Ec3551 Transmission Lines and RF Systems (Reg-2021)

Page 1 of 443
Syllabus
Anna University, Chennai
TRANSMISSION LINESAND RF SYSTEMS
UNIT I
TRANSMISSION LINE THEORY
General theory of Transmission lines - the transmission line - general solution -
The infinite line - Wavelength, velocity of propagation - Waveform distortion - the
distortion less line - Loading and different methods of loading - Line not
terminated in Z0 - Reflection coefficient - calculation of current, voltage, power
delivered and efficiency of transmission - Input and transfer impedance - Open and
short circuited lines - reflection factor and reflection loss.
HIGH FREQUENCY TRANSMISSION LINES 9
UNIT II
-
Transmission line equations at radio frequencies Line of Zero dissipation
Voltage and current on the dissipation less line, Standing Waves, Nodes, Standing
Wave Ratio - Input impedance of the dissipation less line- Open and short
- -
circuited lines Power and impedance measurement on lines Reflection losses
-
Measurement of VSWR and wavelength.

UNIT II IMPEDANCE MATCHING IN HIGH FREQUENCY LINE
wave line, Half wave
Impedance matching: Quarter wave transformer ,One Eighth
-
line- Impedance matching by stubs- Singie stub and double stub matching Smith
-
chart -
Application of Snmith chart, Solutions of problems using Smith chart
Single and double stub matching using Smith chart.
UNIT IV WAVEGUIDES 9
waves
Waves between parallel planes of perfect conductors- Transverse Electric
waves, Transverse
and Transverse Magnetic waves, Characteristics of TEand TM
and
Electromagnetic waves, TM and TE waves in Rectangular waveguides, TM
TE waves in Circular waveguides.
UNIT V RF SYSTEM DESIGN CONCEPTS
Active RF components: Semiconductor basics in RF, bipolar junction
transistors,
RF field effect transistors, High electron mobility transistors,
Fundamentals of
power dividers, Amplifier
MMIC, Basic concepts of RF design: Filters, couplers,
power relations, Low noise amplifiers, Power amplifiers.
TOTAL: 45 PERIODS
Page 2 of 443
CONTENTS
1.1-1.65
CHAPTER 1: TRANSMISSION LINE THEORY
1.1
1.1. Introduction
1.2
1.2. Transmission Line as Cascadcd T Sections
1.5
1.3. Transmission Line Equation -General Solution
1.4. Physical Significance of the Equation; Infinite Line 1.12
1.5. Wavclength and Velocity of Propagation 1.14
1.6. Waveform Distortion 1.17
1.7. The Distortionless Line 1.18
1.8. Loading of Lines 1.20
1.8.1. Types of Loading 1.21
1.8.2. Inductance Loading of Telephone Cables 1.22
1.9. Reflection 1.25

1.9.1. Reflection Coefficient 1.26
1.9.2. Reflection Factor and Reflection Loss 1.27

1.10. Input Impedancc and Transfer Impedance of Transmission Line 1.31
1.11. Open Circuited and Short Circuited Lines 1.34
1.12. Insertion Loss 1.36
SOLVED PROBLEMS
1.39
TWO MARK QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS
1.55
SUMMARY
1.62
EXERCISE
1.64
CHAPTER 2: HIGH FREQUENCY TRANSMISSION LINES

2.12.29
2.1. Transmission Lines at Radio Frequencies
2.1
2.2. Parameters of the Open Wire Line and Coaxial Cable
2.1
Page 3 of 443
Transmission Lines and Waveguides
C.2
2.3. Line Constants for Zero Dissipation 2.3
2.4. Voltages and Currents on the Dissipationless Line 2.4
2.5. Standing Waves 2.6
2.6. Standing Wave Ratio 2.8
2.7. Input Impedance Dissipation Line 2.10

2.8. Power and Impedance Measurement on Lines 2.11
2.9. Reflection Losses on the Unmatched Line 2.13

2.10. Measurement of VSWR and Wavelength 2.14
SOLVED EXAMPLES 2.16
TWOMARK QUESTIONS AND ANSIVERS 2.26
SUMMARY 2.27
EXERCISES 2.29
CHAPTER 3: IMPEDANCE MATCHING IN HIGH FREQUENCY LINESi 3.1-3.98

3.1. Impedance Matching 3.1
3.1.1. One Eighth Waveline 3.1
3.1.2. Quarter Waveline (Quarter Wave Transformer) 3.3
3.1.3. Half-Wave Line 3.5
3.2. Stub Matching 3.5
3.2.1. Single Stub Matching 3.6
3.2.2. Double Stub Matching 3.13
3.3. Circle Diagram 3.14
3.4. Smith Chart
3.22
Smith Chart - Stub
Matching- Single Stub Matching 3.29
Double Stub Matching
3.31
SOLVED EXAMPLES
TWO MARK QUESTIONS 3.34
AND ANSWERS
EXERCISES 3.92
3.96
Page 4 of 443
4.1. Electromagnetic Waves between Parallel Planes 4.
Transverse Electric Waves 4.

4.2.
4.10
4.3. Transverse Magnetic Waves
4.13
4.4. Characteristics of TE and TM Wavcs
4.18
4.5. Transverse Electromagnetic Waves
4.6. Velocities of Propagation 4.20
4.7. Wave Impedances 4.21
4.8. Rectangular WaveGuide 4.24
4.9. Transverse Magnetic Waves (TM) in Rectangular Waveguides 4.28
4.10. Transverse Electric Waves in Rectanguiar Waveguides 4.33
4.11. Characteristics of TE and TM Waves 4.40
4.11.1. Dominant Mode 4.43
4.12. Impossibility of TEM Waves in Waveguides 4.47
4.13. Wave Impedance 4.47
4.14. Circular Waveguides 4.53
4.14.1. Bessel Functions 4.53
4.14.2. Field Equations in Circular Waveguide 4.55
4.14.3. TM Waves in Circular Waveguide 4.60
4.14.4. TE Waves inCircular Waveguide 4.62
4.14.5..Wave Impedance 4.63
4.14.6. Excitations of Modes in Circular Waveguides 3 4.65
SOLVED PROBLEMS 4.67
TWOMRK QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 4.145
SUMMARY 4.156
EXERCISE 4.163
C.4 Transmission Lines andPage 5 of 443
RF Systens
Chapter 5: RF System Design Concepts 3.1 -5.81

5.1 Active RF Components 5.1
5.2 Semiconductor Basics 5.1
5.2.1 p-n junction 5.5
5.2.2 Schottky Contact 5.11
5.3 Bipolar Junction Transistor 5.14
5.4 RF Field Effect Transistor (FET) 5.23
3.5 High Electron Mobility Transistor (HEMT) 5.27
5.6 Low Noise Amplifier (LNA) 5.31

5.6.1 Bipolar LNA 5.31
5.6.2 Two Stage LNA 5.32
5.6.3 Cascode CMOS LNA 5.33
5.7 Power Amplifier 5.34

5.8 Fundamentals of MMIC 5.37
5.8.1 Introduction 5.37
5.8.2 Types of MICs 5.38
5.8.3 Monolithic Microwave Integrated Circuits (MMIS) 5.39
5.8.4 MICs Materials (or) MMICs Materials 5.40
5.9 Basic Concepts of RF Design 5.42
5.9.1 Filters 5.42
5.9.2 Couplers 5.54

5.10 Amplifier Power Relations 5.62
5.11 Solved Examples 5.67
5.12 Two Mark Questions 5.70
and Answers
5.13 Review Questions 5.80
Solved Anna University
Question Papers SQ.1 - SQ.35
Page 6 of 443
TRANSMISSION LINE THEORY

1.1. INTRODUCTION
The transfer of energy from one point to another takes place through either wave
guides or transmission lines. Transmission lines always consist of atleast two separate
conductorsbetween which a voltage can exist, but the wave guides involve only one
conductor; for example, a hollow rectangular or circular waveguide within which the
wave propagates. Transmission lines are a means of conveying power from one point
to another. There are two types of commonly used transmission lines.
1. Parallel wire (balanced) line
2. Coaxial (unbalanced) line
Parallel wire line: It is a common form of transmission line known as open wire
line as shown in Fig.1.1(a). It is employed where balanced properties are required.
Telephone lines, line connecting between folded dipole antenna and TV receiver are
good examples of parallel or balanced or open wire line. The parallel wire lines are
not used for microwave transmission.
Coaxial line: Coaxial lines consist of inner and outer conductor spacers of
dielectric as shown in Fig.1.1(6). It is used when unbalanced properties are needed, as
in the interconnection of a broadcast transmitter to its grounded antenna. It is
employed at UHF and microwave frequencies.
Outer conductor
Inner conductor
Outer casing
Conductors
4 Outer casing
Dielectric
() Parallel wire (balanced) line (b) Coaxial (unbalanced) line

Fig. 1.1. 'Transmission lines
Page 7 of 443
1.2 Transmission Lines and RF Systems
1.2. TRANSMISSION LINE AS CASCADED T SECTIONS

can be considered to be
To study the behaviour of transmission line., a transmission
as in
made up of a number of identical symmetrical T sections connected in series
Fig.1.2. If the last section is terminated with its characteristic impedance, the input
input
impedance at the first section is Zn Each section is terminated by the
impedance of
the following section.
Z{/2 Z{/2
.Z2 Zo
Fig. 1.2. A
lineof cascaded T sections
The characteristic imnpedance for a T section is
Zor 1+ 4 Z
If 'n' number ofT sections are cascaded and if the sending and receiving currents
are Iç and I respectively, then
ls = IR e"
where y is the propagation constant for one T section.
Y= a+jß
NN
e? = eatJF = 1 +
2 Z2 1+ 4 Z2
One T section representing an incremental length Ax

of the line has a series
impedance Z, = Z Ax and 1
shunt impedance Z2 The characteristic
Y Ax
impedance of any smallT section
is that of the line as a whole.
1t 4 ZL
Page 8 of 443
Transmission Line Theory 13|
Substituting the values of Z, and Zz

YAx
Zo = / Z Ax |1+2Ax
Y Ax 4
ZY (Ax)
4
If Ax tends to zero, then Z, becomes,

= N
Z,
Vz)-yE: 1+ 4
+
4
By the binomial theorem,
1+ 4 Z
Z,2
4 Z2 +...
e
Substituting this value in equation,
eY = 1+ 1+ 4 Z2
2 Z
=: 1 +
+22
+
128
2
= | +
When applied to the incremental length of line Ax, then Z =Z Ax, Zy = y Aw
and propagation constant becomesy Ax,

1 (V ZY
³(Ax)³ 128 (Ax)s
=
1+\ZY AxtN ZY ) (Ax2 +ZY
Series expansion for an exponential eYx is
y² (Ax)2
eY4x = 1+yAx + 2! 3!
Page 9 of 443
1.4| Transmission Lines and RF Systems
Equating the above two expressions,

ZY (Ax)
+
= yAx +
2
+
6 t...
y² Ax y° (Ax)?
+ 6
2
= + ZY2 ( ZY) (Ar)?
V2Y Ax +
If Ax tends to zero then,

Y =yZY
This is the value of propagation constant in terms of Z and Y.
Since each conductor of transmission line has a certain length and diameter, it
must have resistance and inductance; moreover the two conductors are separated by a
dielectric medium (say, air), therefore there must be a capacitance between them.
This dielectric between theconducting wires may not be perfect, and hence a leakage
current will flow creating leakage (shunt) capacitance between the conductors. These
(G),
four parameters resistance (R), inductance (L), capacitance (C) and conductance
all distributed along the lines are known as distributed parameters. The equivalent
circuit diagram of transmission line is shown in Fig.1.3.
L L R L R L R
G G
(5 :c G
Fig. 1.3. Equivalentcircuit diagram of transmissionline
The four line parameters resistance (R), inductance (L), capacitance (C) and
conductance (G) are also known as prinaryconstants of the transmission line.
Resistance (R) is defined as the loop resistance per unit length of the transmissiou
line. It is measured in ohms/km.
Page 10 of 443
Transmission Line Theory 1.5|
Inductance (L) is defined as the loop inductance per unit length of the transmission
line. It is measured in Henries/km.
Capacitance (C) is defined as the shunt capacitance per unit length between the
two transmission lines. It is measured in Farads/km.
Conductance (G) is defined as the shunt conductance per unit length oetween the
two transmission lines. It is measured in mhos/km.
1.3, TRANSMISSION LINE EQUATION- GENERAL SOLUTION
Transmission line is conductive I+ dI

method of guiding electrical energy from L R L R
One place to another. A uniform 000
transmission line can be considered to be

made up of an infinite numnber of T V+ dV G
sections, each of infinitesimal size dx. The

equivalent circuit of T section of
dx
transmission line is shown in Fig.1.4.
Equivalent circuit of T section of Transmission line

Fig. 1.4.
The parameters R, L, G and are distributed throughout thetransmission line. The

C
constants of an incremental length dx of a line are shown in Fig.1.4. The series

are given by
impedance per unit length and shunt admittance per unit length
Z = R+joL
Y = G+joC
Consider a T section of transmission line of length dx. Let V+ dV be the voltage
and I + dI be the current at one end of T section. Let V be the voltage and I be the
Current at the other end of this section.
The series impedance of a small section dx is (R +jLo) dx. The shunt admittance
ofthis section dx is (G+jCo) dx.
The voltage drop across the series impedance of T sections i.e., the potential
difference between the two ends of T section is
V+ dV -V= I (R+joL) dx
Page 11 of 443
|1.6 Transmission Lines and RF Systems
dV = I(R+joL) dx
dV = I
dx
(R+joL) ...(1.1)
dV =
dx IZ
The current difference between the two ends of T section is due to the voltage
drop
across the shunt admittance.

I+ dl -I = V(G +joC) dx
=
dI V
(G+joC) dx
dI = V
.. (1.2)
(G+joC)
dx
dI VY
dx
Differentiating equation (1.1) w.r.t. 'x,
dI
dx2
(R+joL) dx
dI
Substituting the value of dx in the above equation
... (1.3)
dx2
= (R +joL) (G+joC) V
Differentiating equation (1.2) w.r.t. 'x

= dV
dx2 (G+joC) dx
dy above equation
Substituting the value of dx in the
... (1.4)
= (R +joL)(G +jaoC) I
Butpropagation constant is given by

Y = V (R+joL) (G +joC) =yZY
Substituting the value of y
in equation (1.3) and (1.4),
then dy2 =y2V

Page 12 of 443
Transmission Line Theory 1.7

= y2I
dx
Thesolutions of the abov linear differential equations are
... (1.5)
V=
A
e+B e*.
...
I= C e+ DeY* (1.6)
where A, B, C
and D are aroitrary constants.
Differentiating the equation (1.5), w.r.t. 'x'
dx =Ay e-By e*
But dx = IZ
IZ = Ay eY*- Bye*
e-VzYx
= AyzY eVZYx -BZY ["y=zY]
= -VzY* ... (1.7)
I A1 -B1
Similarly, differentiating the equation (1.6) w.r.t. 'x
dI = Cye-Dy e *
dx
dI =
But V
dx
e
VY = Cye-Dy
e-V2Yx
= CyZY eZY* -DyzY
cV ei-D eVzYx .. (1.8)
Since the distance x is measured from the receiving end of the transmission line.
x=0, I= IR.
V= VR
where I, is the current in the receiving end of line

lines
V is the voltage across the receiving end of the
Z is the impedance of receiving end
Page 13 of 443
Transmission Lines and RF Systems

1.8
(1.6), (1.7) and (1.8).
Substituting this condition in equations
(1.5),
V, = AA+B
. (1.9)
... (1.10)
IR =.C+D
-B/ ...(1.11)
... (1.12)
VR =
To solve these equations,
Then
Let
x=
IR
V
A B
and - N
(A-B)
But Ip= C+D
1
= (A- B)
C+D
Cx+ Dx = A–
B
(1.13)
A-B = Cx+ Dx
Similarly, equation (1.12) becomes,
Vp = Cx-Dx
But Vp = A + B
... (1.14)
A+B = Cx-Dr
= Cx+ Dx •.. (1.13)
A–B
Adding the equations (1.13)and (1.14),
2A = 2Cx
A'= Cx
Similarly subtracting the equation (1.13) from equation (1.14),
2
B=-2Dx
B = -Dx
Page 14 of 443
Transmission Line Theory |1.9
Substituting the values of A and B in the following equations.

VR =A+B
= Cx-Dx
But I = C+D
Ip X = Cx+Dx
... (1.15)
= Cx-Dx ... (1.16)
VR
Adding the equations (1.15) and (1.16),

2Cx = IRx+ VR
VR ... (1.17)
C = +
2 2x
X=
.:.C =
Subtracting the equations (1.15) and (1.16),

2
-VR
2 V
2 Dx = Ipx-VR
VR
D = 2 2x
.. D = IR2 2
... (1.18)
But A = Cx
VR
A = 2 2
..
A = 2 2 *.. (1.19)
-
B= Dx
B= 2
... (1.20)
Page 15 of 443
The characteristic impedance is defined asta o
titat
Z, =
N
R+joL
G+joC
.. (1.21)
(1.18),
Substituting the value of Z, in equations (1.19), (1.20), (1.17) and
A = 2
+
2VYstA
VR
A = 2 2ZR
A =
.. (1.22)
B= 2 2
VR
2 2 ZR N
... (1.23)
B= 2
VR
C= +
2 2
2 + 2z,
... (1.24)
D= 2 2
D --
=
2
2
2 Z,
... (1.25)
Page 16 of 443
Substituting the values of A, B, C andD in equations (1.5) and (1.6), the solutions
of the differential equations are
V= ){-) 1+ ZR 2
... (1.26)
I
-),-2)-.
= ... (1.27)
(1.28)
V= eNY+|1-esley.
1-4-1-)
I
VzY* te(129)
After simplification,
V& NZY x Zo eVzYx eVzY_Ve VzYx
V
=
2 +Ze
2 ZR
+
2 2 ZR e
I=
eVzYx,
e
VzYx R ZR eVzYx
2 2 Z, 2 Z,
VZYx +e-VZYx
V = Vp 2 2
NZY* +e-VzY* VR eVZYx e-VzYx

I =lR + 2
2
Then equations can be written in terms of hyperbolic functions.

... (1.30)
V = VR cosh yZY x+I Z, sinh yzY
VR x ...
I
=
I; cosh yZY x + Zo
sinh yzY (1.31)
a transmission line at any

These are the equations for voltage and current of
distance 'x° from the receiving end of transmission line.
The equations for voltage and current at the sending send ofa transmission line of
length are given by
VR VR
V;
=
V cosh yZY I + ZR Z, sinh yZYI ZR
Page 17 of 443
1.12| Transmission Lines

and RF Systems
I, = I, cosh yZY I + sinh yZYI
V, - Va cosh y/ZY /+ sinh y ZY

|
I
..(1.32)
I, == I cosh y ZY I + sinh yzY I i ... (1.33)
1.4 PHYSICALSIGNIFICANCE OF THE EQUATION; INEINITE LINE
Input impedance:
The equations for voltage and current at the sending end of a transmission line of
length 7' are given by
V, - Valcosh yZY I I + , sinh y ZY
I) ... (1.32)
y
sinh y ZY I
.. (1.33)
Iç =
IR cosh ZY 1+ Zo
The input impedance of the transmission line is,

Vs
Zs Is
Zo
VRcosh y ZY l + sinh y ZY /
Giot.
IR cosh y ZY I+
1+ sinh y ZY 1
IR Zgcosh y ZY I + sinh y ZY
1|
cosh y
ZY 1+ R sinh yZY I
Zo (ZR cosh / ZY l+, sinhy ZY I) ...(1.34)
=
Z (Z, coshy ZY 1+ Z sinh ZY I)
Let V ZY = Y
Page 18 of 443
The input impedance of the line is

ZR cosh yl+ Z, sinh y!
Z = Z
Zo cosh yl+ sinh ylZ
ZR+ Z, tanh yl
Zs = Zo
or Z+Z, tanh y
In a different form, the equations for voltage and current at transmitting end of a
line is given by equations (1.23) and (1.24),
V, =
Zo
)eVzYI (1-)m] ... (1.28)
1,-l(2),1-2)] ... (1.29)
(Z,+Z0 VzYI
Or
+
levzr
ZR-Z ... (1.35)
Or
V,
-( ZR
+ Z + Zo
Is 2
e zYI .. (1.36)
The input impedance of the transmission line is given by,

eVzY Z-Zo o-VZYI
= Lo
Z+ Zo. [: V=IR Z]... (1.37)
Ig eVzY ZR- Zo
-
Let y ZY =

(ZR-Zo le-r!
eY' + Z + Zo ...
(1.38)
Zs = Zo Z-Zo er!
-
ZRt Zo
Page 19 of 443
1.14| Transmission Lines and RF Systen
If the line is terminated with its characteristic impedance i.e., ZRZ then t
input impedance becomes equal to its characteristic impedance.
Zs = Z
an infinite line is determined by letting o.
Theinput impedance of
.:. = Z,
Z
impedanc
It is found that a line of finite length, terminated with its characteristic
appears to the transmitting end generator as an infinite line. A finite line terminate
source.
with Znand an infinite line are same by measurements at the
ZR-Zo
If K = then
er +Ke-r! ... (1.39

Le -Ke-Y!
1.5. WAVELENGTH AND VELOcITY OF PROPAGATION
The propagation constant () and characteristic impedance (Z,) are calle

secondary constants of a transmission line.
Propagation constant is usually a complex quantity.
Y= a+jß
where a is the attenuation constant.
B is the phase shift.
Y=V2Y
where Z = R+joL
Y = GtjoC
a
The characteristic impedance of the transmission line is also complex quantity.
R+joL ... (1.40)

Zo
=1G+joC
Propagation constant is Y = +iß
V(R+joL) (G +joC)
Page 20 of 443
. + iß = VRG– a2LC +jo(LG + RC) ... (1.41)
Squaring on both sides,

(a +jß)= RG oLC +jo(LG + RC)
... (1.42)
a²- ß2 +2j aß = RG- o2LC +ja (LG + RC)
Equating real parts,
B2 = RG- o2LC
2–
...
a? = B2 + RG- 0'LC (1.43)
.Equating imaginary parts,

2 aß = (LG + RC)
o

4 a2 B2 = 02 (LG + RC)
(LG + RC²
4
Substituting the value of a

[eqn.(1.43)] in the above equation,
(B2+ RG- a²LC) B2 = (LG + RC)?

