PHILO 101 - ETHICS

INTRODUCTION TO PHILOSOPHY

Nature of Philosophy

Philosophy for the Chinese means doing what one is saying, or putting one’s words into
action. For example, if you told your mother that you would be good in your studies then study
well. One wishes too that the change and development programs the congressmen and senators
had promised during campaign sorties be put into practice.

Pythagoras (570-504 BC), one of the great philosophers of ancient Greece, coined the
term philosophy, which was derive from two Greek words: philia/philein (which means “love”)
and sophia (which means “wisdom’). Literally, philosophy means love of wisdom.” It was told
that in one of his journeys, a king ask Pythagoras whether he was a wise man. Pythagoras
answered he was not, and that he was just a “lover of wisdom”.

Wisdom, which may be described as the right application of knowledge, involves deeper
understanding of how knowledge can be put to good use. Knowledge on the other hand, is what
is known about things through sense perception such as seeing, (reading, observing), hearing
(listening), touching, tasting, and smelling. So, an individual may be knowledgeable about
something, but may not as yet be called wise.

The Sophists of ancient Greece pretended to be wise by arguing with people to impress
them. In contrast, ancient Greek philosophers studied and argued in their quest for truth (Pinon,
1973:10). Thus, for ancient Greeks, philosophy refers to the love of knowing the truth, searching
for truth and “living in it.” For example, why do students cheat in the examination when they
know very well that it is totally wrong? It is because they are not ‘living in” what they know as
truth.

However, many ideas are still involved in the ways we use the term “philosophy.”
Sometimes we refer it to an evaluation of what is important in life, like when we ask; “What is
your philosophy in life?” Or when we say; “the customer is always right.” At other times, we
mean by “philosophy” as an attitude towards certain act, as when we say; “We do not like our
leaders’ philosophy of governing the affairs of our nation.”

Moreover, other views have been put forward regarding philosophy. Communism has its
own philosophy; democracy has its own too; and even religions have different philosophies.
Generally, philosophy is known as a speculative activity in search of the truth through the use of
human reason alone.

The Definition of Philosophy

In a more formal approach, philosophy is defined as a science which investigates the

ultimate nature and principle of things by the use of human reason alone.
 As a science, philosophy is a certain and organized knowledge derived from facts.

Nature refers to the “whatness” of a thing; that which makes a thing what it is. For
example, the human being’s capability to think is the human being’s nature. It makes a human
being human and not an ape or something else.

A cause is that from which something proceeds. Other sciences investigate only the
proximate causes and principles of things in their superficial, temporary and tangible realities
while philosophy searches for the ultimate causes and principles. The method by which
philosophy understands ‘reality’ is ‘critical, deep, objective and impartial. Philosophy Studies the
ultimate what and why’s of all realities of things. (Palmiano,2010:2)

By human reason alone means that knowledge is acquired through reasoning without
the aid of instruments. But the act of reasoning is combined with experience, observation, and
reflection. The goal of Philosophy based its knowledge singularly on the reasoning capability of
the human mind, not on any authority. Faith and Divine revelation do not have any part in
philosophical investigation although they can guide the mind by leading them to the right
direction as answer to a problem. (Ardales, 2008:8) Philosophy, therefore, is not purely abstract
or hypothetical speculation of the mind, the love for wisdom is a way of life, it is an attempt
consistent with the truth, the good and the beautiful. (Rivas & Nael, 2007:1)

The Beginning of Philosophy

Mascia (1957:14) states that the historical beginning of philosophy came through four
great successive civilizations: Indian, Classic (includes Ancient ‘Greek period), Christian, and
Modern. So, historically, Indian and Chinese Philosophies predated the oldest Western
philosophies. When Thales of Miletus and his students like Anaximander and Anaximenes also
from Miletus began their inquiry into the nature of things, it marked the beginning of Western
philosophy. At this point, Oriental philosophy began to slow down. Then, Western philosophy
had dramatic developments when Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle, came into the picture.

