan). These men brought to the court of Han
Ming-ti (ruling A.D. 58-75) an image of the Buddha as a gift and many sacred sutras to be translated
in Chinese. Among these, the only two of which scholars are reasonably sure were Asvaghosa’s Life of
the Buddha and The Sutra of Forty-two Sections.

It was, however, until the fourth or fifth century A.D. that Chinese Buddhism began to show
the effect of those divisive differences of emphasis that, from the sixth to the tenth centuries were
crystallized as definite sects with particular names. Buddhism became a strong rival to Taosim and
Confucianism. Down into the early part of the Sung dynasty, Buddhism absorbed the best energies of
most philosophically minded Chinese. In this period, arose eight majors sects or schools of Buddhist
thought and practice, which had survival value.

ASSESSMENT
Let’s test yourselves! Identify what is being asked in each number. You can write your
answers after each statement.

1. He is an Indian prince who founded Buddhism

2. When did Buddhism originated?
3. Buddhists believe that human life is a cycle of ________
4. and _________.
5. It is one of the Four Noble Truths which teaches that everyone in life is suffering in some
way.
6. What is the meaning of tanhā?
7. It refers to how a person’s good or bad actions in the past or in their past lives can impact
them in the future.
8. __________ was originally founded during the Kushan Empire and spread to China where
various school sects were developed.
9. It means concentration
10. It means wisdom

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