4
B4 + B2 (RG– o2LC) - (LG + RC)² = 0

4
The solution of the quadratic equation is

(RG 02LC) # (RG- o2LC)2 + o2 (LG +RC)2
–
By neglecting the negative values,

+
. B = o2LC- RG+V(RG- oLC)?+ o2 (LG RC)2 ... (1.44)
a? = B2 + RG - 02LC ...(1.37)
equation,
Substituting the value of B [eqn.(1.44)] in the above
–
RG +VRG 02LC)2 o2 (LG RC)2
+ +
o2LC- + RG- o2LC
g2 = 2
Page 21 of 443
LC)2 + o2 (LG + RC)2
RG– o2LC +/ (RG-
2
+ RC)2
(RG oLC?+ o² (LG
–
RG – o2LC + ... (1.45)
2
0 and G 0,
For a perfect transmission line R=
B2 = 2LC
.:. B = o V LC [only positive value
Velocity:
The velocity of propagation is given by,
v = 2f
2nf
2T
2Tt
[:: and o =2n f
Substituting the value of ß = o LC
V=
o VLC
1
an ideal line.
Thisis the velocity of propagation for
Wavelength:
wave along the line while the phase angle
The distance travelled by the
wavelength.
changing through 2 radians is called
B = 2T
2
= Or
B f
Page 22 of 443

6 WAVEFORM DiSTORTION
16
Signal (e.g., voice) transmitted over a transmission line is normally complex and
consists of many frequency compoents. Such voice voltage will not have all
frequencies transmitted with equal attenuation and equal time delay, the received
waveform will not be identical with the input waveform at the sending end. This
variation is known as distortion. There are two types of waveform distortions. They
are frequency distortion and delay distortion.
Frequency Distortion: A complex (voice) voltage transmited on a transmission

line will not be attenuated equally and the received waveformn will not be identical
as frequency
with the input waveform at the transmitting end. This variation is known
distortion.
The attenuation constant is given by
– LC)2 + o2 (LG + CR)2
RG– o2LC +VRG
2
a is a function of frequency and therefore the line will introduce frequency

distortion.
an applied voice-voltage wave the received
Delay or Phase Distortion: For
waveform may not be identical with the input waveform at the sending end, since
some frequency components will be delayed more than those of other frequencies.
This phenomenon is known as delay or phase distortion.
The phase constant is

-
o2LC-RG +V(RG oLC)? + 2 (LG + CR)?
2
B is not a constant multiplied by 0 and therefore the line will introduce delay
distortion.
quality over wire lines
Frequency distortion is reduced in the transmission of high
by the use of equalizers at the line
terminals.
to voice and music transmission.
Delay distortion is of relatively less importance use of
But it can be very serious for video transmission.
This can be avoided by the
co-axial cables.
Page 23 of 443
Transmission Lines ánd RF Systeme

1.18
1.7. THE DISTORTIONLESS LINE

factor o
If a line is to have neither frequency nor delay distortion, then attenuation
and the velocity of propagation v cannot be functions of frequency.
If
B must be a direct function of frequency.
oLC- RG +VRG
–
0²LC)2 + ² (LG + CR)2
2
For B to be a direct function of frequency, the term

(RG - 2 LC)2 + o2 (LG + CRY² must be equal to (RG + o² LC)?
R2G2 + o4L2 C2 -2 a2LORG + 02L2 G² + a2 C2 R2 + 2 o2LCRG
= R2G2 + o4 L2 C2 + 2 a2LCRG
o2 L2 G2 + o2 C2 R2 = 2 o2LCRG
2L2 G2 + o2 C2 R2 -22 LCRG = 0

(LG–CR)² = 0
LG = CR
R
LC
This is the condition for distortionless line.
Propagation constant y = V (R+joL) (G+joC)
R -
But
oLC-RG + RG+ oLC

Then B= 2
Page 24 of 443
2 o?LC
2
B = ovLC
Velocity of propagation is B
This is the same velocity for all frequencies, thus eliminating delay distortion.
Attenuation factor
RG- o2 LC +V(RG – 02LC)2 + o² (LG + CR)?

2
Tomake a is independent of frequency, the term (RG- a²LC)2 + o² (LG + CR)?

is forced to be equal to (RG + o2LC)2
(LG –CR)2 = 0
LG = CR
To
This will make and the velocity independent of frequency sinmultaneously.
a
is small.
achieve this condition, it requires a very large value of sinceG
L,
RG – 02LC +V(RG + o²LC?

The attenuation factor C 2
RG- 02 LC+ RG + o2 LC
2
2 RG
2
.O=
VRG
distortion on the line.
lt is independent of frequency, thus eliminating frequency
The characteristic impedance Z, is given by
R+joL
G+joC
Page 25 of 443

1.20
Ljo
R for distortionless line.

But L
Z, =
It is purely real and is independent of frequency.
1.8. LOADINGOF LINES

in a
It is necessary to increase L/C ratio to achieve distortionless condition
a
transmission line. This can be done by increasing the inductance of transmissior
as
line. Increasing inductance by inserting inductances in series with line is termed
as
loading and such lines are called loaded lines. The lumped inductors, knovwn
loading coils are placed at suitable intervals along the transmission line to increase
the effective distributed inductance.
The effect of loading can be realised by comparing the unloading of a transmission
a
line in the attenuation Vs frequency graph. Fig.1.5 shows that the loaded line offers
low attenuation when compared to the unloaded line only for limited range of
frequencies.
Unloaded
Attenuation
(a) Lumped loaded
.Continuously loaded
Frequency )
Fig. 1.5. Conparison of loaded and unloaded cable characteristics

Page 26 of 443
The important aspect of loading coil design is that saturation and stray fields
should be avoided. It should have a low resistance and should be in small size. In
general toroidal cores are used for loading coils.
1.8.1. Types of Loading

The open wire lines have more inductance of their own and so have much less
distortion than cable. Therefore, the loading practice is not applicable to open wires
but it is restricted to cables only. There are three types of loading in practice. They are
(a) Lumped loading

(b) Continuous loading
(c) Patch loading
(a) Lumped loading: The inductance of a transmission line can be increased by the
introduction of loadingcoil at uniform intervals. This is called lumped loading. It acts
as a low pass filter. So, it is applicable only for a limited range of frequency. The
loading coils have an internal resistance R thus, increasing the total effective.
inductance increases R. Further hysteresis and eddy current losses which occur in the
a
loading coils resulting in further apparent increase in R. Therefore, there is practical
limitation on the value of inductance that can be increased for the reduction of
attenuation. Thus the loading coil should be carefully designed so that it will not
introduce any distortion.
some other magnetic material is wound

(b) Continuous loading: A type of iron or
on the transmission line (cable) to increase the permeability of the surrounding
medium and thereby increase the inductance. It is a quite expensive method, Further
eddy current and hysteresis losses in the magnetic material increases the primary
constant R. Therefore, continuous loading is used only on ocean cables where lumped
loading is difficult. The advantage of continuous loading
over lumped loading is that
attenuation factor a increases uniformly with increase in frequency.
(c) Patclh loading: It employs sections of continuously loaded cable
separated by
a
Sections of unloaded cable. The typical length for the section is normally quarter
Kilometer. In this method the advantage of continuous loading is obtained and the cost
1S
reduced considerably.
Page 27 of 443
1.8.2. Inductance Loading of Telephone Cables

Distortionless line with distributed parameters is used to avoid the frequency and.
necessary to increase the L/C to
delay distortion experienced on telephone cables. It is
L that the inductance be
achieve distortionless condition C G Heaviside suggested
by lumped
increased and Pupin suggested that this increase in the inductance
use of inductance is called loading
inductors spaced àt intervals along the line. This
the line. The distributed loading is obtained by winding the
cable with a high
some submarine cables.
permeability steel tape such as permalloy in
Consider an uniformly loaded cable with G =0. Then,
Z = R+joL
Y = joC [:G=0j
Z = VR2+ (Lo)² tan-1 Lo

R
R2+(Lo)? - tan-! LoR

Propagation constant y = VZY
R2+ (Lo - tan-! LoR
oCR2+ (Lo) n: - tan-! LoR
(oC) (Lo)7 1+
R2
tan-! R
(Lo)? 2 Lo
R2 1 R
VLC tan-l
Lo
Lo
R.
Since R is small with respect to Lo, the term Lo is neglected.
y 1R
tan-;
rsbi. 0VLC Z|-; Lo
Page 28 of 443
Transmission Line Theory |1.23
If 0 = -
2
tan! R
Lo
cOs .= cos-
cos 2
R
2 tan-1 Lo
R
= sin tan-l
Lo
For small angle, sin tan 9 s
so that Cos = R
2 Lo
sin(5- 12 R
Similarly, sin sin
tan-1 Lo
Propagation constant y = o V LC (cos 0 +j sin )
= ) VLC +j
2 Lo
RyLC
Y= 2L +jo y Lc
-VE R
2
+jo y LC
.. a =
Attenuation constant
Phase-shift B = o LC
1
=
Velocity of propagation y VLC
are both
It is noted that if G = 0 and Lo >> R, the attenuation and velocity
may
Independent of frequency and the loaded cable will be distortionless. Attenuation
be reduced by increasing L. Continuous (uniform) loading is expensive and achieves
Only a smallincrease in L per unit length. Lumped loading is preferred for
cables.
Campbell's Equation
An analysis for the performance of a line loaded at uniform
intervals can be
obtained by considering a symmetrical section of line from the centre of one loading
Page 29 of 443
1.24
Transmission Linesand RF Systems
The section of line may be replaced with an

coil to the centre of the next coil.
symmetrical series arms as shown in Fig.1.6. The series
equivalent T section having
arm of T section including loading coil is given by
Z2 b+ 2 2
[From the fig.!
arm of T section.
where 2 is the series
Loading coils
Z1 Zo
Z1
2
2
two lumped loading coils

part ofa line between
Fig. 1.6. Equivalent T section for w|NNN
= Z, tanh
2 2
tanh
*2 +Z, 2
two loading coils.

where lis the distance between
equivalent T section is
The shunt arm Z, of the
Z sinh y!
For loaded T section

cosh y'!= 1 + Z
2 Z2
2
+Z, tanh 2
= 1 +
sinh yl
cosh yl-1
nl tty asi s0 But tanh sinh yl
Page 30 of 443
Substituting this value in above equation

cosh yl-1
+z, sinh y!
cosh y'l = 1+
sinh yl
2
sinh yl + Z, (cosh yl-1)
= | +
=| +,sinh yl + cosh yl - 1
2 Zo
cosh y'! = 2Z
sinh y/ + cosh yl
This equation is called as Campbell's equation and it is used to determine the

value of y' of a line section consisting of partially lumped and partially distributed
elements. For a cable Z, is capacitance and the cable capacitance and lumped
inductances appear similar to the circuit of the low pass filter. It is found that for
frequencies below cutoff, the attenuation is reduced, but above the cut-off attenuation
is increased (as a result of filter action). In practice, pure distortionless line is
not
obtained by loading, because R and L are to some extent functions of frequency.
a
Eddy current losses are more in these coils. However, there is major improvement
range.
in the loaded cable over the unloaded cable for a reasonable frequency
1.9. REFLECTION:
to the characteristic impedance of
When the load impedance is not equal
transmission line, reflection takes place.
voltage and current on the transmission line are
The expressions for
V = )(-z)|
ZR
J.+(1-).
Page 31 of 443
|1.26 Transmission Lines and RF Systeme
or V= Z
eVzY
2
=
ZR
t Zo ZR-Zo -VzYx
e
2 Z,
.
V=
Vg (ZR+ Z)
erx + Z-Z, e-y*
2 ZR ZR + Z,)
IR (ZRt Z) ZR-Zo e-vx

erx
2Z
-
If the transmission line is not terminated with the characteristic impedance

i.e., ZR # Z, (mismatch) the above expressions for voltage and current exist. I
is
consists of two waves, one is moving in the forward (positive x) direction which
called incident wave and the other is moving in the opposite (negative x) directior
a wave
which is called reflected ray. The term varying withe" represents progressing
decreasing witt
from the sending end towards the receiving end and the amplitude
e a wave progressing from the
increased distance. The term varying with "represents
amplitude with increasec
receiving end towards the sending end, decreasing in
distance.
=
the transmission line is terminated with characteristic impedance i.e., Zp Z
If
current expressions are
(properly matched) then the voltage and
V = V, e
R
I=
is nc
incident wave moves only in forward (positive x) direction. There
The
reflected wave in the opposite direction.
1.9.1. Reflection Coefficient

as the ratio of the reflected voltage to the inciden
Reflectioncoefficient is defined
voltage at the receiving end of the line.
VR
Reflected voltage at load
K= Incident voltage at load Vs
Page 32 of 443
The equation for the voltage of a transmission line is

VR (ZR+ Z,) ZR-Zo
V=2ZR e + Z + Zo le
Vg (ZR+ Z,) VR (ZR-Z) e
2 Ze 2 ZR
The first term (e) represents incident wave, whereas the second term (e )
represents the reflected wave. The ratio of amplitude of the reflected wave voltage to
the amplitude of the incident wave voltage is known as reflection coefficient.
VR (ZR-Z)
2 ZR ZR-Zo
K =
(ZRt Z,) Z+ Zo
2 ZR
K =
It is also defined as in terms of the ratio of the reflected current to the incident
current. But it is negative.
Reflected current at load
-K Incident current at load
If the transmission line is terminated by its characteristic impedance (ZR = Z,), the
reflection coefficient becomes zero.
1.9.2. Reflection Factor and Reflection Loss

Consider a transnmission line with a voltage source Vs and its impedance Z and
load impedance Z, as shown in Fig.1.7. If ZR is not equal to Z, reflection takes
place. The power delivered to the load is less than that with impedance matching.
Reflection results in power loss. This loss is known as reflection loss.
Vs ZR
Fie. 1.7. Transmission line with voltage source Ls and impedance z,

Page 33 of 443

1.28
ZR can be obtained by
Impedance matching between the impedances Z; and
between Zs and Zp. IfI,
inserting an ideal transformer and a phase shifting network
be the currents in the primary and secondary of the transformer respectively,
and I,
the current ratio of the transformer is given by
ZR
proper-transformation ratio and
ZR may be adjusted to-that of Z, by choosing the
current through the source is
phase angle. Z
is the image impedance of Z. The
I, 2 Zs
The current flow in the secondary of the transformer under

image impedance
matching is
Vs
ZR
2Z,
The current in the load impedance Z, without image impedance matching.
|Vsl
|L,| JZ + ZRl
to that which might flow under
The ratio of the current actually flowing in the load
matched condition is known as reflection factor.
|Vsl
+ ZR
I
|Z
-
Z Za 1
|2
Zg + ZR
Page 34 of 443
The reflection factor indicates the change in current in the load due to reflection at
the mismatched junction.
The reflection loss is the reciprocal of the reflection factor in nepers or dB.
1
Reflection loss = ln
Z
+Z
= ln nepers
2Z,ZR
Z + ZR
= 20 log dB
2/Z ZR
are given below.

The equations for voltage and current on a transmission line
VR (ZRt Z,)
V= 2 ZR
IR (ZRt Zo) ZR-Z, ler
I= 2 Zo
ZR-Z
But K=
VR (ZR + Z,)
[eY* + Ke]
Then V = 2 ZR
IR (ZRtZ) - Ke*]
= [e?*
2 Z,
wave with definite
two equations comprise of incident wave and reflected
These
line. The term involving e* is the incident wave
maxima and minima along the wave depends
term inyolving e
is the reflected wave. The reflected
Whereas the
current distributions for open circuit
upon the reflection coefficient. The voltage and
distribution for
conditions are shown in Fig.1.8. It also shows the
and short circuit
POper matching R= Ro
Page 35 of 443
1.30
Transmission Lines
and RF Systemg
Receiving
end
3 2
52 RR=o
4 2 4 4
(a)
52 RR =0
4 2 4 4
(b)
RR= Ro
(c)
Fig. 1.8. Voltages and currents on dissipationless line

(a) Open circuit (b)Short circuit () R= Ro
Page 36 of 443

AD.INPUT IMPEDANCE AND TRANSFER IMPEDANCE OE TRANSMISSION
LINE
Input impedance :
The equations for voltage and current at the sending end of a transmission line of
length 1 are given by
Vs = VR cosh ZY 1 + sinh ZY )
I
Ig
= IR cosh y ZY 1
1+
+
ZY I
sinh yzY )
Vs
Zs
ls
VR cosh zY 1 + Zo sinh y ZY 1
Z
y
IR cosh ZY 1+ sinh ZY 1|
Zo
Zo
Ig ZRcosh
y ZY I+ sinh y ZY
IR cosh / ZY l+ sinh / ZY
Zo (ZR cosh ZY l+ Zo sinhy ZY I)

=
(Zo cosh y
ZY I+ Z
sinh ZY I)
Let v zY = y
The input impedance of the line is
ZR cosh yl + Zo sinh y l
|
= Zo
Zo cosh yl+ Z sinh yl
ZR + Zo tanh yl
Or = Zo |Zo +ZR tanh yl
In a different form, the equations for voltage and current at transmitting end of a
given by equations (1.46) and (1.47),
Page 37 of 443
|1.32 Transnission Lines and RF System
Zo
O.. (146)
Vs 1- ZR
ZR
Is = Zo
+|1 Zo
...(1.47)
ZR-Zo
Or Vs = ZR
-Vz
Is = Zo
+ Zo Z-Zo ... (148
Or Vs = () Z
+ |e-VzI
ZR-Z eVzYI
Is =
The input impedance of the transmission line is given by,

ZR-Zo e-VzYI
+
Vs [: VR=g ZRl
Zg-Zo eVzY
y ZY
Let =Y
(ZR-Zo Je-r!
Zs = Zo
er!
then tha
If the line is terminated with its characteristic impedance ie., Zp =Zo,
input impedance becomes equal to its characteristic impedancc.
Zs = Zo
The input impedance of an infinite line is determined by letting / o.
= Z0
Z
Page 38 of 443
Transmission Line Theory 1,33
Itis found that a line of finite length, ternminated with its characteristic impedance,
appears to the transmitting end generator as an infinite line. finite line terminated
A
an
with Zo and infinite line are same by measurements at the source.
ZR-Z0
If K = Zo+Zoen
then
Zs = eY!+Ke-rl
Zo-Ke|
-Ke-Yl
Transfer impedance:
Transfer impedance is. used to determine the current at the receiving end if voltage
at transmitting end is known. Transfer impedance of a transmission line is defined
as
the ratio of voltage at the sending end (transmitted voltage) to the current at the
receiving end (received current).
Vs
Equation (1.48) becomes

VR (ZRt Zo) (er'+Ke ')
2 ZR
IR (ZR
t Zo) (er' +Ke Y') [:: VR=IR ZRl
2
Vs (er! +Ke-Y)
2
ZRt ZR-Zo
2
boeZetZo er?
( (
= ZR te+Ze-eer!
2 2
= Zp cosh y + Zo sinh y/
er! +er!-= cosh y! and

er. = sinh y l
2 2u
ZR cosh yl+ Zo sinh y!
Z =
=
Page 39 of 443
134|
Transnission Lines and RF System
1.11. OPEN CIRCUITED AND SHORT CIRGUITED LINES
The expressions for voltage and current at the sending end of a transmission liner
length '" are given by
Vs - Vacosh yZY I+ sinh yZY

1|
Iç = IR|cosh \ZY I +
sinh yZY i
The input impedance of a transmission line is given by

Vg
Va cosh ZY i+sinh z¥ !
IR cosh yZY i+sinh yzY
VR Zo (ZR cosh yl + Z, sinh y)

IR ZR (Z, cosh yl+ ZR sinh y)
ZR cosh yl+ Z, sinh yl VR

= Z,
Z, cosh yl+ Z, sinh y!
Zgcosh yl + Z, sinhy
= Zo
Z Z, cosh yl+ ZR sinh yl,
If short circuited, the receiving end impedance iszero.

i.e., ZR = 0
Z, sinh yl
= Z,
cosh yl
Short circuited impedance

Zge=Z, tanh yl
If open circuited, the receiving end impedance is infinite.
i.e.,
Page 40 of 443
Transmission Line Theory