Historically, Oriental philosophy had little or no influence on Western civilization. For

this reason, the story of philosophy would start from the Classic civilization, that is, 6 th century
BC in the ancient Greek city of Miletus in Asia Minor (Engel, 1988:10). The reason why
Oriental philosophy had little influence on the Western thought is because of culture. Western
and Eastern cultures are radically different, thus they have a considerable effect on mentalities of
both societies. Western philosophy emphasized ambition, individualism, rationality, power, and
liberty, while Eastern philosophy emphasized benevolence, harmony, wisdom and family. For
example, Platonism stressed on the rule of law. Confusion emphasized values and ethics in
society. Western philosophers primarily valued reason and rationality while the Eastern
philosophers generally emphasized meditation and wisdom.
 The birthplace of philosophy was the coastal city of Miletus, located across the Aegean
Sea on the western shores of lonia in Asia Minor. For this reason, the first philosophers are
called either Milesians or lonians (Stumpf, 1993:3). But one might wonder why it began here and
not in another place. Miletus was a wealthy Greek city because it was the center of commerce
and trade. The development of industry, commerce, and trade in this coastal city eventually gave
rise to more prosperous existence of the people. Prosperity led to leisure, which in turn, led to
curiosity. Curiosity makes people think (Engel, 1988:23). So it was wonder and curiosity of the
Greeks about the world that led to the rise of philosophy in this small ancient c 4. It is, indeed,
true that if one desires to philosophize, he or she has to begin wondering and be curious about
the things which surround him or her. By wondering, a person begins to ask unending questions.

The Stages of Development

In the beginning, the search for causes and principles of things was made more by
imagination than reason. The Greek philosophy began with a pre-historic period known as the
Ace of Universal Animism and the Age of Anthropomorphism. The former conceived that the
world is inhabited by spirits while the latter the world was thought of as inhabited by gods and
genii. But these gods and genii were conceived of as humans with superior nature and all things
were explained by or attributed to their intervention.

Greek Philosophy Classic Civilization

The history of Greek philosophy consisted of the following periods: the Naturalistic,
Metaphysical, Ethical, and Religious periods. In Naturalistic period, the first philosophers paid
attention to cosmological problem: What is the first principle which determines the origin and
end of things? The first period of Greek philosophy was generally a philosophy of nature, with
Thales of Miletus known as the first Greek philosopher.

In the Metaphysical period, the thinkers were interested in morality and justice. This
period is considered most important not only in Greek philosophy but also perhaps in the entire
field of philosophy, with the Sophists, Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle forming a body of thought.

The Ethical Period extended for three centuries after the death of Aristotle. Its chief
interest was ethical, that is, to find “a way of life worth of a philosopher.” This interest resulted
from the people’s opposition to the loss of freedom and war. They opposed by either appealing
to reason, the senses, or by discarding both reason and the senses (Skeptics).

The last period of Greek philosophy was called Religious (Christian Civilization)
because of its attempt to resolve the problem of human life through religion. In this period, the
philosophers were called Christian philosophers. Christianity appeared, not as a philosophy, but
as a revealed religion given by Jesus Christ — the God-man, with a doctrine of redemption and
salvation and love (Copleston, 1993:14).

Three sub-periods may be stated here: a) the Period of Evangelization or spreading of

Christianity by Jesus Christ and His Apostles in the first century of the Christian era; b) the
Patristic period during which Christianity defended itself from the attacks of pagans and
heretics (writers of this time were called Church Fathers because they were viewed as sure
guides in the interpretation of Christian truths); and c) Scholasticism when Christianity created
its own philosophy in harmony with dogmatic teachings (Mascia, 1957:32). The most recognized
philosopher of this time was St. Thomas Aquinas.

Modern Philosophy (Modern Civilization)

Modern philosophy is generally said to have begun with Descartes-(1596-1650) in France

or with Francis Bacon (1561-1626) in England. Modern Philosophy rose in order to reject and
oppose ancient and scholastic medieval philosophy (Copleston, 1994:1).