135
Input impedance of transmission line can be written as
cosh yl ++ Z sinh yl
NN
Z cosh yl+ sinh yl
Applying ZR=0
Then cosh yl
Zoc = Lo sinh yl
The open circuited impedance
Zoc = Z, coth y
By multiplying open circuited impedance and short circuited impedances
Zo Ze Z
tanh yl coth yl
= Z
The characteristic impedance is given by
By dividing short circuited impedance by open circuited impedance.
NN Z, tanh y
Z, coth yl
tan²h yl
tanh yl = V Zoe
NN
Y = tanh-l
Page 41 of 443
1.36|
Transmission Lines and
1.12. INSERTION LOSS RFSysten
The insertion of a two port network or

line between a Source and a load m
improve or diminishthe inmpedance match between source
or decrease the power and load. Itmay inctek
delivered to the load resulting
in a positive or negati,
insertion loss due to insertion of the network.
The insertion loss of a line or network is
defined as the number of nepers a
decibels bywhich the current in the load is changed

by the insertion.
Line
Zs or
2 Port
Network
Fig. 1.9. Transmission line with

insertion of
line or network
The insertion loss due to the insertion line or 2
of port network between source an
load in Fig.1.9 can be catculated from
the line equations. If source impedance
not equal to input impedance of line or 2 port (Z)
network, a reflection loss occurs at thd
point. The line or network also may introduce an
attenuation loss. If the loa
impedance (ZR) is not equal to the output impedance
of line or 2 port network,
second reflection loss occurs.
The current at sending end is
=
(Z t Zo Jevayl - ZR -Zo
ZR + Zo e-veyi
Z
-Zo =
Let K and zy =Y
+
IR(ZR Zo
.". l = -Ke']
2
Zo 1
IR = 2I, +
Zoe-Key
Input impedance Ze
=Z.+Ke
- Kel
Page 42 of 443
V
Substituting the value of Zs in I, =
Z,+Zs
Is
Z,+Zo
Ve'-Ke ')
Z, (e -Ke)+Z, (e' +Ke')
Substituting this value in I equation,
2V(e-Ke') 1
Z, (e -Ke)+ Z, (e' + Ke ) ZR t Z
e" -Ke-r!
2Z, V
(Za +
Z) [Z,(e -Ke-yl)+Zo (e! +Ke')
2 Z, V
e
(ZR + Zo) (Z, +Z,) e" + (ZR -Z,) (Z -Z)
If generator and load are directly connected without transmission line, the load
current I is
R
V
IR Z,+ ZR
Insertion loss can be calculated from load current ratio i.e., the ratio of load
Current withou line to the load current with line.
The ratio of| is
(Zg + ZR)
2 Z,V
[(Z + Zo) (Z, Z,) e"
+ +(ZR -Z,) (Z- Zz)e']
(Z + Z) (Z,+ Z)
e
e+Z, (Z,
2
(Zo-Z) (Z
+ZR)
-Z) e-al e
JB?
Page 43 of 443
Transmission Lines and RF System

|1.38
e-c term is neglected
If a is large or, the transmission line is sufficiently long,
e
(2R + Z)(Z,+ Z4) e' B
E) 2 Z, (Z, + ZR)
Multiplying numerator and denominator by 2 /Z,, ZR
e
2|2, Z) (Z, + Zo)
ZR (ZR +
IR 42,ZR Z, (Z,+Z)
Taking absolute values and rearranging
ZR
T'
|2,+Z,1 |2+Zo| 2/ Z,
R - Zo |2,+Z |
2
Z Zo
2/Z
2 Z,
Z,
= ke is the reflection factor at the source.
First term |Z,+Z,|
2 Z Zo
= kp is the reflection factor at the load.
Second term |Z + Zo
Third term
2Z,ZR = kep is the reflection factor if the generator
|Z,+ZR|
directly connected to the load without transmissi
line.
transmission line.
Fourth term eal is the loss in the
ksR
eal
IR kgkg
The insertion loss is obtained by taking the

logarithm of current ratio
1 + al
Insertion loss in nepers = ln, + In
kR ln ksR
Insertion loss in dB = 20 log 1 +

-+ 1
ksR
+ 8.68 al
Page 44 of 443
SOLV =
has R = 10 ohm /km, L 0.004
open wire telephone line
Example 1.1| An ohm/km. Determine its
Z., a and ß
and G= 04 x1o
Hl. C= 0.008 x 10 Fkm,
KHle.
atl
Solution: Series impedance,
Z = R+joL
= 10+i2 x 3.14 x 1000 0.004
>x
= 10 +j25.12
S2
Z = 27.04Z68.3°
Similarly, shunt admittance
=
Y G +joC
x x 0.008 x 10
= 0.4x 10+j2x3.14 1000
= [0.4 +j50.24] x 100
Y = 50.24 x 10Z89.54° S
Characteristic impedance, Zo =
27.04 Z 68.3°
50.24 x
10Z89.54°
27.04 68.3° -89.54°
V 50.24 x 10-6 2
= 0.7336 x
10° 2-10.62°
=
733.6 Z-10.62°
ohmns
Z, = 721.03-j135.2
y = ZY
Propagation constant
Z68.3° x 50.24 89.54°
x
= 27.04 10Z
68.3° + 89.54°
=
V
27.04 x 50.24 x 106 2
= 36.85 × 10 Z78.920
0.0368 Z
78.92°
y= 0.007 +j0.0361 per km
Page 45 of 443
1.40| Transmission Lines and RF Systemt
Therefore, the attenuation constant is

a =
0.007 neper/km [:y=a+iß]
and the phase constant is B =0.0361 radians/km
Example 1.2 The characteristic impedance of a uniform transmission line i

2000 ohm at frequency of 1 KHz. At this frequency the propagation constant wa
found tobe 0.054 Z60° Determine the values of line constants R, L, Gand C.
Solution: It is given that Z = 2000 ohms, y=0.054 Z 60°
and o = 2f
= 2x3.14 ×
1000 = 6280
0 = 6280
It is known that, R+joL = YxZ
= 0.054 Z60° x 2000 = 108 Z60°
= 54+j93.53 ohms / km
Equating real and imaginary parts, we have
=
R 54 ohms/km
=
oL 93.53
93.53
L = H/km
6280
L = 14.89 mH/km
0.054 Z 60° =
Also, G+joC = 27 x 10 Z60°
2000
=
(13.5 +j23.38)x 10 mhos / km
Equating real and imaginary parts,

G = 13.5 x 100 mhos/km
oC = 23.38 × 10-0
23.38 x 10-6 = 3.723 x 10 F/km

C= 6280
C= 3.723 mF/km
Page 46 of 443

1.41|
Example 1.3 The constant ofa L.F transmission line per km are =
R 6 ohms,
I= 2.2 mH, C 0.005 mE, G= 0.25 x 1o mhos. Calculate at the frequency of
IKHE, () the terminating impedance
for which no reflection will be setup in the line,
G) the attenuation in db suffered by signal at 1 KHz,
while travelling a distance of
100kn when the line is properly
terminated and the phase velocity with which the
signal would travel.
Solution: ()) When the transmission line is terminated by its characteristic
impedance, there is no reflection. Therefore, the terminating
impedance will be Zo
which has to be calculated.
o = 2nf
= 2x3.14 x 1000
0 = 6.28 x 10
Series impedance Z = R+joL
6+j6.28 x 10 x 2,2 x 10-3
= 6+j13.8
Z = 15.04 Z66.5° 2
Similarly shunt admittance,
Y = G +joC
= 0.25 x 10+j6.28 x 10 x 0.005 x 106
= (0.25 +tj31.4) x 10-6
Y = 31.42 x
10Z89.5° s
Characteristic impedance, Z, =
V 15.04 Z 66.5°
31.4 x 10Z89.5°
15.04 66.5°– 89.5°
31:4 x 10-6 2
Z, = 0.692 x 10 -11.50
Z, = 692 -11.5° ohms
=
y = yZY
15.04 Z66.5° x 31.42 x 10 Z89.5°
Page 47 of 443
= V 15.04 x 66.5 + 89.5

3142x 10 Z
2
Y =
21.73 x 10278°
Y = 0.0046 +j0.0215
Since Y = a+jß
a =
0.0046 neper/km
B= 0.0215 radians/km
(a) Attenuation suffered while travelling, 100 km
100 × a. 0.0046=0.46 nepers
= >x
100
0.46 x 8.06 db
= 3.99 db
(b) Phase velocity v, by which the signal would travel
6.28 x 10
Vp =
0.0215
= 2.9 x 10 m/s
Example 1.4| 4 10% voliage drop across 3 km of a unifornly loaded

transmission line terminated by its characteristic impedance and there is a phase
change of 30 ° over the same distance at a frequency of 800 Hz. Find the value o
() the line attenuation indb/km, (ii) the velocily of propagation.
V
Solution : (i) Attenuation in db = 20 logo VR for 3 km
Since voltage drop is 10%

90
100 X
s = 0.9 V,
Vs
.:.
Attenuation in db = 20 log10 0.9 Vs
= 20 log10 10
9
= 20 x 0.0458 = 0.916 db for 3 km
0.916 db/km
For line of 1 km, O = 3
= 0.3053 db/km
Page 48 of 443
(ii) Phase change for 3 kmn = 30°
Phase change/km = 30 = 10°

3
B = 10°
= 10 >x radian
180° radian 18
2T x 800
Verification propagation, vp
18
= 36 x 800
Vp = 28800 km/s
Example 1.5 An open wire line which is 200 km long is properly terminated.
The generator at the sending end has V= 10V,f= lKHz and internal impedance of
500 ohms. A! that frequency Z, of the line is (700 -j100) and y = 0.007 +j0.04 per
km. Determine the sending end voltage, current and power and the receiving end
voltage, current and power.

Solution: V, = 10V, Z,= 500 +j0 ohm
Zs = Z, = (700-j100) ohms
=
|Ig| Z,+ Z,
10
=
500 + 70-j100
10 10
V(1200) + (100) 1204.2
8.3 x = 8.3
|I|= 10A mÁ
+ (100)2
|Vs|=| I, Zg| = 8.3x 10 V (700)
=. 5.869 V
|V|
.e., Average power entering the line,
= (8.3x, 10y x 700

48223 x 10-6
= 48.22 mW
P
Page 49 of 443
|1.44|
1= 200 km
= Vs e +jp)/
It is known that,
V
V e(a
Vgeal
x 200 J0.04 x 200
5.869 xo-0.007
= 1.45 e8
= 1.45Z-8 radians
V
is 1.45 V rms and B=-8radians.
Thus the magnitude of
180
radians into angles,multiply 8 by
To convert 8
VR = 1.45 Z-458.36° V
= 1.45Z-98.36°
V
[:: 458.36 –360°=-98.36°]
ZR = 700 -j100 [:: ZR=Zol
+ 100
V700
= 707 2
1.45
|IR| ZR 707
2.05 mA
|IR|=
terminating load is
The average power absorbed by the
PR = |1R ·RR = (2.05 x 103} x 700
Pp = 2.94 mW
of 20ohns, inductance of I0 mH,
Example 1.6 A telephone line has resistance
the input
capacitance of 0. IuF and insulation resistance of l00 k ohm/kn. Find
very long.
impedance at angular frequency 5000 radian'sec., ifthe line is
Given that, R = 20ohms
mH = 102H
L= 10
1
= 10 ohm
G 100 x 10
= 0.1 x 10-0 = 10-7 F

C= 0.1 uF
o = 5000 radians/sec
Page 50 of 443
1.45
Since the line is very long, it approximates to an infinite line. The input impedance
of an infinite line as explained is the characteristic impedance of the line. Hence Z,
must be found.
Series inpedance, Z = R +joL
= 20+j5000 x 10
=
20+tj50
Z = 53.85 Z 68.2° S2
Shunt admittance, Y = G +joC

= 10 +j5000 x 10 = (10+j500) × 10°
Y = 500 x 1088.9° s
Using this in Z,
53.85 68.2°
500 x
10Z88.9°
V10.77 x 10
68.2°- 88.9°
2
Z, = 328.17 Z- 10.4° ohms
line is terminated by its characteristic impedance. At

A 12 km
a
Example 1.7
certain frequency the voltage at 1 knm from the sending end is 10%
below tht the t
of percentage of the
sending end. Find the voltage across the load impedance interms
sending end voltage.
Since the line is terminated in its Zo it
can be considered as equivalent to an
infinite line. Therefore,

V=
V
eY*
x sending end.
where V is the voltage at a distance km from the
x
lt isgiven that, V=10% less than Vg. That is
=1km,
90 V, =
0.9 Vs
V= Vs
100
Using these values, 0.9 V = Vx e-xl

0.9 = e-Y
When x = 12 km. it follows from the
same equation
V = V e-rx 12
Page 51 of 443
|1.46| Transmission Lines and RF Systems
Since the line is 12 km long V

will be the voltage across the load impedance
Substituting the value of e =0.9in the above expression,
Vs (0.9)
V=
V, = V, x 0.2821
V, = 28.21% of Vg
This V, is 28.21% of the sending voltage V.

a is
Example 1.8| At 8 MHz the characteristic impedance of transmission line
+ per meter. Find the
(40- j2)S2 and the propagation constant is (0.01 j0.18)
primary constants.
O = 2x3.14
x
8 x 100
0 = 50.24 x 10
Given : Z, = 40 -j2, Y=0.01 +j0.18

R+joL = Z, xY
R+joL = (40-j2) x (0.01 +j0.18)
R+joL = 0.76 +j7.18
R= 0:76 ohm/m
oL = 7.18
50.24 x 10° xL = 7.18
7.18
L= 50.24 x 100
L =.0.1429 uH/m
0.18 Z86.82
G +joC =
7. 40 -2.86
= 4.5 x 10 Z 89.06
G+joC =7.38 x 10- +
j449.9 x 10-4
G = 7.38 × 10 mho/meter
oC= 449.9 x 10-4
449.9 x 10-4
C= 50.24 x 106
C = 8.95 × 10 F/m
Page 52 of 443
Transmission Line Theory 147

Axample 1.9 line has R= 10.4 Skm, L = 3.67 mHkm, G = 0.8 x 100 /km
A
C =
nd 0.00835 uF/km. Determine the characteristic impedance, propagation
ooNstant and sending end current
forf= 1000 Hz. E, = 1.0 volts and length
|= 100km.
Data: R= 10.4 S2/km
L= 3.67 mH/km
G= 0.8 x 100 s/km
C = 0.00835 uF/km
j= 1000 Hz; o =2r f= 2 x 1000 = 6283.18

Es = 1V
1= 100 km
=
Series impedance, Z R+joL
10.4 +j6283.18 x 3.67 m
10.4 +j23.05
Z= 25.28 Z65.71 Q
Shunt impedance, Y = G+joC
= 0.8 x 100 +j6283.18 x 0.00835 x 10-6
0.8 x 10+j52.46 x
10
(0.8 +j52.46) 10-6
52.46 x s
=
Y 10Z89.12
V 25.28 Z65.71
52.46 x 10 Z89.12
25.28 65.71° 89.12°
=
52.46 x 10-6 < 2
= 694.18 Z-11.705
= 679.74-j140.8 ohms
Propagation constant, y = VZY
= 25.28 Z65.71 x 52.46 x
100x Z89.12
Page 53 of 443
Transnission Lines and RF Systems
1.48
865.71+ 81.12
V 25.28
>x
52.46 x 10 Z 2
= 0.0364 Z77.415
= 0.0079 +j0.035 per km
yl = 79 +j35
Sending current, Iç =
EEsZo 694.18
1
-11.705
= 1,44 Z11.705 m
telephone cable 64 km long has a resistance
A of 13 kmand a
Example 1.10 |
wavelength
capacitance of 0.008 uF/km. Calculate attenuation constant, velocity and
of line at l1000Hz.
Data: |= 64 km
R= 13 Q/km
C= 0.008
uF/km
1000 Hz; o =
2nf = 2r x 1000 = 6283.18
f=
Series impedance, Z =
R+joL
=
13 tjo(0) = 13
Shunt admittance, Y = G +joC
= j(6283.18 x 0.008) × 10-6
= j50.26 x 106
= 50.26 x 10-6 Z90°
13 Z0
Characteristic impedance, Z, = =
50.26 x 10 Z90
.
13 Z0 0-90
50.26 x 10-0 2
= 508.58 Z45
Propagation constant, y =
= V 13 x 50.26 x 10 x
90
13 x 50.26 x 90 0.0255 Z45
=V 10- Z=2
per
Y=
0.01803 +j0.01803 km
Attenuation constant is a. = 0.01803 neper/km
Page 54 of 443
Phase constant, B = 0.01803 radians/km
Phase velocity, Vp
ß
6283.18 =
Vp0.01803 3.48x 10° km/sec
C x 108
3
= 0.3 m
1000× 10
Example 1.11 transmission line operating at 500 MHz has Zo.= 802
A
2=0.04 Np/m, ß = 1.5 radm. Find the line parameters series resistance R (S2m),
series inductance L (Hm), shunt conductance G (mho/m) and capacitance between
conductors C (F/m).
Data: f= 500 MHz; Z,= 80 2; a= 0.04 Np/m; B = 1.5 rad/m.
R+joL
G+joC
= = V (R +joL) (G +joC)
Y
a+jß
But Z, =
(G+joC) R+joL
y'=
Y= Z,G+joC Z0
Z,G
=
B
oCZo
0.04
G = 80
G = 0.5 x 10 S/m
B 1.5
C
=Zo2rf 50 × 2 × 500 x 10
C = 5.968 pF/m
= 80x 0.5.x 1o-3
R= Z,G
R = 3.2 S2 /m
oL = Z, oC
= 80 x 5.968 × 10-12
L= ZZC
L = 38.2 nH /m
Page 55 of 443
|1.50 Transmission Lines and RF System
constam
Example 1.12A distortionless transmission line has atteuationresistane
0.1 nFm. The characteristic
a= 1.15 x 10 Np/m and capacitance of
the resistance, inductance and conductance per meter of the ling
L/C =502 Find
= 502; a=1.15 x 10 Np/m.
Data:
C = 0.1nF/m
x ×
L'= 50 C = 50 0.1 10
= 250 nH/m
R
A
Condition for distortionless line is
= 2500
G
R= 2500
= VRG V 2500 G?
1.15 x 10- = V 2500 G²
=
G 23 umho/m
x x 10-6
R= 2500G = 2500 23
R= 57.5 m.ohm
li.
wire transmission line is having the following
Exanjle 113 A parallel = 2.59 x 10 2/m), series inductan
resistance (R
parameters at 5 KHZ: series and capacitance between
conducta
conductance (G=0 m)
(L= 2 uH/m), shunt characteristic impedance, attenuation constant a Np/r
the
(C= 5.56 pF/m). Find wavelength.
constant B (rad/m), velocity ofpropagation and
phase shift
f= 5KHz
Given:.
R= 2.59 × 10- Qm
H/m
L= 2 uH/m = 2x 10
G= (
C= 5.56 pF/m = 5.56 x 10-12 F/n
= R+joL
Series impedance Z
x 5x 10 ×2 x 10°
2.59 x 10- 12
+
=
= 2.59 x 10- + j62.83 x 10-3

= 62.88 x 10-3 Z87.64
Page 56 of 443

Shunt admittance Y = G+joC
=0+j2r x 5 x 10 × 5.56 x 10-12
= 0+j174.7 × 10
174.7 x 10-9 Z90°

62.88 x 10- Z87.64°
Characteristic impedance Z, = 174.7 x 10 Z90°
600 Z1.18° 2
Propagation constant y = ZY
= V(62.88 x 10287.64°) (174.7 x 10 Z90°)
= 104.8 × 10- Z88.82o
= 2.158x10-+j104.78 x 100 = a+jß
Attenuation constant o. = 2.158 x 10° Np/m

Phase shift B = 104.78 10- rad/m
x
fngGSring
2T x 5 x 10
Velocity of propagation v 104,78 x 10-6
LIBRAAY
=
2.998 x 10 m/s
Yele
Wavelength =
Araarian,
= 59.96 x 10 m
Example 1.14 A 2
long transmission line with characteristic impedance of
m
60 +j40 Qis operating at (o) 10° rád's has attenuation

constant of0.921 Np/m and
a
phase shift constant of 0 rad/m. If the line is terminated by load of
20 + j50 2
determine the input impedance of this line.
=
(60 +j40) S2
Given: Zo
o = 10 rad/s
a. = 0.921 Np/m
B= 0
ZR = (20 +j50) 2:
m
1=2
y =
a+jß = 0.921 Np/m
= 1.842 Np
yl = 0.921 x 2
tanh y = 0.95
Zo tanh y I Page 57 of 443
Input impedance Zt
Zs= Zo
Lo
Z+Z, tanh yl
(20 +j50) + (60 +j40) 0.957
= (60+j40) (60 + j40) + (20 +j50) 0.95
77 ++j88
(60 +j40)| 79
87.5J
1100 + j8360
79 +j87.5
8432 Z82.5°
117.89 47.92
= 71.52 Z34.58° 2
Example 1.15The characteristic impedance of 805 m long transmission line
94 -23.2° 2 the atteuation constant is 74.5 x 10 Np/m and the phase sh
constant is 174 x 10 rad/m at 5 KHz. Calculate the line parameters R, L, G and
per meter and the phase velocity on the line.
Giveni: Zo = 94 Z-23.2°
a = 74.5 x 10° Np/m
B= 174 ×
10- rad/m
) = 2f = 2Tx 5 x 10° = 31.41 x 10
= 74.5 x 10*0+j174 × 10-0
Propagation constant y = a+jß
= 1.8927 x
10"Z66.8210
R+joL= Z0Y
× 104Z66.821°]
[94 2-23.2°] [1.8927
= 94 x 1.8927 x 10Z66.821°–23.2°
= 177.913Z43.621°
= 128.794 +j122.394
R = 128.794 SQ
o L = 122.7394
(122.394)
L = (31.415 x 10)
3.907 x 10 H
Page 58 of 443

L = 3.907 mH
Also, G+joC =
1.8927 x 10Z66.821°
94 Z-23.2°
1.8927 x 104
L66.821 + 23.2°
94
= 2.01351 x 10Z 90.021
We have G+joC = 2.01351 x 10 90.021
= -7.37989 x 10-1+12.01350 × 10-0
G = -7.3798 x 10 mho/m
o C = 2.01350× 100
2.01350 x 106
C= 31.415 x 103
= 6.40935 × 10 farad
C
=
64.0935 pico farads/m
.. R = 128.794 Q/m
L
=
3.907 mH/m
G= -7.379 x 10 mho/m
C = 64.093 pF/m
31.415 >x 103 =
180545977 m/s
Phase velocity: 174 x 1o-6
of a uniform tranSmission line is
Example 1.16 The characteristic impedance
2309.6 ohms at a frequency of 800 uHz. At this jrequency,
the propagation constant
L.
2S 0.054 (0.0366 + j0.99). DetermineR and
Solution: Z, = 2309.6 ohms

y= 0.054 (0.0366 +j0.99)
= 0.054 (0.9906 Z87.88°) = 0.053 Z87.88°
= Tf 2
= 2x3.14 x 800 x
10
= 50.24 x 10
Page 59 of 443
1.54| Transmission Lines and RF System
R+joL =
y+Z
= 0.053 Z87.88° x 2009.6
= 122,40 Z87.88°
= 4.527 +j122.3 1
Equating real and imaginary parts

R= 4.527 ohms / km
o L = 122.31
122.31
.:.L
=
2.4345 x 10- H/km
50.24 x 108
= 752 and electric leng

Example 1.17| A lossless transmission line with Z,
0.3 is terminated with a complex load impedance of Z, = 40 + j202 Determi
l=
reflection coefficient and VSWR of line.
Given: = 75 Q
ZR = 40 +j20 S2
0.3 2
1=
Reflection coefficient is given by
40-j 20-75
K= 40-j 20+ 75
-35 +j20
115 +j 20
40.3113Z-29. 74°
116.726 29.866°
K= 0.3453Z-39.606°
VSwP =- 1+|K|1+0.3453
VSWR 1-|K| 1-0.3453
VSWR. = 2.0548
Page 60 of 443
1.
What are the primary constants of atransmission line?
The four line parameters resistance (R), inductance (L), capacitance (C) and
conductance (G) are termed as primary constants of a transmission line.
2.
Whatare the secondary constants of a transmission line?
Propagation constant (y) and characteristic impedance (Z,) are the secondary
constants of a transmission line.
3. When will transmission line deliver maximum power to a load?
a
A transmission line will deliver maximum power to a load when the load
resistance is equal to the characteristic resistance.
4. Name the types of line distortion.
Line distortion is usually of two types:
1. Frequency distortion
distortion
2. Delay
SAWrite the condition for a distortionless line.
The condition for a distortionless line is
6. Define wavelength and velocity of wave.

The distance the wave travels along the line while the phase angle is changing
through 2r radians is called a wavelength.
as
Velocity of propagation is defined
What is
phase distortion or delay distortion?
All the frequencies applied to a transmission line will not travel uniformly.
as
Some of them may be delayed more than others. This phenomenon is known
delay or phase distortion.
Page 61 of 443
1.56
8. What is frequency distortion?

A complex voltage transmitted on a transmission line will not be attenuated
equally and the received waveform willnot be identical with the input wavefom
at the transmitting end. This variation is known as frequency distortion.
9. How can distortion be reduced in a transnission line?
Frequency distortion is reduced by the use of equalisers. Delay distortion is
avoided by the use of a coaxial cable.

10. Write an expression for characteristic inpedance.
R+joL 15
Z, =
VG+joC
I1. What is called an infinite line?
It isa hypothetical line which has input impedance equal to the characteristic 16.
impedance.
A finite line terminated in a load equivalent to the characteristic impedance
appears to the sending end as an infinite line.
12. Defune propagation constant.
17.
Propagation constant per unit length may be defined as the natural logarithmic
of ratio of the sending end current or voltage to the receiving end current or
voltage.
It is a complex quantity
Y= In -- 18. I
a +jß
where a. is attenuation constant 19.
B is phase shift
D
Y =
V2Y = (R+joL) (G +joC)
13. Mention the relation between characteristic impedance and primary constam
of a transmission line.
R+joL
Z, = VG+joC
Page 62 of 443
14. Draw the equivalent circuit of a transmission line.

I+ dI
I
R L R
V+ dV
dx
15. When does reflection take place on a transmission line?

When the load impedance (Z,) is not equal to characteristic impedance (Zo) of
the transmission line, (i.e., Z* Z) reflection takes place.
16. Define reflection coefficient.
Reflection coefficient is defined as the ratio of the reflected voltage to the
K= .
incident voltage at the receiving end of the line.
VR Z-Zo
=Z, +
Zt Z
17. How are practical lines made appear as infinite lines?
A
finite line terminated in a load equivalent to the characteristic impedance
appears at the sending end as an infinite line.
18. Define reflection factor.
to at
Reflection factor indicates the change in current in the load due reflection
the mismatched junction.
2
k= Z, +Z,
I9. Define reflection loss.
nepers or dB.
Reflection loss is the reciprocal of reflection factor in
1
Reflection loss = ln k
Z, + Z,
=
In2zz nepers
Z, + Z
= 20 log dB
Page 63 of 443

1.58
20. What is meant by waveform distortion?

received waveform on a transmission line is not identical with the input
If the
waveform distortion. This is due to
the
waveform the at sending end, it is called
frequencies applied on the transmission line are not equally
fact that all
attenuated and are not delayed equally.
impedances of a transmission line aa
circuit
21. The open circuit and short respectively. Calculate its
1500 Hz are 800 Z- 30°Q and 400 102
Z-
propagation constant.
- 30°
Zor = 800 2
= 400Z- 10° Q
Zr
Propagation constant/unit length
Zsc
Y = tanh-!
Zoc
-
400 10°
tanh-!
800 2-30°
tanh/ 0.5 =0.881
22. Give the general equation for the input inpedance of a dissipation line.
Zycosh yl+ Z, sinh y!
Z,cosh yl + Zy sinh y! )
where Z, is the characteristic impedance
Z is the receiving end impedance
Y is the propagation constant

l is the length of the transmission line from the sending end
propagatio
23. Write the expressions for the churacterisitc inpedance and
constant for the dissipationless line.
Characteristic impedance Z, =
Page 64 of 443
TrOnsmission Line Theory |1.59

4. How will youfünd out the propagation constant if the alues of open and short
circuited impedances are given?
Propagation constant can be determined from the following expression.
ly
Zsc
tanh yl =
Zoc
at 25. Give the relationship between the input impedance and characteristic
its
impedance of an infnite line.
Vs = Z
cosh yl + Z, sinh y
Z, cosh yl + Zsinh y!)
26. Draw the waveform of voltage and current distribution along ashort crcuited
line.
32 52 RR =0
4 2 4 4
27. Draw the waveformn of voltage and current distribution along an open circuited
line.
Receiving
end
gation
52 RR =oo
4 2 4 4
28. What of a open circuit line?

is the input impedance
= Zoc =Z, coth yl
Z
Page 65 of 443
1.60 Transmission Lines and RF Systens
29. What is the input impedance of an short circuit line?

Zs = Ze = Z, tanh yl
slhunt capacitance of 69 pF and a series inductance
a
of
30. A lossless line has
0.387 H. Calculate the characteristics impedance
c = 69 pF
Givejt:
=
L 0.387 uH
0.387 x 10-6
=
69 x 10-12
reflection coefficient of a line when ZR = 200 2 and
31. Determine the
Z,=692 Z- 12°Q.
= 200 2
Given:
= 692 = 678.878 -jl43.87
Zo Z– 12°
ZR-Zo
K=
Zt Zo
200 -(678.878 -j143.87)
200+ (678.878 -j 143.87)
467.878 +j143.87
878.878 -j143.87
Z
498.1 163.21 = 0.559Z172.5°
K = 890.57
Z-9.29
32. Calculate the load reflection coefficient of an open and short circuited line.
ZR-Zo
Reflection coefficient, K = Zo ZRt
For open Z =
line, o2
K=
1 +
K=1Z0°
For short circuited line, Zp
=0
K= +1 Z180° = -1
Page 66 of 443
Transmissipn Line Theory 1.61|

Caleulate the characteristic impedance of a transmission line if the following
measurements have been made on the line Zor = 550 L-60°Q andZgc
500Z30 °SQ.
Loc = 550 Z-60° 2
Zsc = 500230°
Zo = Zoc Zsc
V 550 Z-60° × 500.Z30°
= 524.4 Z-15° 2
34. A
50 line is terminated in load Z, = 90 + j60
Q
S2 Determine the reflection
coefficient.
=
Zo 50 2
Z = 90 +j60 2
ZR-Zo
Reflection coefficient K = ZoZ+
90 +j60–50 40 +j60
90 +j60 +50 140 +j60
72.11 56.3°
0,47 Z33.1°
152.32 Z
23.2°
K= 0,47 Z33,10
35. Find the attenuation and phase shift constant ofa wave propagating along the
1.048 x lo* Z88.8°
line whose propagation constant is
y= 1.048 x
10Z88.8
x
y= a +jß = 2.19 x 10+j1.048 10-4
a = 2.19x 10 Np/m
B = 1.048 x 10rad/m
Page 67 of 443
SUMMARY
Equivalent circuit of a transmission line
R. L
Z= R+joL
=
Y G+joC
Primary Constant SccondaryConstant

Resistance (R) Characteristic Impedance (Zo)
Inductance (L) Propagation constant (y)
Capacitance (C)
Conductance (G)
Voltage and current equations at any point on a transmission line

V= VR cosh yx + IR Z, sinh yx
=
I I, cosh yx t+
sinh yx
Propagation constant y = VZY

=
(R +joL) (G +joC)
Characteristic impedance Z, =
R+joL
G+joC
- 20 log -
Propagation constant y = 20 log VR = 20 log
Page 68 of 443
1.
Atténuation constant a = RG - oLC +RG- oLC'+ o (LG+ CR)
Phase shift. B = oLC - RG + VRG – o'LC) + o

(LG + CR)}
2
Condition for distortionless line
LG = CR
Para
meters
Distortion line Distortionless line Telephone cable
Y V(R +joL) (G +jo C)

VjoRC
RG-oLC+NRG-'LC'+oLG + CR VRG oRC

2 2
B + V(RG– oLC?+o (LG + oVLC

1oC- RG 2
CR)“ oRC
2
-
Ve
ale
R+joL R 2-45°
G+joC .oC
Campbell's equation cosh y'= 2Z sinh yl t cosh yl

= Z, tanh yl
=
Z, coth yl
Z, = VZoc Zgc
tanh y
Reflection coefficient
K=Z+Z,
=
Reflection factor k Z, +Z,
Page 69 of 443
1.64| Transmission Lines and RF Systeme
Reflection loss = ln k neper

Z, +Z
= 20 log dB
Voltage and current equatio.1s on transmission line in terms of

reflectio
coefficient.
VR (ZRt Z)
2 ZR
e
I= 2 Zo ZRt Zo
EXERCISE
a
1. Derive expressions for attenuation and phase constants after obtaining
expression for the characteristic impedance.
2. State and explain Campbell's formula for the loading cables.
3. Explain the term SWR and derive its expression in terms of reflectio
coefficient for a lossless line.
4. Derive an expression for the propagation constant and the velocity
propagation for an ordinary telephone cable.
5. Show that a line will be distortionless if CR=LG.
6. Briefly explain about waveform distortion.
7. Derive the condition to be satisfied for a distortionless line.
an
8. Develop the differential equations governing the- voltage and current at
an
point on a uniform transmission line. Solve these to obtain the voltage
current in terms of the load current and voltage.
Explain the wave propagation in the zero dissipation line with waveforms
C
9.
voltage and current for various loads.
10. Derive an expression for the reflection co-efficient in terms of characterist
impedance Z, and terminal impedance ZR:
Page 70 of 443
2
HIGH FREQUENCY
TRANSMISSION LINES
24. TRANSMISSION LINES AT RADIo FREQUENCIES
When a line, either open wire or of coaxial type is used at radio frequencies, the
following assumptions are made.
a
The current is considered as flowing on the surface of the conductor in
skin of very small depth.
Lo >> R because of skin effect.
G may be considered as zero.
Radiation losses in an open wire become appreciable for frequençies above
300 MHz. However coaxial cables can handle frequencies upto 3 GHz. For
open wire
at high frequencies, the skin effect is considerably high i.e.,
current is flowing
a very small depth. For coaxial
essentially on the surface of the conductor in skin of
cable at high frequencies, because of skin effect, the
current flows on the outer
surface of the inner conductor and the inner surface of the
outer conductor. The
zero. The capacitance of
internal flux and internal inductance are reduced nearly to
the coaxial line is not affected by skin effect.
OF THE OPEN WIRE LINE AND COAXIAL CABLE

2, PARAMETERS
Open Wire
current is flowing on the surface of the conductor in a skin
Athigh frequencies the to
Very, small depth. Since the internal flux and
internal inductance are reduced
Zero,
the inductance of open wire line becomes.
L =In(Him
where a is the radius of open wire line
two open wire lines
d isthe distance between the
Page 71 of 443
Transission Lines and RF Systeme

2.2
Ho = 4 T x 10-7 H/m
or high
a open wire line is not affected by skin effect
The value of capacitance of
frequency.
Tt E0
.. = C F/m
ln (2)
where Eo = 8.854 × 10-12 F/m
a
frequency over the surface of the conductor in thin
If the current flows at high conductor. The skin depth
or the
an increase in resistance of the
layer, there is
current is
effective thickness of the surface layer of
1
For direct current resistance of the open wire line is

K
Rdc =
T q2
For alternating current resistance of the open wire line is

K
Rc T a
K
=
V
ohm/m
a T
This equation shows that the resistance increases with increasing frequency.
CoaxialCable
The parameters of the coaxial line are also modified by the presence of hig
frequency currents on the line. Because of skin effect, the current flows only on the
surface of the conductor and it eliminates the flux linkages.
The inductance of the capacitance of the coaxial cable is
L= (2)
2T
Page 72 of 443
High Frequency. Transmission Lines

|2.3
where 'a' is the outer radius of the inner conductor.

'b' is the inner radius of the outer conductor.
The capacitance of the coaxial cable is not affected by high frequency current. The
value of capacitance of coaxial cable is
2TE
C = F/m
n2)
where e = Eo E,, permittivity of
the medium.
Due to skin effect, the resistance of the coaxial cable is given by
Rgc
(4) [: 8=
Rac = K1 ehms/m
Resistance increases with an increase of frequency.
Z.3. LINE CONSTANTS FOR ZERO DISSIPATION?
The line constants for transmission line are

Z = R +j o L
Y = G +j oC
R+j oL
Characteristic impedance Zo =
G+joC
Propagation constant y =V ZY =V (R+j oL) (G +j oC)

= a+jß
where
resistance per unit length of the transmission line (S2/m)
Risthe
the inductance per unit length of the transmission line (H/m)
Lis
per unit length of the transmission line (F/m)
Cisthe shunt capacitancé
per unit length of the transmission line (s/m)
G is the shunt conductance
Page 73 of 443
2.4
Transmission Lines and RF Syster
is considered as very small when compared to reactan

For zero dissipation, R
and G is assumed to be zero.
Z= joL
Y = joC
j oL
j oC
y= VZY =VjoL) (GoC)

= y-2 LC =j o V LC
a+jß
=
jo yLC
Attenuation becomes zero.

o LC
B=
DISSIPATIONLESS LINE
2.4. VOLTAGES ANDCURRENTSON THE
The equations for voltage at

any point ( = x) from the receiving end of tt
transmission line is given by
VR (ZR tZo) ZR -Zo
=
V
2 ZR
The current of transmission line is given by
IR (ZR + Z,)
ZR + Zo le *
2 Zo
Rearranging
. For zero dissipation line Z, =Ro and ( a= 0)
y-jß
VR (ZR tRo) ZR-Ro
V= e
2 ZR Z, + Ro
I (ZR +Ro) ZR-Ro -jBx
I= 2 Ro eb-|Ze +Ro. e
Page 74 of 443
High Frequency Transmission Lines

2.5
VR
Rearranging V= +
R) e'* + (ZR-Ro)e JBx1
2 ZR [(ZR
2 ZR [Z, (e'
+
+e-JB*) R, (eBx -eJx))
VR (ejBx +e -jBxy (eJBx

-e )
ZR +j Ro
2 2j
V= V
cos ß x +j IR Ro sin ß x
[:: R
Similarly for I
IR
I=
I
2 Ro
I(ZR +R) ejB* - (ZR -R) e JBx 1
[ZR (esDr -e -JBx )+ R, (eBr +e -jBx )]

2 Ro
[R
Ro
eB te "/B) +j
(e/Br
ZR
(e'B* -JBx
Ro 2 2j
[Ro cos Bx+j ZR sin ß x]

Ro
VR x
I= Iz cos Bx +j Ro
sin B
[: V= IR ZR]
are given by
The equations för voltage and current on the dissipationless line
cos x + j IR R sin B.x
V B
V=
VR
.. I= Ih cos Bx +
sin B x
I the line is open circuited, IR =0

V= VR cos B x
2T
sin B x where B=
I =JRRo
Ifthe line is short circuited, VR =0
V =j, R sin Bx
I = Ip cos B x
Page 75 of 443
2.5. STANDING WAVES
When the transmission line is not matched to its load i.e., load impedance is not
equal to the characteristic impedance (Zp # Z), the cnergy delivered to the load
i
reflected back to the source. The combination of incident and reflected waves give
rise to the standing waves. Fig.2.1(a) shows the standing waves along the length
o
transmission line teminated in a load other than Z, (not properly matched)

open or short circuit.
Fig.2.1(6) shows the standing waves along the line for either
Distance
Fig. 2.1. (a) Standing waves on a

dissipationless line terminated in a load not equal to R
yy
Antinode
---
Distance
Fig. 2.1. (b) Standing waves on a line having open-or-short-circuit termination

variatio
The plot of current variation along the line is the same as that of voltage
except for a /4 shift in the position of maximum and minimum. The maximum
minimum values on a line are labeled as in Fig.2.1 (a), whereas the nodes
antinodes are labeled in Fig.2.1(b). Nodes are points of zero voltage or currentcurrent
in
Or
standing wave systems, antinodes or loops are points of maximum voltage
Page 76 of 443

|2.7
line terminated in its characteristic impedance has no
standing waves and thus no
nodes. It is calledasmooth line.
Receiving
end
2 3. 52 RR = o
4 2 4 4
(a)
32 52 RR =0
4 2 4 4
(b)
RR = Ro
(c)
on dissipationless line
Fig. 2.2. Voltages and currents
(a) Open circuit (b) Short circuit (c) Rg= R
For open Circuit voltage nodes occur at distances of /4, 3/4, 5A/4 and so on,
irom so
the open end, For short circuit voltage nodes occur at 0, /2, and on,
and so on.
whereas a
For resistive load greater
CurTent nodes occur at 2/4, 3/4, 5/4
than Ro occur at voltage and current nodal points
the voltage and current minimum
Page 77 of 443

|2.8
current
a load 1less than Ros the voltage and
for an open circuited line. For resistive The
occur at the voltage and current nodal points for a short circuited line.
minima
current distribution for open circuit and short circuit are shown in Fig.2.2.
voltage and
proper matching RR = Ro
It also shows that the distribution for
and current at any point on a transmission line from the
The equations for voltage
receiving end are given below.
V, (ZR+ Z) Zp-Zo le-r*
V= 2 ZR
IR (ZR+Z) ZR-Z0.
I = Z + Z0.
Je-rr
2 Z0
constant o. is zero.
For zero dissipation line, the attenuation
=
Since the reflection coefficient K + Zo then
VR (ZR+Zo)
V= 2ZR
IR (Z+ Z)
I =
2 Zo
[esr-KeiB
These two equations comprise of incident wave and reflected

wave with definite
maxima and minima along the line. The term involving ex
is the incident waye
whereas the term involving e-/B is thereflected wave. The reflected wave depends
upon the reflection coefficient.
2.6. STANDING WAVE RATIO
The ratio of the maximum to minimum magnitudes of voltage Or current on a line

having standing waves is called the standing wave ratio or voltage standing wave
ratio (VSWR).
Imox
max
S =
V min
VR (Za+Z)
Voltage equation is V= [ejßx + Ke-jßx ]
2 Zp
Maxima of voltage along a line occus at which the incident and reflected wave
are in phase.
Page 78 of 443
High Frequency 1ransmission Lines 2.9

VR (ZRt Z)
[1 +|K|]
max
2 ZR
Minima of voltage occurs at which the incident and reflected waves are out of
phase.
VR
(ZR+Z)
min 2 ZR [1-|K|]
max 1+|K|
Nmin 1-|K|
The standing wave ratio is defined in terms of the reflection coefficient.
S = 1+|K|
1-|K
S-1
orK|=S+1
V,
Max
- 1
V min
or K= Max
s max
min
+1
min
|V,mox -|V min |
|K| =
|Vmor+| Vmin
[K|
100
SWR
log (s)
Fig. 2.3. Relation between SWR(S) and reflection coefficient KI

|
ig.2.3 shows the relation between standing wave ratio S and reflection
coefficient |
K|.
Page 79 of 443
Transmission Lines and RF Systerme
2.10
LINE
2.7. INPUT IMPEDANCE OF DISSIPATION
x from the
current equation of transmission line at any distance
The voltage and
receiving end
y x
VR COS Y x +j I Z sin
V=
y x
I= I, cosyx +jsin
and Z, =R, (resistive)
For zero dissipation a =0, y=ß
zero dissipation
Impedance of transmission line for
Input IR (ZR cos Bx+j
Ro sin ß x]
Ro sin Bx
VR cos Bx +jI,
IR [cos Bx +j
sin Bx
sin B.x
I, cos Bx tj
[: V=IRZR]
ZR cosBx+j R,sin Bx
Rg cos ßx+jZ sin ßx
cos ßx
Dividing numerator and denominator by
tan ß x
ZR tj R
Z; = Ro
Ro+j Z tan ß *
For shortcircuited line Zp =0
,
2T
B
Zsc =j Ro tan ß where
Zsc tan with length of the line

the length is shown in
iation of
The variation ofe =j with the 'r'
Ro
Fig.2.4.
X
4 32/4 52/4
Ro 32/4
Fig. 2.4. Variation of Zsc/Rg with a length of tlheline x

impedance of the line can be written as Page 80 of 443
The input
Ro
1 tan ß x
+j,
Z = Ro [By dividing Nr. and Dr. by ZRJ
Ro
Z +j tan Bx
For open circuited line Z,

Ro -j Ro
Zoc jtan B x tan ß x
Zoc is shown inFig.2.5.
The variation of Ro
tan B x
with the length of the line
x'
X A/4 32/4 52/4

Ro 32/2
Fig. 2.5. Variation of ZocRg with a length of the line x
ON LINES
8. POWER AND JMPEDANCE MEASUREMENT
are given by
The voltage and current on the dissipationless line
V =
V (ZR+R) (eBx +
Ke *)
2 ZR
Iz (ZR + R) (e'B* +
Ke Tißxy
2
IR (ZR + Z) –
.J. = 2 Ro
(eJBr Ke B)
ne maxima of voltage or current along the, Iine occur at points at which the
incident
and reflected waves are in phase.
Page 81 of 443
The maximum voltage and current are given by

IR| ZR + Rol
max 2
(1+|K|)
+
IR
|Z Rol
(1 +| K|)
2 Ro
Ymax
Ro=Rmax
voltage maximum occur at the same point on the line

The current minimum and
and are in phase.
(1-|K)
min 2 Ro
V.max 1+|K|) = SRo

min
S = 1+|K| standing wave ratio

where 1-|K
same point on the line
voltage minimum and current maximum occur at the
The
and are in phase.
(1-|KD
min 2
Ro
min = Rmin
Power flowing into resistance is given by
P= Rmax
y?
min
P = Rmin
y?nax min
p2 =
Rmax Rmin
|Vmax l
l
Vmin
= Rl
P= Ro
[: Rmax =Rmin
Page 82 of 443
High Frequency Transmission Lines |2.13
Power also can be expressed as

P = |Imax | |Imin · Ro
Using these expressions power flow can be measured.