Under Modern Philosophy, Rationalism and Empiricism emerged. Rationalism taught

that knowledge is acquired by reason without resort to experience. It argued that - reason is the
only source of knowledge. Hence, Copleston, (1994:15) says that a rationalist philosopher is one
who relies on the use of his/her reason and denies feelings and the idea cf the divine revelation of
mysteries.

Empiricism, on the other hand, held that sense experience, observation, and
experimentation were the only means of acquiring knowledge. For the empiricists, experience
was the primary source of knowledge (Copleston, 1994:26). John Locke was its founder.

Then Idealism came into the picture. It is the doctrine that nothing can be directly known
outside of the mind of a thinking being. Or it is the doctrine that nothing exists apart from the
mind. George Berkeley, the Idealism’s major philosopher, said that ideas can exist only in the
mind.

Positivism was a system of philosophical doctrine elaborated by Auguste Comte. As a

philosophy, Positivism maintained that the data of sense experience were the only object and the
supreme criterion of human knowledge. Abstract and general ideas were just simple opinions.

Contemporary Philosophy

Pragmatism is a contemporary philosophy which teaches that the value of a concept is

not absolute but relative to its utility (or use) in practice. What is useful is valuable, William
James was Pragmatism’s major philosopher.
 Existentialism, another contemporary philosophy, is indeed a philosophical movement
which claims that individual human beings create the meanings and essence of their own lives.
Hence, they are responsible for what they make of themselves. Kierkegaard and Nietzsche are
considered as the Fathers of Existentialism.

The Future of Philosophy

The future of philosophy is bound up with the human being’s intellectual life. There is no
reason why philosophy should cease. Only an unreflective person could say that philosophy is
now ready for retirement. Philosophical reflection will cease only when human beings cease to
think.

The Branches of Philosophy

1. Aesthetics. A philosophical study of the beautiful, it establishes the criteria of beauty.

2. Cosmology or Philosophy of Nature. It is a philosophical study of the physical world and the
final principles of material beings.
3. Epistemology. This deals with human knowledge, and focuses on truth.
4. Ethics. This deals with the principles and laws governing the morality of human acts and the
nature of moral judgments.
5. Ontology or General Metaphysics. This studies beings in general, the different reasons and
principles of the reality of things, or the nature of things (the cause, the substance, and the
ultimate meaning or purpose of things).
6. Philosophy of Man. This philosophy centers on the nature of man.
7. Social Philosophy. This studies the sociality of man, the nature and principles of human
society.
8. Rational Psychology. This studies living beings, the principles of life, the nature of the vital
operations and powers, and their classification. 9. Political Philosophy. An inquiry into the
question concerning the existence of the state.
10.Theodicy or Special Metaphysics. Also known as Natural Theology, this studies the first
cause of contingent beings and of emergent reality, and the Supreme Being. Theology makes use
of the “articles of Faith” obtained through “Divine revelation.” Together with Ethics, Theodicy
differs from Dogmatic and Moral Theology, which use revealed principles; Theodicy and Ethics
employ the light of natural reason.
11. Logic. It is the philosophical science of correct thinking.

REFERENCES

Gabutin, E & Martinez, R. (2013). SIMPLIFIED LOGIC. ISBN: 678-971-9602-05-7.

Andales V. B. (2008). Logic: Towards Critical thinking and Reasoning (3” edition) Ermita,
Manila: Educational Publishing House, pp. 5-17.
Bauzon, P.T. (2009). Logic for Filipinos. Mandaluyong City: National Book Store,
Palmiano, D.A. (2010). Logic Makes Sense. Quezon City: C & E Publishing, Inc., p. 2-7.
Rivas, D.C. & Nael, M.M. (2007). Logic: For Nursing Students and Professionals. Manila: Rex
Book Store, pp. 1-3.