The unknown value connected to a transmission line can
of the load impedance Z
be determined by standing wave measurements. Bridge circuit is used to measure the

unknown impedance.
Atthe point of voltage minimum, distant x'from the load
Ro
= Rnin
Input impedance at any point on a line

tan ß x
Zs = R
ZR
t Ro
ß x
becomes
R +j Z
tan
ZR +j Ry tan ß x'
= Ro
S Ro
+ Zg tan ßx'
From this equation, the load impedance Z is given by
1-js tan ßx'

ZR =
S-j tanßx'
2n
where B
2.9,REFLECTION LOSSES ON.THE UNMATCHED. LINE

When the load impedance equal to the characteristic impedance of the
is not
transmission line. all the transmitted power will not be delivered to the load and part
Or the power reflected back to the source. The combination of incident
waye and
reflected wave gives rise to the standing waves.
waves are in phase.
The maximum voltage is attained when incident and reflected
i.e., V max = |V|+|V,|
|IR (ZR+ Z) |
2
(1 +| K|)
Page 83 of 443
Transmission Lines and RF Systeme

2.14|
waves are in out of
voltage is attained when incident and reflected
The minimum
phase.
+
|IR (ZR Z) | (1-|KD
2
Standing wave ratio is S = |V,|-[V,|

|V nax
P =
Power delivered to the load
(|V,|+|V, D(|V,|=|V,D
|V,-1V,
wave and P, is the reflected power in
power in the incident
If P, is the transmitted
wave, power delivered to the load
the reflected
P= P,-P, power transmitted by incident
wave
power delivered to the load to the
The ratio of
isgiven by
P P-P, = 1
P; P, P;
|V,
= 1
=
1-|K?
VSWRAND WAVELENGTH
2.10. MEASUREMENT OF
Detector Meter
Matched
Probe slotted Unit under
Signal load
Pad line test
generator
Fig. 2.6. VSWR neasurenent

Page 84 of 443

2.15|
The above diagram shown in Figure 2.6 illustrates the ysWR measuring with the
slotted line as its basic instrument. The probe line is adjusted and
the output is
ntedwith sample voltage and it is
measured on meter.
The signal source must generate a signal matching the impedance, else reflection
will 0ccur which initiates shift proportion in peaks and
nodes. To match with the
Generator, a pad is attached between the signal source and equipment.
The pad attenuates the input signals as it is resistive and reflection absorbent. If the
level of the signal is low toadmit attenuation, the resistive pad will not be effective as
minimum voltage readings willbe hired by instrument noise.
The standing wave ratio measured at the input will be the component under test. If
the component absorbs all the power, the matched load will terminate it. The output
generated will be a mismatch due to reflection detected at slotted probe line. If the
tested component is an absorbing device, then matched load is not a requirement at
the output.
Each and'every frequency produces a different VSWR, maximum and minimum

position for a frequency modulated or spurious signals which leads to improper
source for exact measurements.
Teading. Square wave modulations are used by
keeping
The probe slotted line entry leads to discontinuity which is minimized by
wave ratio,
tne depth of penetration as small as possible. Athigh values of standing
can be read in noise level., When
ne probe must be kept deeper so minimum values
are introduced lower than the values that exists in the
probe moves deeper errors
are reduced in low standing wave ratio.
SWR meter. Problem of measurement
are measured as follows:
1he values of the distance d, and d,
When the values of SNR is high, the probe

is placed where the minimum value is
This
easily and again shifted to a place where the power is twice minimum.
easured on the side which is twice the
distance measured as d, and the power point
is wave ratio (VSWR) is expressed
minimum as d,. The voltage standing
is measured
are same in units
., is the
by VSWR= where distance and wavelength
-
T (d, d,)
Wavelength in slotted line.
Page 85 of 443
2.16| Transmission Lines and RF Svt
an
Standing wave indicator. is used as output meter for detection. It is
amplified calibrated for VSWR measurement. The meter reads the full scale when
voltage is maximum adjusted by the pad. Assuming a square law detector and pla
the probe to a minimum point. VSWR meter reads the values directly.
SOLVED EXAMPLES
Example 2.1 4 lossless transmission line with Z =75 l and electric le
l= 0.3 2 is terminated witha complex load impedance of L
=40+j20s2 Deteri
reflection coefficient and VSWR of line.

Givein: Zo = 75 2
ZR = 40 +j20 S2
1= 0.3

ZR - Zo
K= ZR + Zo
40-j 20-75
40-j 20 + 75
-35 +j 20
115 +j20
40.3113Z-29. 74°
116.726 Z9.866
=
K 0.3453Z -39.606°
1+|K|
VSWR
·1-|K|
1+0.3453
1–0.3453
VSWR = 2.0548
Example 2.2 The terminating load of UHF transmission line working al;
MHz is S0 +j 50S2 Calculate VSWR and the position of

the voltage minmun
to the load if the characteristic
impedance of the line is 50 S2
Given:
ZR = 50+j 50 2
S0S2 Page 86 of 443
MHz
f=300
3x 108
300 x 1 06
= 1 m
by
Reflection coefficient is given
K Z + Zo
50+j 50 50 -
50 +j 50 + 50
100 +j 50 2+j
K
=
0.4472 Z 63.5°
|K| = 0.4472
= 63.5°
1+|K|
VSWR S =
1-|K
1+0.4472
1–0.4472
S= 2.62
nearest to the load is

Position of the voltage minima
min B = (2 n+1) I
2
= 0 [:"n0]
2x 22 min 63.5° = I
4Tt 63.5°
Xmin 180°
63.5° 63.5
4T
1 min 180° n1+180
m
0.3382
min
Page 87 of 443
|2.18 Transnission Lines and RF System
Example 2.3 The VSWR measured on UHF transnission line at afrequencv of

300MHE fond to he 2. the distance beiween load and voltage minimum
f
0.8 m, determine tlhe normalized load impedance.
Given: VSWR S = 2
Xmin = 0.8 m
300 Hz
f=
3x 108
= 1 m
300 × 106
|K| = S-1 2-1

S+1 2+1
1
For voltage minima

2 B*min -¢ =
(2 n + 1)
[::n =0
=
2Bmin
=
0.8- T
= 3.2
7-T= 2.2 T
= 396 ° or 36°
ZR-Z
|K|e/o
36o Lo -1
3 e'
Z,-1
2,+1 [:: Zo
1
(cos 36 Z,-1
+j sin 36) = z,
3 +1
Page 88 of 443
High Frequency Transmission Lines |2.19
z,
0.2677 +j0.1959 = -1
Z,+1
(z, +
(0.2677 +j 0.1959) = z,-1
1)
z, [0.2677 +j 0.1959 – 1] = -1-0.2677 -j 0.1959

1.2677 +j0.1959
0.7323 -j0.1959
1.29 Z 8.9°
0.76 Z18.3º
NN
ZR = 1.7-6.4°.
Exanple 2.4|The VSWR measured on UHF Iransmission line at a frequency of

300MHZ found to be 2. If the istance between load and voltage minimum is
08 m, determine thenormalized load impedance.
Given: VSWR S = 2
min 0.8m
f= 300 Hz
3 x 108 1 m
300 × l06
S-1
|K| = S+1
2-1
2+1
=
3
For voltage minima

= (2 n + 1) T = T [: n =0]
2 Bmin-
= 2B xmin T
-
2()0s
0.8- Tt
= 3.2 TI-T=2.2 T
= 396 or 36°
Z-Zo
|K|eZ + Zo
Page 89 of 443
Transmission Lines and RF System Hig
2.20
-1
+1
Lo
Z,-1
(cos 36 +j sin 36)

z,+1
0.2677 +j 0.1959 -0.

Z, +1
(z,+ 1) (0.2677 +j 0.1959) = z,-1

z, [0.2677 +j 0.1959 - 1] = -1-0.2677 -j 0.1959
1.2677 + j0.1959
Zr 0.7323 -j0.1959
1.29Z 8.9°
0.76 Z 18.3°
ZR
= 1.7 Z-6.4°
Example 2.5An antenna as a load on a

transmission line produces a standing
19ave ratio of 2.8 with a
vollage mninimum 0.12 2 from the antenna
the antenna impedance, terminals. Find
reflection factor and reflection loss
Ro= 300 ohms for the line. at the antenna i!
Data: S = 2.8;
Ro=Z,=300 S2;
*min = 0.12 2.
Reflection coefficient, | K =
For voltageminima,
s+12.8+1 0.4737
2ß xmin = (2 n+
1)'n = T [":: n =0]
= 2B *min
20.122) - n
= 0.48
T-T = 93.6o
Page 90 of 443
High Freguency Transmission Lines 2.21
|Klejt
= Zp-Zo
ZRt Zo
--1
0.434 (cos93.6° +j sin 93.6)
7+1
0.434 (-0.062 +j0.998) = Z,-1
Z,+1
(Z,+1) (-0.027 +j0.433) =
Z,-1
Z, +j0.433Z,-0.027 +j0.433 =
-0.027 Z,-1
-1.027 Z, +j0.433 Z, = -1+0.027-j0.433
(-1.027 +0.433) Z,, = -0.973-j0.433

-0.973 -j0.433
Z, = -1.027 +j0.433
1.06 -156.01
1.11 Z157.13
1.06 -156.01 – 157.13
1.11 2
= 0.954 Z-156.57°
(or)
= -0.875 -j0.379
0.954 Z-156.57 x 300

= 280.22-156.570
=
Reflection factor, k Z,+Zo
2/ 300 x 280 579.65
280 + 300 580
k = 0.9993
0,0060 dB
Reflection loss = 20 log
Page 91 of 443
Example 2.6 A lossless line has a characteristic impedance of 400

sQ
Determine the standing wave ratio ifthe receiving end impedance is 800+j0.0 2
Givein: R = 400 S2, =800 +j0.0 = 800 2
Z
800 -400 400 =

0.33
Solution: K= 800 + 400 1200
1+|K| 1+0.333 = 1.999

K= 1-|K|1-0.333
Example 2.7 |At a frequency of 80-MHz,

a
lossless iransnnission line has a
of 2.5 m. Find the inductance L,
characteristic ipedance of 300 S2 and wavelength
and capacitance C.
Given: Zo Vz- 300

= 90000
2T 2T = 2.5
o
LC
2T
=
2T x 80 × 10° 2.5
VLC = 5x 10
LC = 2.5 x 10l7
C
L= 90000
90000 CZ = 2.5 x 10-7
C = 16.66 p.f
L
C= 90000
L? = 2.5 x 10-7
90000
S
L = 1.5uH
Page 92 of 443
nency Transmission Lines
2.23
Acample
2.8A radio
frequency line with Z, = 70 ohm terminated by
15-j80s2 Find the VSWR and the maximum and minimum line impedances.
Solution: =
Ro Z
Z, = Z,
R = 115-j80
2S2
K =
ZR-Zo (115 -j80) - 70
Z, + Zo (115 +/80)+ 70
45-j80 91.78 Z-60.84
185 -j8O 201.55 Z-23.38
0.4553Z-37.26
S =
1+|K| 1+0255
1-|K 1-0.4
S= 2.67
Rymax S Z, = S R = (2.671)(70) = 187.02 S2
70
Rynin 26.22
S 2671
SS2.671
Example 2.9 Calculate the characteristic impedance, propagation constant
and velocity of propagation at 400 x 10 Hz for a transmission line having
L=0.5 mH/km. C = 0.08 uFlkm and negligible R and G.

=
O Solution: R=0 L 0.5 mH/km
=
G=0 C 0.08 uf/ km
0.5 x 10-3 =
= 79.08 S2
R 0.08 x 10-6
= 2 x
400 x
10xV0.5 x 10x 0.08 x 10-6
= 15.9 radian/km
1
x
JLC yo.5 10x 0.08 x 10s
= 1.583 x 10° km/sec
Page 93 of 443

|2.24|
of characteristic impedance
Example 2.10A ideal lossless transmission line
the standing wave ratio on the line is 4
602 is connected to resistive load. Ifimpedance
a
lculate reflection coefficient K and load Z.

S = 4
Solution: R =60 Q,
K=
S-1
S+1
4-l
4+1
3
= 0.6
ZR-R
K=
TZ +
Ro
K [Z + Ro] = Z
-Ro
K Z, + K Ro =
ZR- Ro
= [K+ 1]
ZR [K- 1]
-R
K+1]
-RoK-i
=
- Go 0.6 +
1]
1
0.6-
= 240 Q
is
Example 2.11 A transmission line of characteristic impedance 600 2
cm long
terminated by a reactance ofjl 50S2 fnd the input impedance ofa section 25
ata frequency of 300MH2.
Solution: Ro = 600 Q
2
ZR =jl50
f= 300 kHz
S = 25 x 102 m
3 x 108
= lm
300 × 105
27 25 x
Bs = 1 10
=
Bs =
n
0.5
2
tj R, tan ß s
ZR
Zs = Rol
R+i Ze tan ß s
Transmission Lines Page 94 of 443
ZR +j R, tan
R
Ro +j
Z tan
Z =
R = 600 Q
Example 2.12 |4 transmission line with a characteristic impedance of 300 Qis

a
terminated in purely resistive load. It is found by measurement that the minimum
wlie of
voltage upon it is 5 uVand maximum value is 7.5 u V. Calculate the value of
load resistance.
Solution: Zo = 300 S2
= 7.5 uV
max
V mìn = 5 uV
= V max 7.5 x 106

S
= 1.5 V
Sx 10-6
min
S-1 1.5 - 1
K = 1.5 +
= 0.33
S+1 1
K= Z- Zo
ZR-300
0.33 Zp + 300
(Zp + 300) 0.33 = Zp -300

ZR (1-0.33) = 300 + 99
399
Ze 0.67
Zp = 595.22 Q
Erample 2.13 two wire open air line, whose diameter is 2.588 mm is used in
A
oeveral applications. The wires are spaced at 290 mm between the centres. Find out
the characteristic
impedance of line.
2.588 =
Solution: a =2 l 1.294 mm
2
290 mm
d=
Page 95 of 443
2.26
Zo
=
276 log
d
290
= 276l0g 1.294
648.7 S2
QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS

TWO MARK
1. Defne SWR. voltage or current on a line

minimum magnitudes of
The ratio of maximum to wave ratio (SWR).
waves is called the standing
having standing
max
max
SWR = Vmin Imin
case of (a) Z, =0 and (b) ZR =Zo

2. Determine the values of VSIWR in the
(a) ZR
=
0, K| = 1, SWR
=
o
(b) ZR= Zo
K=0, SWR = 1
3. Write the equation of SWR in ternns of reflection coeficient.

1+|K|
S=
1-|K|
where Kis the reflection coefficient.
terms af SIWR.
4. Write the equation of reflection coefficient in
S-1
|K| = S+1
where is SWR
S
Kis reflection coefficient

Give tlheminimum and maxinum value of SWR and reflection coefficient.
5.
1
1<SWR <o Minimum value of SWR is
Maximum value of SWR is o
0.
0<K<1 Minimum value of reflection coefficient is
1.
Maximum value of reflection coefficient is
Page 96 of 443
Lines 227
Hgh reguency Transmission
why is the quarter wave line called as copper insulator?

When the quarter wave line is shorted to ground, the input impedance
becomes very high. Thus it acts as an insulator and it is also called as
copper
insulator. It provides mechanical support to open wire transmission line.
A
lossless line has a characteristic impedance of 400 ohms. Determine the
standing wave ratio if the receiving end impedance is 800 +j 0.0 ohms.
400 2
Z = 800 +j0.0 S2
800 400 400

K= =0.33
ZR+ Zo 800 + 400 1200
sWR = 1+|K|_ 1+0.33 =

1.985
1-|K|1-033
&Give the properties of an infinite line.
It is a hypothetical line which has input impedance equal to the characteristic
impedance.
A finite line terminated in a load equivalent to the characteristic impedance
appears to the sending end ås an infinite line.
SUMMARY
Open wire line:
Capacitance, C = F/m
in)
ln
K
Direct current resistance, Rdc ohm/m
K
Alternating current resistance, Rac a T
Vf ohmm
Page 97 of 443
Coaxial cable:
Capacitance, C = F/m
ln|
Alternating current resistance, Rac = K ohm/m
Voltage and current equation on dissipation line

V= Vp COs Bx + jl Rg
Sin Bx
I= I, cos Bx+j R, Bx
Ro sin
nnax
Standing wave ratio, S = V min
S = 1+|K|
1-|K|
Reflection coefficient,
|K|= S-1
S+1
|Vny-|Vnin
|K| =v+|Vmi Max
Z,+jRo tan ßx
Input impedance of dissipation line, Z, = R,
Bo|RRo tjZ, tan Bx
For short circuited line, Z = 0
Zsc j R, tan ßx
Ro
1+j ZR tan Bx
Z, = Ro
ZR +j tan ßx
Foropen circuited line, ZR = 0

Ro
jtan Bx
max V mi
|V l|
Power on a transmission line, P = Ro
Page 98 of 443
Hoh Frequency Transmission Lines

2.29
Load impedance on a transmission line
ZR = Ro 1-js tan Bx
Ls-j tan Bx'
Reflection loss on unmatched line, PP
I-KP
EXERCISES
1 Describe an experimental set up for the determination
of VSWR of an RF
transmission.
2.
Deriveexpression for the input impedance of a dissipationless transmission line.
3. Write short notes on: ) Open wire line
(ii) Coaxial cable

4. Derive an expression for voltage and current on the dissipationless line.
5. Write notes on the following:
() Standing waves, (i) Standing wave ratio

6. With neat sketch derive an expression for an input impedance of open and short
circuited lines.
1. Derive an expression for power and impedance measurement on transmission
lines.
O.
Deduce an expression for reflection losses on the unmatched line.
Page 99 of 443
IMPEDANCE MATCHING IN
HIGH FREQUENCY LINES
3.1 IMPEDANCE MATCHING
-It is important to transfer radio frequency signal from the source to the load
through transmission lines without power loss. To achieve this, the source impedance
and load impedance have to be matched.
Impedance matching to minimise the reflection is áchieved by making the load

impedance equal to the source impedance. For maximum power transfer the load
impedance must be complex conjugate of source impedance
i.e., R +jX = Rs-jXs
A
network which is used to match the load impedance with source impedance is
called matching network. One eighth waveline, quarter waveline and half waveline
are used as matching networks.
3.1.1. One Eighth Waveline

For the transmission line the voltage and current at
any point distant x from the
receiving end of the transmnission line is
+
V= 2 ZR
(e?* Ke Y*)
IR(ZR + Zo)
I = (e1*-Ke*)
2 Lo
The term with yx is identified as the incident wave progressing forward
fronn the
source to the load, whereas the term involving e* is the reflected wave travelling
from load back towards the source.
For the line of zero dissipation, the attenuation constant a is zero. i.e., y =jß and
Z,=Ry
Page 100 of 443
3.2|
VR (ZR+ R)
V
=
2 ZR
(e B
+Ke/)
z (eAr
+Ke-/y +Ro (e
+KeJry)
For standing wave | K|=1,
VR (e+e
V= v, (e/r VRo (e'B-eJ)
2 2
But V = IR ZR
(e +e -J) (er=e-r)
V= VR
2 +jIR R0
2j
V cos Bx +j I, Ro sin Bx
Similarly, for the current on the transmission line
I= I cos Bx - sin Bx
The input impedance of a dissipation line is

Z =
VR Cos Bx +j I Ro sin ßx
IR cos Bx+j Ro sin ßx
Since VR = IR ZR
IR Z cos Bx +j IR Ro sin Bx
IR cos ßx+j
Ro sin Bx
Z cos px +j Ro sin ßx
cos ßx +j
Ro sin Bx
Zg COs Bx +j Rosin Bx
Ro Rocos px +j Z
sin ßx
Page 101 of 443
Inpedance Matching 3.3|
Zs = +j Rotan Bx
or Ro
Ro+j ZR tan ßx
For an eighth wave line =/8.
2Tt
Bx =
TC
Zs = R
Z
+j Ro tan (r/4)
o
Ro+j Z tan(r/4)
Zs = Ro Z tj R
R+j ZRJ
If such a line is terminated with pure resistance R
i.e., ZR =RR
Z = R
Ri Rotj
+j R
RR
Since,both the numerator and denominator have identical magnitudes, then

= Ro
|Zs|
Thus an eighth-wave line may be used to transfer any resistance to an impedance
WIth a magnitude equal to Ro of the line, or to obtain a magnitude match between
a
Tesistance of any value and Ro, the internal resistance of the source.
3.1.2. Quarter Waveline (Quarter Wave Transformer)

Ihe input impedance of a dissipationless transmission line is
ZR tj R, tan ßx
Zs Ro Ro
=
+j Z tan Bx
tan Bx
+j Ro
= Ro
Z Ro
+j ZR
tan Bx
For a gquarter wave line x=/4,
Bx = 2.
Page 102 of 443
Transmission Lines and RF Systen

3.4|
+j Ro
tan t/2 =
= R R
Ro
+ j ZR
tan /2
R
as a transformer to match a load
A quarter wave section of line may be considered
impedance
of Z, to source of Z. Such a match can be obtained if the characteristic
a
Ro of the matching quarter wave section of the line is properly chosen.
i.e.,
The R, of the matching section should be equal to the geometric mean of the
source and load impedance.

A quarter wave transformer may also be used if the load is not a pure resistance. It
should then be connected betwecn points corresponding to I,may Or V min at which
places the transformation line has resistive impedances given by R/S or S R For
stepping down the impedance from the line value of Ro, the matching transformer
characteristic impedance should be
Ro =
Ro Ro
The quarter wave transformer is also a single frequency or narrow band device.
The bandwidth may be increased by using two or more quarter wave sections in
series.
Fig. 3.1. Quarter wave transformer

Page 103 of 443
Impedance Matching
3.5
quarter wave transformer may
A
be considered as an impedance inverter

can transform a low impedance into a high impedance in that it
and vice versa. An important
application of the quarter wave matching
section is to,couple a transmission line to a
resistive load such as an antenna.
This effect is illustrated by the action
circuited line in transforming of /4 short
the impedances as shown in Fig.3.1.
3.1.3. Half-Wave Line
The input impedance of a dissipationless transmission line is
ZR +j tan ßx
R
Zs = R
LRotj ZR tan Bx
For a half-wave line x = A/2
Bx =
2T
2
Ro
|ZR tj Ro tan t = Ro
|Ro +j ZR tan Ro
A half wavelength of line may then be considered as one to one transformer. It has
application in connecting a load to a source in cases when the load and source cannot
be made adjacent.
3.2, STUB MATCHÍNG

a one. By choosing the valve of
Ingeneral, the source or input impedance is fixed
load impedance to be equal to the input impedance, impedance matching is achieved.
In certain cases (especially if the load is an antenna), the load impedance is also fixed.
impedance,
lf the load impedance is not equal to the complex conjugate of the input
as mismatching. So, it
the maximum power transfer will not take place. This is known
1S necessary to introduce some form of
an impedance transforming section between
a section is called an
the source and load to achieve impedance matching. Such
wave transformer). Another means of
Impedance matching device. (E.g. quarter
use of an open or short circuited line of
aCcomplishing impedance matching is the
load. This is called stub
Suitable length, called stub at a designated distance from the
are:
matching. There are two types of stub matching. They
Page 104 of 443
3.6 Transmission Lines and RF Systen
() Single stub matching

(i) Double stub matching
3.2.1. Single Stub Matching
A transmission line having a characteristic admittance Yo ternminated with load
conductance Y (load resistance Z) is shown in Fig.3.2. Since Y, is different from
Ys, standing waves are set up in between source and load.
Yo YR
Fig. 3.2. Single stub matching

The input admittance of a transmission line is changing from maximum to
minimum conductance, minimum to maximum conductance and so on and the cycle
repeats for every /2. When the line is transversed from the point of maximum of
minimum conductance to that of minimumn or maximum conductance. there will be a
point at which the real part of the admittance is equal to the characteristic admittance
(i.e., R = Z). An appropriate length of a short circuited and/or open circuited line
(stub) with the transmission line is shunted at this point to achieve the impedance
matching. The input impedance of the transmission line at this point is Z, = Ro The
Jine from the source to this point is then terminated with and is a smooth line. Bu
R
there is a reflection between this point and load. Since the distance is less than the
wavelength, the losses will be less.
The input impedance at any point of transmission line is given by

a
y
=
ZR
t Z, tanh
+ y
l
ZR tanh /
Page 105 of 443
Impedance Matching
3.7
YR + Yo tanh y l
The input admittance is Ys =
Yo
Yo +
YR tanh y l
For propagation y =jB (a = 0)
Ys = +jY, tan ß 1
YR
Yo
Yo +jYR tan ß
For normalization, the above expression is divided by Yo
YR +j, tan ß
Yo Y, +jYR tan ß
tan BZ
Yo +j
Ys = YR
tan ß
Ys
where Ys normalized input admittance
Yo
= Y, nomalized load admittance
YR+j tan B 1
Ys 1+j YR tan ß7
This can be written as
YR
+j tan ß (1-j YR tan ß l)
1
+j Y tan ß (1-j YR tan ß 7)
Y, (1 + tan² ß ) +j (1 - Y2 tan ß
1+ R tan² Y B
For perfect matching Ys = Yo
= 1
Yo
..
Y, = 1
Ihe stub has tobe located at a point where the real part of
Y
is equal to unity.
Page 106 of 443
Y, (1 + tan² B 1)
1+Y; tan? ß , = |
, = tan² B1,
Y, + Yp tan² B
1+Y,R
Y, tan² ß1,-Y, tan? ß , = 1-YR
tan² B, (YR-Y)= 1-Yg
YR(1-Y) tan? p ,= 1-YR
YR tan² ß1, = 1
tan? B , 1
1 YR
tan =
ßI. YR R
Ro
R
YR
= tan-! Yo
B, R
2T
I, tan-!
YR
The location of the stub , is given by

1
l, = 2T tan-!
R
The susceptance at the location of the stub is
(1-Y;) tan ß 1, (1-Y;) YR

Yo 1+ Y
tan² ß, Yo
1+YkYR
Y
Y
R
Y Yo
1+
Page 107 of 443
Impedance Matching
3.9
1
Y Yo
YR
1+
Y
)
Yo YR
Yo- YR Y
YoVY
The susceptance of the stub is
s, - (Yo-Y)V Yo
YR
This can be obtained either by an open circuited or short circuited stub. But
normally short circuíted stub is preferred because of the following advantages.
(i) it radiates less power.

(ii) its effective length may be varied by means of a shorting bar.
The susceptance of a short circuited stub is equated to Y, cot BI,
(Yo-Y) = Yo cot B I,
Yo- YR =
cot ß 1,
Yo R
1
cot B l, =
(Yo-RY, YR
tan ß ,=Z -Zo
BI, = tan-!
Page 108 of 443
The length of the stub is givcn by
I, = 2
tan-!
ocation and Length of the Stub using Reflection Coefficient

The input impedance of the line is given by
Z; = Lo 1+Ke-2 yl
1-Ke-2 y/
For lossless line .=0, y=j B
and K=|K|e
where is the angle of reflection cocfficient.
Z, = 1+|K|ejo e2B/
Kle- 2 B)
1+|K|ej (- 2B/)
O1-|Kleje-j2pl
The input admittance is given by
Y, =
= Go
1-|K|ej(Q-2p)
.I+|K|ej(- 2pi)
where the characteristic conductance is
1 1
Go Ro [: 2, is resistive]
–
1-|K|[cos 2ßI) +j sin (G– 2B D)]
(¢
Y, = Go – -
1+|K|[cos ($ 2Bl) +j sin ($ 2 B I)]
– B
1-|K|[cos () 2 ß l)-j|K |sin(- 2 D1
Go - -
1+|K| [cos (4 2 B/) +j | K |sin ($ 2B)]
Multiplying the numerator and denominator by
- 2B 7)
1+|K| [cos ( -2B I) -j | K|sin (
sin ( - 2ß I)
1-|K2--2j|K|
Y; = Go 1
+|K|2+2|K|cos (- 2ß /)
Page 109 of 443
Inpedance Matching |3.11|
Since Y; S,
,
=G,+j then
+
+
1-|KP-2j|K|sin () -2ß)
Go 1+|KP +2| K|cos ( -2ß I)
Equating the real parts
G, 1-|K2
Go 1+|K2+2| K| cos(- 2ß 1)
Equating the imaginary parts
S, -2| K|sin ( - 2ßB/)
G, 1+|KP+2| K|cos ( -2ß l)
At the location of stub Z, = Z, for matching.
Since there is no reflection, l=1,
.G, = G
G,
= 1
Go
1-|K2 = ]
1+|KP+2| K| cos ( -2B IL)1
= 1+|KP+2| -
1-|KP K| cos ( 2ß 1,)
– =
2| K| cos ( 2ß 1) -2
| K|2
cos(-2ß 1.) = -|K|
-2ß
, =
cos-l (-|K)
But cos-! (-|K)

, =
=-T+ +
cos-!| K|
-2ß –1 cos-!K|
2
B, +1- cos-! K|
+I-cos-!| K|
1, =
2B
1. =
+
[ -cos-!| K|I
47
The normalized susceptance (imaginary part) equation is

-
S; -2| K| sin ( 2ß)
G 1
+|KP+2 |cos
K| (– 2ß 1)
But (-2B 1,) = -N+ cos- |K and
Page 110 of 443
3.12 Transmission Lines and RF Systere
cos ( -
2B 1,) = -|K|
+
-2| K| sin (- 7 cos-! |K)
Go 1+|KP+2| K|(-|K|)
2| K| sin (cos-! | K)
1+|KP -2| K?
Let cos-!|K|=0, then K|= cos
|
and
sin (cos|K) = sin
V1-cos²0 V1-|KP
S
2|KI1-|K2
Go 1-|K?
S, = Go 2|K|
1-|KP
The susceptance of the stub is G,cot ß,
2
Go cot p I, = Go
G, |K|
/1-KP
tan ß ,
1
2|K|
V1-|KP
tan ß I, = V1-|K?2
2| KI
BI, = tan-! 1-|KP

2| K|
tan-! 1-|K2
2| K|
l, = tan-! 1-|K?
2Tt 2| K|
The location of the stub 1 and length of the stub 1' can be determined, if the
reflection coefficient and frequency are known.
A
short circuited stub is normally preferred to an open circuited stub because of its
simpler construction and the inability of the stub to remain open circuited. The short
circuit can be easily established with a large metal plate and it also has a lower
radiation loss of energy.
Page 111 of 443
Impedance Matching 3.13

However the single stub matching has the following drawbacks.
() Single stub matching is applicable for single frequency. For variable
.frequency the location of the stub is not fixed (i.e., changing).
(ii) For final adjustment the stub has to be moved along the line slightly. So,
it is possible only in open wire
wire lines.
3.2.2. Double Stub Matching

To avoid the disadvantages of single matching, double, stub matching is
introduced. Double stub matching is one in which two short circuited stubs spacing
or
/4 3/8 whose lengths are adjustable independently are fixed as shown in Fig.3.3.
32 or /4
8
YR
l2
Fig. 3.3. Double stub matclhing

,, be located at AB on the transmission line
at a
Let the first stub of length
distance l, from the load.
YAB V,+j tan ß
,
YAB
The normalised input impedance Yo 1+jy, + tan ß 1,
o, +j tan ß ) (1 -j y, tan ß )
VAB = (1+jy, tan ß ) (1-jy, tan ß ;)
Page 112 of 443
|3.14|
y,+j tan ß
,
-jy tan B ty, tan ß I,
1 +y tan
ß,
y,(1+ tan² p
,) +j (I -y²) tan pI,
1+y; tanBI,
) (1-y: )tan p!,
8AB +J bAR = 1+y tan
y, (1 tan
+ B
ß , 1+y² tan
B ,
V, sec B 1,
1+y tan ß ,
(1-y:) tan ß /,
bAn =
1+y: tan' ß,
When the second stub is introduced at CD at the distance 1, from AB, the
susceptance value is changed but conductance value is unchanged.

i.e., 8AB = Scp
In practice the location of stub AB (i.e. l,) is always less than à./2. Some times the
first stub is located at the load itself. In general, the distance I, = 0.1 À to 0.15
. Th:
distance between the two stubs is either or
4
3.3. CIRCLE DIAGRAM
The input impedance for the transmission line is given by

V(Z + Zo)
[e +
V 2 Zu Ke]
2 Z0 [e-Ke*]
+
V Zo [e KeI* ]
IR ZR [e- Ke"]
+
V Zo e*[l Ke-2y)
Ve[1 -Ke?y*]
1
=
[l +Ke-2yx
Page 113 of 443
Impedance Matching |3.15|
The input impedance of the transmission line is given by

1+Ke-2yx
Z0 1-Ke-2Yx
For a
lossless line y=j B (". a=0).
The normalised input impedance is obtained by dividing zs by its characteristic
impedance Zo
1+Ke-j2Bx
Zo 1-Ke-2Bx
Z
(1- Ke2*) =
1+Ke2ß*
=
Zs-1 Ke2P* (1 +z)
Kei2Bx
But z is a complex quantity. It can be represented by
= R +j X
Z
where R is the resistance, X is the reactance.
Keri2 Bx R+jX-1 (R-1) +jX

R+jX +1 (R+ 1) +jX
The above equation leads to two sets of circles. They are S circles and ßx circle. S
circles can be obtained by equating the magnitude and ß x circles by equating the
tangents bf the angles.
Ke-j2ßx R-1) +jX (R+ 1)-jX

(R+ 1)tjX (R+ 1)-jX
R2-1+jX (R +1)-j (R– 1)+ X2
X
(R+ 1)2 +X2

R2-1+X X?
2X
1)2+ X2 +jR+12 +X2
(R+
By converting rectangular co-ordinates in to polar co-ordinates.
2X
X2
(R-1)2 +X2 (R+ 1)2+
tan-!
Ke-j2Bx (R+ 1)2 + X2
R2-1+X2
(R+ 1)2 + X2
Page 114 of 443
3.16|
Constant S circles are obtained by equating the magnitude
K2 =
(R- 1)2 + X2
(R + 1)2 + X2
K²(R+ 12 + K2 X2 = (R-1 + X2
+ +
K2 (R2 2
R+ 1) K² X2.= R2+1-2R+X?
K2 (R2 +X2 +2 R + 1) = R2+ X2-2R+1
R² (K2- 1) +
X² (K?-1) + 2 R (K2+ 1)+ K2– 1
=0
Divide by K2- 1,
+ = 0
R2
+X2 2R+1
The reflection coefficient can be written in terms of the standing wave ratio.
|K| S-1
=S+1
(S-1 | +1
K2+ 1
(S- 1)2 + (S + 1)2
K2-1
S-1-1
S+1
(S- 1
-(S + 1
S?-- 2S +1+ $2 + 2S + 1
S2 2S+1-$2-2S– 1
2 (S2 + 1)
- 4S
K2
+1 (S2 + 1)
K2–1 25
Substituting this value in the main equation

+
(S2 1)
R2+ X2-2R 2S +1= 0
+
(S2 1)
on both sides
Adding
28
(S2 + 1) (S2 + 1)
R2-2 R
2S +X2 = -1+ 2S
Page 115 of 443
Inpedance Matching
3.17
+
(S2 1)
R
+X = -4 S2 + S4 +2 S2 + 1
4
S2
S4–2 S2 + 1
4 S2
()
R (S2 + 1) 12
2S +X² = ()
1
S
This is the equation S2-1
of the S circles whose radius is 2S 2
1
S2 + 1 S+
and centre is 2S 2
A family of circles may be drawn for successive values of S as in Fig.3.4. Since
the minimum value for S is unity, all the S circles must be surrounded the (1, 0) point.
The maximum value of S is infinity for the case of open circuit or short circuit line
termination. As S increases, the radius of the S circle increases, and the centre moves
to the right and the circle becomes the r axis for S = o, The interrupts of the circle on
1
the r axis is when the circle is nearer to the origin and is S when the circle is far
away from the origin.
The constant S circle represents all possible values of

r
andx for a given value of
to a given point on the circle represents in both
Ro The line from the origin
Zs on the abscissa-with magnitude S, the line
magnitude and angle. When Ro lies
mpedance has a maximum value

1+|K|
= S =
Ro 1-| K|
= S on the S circle represents the resistive line
Thus thepoint (O, S) X = 0, R
mpedance at a voltage maximum.se iuen
Page 116 of 443
3.18 Transmission Lines and RF Systeh:
1
When terminate at the circle intercept the line impedance has a minimum
Ro
value
=
Ro S
1-|K|
=
1+|K|
The constant Bx circles are obtained by equating it to the tangent of angle.
2X
= tan-1 (R+ 1)2 + R2
-2Bx R2–1 + X2
(R+ 1)² +X
S=3
1.5
2.5
1.0
0.5
1.5
Xa 0
3
-0.5
-1.0
-1.5
Fig. 3.4. Afamily of constant -S circles

Page 117 of 443
Impedance Matching
3.19
Taking tangenton both sides
tan (-2 Bx) = 2X

R2 –1 + X2
tan (2 ß x) = 2X
R2-1+X2
2X
R2+ X2-1 = tan 2 B x
X2–1+ tan2X
+
R2 = 0
2 Bx
1
Adding on both sides

tan? 2 Bx
1
R2+ X2+ +
2X = |+
1
tan 2 Bx tan 2 ß x tan? 2 Bx
= 1+ .1
1
R2 + X+ tan 2 B x tan 2 B x
1 1
But 1+ sin? 2 B x
tan? 2 Bx
1
R? + X+: B x
tan 2 Bx sin? 2
radius is
Ihis is the equation of ß x circle whose sin 2 B x and the centre is
1
tan 2 ß x
A family of such circles is drawn for successive values of ßx as shown in Fig.3.5,

Allthese circles pass through the point (1, 0). The superposition of Bx
circles on the
D Circles provides a scale of Bx angles and results in the circle
diagram as shown in
rig.3.6. The circle diagram may be used to find the input
impedance of a line of any
chosen length.
Page 118 of 443
L5
il60°
.0
20°
O.5
-0.56o 50°
i20° Yo
-.5L
Fig. 3.5. Afamily ofconstant Bx circles

and
Though the circle diagram is very useful in calculating the line impedance
admittance it has the following drawbacks.
difficult.
S
and ß x are not concentric, making interpolation
Only a limited range ofimpedance values
can be accommodated ina char
of reasonable size.
Page 119 of 443
Ingpedance Matching
3.21
J60° I65° 170
25
i9
5
155
2.0
150
I.5
145 :3.5
140
7s
135 I.0
130
S=3:
125 2.5
120
05
100
a
2
8O
7d
-0.5
60
55
50
-10
45
...
40
35! -1.5
30
-2.0
-2.5
I5"
20° diagram
Fig. 3.6. The transition–Iine circle
Page 120 of 443
3.22
3.4. SMITH CHART:
modified form of the circle diagram for the dissipationless transmission line h.
A
Laboratories. The various properties oftha
been developed by Philip. H. Smith at Bell
on a number of calculator charte
transmission lines may be represented graphically
The most widely used such a calculator is the Smith Chart.
Engineering
As defined by McGraw Hilldictionary of Electrical and Electronics
"Smith Chart is a special polar diagram containing constant resistance circles
constant reactance circles, circles of constant standing wave ratio and radius lines
representing line-angle loci; used in solving transmission line and waveguide
problems
The basic difference between circle diagram and Smith Chart is that in the circle
diagram the impedance is represented in a rectangular form while in the Smith Chart
the impedance is represented in a circular form.
Smith Chart is based on two sets of orthogonal circles. The tangents drawn at the
points of intersection of two circles would be mutually perpendicular one set of
circles represent the rate of the resistive component (R) of the line impedance to the
characteristic impedance (Z) of the line, which for a lossless line is purely resistive.
The second set of circles represents the ratio of the reactive component
(X) of the line
to
impedance the characteristic impedance (Z) of the line.
The Smith Chart is obtained as follows.
To display the impedance of all possible passive networks
the graph must extend
in all three possible directions (R, +jX, -jX). The Smith
Chart is committed to a
bilinear transformation by plotting the complex reflection coefficient.
K = Z-Zo
+ Z0
=
By normalizing the load impedance z
ZR
Zo
K=
+ 1
Page 121 of 443
Inipedance Matching
|3.23
z
+1
(z + 1) K
=
z1
zK+K = z-1
1+K = z
(1-K)
1+K
1-K
Since the complex
quantity z =R+jX and the complex
quantity K= K +jKy
1+K
1-K becomes
beco
R+JX 1+ KR tjK
=1-Ke
1-KR-jKx
(1+K) +jKy
(1- K)-jK
[(1 + K) +jKy] [(1 - K)+jKy
-
[(1 K)-jKl [(1-K) +jKgl
1+ KtjK- K -KR-j KR Ky +jKx tj Kg
K- K
(1-K + K
R+jX = 1-K-K +2/Ky
+
(1-K)² K
Kquating the real parts on both sides
R=
1-K-K +
(1-K2 K
Equating
the imaginary parts on both sides
2 Ky
X= (1- +
K
K
1-K-
K
The realparts R= (1-K+ K

Page 122 of 443
3.24] Transmission Lines and RF Systeme
=
R(1-K)e +R
K
1-K-K
R(1-2K
+
K) +RK = 1-K-K
= -
R-2RK tRK+R
K 1l
K-Kx
+ K = 1-R
(or) -2 K
R +RK +RK+ K
KR = 1-R
K+RK+ K-2R
K
+R
=
K (1 + R) + K (1 R)-2 K
+ R 1-R
2R KR
1-R
K+ K- 1+R 1+R
R R2 + Ky = 1-R
Kg -1 +R, (1 + R)² 1+R
R2
R 1-R
KR - 1 +
R) 1+R
+ (1 +
R)²
- l-R)(1+R) +R?
(1 + R)2
R2
1–R2+
+
(1 RY
1
R
KR
-1+R+K (1 + R)²
on
This equation represents a family of constant R circles having centres the R
1
R
at, radius of This is shown in Fig.3.7.
axis P+l0and R+1:
These circles have their centres on the positive K, axis with the values of 0 to 1. A
circle which corresponds to R = 0, with centre (0, 0) and radius of 1

forms the
periphery of the Smith Chart. All constant R circles touch the point (1, 0).
Page 123 of 443
Circles of Constant- R
Kx
Inductive
K- plane plot
R=1
R=2
KR
(0, 0)
Capacitive
R=0.5
R=0
R=0 R= 0.5 R=1 R=2
Rectangular plot
Fig. 3.7. Family of constant R circles
2 Kx
The imaginary parts X = K
(1-K²+
= 2 Kx
X [1+ K-2 K+ K{]
Dividing by X
1 + ,2 + K;-X
2 Kxe
= 0 i
K-2 K
2 Kx
(KR-1)2 +
K;- X
Page 124 of 443
Adding on both sides,
2Kx
+
(K-1 K- X X2
12 1
=
constant X circles having centres at (1, 1/X)

This equation represents a family of
1
and radii of This is shown in Fig,3.8.
Circles of Constant- X
X=2.0
X=1.0 X=1.0
X=0.5
X=0.5
X=0 X=0
X=-2.0
X=-0.5
X=-1.0 X=-0.5
X=-1.0
X=-2.0
• Rectangular plot K- plane plot
Fig,3.8. Family of constant X circles
When X is positive, the circle lies above the horizontal line (i.e., real axis).
When X is negative, the circle lies below the real axis.

When X is zero, the circle becomes a straight line along the real axis. All U
circles touch the point (1, 0).

Page 125 of 443
Impedance Matching
3.27|
The Smith Chart is obtained by
the superposition of two sets of constant X
orthogonal circles and constant R orthogonal circles. This is
shown in Fig.3.9.
135°
X=1
INDUCTIVE
X=0.5 X= 2
90° 1
+j0 180°
R=0 X=0 0°
R=oo
CAPACITIVE
=1.0
X=-0.5 R=0.5 R=2,0
X=-2
45° ^R=0
Fig. 3.9. Smith circle diagram
The commercial Smith Chart is shown in Fig.3.10.

Page 126 of 443
3.28|
TLLITE
RADIALLY SCALED PARAAIETEES
CENTER
Fig. 3.10. Smithh Chart

Page 127 of 443
pedance Matching
Smith Chart Stub Matching - Single 329
|Example Determine the stub length Stub Matching
Cien that acomplex load Z = and the distance of the stub
from the load.
50-jl00 is to be matched to a
using a short-circuited stub. 752transmission line
Given: Characteristic impedance
Load impedance to
of the trnsmission line Z, = 75
be matched to the transmission Q
line Z, = 50-j100
Steps:
1. The normalized impedance
is determined by dividing the
characteristic impedance load impedance by the
of the transmission line.
50 –j100
= 0.667 -j1.33
Zo 75
2. Locate the normalized impedance z
point with coordinates =
X=1.33) on the Smith chart (Point A) as shown Fig.3.11. (R 0.667 and
in
3. Draw the constant
S-circle (impedance circle) with the centre (1, 0)
at 0 and distance from centre to point as of the chart
A radius.
Note: Because stubs are connected in parallel with the load, admittance can be
much easily used rather than impedances tosimplify the calculations.
4. Locate the point B on the constant S-circle drawn which is exactly opposite to the
point A.. This is simply done by drawing a line from point A through the center of
the chart tothe opposite side of the circle to B (0.3 +j0.6).
). The admittance point B is rotated clockwise on the S-circle, where it intersects
the R =1 circle that point is denoted by C. The real component of the input
impedance at this point is equal to the characteristic impedance Zo- At the point
C, the admittance is y = 1 +jl.6.
6. Measure the distance between point B and C in Bs scale by moving clockwise
1.e., from load to generator. This distance shows the position of the stutb
1, = 0.178 2
-
0.08 = 0.088 2.
a
Note: The stub must have zero resistive component impedance and susceptance
that has the opposite polarity.
an opposite reactive
I lo determine the length of the shorted stub that has
smith chart (R = 0) is
Component to the input admittance, the outside of the
at point D, R=0 and hence
moved around with the starting point at D {since
y=
1.7 isfound.
Io}, until an admittance 7 of the stub
ne distance between point D and E is the length 0.25 =0,086
2
1. = 0.336
Page 128 of 443
Transmission Lines and RF Systemg

3.30
From this Smith Chart,

stubl=0.086 A; position
of the stub from the load d=0.0881
length of the
distone of the, stub
from the lerninaiafe
;0-088A.
he.
heCns
atraf
lensth
RAQiALLY SCALEO PATaesTr K$
cENTEA
Fig. 3.11. Single stub matching

Page 129 of 443
Double Stub Matching 3.31
Example Using double
stub matching, match a
j56.25 to a line with characteristic complex load of Z, =
impedance Z, =75 2 18.75 +
Determine the stub
lengths, assuming aquarter
hetween the two wavelength spacing
short circuited stubs. is maintained
A spacing
of /4 is maintained between the stubs, stub
line operation
of the transmission line the input admittance 2 and stub 1. or smooth
2,2 of the line looking into the terminals
should be.
1
Y2,2 =
iLe.,the line beyond the point 2, 2 should. appear

'Z, {considering Z, is purely resistive}. Similar, toto be a pure resistance of value
the single stub matching, the
admittance (normalized) at
the point 2, 2 must be,
= 1±j ba
Go
The stub at 1, 1 must be capable to transform
the admittance at the terminating
impedance end to the circle B which is displaced
fromthe circle A; R=1by /4.
The quarter wavelength line will further transform the admittance
into a value at 2,
2
which willplot on the circle A. Thus the line to load distance between position 2, 2
1S not
required to be determined.
24
2
N Terminating
Impedance
1
2
ls2
Fig. 3.12. Double stub matching

Page 130 of
(RF Systen 443
Steps:
Z
18.75 +j56.25r
1, The normalized load impedance ZL =
Z75
0.25 + j0.75
at shown in Fig3.13.
A
Plot the normalized impedance on the Smith Chart

as distance OA
The impedance circle is drawn with O (1, 0) centre and the
radius.
on the circle which is exact.
2.. Locate the normalized admittance point B
opposite tothe point A (by moving 0.25 2,).
From the Smith chart V, = 0.4-j1.2
of all tha
3. Circle A is the constant R circle for R= 1. Circle B is the locus
adds a
points on the circle A displaced by /4, quarter wavelength. The stub l
y to
susceptance (1/reactance) in parallel, this is done to change the value of
such a value that it plots on the circle B.
Since stub 1 cannot alter the conductance (1/resistance), to a point on the
circle B,point C,
y (at point C) = 0.4-j0.5
It is observed that the susceptance is changed by +j0.7.
4. Transforming the point C tothe point D on the circle A,since the line between
1, 1 and 2, 2 is a quarter wave line that transforms the admittance at 1, 1 to 2,
2 such that the conductance equals the characteristic conductance, 1/Zg:
y (at point D) = 1.0 +j1.2
5. The stub length at 2, 2 should cancel the imaginary part of the above
admittance. The susceptance of the stub at 2, 2 must be -j1.2.

6. Tofind the length of the stub with an admittance,
(a) +j0.7 and (b)-jl.2.
The outside circle of the Smith Chart (the circle, R = 0), is moved around
having a reference at point P, until

an admittance y = -1.2is found at point E and
an admittance y =
+0.7isfound at point F.
7. From the Smith Chart,
Length of the stub 1 = distance between P and F =
0.348
Length of the stub2 = distance between P and E l = 0.11
Page 131 of 443
Inmpedance Matching
3.33
+O098)=0.348)
tiðy
contibule
0.25)+ 0.e
must ab
3,
ls,=
batallel
ubl
X=0
s0.36h-0.2%)=0||A
J.
latl.
NORNALE
ADTTÄNE must
inhay
Stub2
-jl.2'
iro
RAD!ALLY SCALED PARA4GTERS
cENTER
Double Stub Matching

Fig. 3.13.
Note Point P is chosen as a reference because a short circuited stub is used.

which B = o, Point P is
has zero resistance (R= 0) and consequently a susceptance
Such a point, If an onen stub were used, the rotation would begin. at the opposite of
the X = 0 line,
point Q
SOLVED; EXMPLES Page 132 of 443
is connected across a 5O ohms line,
A load (50 +
j100) ohms
ohms
|Example 3.1
stub to provide matching between the two at a sios
Design a
short circuited
frequency of 30 MH.
= 50Q
Given:
Z = 50 +j1002
30 MHZ
f=
3x 108 = 10m
30 x 10
ZR-Zo 50 + j100- 50
K= ZRt Z 50+ j100 + 50
j100 =
100 +j100
0.707245°
K= 0.707 Z45°
|K| = 0.707
=
45° or /4
Location of the stub is s 4T [o+- cos |KII
10 T + cos
(0.707)|
4
10
(T) = 2.5 m
4T
Length of the stub 1, = tan-! V1+|KP

2 2| K|
10 V1+0.7072
tan
2 2 (0.707)
10
x 0.2594 T = 1.297 mn
2
Exanple 3.2 A dipole antenna whose input impedance is 100 2 is lo
matched at afrequency of 100 MHz to a transmission line having characteris
impedance of 600by means ofshort circuit stub. Determine the location and lengtn
the stub.
Given: = 100 2
Zo.= 600 2
Page 133 of 443
npedance Matching
335
f = 100 MHZ
3x 108
m
100 x 106 =3
Location of the stub is 1, R
tan
3 100
tan-!.
27 600
3 22.2°
X X T
27 180°
(: To convert 22.2° in to radians,

multiply 1g0)
1, = 0.185 m
Length of the stub is 1, = tan!

2T
3 V
100 x 600
tan
2
100-600
3
tan (-0.4899)
2T
3 x(-26.1°)
2
3
2T
(180°- 26.19)
(Because of negative, angle will be subtracted from 180°)
3 153.9°
1, = X
180°
m.
l,=1.28
Example 3.3 UHFossless transmission line working at 1 GHz is connected
A
a
O an unmatched line producing reflection coefficient of
0.5 30° Determine the
location and line.
length of the stub to match the
10 Hz
Given: f= 1x
3x 108
1x 10 =0.3 n
K= 0.5 Z30°
Page 134 of 443
3.36|
|K| = 0.5
=30°.
6
[ +n - cos'|K|]|
Location of the stub is 4T
0.3
4
+n-cos0.5
0.3 7n
3
6
4T
= 0.0625 m
16
tan-! V1+|KP
2 | K|
Length of the stub is 2T
0.3 -1
V-(0.5)'
tan 2x 0.5
2T
0.3
tan 0.866
2T
0.3 x
40.9°x 180
=
3.41 cm
2
a 400 ohm line to a load
of
single stub is
A to match
Example 3.4| length the short of
3 m. Determine the position and

200-j 100 s2 The wavelength is
circuited stub.
Z = 400 S2
Given:
ZR = 200 -j 100 S2
m
3
2=
ZR-Zo
K =
200 -j 100– 400

200-j 100 + 400
-
200-j 100
600-j 100
= -2-1 =-0.3 -j 0.2

6-j
= -0.36 Z 213.7°
Page 135 of 443
Impedance Matching 3.37|
|K|= 0.36
= 213.7° =
1.17 n
Location of the stub is 3
l, = 4T [ + -cos 0.36]
3
4 Tr117n+n-63.9 x10]
3 (2.17
4T n-0.38 )
= 134 m
Length of the stub is 1, = tan-! N1-|KP

2T 2| K|
V1-(0.36
3 tan-!
2T 2x 0.36
3
tan 1.11
2T
3 48
= X T
2T 180
= 0.4 m
Example 3.5 An aerial of (300-j 300)/2 is to be matched with 600 sQline. The
matching is to be done by means of low loss 600 stub line. Find the position and
length of the stub line if the operating wavelength is 20 m.
=
Given: 300i 300 2
Zo = 600 S2
= 20 m
K=
300 -j 300 -600 300 -j300
300-j300+ 600 900-j300
= =-0.2 -j 0.4
K = 0.4472 Z 63.435°
|K| = 0.4472
=
63.435°
Page 136 of 443
3.38
The position of the stub line is 1, =

+7- cos|K|
2ß
(0.4472)]
4
[ +7- cos
4T
(0.352 t I–0.352 )
-420 20
4
m
5
l,=
tan-! Vi+|K
Length of the stub is 2T 2| K|
20 tan-! Vl-(0.4472)
2T 2x 0.4472
20
x 45 ° x
2 180
20
2T 4
I, = 2.5 cm
at
Example 3.6 The terninating load of UHE. Iransmission line working
300 MH is 50 + j50S2 Calculate VSWR and the position of the voltage minimum
nearestto the load if the characteristic impedance of the line is 50 S2
Given: ZR = 50 +j 50 S2
Lo = 50 2
f= 300 MHz
C 3x 108 m
300x
106=1
50 +j 50 - 50
K= ZR + Zo 50+j 50+ S0
50
100 +i 50
2+j
Page 137 of 443
Impedance Matching
|3.39
K= 0.4472 Z
63.5°.
|K| = 0.4472
=63.5°
VSWR s=lt|K| 1+0.4472
1-|K| 1-0.4472
S= 2.62
Position of the voltage
minima nearest to the load is
2 B *min -
=(2 n + 1) TI = T
[n=0j
2x< Xmin 63.5° = I
4T 63.5°
Xmin
180°
47 63.50
1 Xmin rtn=n 1+ 63.5
180° 180
Xmin 0.3382 m
Example 3.7| An aerial of (300-j 300)12 is to be matched with 600 sQline. The
matching is to be done by means of low loss 600 Stub line.
Find the position and
length of the stub line if the operating wavelength is 20 m.
Given: ZR = 300i 300 S2
Zo = 600 2
= 20 m
K=
300-j 300 -600

300 -7300 + 600
300-j 300
900-j300
-1-i
3-j
=-0.2 -j0.4
0.4472 Z 63.435°
K=
Page 138 of 443
3.40| Transmission Lines and RF Systerm.
K| = 0.4472
= 63.435°
+n- cos-'| K
Theposition of the stub line is
=
I, 2B
2 [+n- cos-! (0.4472)]

47
(0.352 T +n–0.352 T)
4T
20
4
1, = 5m
tan-l
V1+|K?
Length of the stub is 1, 2n 2| KI
20
tan-!
l-(0.4472)2
2T 2x 0.4472
20 x
2T
45°x 18o
20
27 180
1,
=
2.5 cm
Example 3.8 UHF lossless transmission line working at l GHz is connecte0
A
a voltage reflection coefficient

to an unmatched like producing
0.5 (0.866+j0.5). Calculate the length and position of the stub to match the line.
1 10 Hz
Solution: f=
C 3x 108 = 0.3 m
1x 109
k = 0.5 (0.866 +j0.5)
= 0.5 (0.9999 Z30°)
Page 139 of 443
apedance Matching
3.41
=
k 0.5 Z30°
= 30
6*
Location of the stub, I,I, =
47 +- cos
|k|]
0.3,
416 žtn-cos 0.5
0.3 7n
1
= 0.0625 m
16
Length of the stub, I,

=tan
2T 2| k|
2
0.3
tan!
V1+(0.5)
2T 2x 0.5
0.3
tan 0.866
2T
0.3
40.9°x 180
2
= 3.41 cm
Example 3.9 load (50 + jl00) ohms is connected across a 50 ohms line.
A
Design a short circuited stub to provide matching between the two at a signal
frequency of
30MHz.
2
Given: Zo= 50
= 50 +j100 S2
30 MHz
f=
3 x 108
= 10m
30 x 106
Zg-Zo 50 + j100 S0 -
K= Zo t+ Z
50 + j100 + 50
Page 140 of 443
¡100 = 0.707Z450
100 +j100
K
=
0.707 Z45°
K| = 0.707
45° or /4
Location of the stub is Is 1 [o+-cos|KI]|

10
4
+T• cos-! (0.707)
4
10
(T) = 2.5 m
4
tan-! Vl+|K?
Length of the stub I,9T 2| K|
10 tan-!
Vl+0.7072
2T 2 (0.707)
10 x
0.2594 T = 1.297 m
2
1
Example 3.10 antenna whose input impedance is 100 s2 is to be

A dipole
matched at a frequency of 100 MHz to

a transmission line having characteristic
of
the location and length
impedance of 600 by means short circuit stub. Determine
of
the stub.
= 100S2
Given:
= 600 Q
f= 100 MHz
C 3x 108
x = 3m
f100 106
=
Location of the stub is 1, tan-l
2T
3 100
tan-! 600
2T
Page 141 of 443
Impedance Matching
3.43
3 22.2°
2T 180°
(:: Toconvert 22.2° in to radians, multiply
80)
1, = 0.185 m
Length of the stub is I, = tan-l

2T ZR-Zo
3 100 × 600
2T tan-l 100 600 -
3
tan-! (–0.49)
3
=
2
x (-26.1°)
3
2T
(180°- 26.19)
(Because of negative, angle will be subtracted from 180)
l, = 3
153.9°
X T
2T 180°
1, = 1.28 m
Example 3.11 UHE lossless transmission line working at I GHz is

A
connected to an unmatched line producing a reflection coefficient of 0.5 30°

Determine the location and length of the stub to match the line.
1x 109 Hz
Given: f=
=
3x 108
1x 109 =0.3 n
K = 0.5 Z30°
|K| = 0.5
= 6 =30°
Location of the stub is 1, 4 r [

+n cos-! | KD
Page 142 of 443
Transmission Lines and.RF Systenms
.44
0.3 cos-! 0.5
6
;+n
4
0.3
4 Tn L
1 =0,0625 m
16
ton-i
tan-l
V+|K2
l, 2| K|
Length of the stub is 2
0.3 tan-!
,V1-(0.5)2
2 2x 0.5
0.3
tan-! 0.866
2T
0.3 x
40.9° X 180
2T
= 3.41 cm
to match a 400 ohm line to a load of
Example 3.12 single stub is
A
m. Determine the position and length of the short

S2 The wavelength is 3
200-j 100
circuited stub.
2
Z= 400
Given: = 200--j 100 S2
ki 2. = 3 m
Z-Zo
K = Z -Zo
200-j 100– 400

200-j 100 + 400
-
200-j 100
600-j 100
-2-1 =- 0.3 -j 0.2
6-j
= -0.36 Z213.7°
|K| = 0.36
= 213.7° 1.17 =
Page 143 of 443
Location of the stub is 1, = 3 [o +n- cos-! 0.36]

4Tn
3 n
4n
[1.17 7 +T-63.9 x 180
3 (2.17 T
-0.38 n)
4T
= 1.34 m
Length of the stub is 1, = tan-i V-|K2

2|K|
2T
3 Vi-(0.36)2
tan-!
2 2x 0.36
3 tan-! 1.11
21
3 48 = 0.4 m
X X T
2 Tn 180
Example 3.13 Determine the following:
(a) Standing wave ratio (SWR), (b) Load admittance
(c) Distance between load and the first voltage minimum along the transmission
line for a line with
a
characteristic impedance of 300S2 and terminated in a
of 200 MHz is transmitted along
load of 175 + j207 S2. An electrical signal
the line in free space.
= 300 2
Given: Characteristic impedance, Zo
Z = Z = 175 +j207 S2
Load impedance,
= 200 MHz
Frequency of transmission, f
C 3x 108 = 1.5 m
Wavelength of transmission, =7 x
200 106
Steps:
1. Normalizing the load impedance with
respect to the characteristic impedance,
hence the normalized load impedance
175 +j207 =
0.5833 +j0.69
300
Chart-I) at the intersection of
Plotting the point P on the Smith Chart (Smith
0.69.
the circles R = 0.5833 and X=
Page 144 of 443
|3.46|
0-I14A
O.14
PLLL
uttnda
0-5)-0.J|42
0.38SA SMITH CHART
1
RADIALLY SCALED PARAMETERS
CENTER
Smith Chart - 1
Page 145 of 443

Taking the centre point O (1 +j0) andthe radius as (OP) the distance between
the centre and the normalized load impedance point, the impedance circle is
drawn.
The distance between the centre and the point S where the impedance circle
crosses the horizontal axis on the right side of the chart, i.e., OS is the
'Standing Wave Ratio'.
SWR = 2.8
2. The point Q diametrically opposite to the normalized impedance point on the
impedance circle is the admittance of the load, normalized with respect to the
characteristic admittance.
Normalized admittance Go
=
Y Z, = 0.72-j0.86
1
Hence, Y = 300 (0.72 -j0.86) mho

= 0.0024 -j0.00286 mho
to
3. The first voltage minimum from the load lies along the horizontal axis the
left side of the chart.
From the chart the distance between load and the first voltage maximum
=
be found in terms of wavelength 0.5
- 0.114 =0.386 Hence, the . can
= 0.386 x 1.5 m =
distance between the load and the first load impedance
0.579 m = 0.58 m.
Example 3.14 Determine the following:

(a) Standing Wave Ratio (VSWR)
(b). Load admittance
(c) Impedance of the transmission line
at the maximum and minimum of the
line.
Stationary waves along the with
(d) Distance between load and first
voltage maximum for a transmission line
characteristic impedance of 50 s2 with
a receiving end impedance of
m.
wavelength of the electrical signal along the line is 2.5
100 + 121 The
i.
= 50 2
Given: Characteristic impedance Zo
Z = 100 +j121 2
Load impedance
signal = 2.5 m
Wavelength of the electrical
|3.48 Page 146 of 443
Steps:
100 +j12l-2+j2.42
1. Normalised load impedance =
50
impedance cigl,
Plotting the point P on the Smith Chart (Smith Chart-2). The
as (0P), the distance between
is drawn with O
(1 + j0) centre and radius
is found out in
centre and the normalised impedance point. From this SWR
OS =5.
=
Voltage standing wave ratio 5
diametrically opposite to the normalized impedance point on the

2. The point Q
admittance of the load.
impedance circle is the normalized
Load admittance Go 0.22 -j0.25
YZ, = 0.22-j0.25
1
= -j0.005 mho
Y = 50 (0.22 -j0.25) 0.0044
load = 5xZ, = 2502

3. Impedance at the first voltage maximum from
0.2 x Zn = 102
Impedance at the first voltage minimum
= 0.042 2
Distance between load and first voltage maximum
0.042 x 2.5 m
= 0,105 m
= 105 cm
Page 147 of 443
Impedance Matching
3.49|
.1
O-2082
0.25
SMITH CHART- 2
,,..
CENTER
-
Smith Chart 2
Transmission.
3.501 Page 148 of 443
impedance along the line for the open circuitea

Example 3.15 Determine the
and shortcircuited line at a distance from the loa:
(a) d=0
.... (n + 1) A/8 n=0,
, ..
(b) d= 0125, ..
n =0, l,
(c) d (n + 1) 24
n=0, 1,
(n + 1)3/8
(d) d=
n=01,
...
(e) d= (n + 1)N2
(Smith Chart-3)
As in the Smith Chart
an opencircuited load, R=o, X= 0
() For
(a) For d=0, Z=o 2
(6) For d=(n +1) /8, Z=-j 2
(c) For d=(n +1) /4, Z=02
(d) For d= (n
+ 1) 32./8,
(e) For
d=(n + 1) /2, Z=o S2
(ii) For a short circuited load, Z=0, R=X=0.

(a) For d=0, Z=02
(b) For d=(n +1) 2/8, Z=j2
(c) For d=(n + 1) 2/4, Z= o S2

(d) For d=(n + 1) 32/8, Z=-j2
(e) For
d=(n+1) /2, Z=0
Page 149 of 443
pedance Matching
3.51
=0.125A
Ne O-25A-0.
o.a
0.12S)
LIEHHHHH
SHaxt
CIRT
OPE
cIRCUIT
WAD
5A-0.3S
(0.375-0-25)A
-0.125A
SMITH CHART
-3
CENTER
Smith Chart -3
Page 150 of 443
Example 3.16 Determine the input impedance and SWR for distance 0.21 .
with a characeristic impedance Z,= 50 Q and a
fromthe load towards generator
load impedance, Z, = 80,-j30 2
= 50
Given: Characteristic impedance Zo 2
Load impedance Z,
= 80-j302
Distance from load at whichimpedance is to be found=0.21

80-j30 = 1.6-j0.6
Normalized load impedance Zo z 50
and
at on the Smith Chart (Smith Chart-4)
The normalized impedance is plotted P
the impedance circle is drawn.
impedance circle and the X =0
SWR is directly read from the intersection of the
=
line on the right side, i.e., OS 1.9.
SWR = 1.9
is extended to P' on the
outer
OP is drawn from centre O and
The straight line atQ'
. It is rotated in clockwise direction by 0.21 to the point
circle at 0.295
. The straight line 0Q' is drawn and it cuts the impedance circle at Q'.
0.505 is
on butside circle in a clockwise direction
,
The point
0.21
Q, where the distance
0.505 is joined to the centre.
circle is the normalized impedance
at
The point where this line cuts the impedance
that point,
Zin
0.52 +j0.04
x
Lin = (0.52+j0.04) 50 2.
Zin = 26 +j2 S2
Page 151 of 443
0.10
.
R
SO5A
0.2952
O. 505,A-O.205)
.21A
SMITH CHART-4
HADIALLY SCALED PARAMETERS
CENTEA
-
Smith Chart 4
Page 152 of 443
3.54|
Example 3.17| Determine the input impedance and SWR for a 1.25 2 long
"ansmission line at the sending end with a characteristic impedance, Z, = 50 2 and
a load inpedance Z, = 30 +j40
2
Z = 50
Given: Characteristic impedance 2
Load impedance Z, = 30+j40 2
Length of the transmission line = 1.25
30 +tj40
Normalized load impedance Z Z 50 = 0.6 +j0.8
Chart-5) and
The normalized impedance is plotted.at P on the Smith Chart (Smith
intersection
impedance circle is with Q as centre is drawn. SWR is directly read from
of the impedance circle and the X =0 line on the right side. i.e., OS =3.
SWR =.3
to P' on the outer circle at
A straight line OP is drawn from O and is extended .
at 0.377
0.127 2 and rotated in a clockwise direction by 0.25 to the point Q'
A
is equivalent to 1.25 2 as it takes two revolutions in excess]

[::0.25
at Q.
The straight line OQ' is drawn and it cuts the impedance circle
The. point where this line cuts the impedance circle

is the normalised input
impedance at that point. i.e., 0.57 -j0.8.

=
Normalized input impedance 0.57-j0.8
Z = (0.57 -j0.8)x 50 = 28.5-j40 Q

Page 153 of 443
Impedance Matching 3.55|
O-127)
0.(2
0.1
,5
10
O.0
Lotmatzed
mkedaice
(0.377-0.12)À=0.25
ddEtanek
$20
o.3772
SMITH CHART-5
CENTER
-
Smith Chart 5
Page 154 of 443
Transmission Lines andIRF System
13.56|
Consider the line with Z, terminated by an unknown

100 S2
Example 3.18
at 16 cm jrom termination,
impedance. The SWR
=
2.5 and first voltage ninimum
MHZ. Determine the terminating impedance by uce
when the frequency is 100
space:
Smith Chart assuming the line is placed in fee
= 2.5
Given: Standing Wave Ratio
= 100
Characteristic impedance
Z
2
= 100 MHz
Frequency of the electrical signal
=
3x 108
x = 3 m
Wavelength of the électrical signal 7 100 106
The impedance circle is drawn with (1 +j0)

centre and 2.5 as radius on Smith
Chart (Smith Chart-6).

axis.
The first voltage minimum lies on the left
of
the Smith Chart along the X=0
The distance between the load and first voltage minimum =16 cm
16
Equivalently in wavelengths 2= 0.053
300
minimum
Moving in counter clockwise direction, i.e., from the first voltage
towards the load,
=
Normalized load impedance z,
=
0,44-j0.29
Zo
Z =
Hence, the terminating end impedance 44-j29 2
Page 155 of 443
Impedance Matching
|3.57|
9.
0.:
0.10
..o7
0.1
0.0532
SMITH CHART-6
RADIALLY SCALED PARALIETERS
CENTER
Smith Chart - 6
Page 156 of 443
3.58
Transnission Lines and RRF
Systems
Example 3.19 On atransmission line a
standing wave pattern is observed o
the voltage standing wave ratio is
found to be 3.0 and it is also noted thot s
Successive voltage minima are cm
12
30 apart. The first voltage minimum is found to
cm from the load. The length of
the line is 85.2 cn and the characteristic
impedance is 200 2.
Attenuation lossless can be neglected at such
high frequencies. Find
(i)Load impedance, (ii) Sending end impedance
Given: Characteristic impedance Zo
=2002
Standing Wave Ratio (SWR) = 3
Distance between two successive voltage minima = = 30 cm
Hence, = 60 cm
= Distance between first voltage
minimum and load = 12 cm
12
min 60 ^ 0.2 2.
I= Length of the given line = 85.2 cm
85.2 2 =
60
1.42 N
The impedance circle is drawn with (1 + j0) as centre and 3 as radius on the Smith
Chart (Smith Chart-7).
() Moving from the first voltage minimum, (towards the left of the X = 0axiS
of the Smith Chart) towards the load in the counter clockwise direction, by
0.2 2 to P'. The line OP is drawn. It cuts the impedance circle at P. This
point shows the normalized load impedance.
Normalized load z. = = 1.7-jl.35
Load impedance Z = 340-j270 S2

(ii) Moving towards the generator from the load in a clockwise direction by 0.42
(as 12' is equivalent to 2 complete revolution) to Q'. The line 0Q' is drawn.
It cuts the impedance circle at Q. This point shows the normalized sending
end impedance.
Normalized sending end impedance Zs '= =
Zo 2.4 +jl.1
Sending end impedance Zs = 480+ 220j 2
Page 157 of 443
mpedance Matching
3.59
Trans
mission li e Q5.2cm=
Ol42A
enerator
.
Jenftof
,92
the
|
0.1
between
distance
t
Cro
distance
trstvoltaßeminimum
between
Lmin Lodk
Lmin. =0.22
=
12 RADIALY SChiDPA,TEAS SMITH CHART -7
CENTER
- 7
Smith Chart
Page 158 of 443
Systerme
Transmission Lines and RF
3.60|
Zy: Measurements indicota
A transmission line is terminated in
EXample 3.20
are cm apart and that the last maximoi
wave voltagemaxima l02
triat the standing
35 cm from the load end of the line.
standing wave ratio is 2.4 and the value of the innt
the voltage
The value of
receiving end is terminated in same
S2 when the
impedance at sending end is 250
impedance.
Find (a) freguency being transmitted along
the line, if they are placed in the
free space.
(b) the real and reactive components the terminating impedance.
of
Given: Characteristic impedance Zo = 2502

SWR = 2.4
Distance between two successive voltage maxima , = 102 cm
(a) Wavelength 2 = 204 cm

3 x 108
Frequency = C = 147.1 MHz
f 2.04
(b) Lmox = Distance between last voltage maxima and load =35 cm
35 cm
max 204-cm
max = 0.1722 2.
The impedance circle is drawn with (1 +j0) as centre and 2.4 as radius on Smith
Chart. (Smith Chart-8)
The first voltage maxima from load or the last from the generator
lies along X=0
on the right of the Smith Chart.
Moving towards the load from the first voltage maxima
by 0.1722, in a counter
clockwise direction,to point P'.The straight line OP' dravwn.
is It cuts the impedance
circle at P. This point indicates the normalized terminating
impedance.
Normalized terminating impedance z. = 0.52
+j0.44
=
(0.52 +j0.44) x 250 S2
Terminating impedance Z = 130 +j110
Page 159 of 443
0.1 .12 distane

,10 .s4 maximaandt
0.1 beteen 192A
theload.
07 yirst
voltas,
,-,.
RATiLLY sCALED PARAMETERŠ

SMITH CHART -8
GENTER
-
Smith Chart 8
Page 160 of 443
Example quarter
3.21|Det the SWR, characteristic impedance of the
Determine
the load to
Vave transformer, and the distance the transformer must be placed from
match a 75 Qiransmission line to a load Z, = 25 -j50 S2.
Given: Characteristic impedance Z, = 75 S2
Load impedance Z = 25-j50 S2
Normalized load impedance Zo = 0.33 -j0.66
at P on Smith Chart (Smith Chart-9) and

The normalized load impedance is plotted
It cuts the X = 0 line on the right side at
S.
the normalized impedance circle is drawn.
SWR 4.6 [:: 0S = 4.6]
an ideal transmission line is purely resistive.
The characteristic impedance of
a distance from the load where the input
Therefore, if the QWT is located at
çan match the transmission line to the
impedance is purely resistive, the transformer
load.
There are two points S' and S on the impedance circle where the
input impedance
can be resistive; where the circle intersects X =0 line i. (0.22, 0) and (4.6, 0).
e.,
Therefore, the distance from the load to a point where the input impedance
is
two resistive input
purely resistive, is calculated in wavelength to the shortest of the
impedance point.
d = 0.098 2
Z, = 0.22 =
Zo
Z, = 0.22 x 75 = 16.5 Q
The characteristic impedance of quarter wave transformer is found from the

formula.
75 x 16.5 = 35.2 S2
Page 161 of 443
mpedance Matching 3.63
anee
afQWfrom Knstnaized
fedalee
fom
Load.
lo.402)
RADIALLY SCALED PARAMETERS SMITH CHART-9
CENTER
-
Smith Chart 9
Page 162 of 443
3.64|
Example 3.22 Determine the SWR, characteristic

impedance of a gWT, and
the distance the transformer
nust be placed to achieve a smooth
characteristic impedance Z, = 50 with a line with
2 load Z, = 75 + j60 S2
Given: Characteristic impedance
Z, = 50 2
Load impedance Z, =
75 +j60 2
Normalized load impedance 75 +j60 = 1.5+jl.2
50
The normalized load impedance is plotted at P on the Smith Chart
(Smith Chart
10) and normalized impedance circle is drawn. It cuts X = 0
line at S.
From the Smith Chart, SWR = 2.9
There are two points S' and S on the impedance circle where the
input impedance
can be resistive, where the impedance circle =
intersects X 0 line i.., 0.36 and 2.9.
The distance from the load to a point where the input impedance
is purely resistive
is calculated in wavelength to the shortest of the two resistive
input impedance point
(i.e., S = 2.9).
Distance at which the QWT must be placed from the load = 0.06
Zi=7=2.9
Z, = 2.9 Z,
Impedance of the QWT position Z, = 2.9 x 50 Q
=
Z, l45 Q
Characteristic impedance of QWT Z, = Z,x Zo
85.15 2
Page 163 of 443
mpedance Matching 3.65
0.t4
0.192
LoAD
m
19)0.06
QWT
-(0.25-0.
ef
cistane d
0.25A
.H
RADIALLY.SCALED PAA:ETENS SMITH CHART - 10
cENTEF.
-
Smith Chart 10
Page 164 of 443
3.66| Transmission Lines and RF Systere
= and n
Example 3.23 For a transmission line with a characteristic L 300 2
= SWR, the distance n
load with a complex impedance Z, 390 +j600 s2 Determine
the length of the
shorted stub must be placed from the load to smoothen the line, and
stub.
Given: Characteristicimpedance Zo = 3002
Load impedance
Z =
390 +j600 2
390+j600 1.3 +j2
Normalized load impedance Z = =
300
on Smith Chart (Smith Chart-11) at A
The normalized load impedance is plotted as
is also drawn with as centre at (1, 0) and with OA
O
and the impedance circle

radius.
From the Chart, OS = SWR = 4.8
opposite to the normalized load
The normalized load admittance is diametrically
Y = 0.22 -j0.35
impedance at B. i.e.,
a C on the impedance circle
The admittance point B is rotated clockwise to point
y
where it intersects the R= l circle. At this point admittance =1+jl.8
Re(Z) load admittance is the
The distance between this point where =1 and the
distance from the load, at which the shorted stub must be placed.
d
=
(0.682 – 0.442) = 0.24 2
an exactly opposte
The stub must have zero resistance and an susceptance that has
value at E. i.e., y stub = 0-jl.8
The stub is short circuited to avoid radiation losses hence the distance/length
of
stub is calculated from the right side of chart at (X= 0) at D.

Length of the stub distance between D and E
i.e., 1 = 0.25 - 0.18 2 = 0.07 2
Single stub
Page 165 of 443
STUB2
-0.442
.682
beh .24
distane d=
DAP, ront fetthe
aotlre
SHOKT
CIRCLD
Ro
0.07
0.EsA
E9jee
SMITH CHART -1
RAJiALLY SCALED PAPAAIETEPS
CENTEa
-
Smith Chart 11
Page 166 of 443
RF Syxtems
3.68
line with a
characteristic inpedance Z,
transmission
a
Determine SWR,he
Example 3.24 For = 45 -jl002
impedance Z,
and a load wilh acapacitive to
to
match the load the line,
o32 a placed from the load
distance shorted stub nust be
and the length tlhe stub.
of
Characteristic impedance Zo = 75 2
Given:
= 45-j100 2
impedance Z
Load
45-j100 = 0.6-j 1.33
Z 75
Normalized load impedance
Chart-12) a
on the Smith Chart (Smith
impedance is plotted
The normalized load
circle is drawn.
A and the impedance
Chart, SWR = 4.8
From the Smith to the normalized load
opposite
admittance is diametrically
The normalized load Y, = 0.3 +j0.6
impedance at B i.e.,
to a point C on
the
a clockwise direction
is rotated in admittance,
The admittance point l circle. At this point C
impedance circle. Where it
intersects the R=
y=l+jl1.7. distance from the load to the
two points B and C is the
The distance between these
location of the stub.
i.e., d = (0.18 -0.094)
. = 0,086 2.
oppos:t
zero resistance and an susceptance that hasan exactly
The stub must have
value at E.
i.e., ytub = 0-jl.7
of the chart (X 0) at Do
The length of the stub is measured from the right side
the point E.
| = 0.25 2. -0.166
,
=0.084
.
Page 167 of 443
Inpedance Matching
|3.69
distnce
and betue
sTVB,d0-18-o Ehe
2
d-0.O86Aloo
09
R=o
SHORTeD
STUB
UR
K+90-0Jes

SMITH CHART - 12
CENTER
-
Smitlh Chart 12
Page 168 of 443
3.70 TransmÁSsion Lines and RF Systean
Example 3.25 What are the short-comings of the single stub matching?
must be attached to the line with a characteristic impedance et
lengths of shorted stub
power, if loadi
300 S2 to uchieve u smooth line and maximize the received
75 + 225j s2?
at a definit
Single-stub impedance matching requires that the stub be located
point on the line.
This is undesirable since this point may be physically inaccessible.
For a coaxial line, it is not possible to determine the location of the voltage
minimum without a slotted section, so the location of the stub be an cxact required
point that is virtually impossible.
In case of the single stub matehing there are two requirements:
distance of the stub from the load
()
(i) length of the stub
Double stub matching requires the stub lengths but their exact position can be
arbitrary.
The spacing is frequently kept as 2./4.
).14
Fig. 3.14.
For smooth line operation, the input inmpedance at 2-2 must
be,
There is no possibility of reflection. Hence, the point 2-2 must

havean admittark
(Since, stub is shunted hence it is casy to deal in terms
of admittanee).
=
Y, 1+j b,
Page 169 of 443
mpe
Since, if a stub with an admittance ± b, is shunted at 2-2 then the input impedance
at 2-2 is the characteristic impedance.
circle A for Y/G=1which is the locus of all points for which the real part
A of
the
ine conductance is unity, isdrawn in dotted lines.
Yin
i.e., = 1
±j ba
Yo
Anywhere on this circle the impedance can be.equaled to characteristic impedance
by cancelling outjb,:
If the distance between the two stub is /4' then shifting all the points by
0.252 = 180° to the LHS of the Smith Chart, the locus of second circle B as shown in
dotted lines is got.
Hence, stub 1 must transform the impedance of the remaining line and load to its
right to an input impedance at 1-1 such that it lies on the circle on the RH of the
Smith Chart.
The line transforns this on to the circle on LH, length of the lin being '2/4
thereby following the impedance
Stub 2 can now cancel the reactive part of the admittance, allowing the smooth line
operation.
Z = 300
Characteristic impedance 2
Load impedance Z, = 75 +j225 S
Normalized load impedance = 0.25 +j0.75
Y
Lo
Normalized load admittance yL
300
75 +j225 0.4-j1.2 mho
This normalized load admittance is entered in the Smith Chart (Smith Chart-13),
Stub I adds a susceptance in parallel and this

must change to a value Yo which
Yo
lies on locus circle B at P. Stub

1
cannot alter the conductance, so following a
Constant-conductance circle from load admittance
y
locates points P on the circle B.
= 0.4-0.5
i.e., Ys
A circle with
O
as center and 'OP as radius is drawn.
Page 170 of 443

3.72
= 0.334
40-25
t16)4 9.12
(o.5-0.
Stub2
0.2sA-
-0.166
O-0D2
- .
SMITH CHART - 13
RADIALLY SCALED PARMIETEAS
CENTER
-
Smith Chart 13
Page 171 of 443
It cuts circle A at Q (diametrically opposite to P).

i.e., ys = 1+j1.2
To provide proper termination at 2.2,

Y,
Yo
should be 1
+j0.
The lengths of stub can be found from the chart.

Length of the stub 1 = P'Q' = ls = 0.334
Length of the stub2 = Q' =
l = 0.082
Example 3.26 What lengths of short circuited stubs must be attached to the
line with a characteristic impedance of 75 Qio achieve the maximum power transfer
to a load of 3 7.5 +j97.5 S2?
Given: Characteristic impedance Zo = 75 2

Load impedance Z, = 37.5 +j97.5 S2
Normalized load impedance ZL Z

Z
37.5 + j97.5
0.5 +j1.3
75
YL
Normalized load admittance yL
Y, Z
75
0.25-j0.68
37.5 +j97.5
The dotted circle A for Y/G=1 is drawn.
Since the distance between the two stub is /4, this circle is rotated by 2/4 = 180°.
The new circle B is drawn in dotted line.
Normalized load admittance y,= 0.25- j0.68 is entered in the Smith Chart
(Chart-14).
Y
must change to a value which

Stub 1
adds a susceptance in parallel and this Yo
lies on circle -B. Stub
1
cannot alter the conductance, So following a constant
conductance circle from load admittance
y
locates point ys on circle B.
= 0.25-j0.44
Yo
3.74| Page 172 of 443
C05-043)2. 0.322
-o.25t
Stub)
of
Ls,tlenfth
RADILY SCALENASA E
SMITH CHART- 14
cENTER
Smith Chart- 14
Page 173 of 443
Impedance Matching
3.75
The normalized input
admittance at 1-1 = 0.25
A circle
with O: as center and Ove as radius –j0.44
is drawn. It cuts circle
(diametrically opposite to ysi). A at y's
i.e., ys2 = 1+j1.7
To provide proper termination: at 2-2, should be 11 +j0.
Thelengths of the stub can
be found from the chart
Length of the stub 1 = P'O' =
si = 0.32
Length of the stub 2 = Q'0' = = 0,07. l2
Example 3.27 A lossless transmission line of length
0.434n
and characteristic
impedance 100S2 is termninated in an impedance 260 + j180
wave 2 Find the standing
ratio, reflection coefficient, the input inpedance and the location a
maximum on the line.
of voliage
Given: Length of the transmission line =0.434 2
Characteristicimpedance Zo = 1002
Load impedance Z, = 260 +j180 S2
Normalized load impedance z = 260 +j180 = 2.6 +jl.8

Zo 100
Locate the normalized load impedance z point with coordinates (R = 2.6 and
X=1.8) onthe Smith Chart (Point P) as shown in Chart.
Draw the impedance circle with the centre (Point O) of the chart and distance from
centre to point P as radius. SWR is directly read from the intersection of the
mpedance circle on the right side i.e., OS = SWR= 4.2.
K S-1 4.2-1 =
Reflection coefficient =
S+2 4.2 + 0.615 1
to
A straight line OP is drawn fromn the centre of the Smith chart and extended
roint P' on the outer circle (length at this point
P
is 0.218 2). The point P' is rotated
in a clockwise direction by 0.434 A to the point Q (ength at this point Q' is at
0.152
2).
= (0.25 -0.218) 4
I(0.5 0.218) 2 + 0.152 A =0.434 2]
–
= =
The phase angle of reflection coefficient
T
0.128 230
0.615 230
Reflection coefficient
Page 174 of 443
3.76) Transmi:sion Lines and RF Systeme
O-434A
RAD:ALLY SCALED PARAMETEÄS SMITH ciART - 15
CENTER
Smith Chart - 15
Page 175 of 443
Impedance Matching
3.77
The straight line is
drawn between the points O and
circle at
point Q. The point where this 0' and it cuts the impedance
line cuts the impedance circle
input impedance. is the normalized
There, the normalized
input impedance is 0.66+j1.2
The input impedance
Z, = 100(0.66 +j1.2)
66 +j120 S2
The voltage maximum Occurs at the distance from
of wavelength from the the load can be found in terms
chart (i.e., distance between the point S
(0.25 -0.218) 2 = 0.032 2. and P) =
Example 3.28 The input impedance of a

short circuited lossy transmnission line
of
length 2m and the characteristic impedance
75 S2 is 45 +j225
(a) Find a and
2
ß ofa line.
(b)Determine the input impedance if the short circuit is replaced by a
load
impedance of 67.5-j45 2.
Given: Z = 67.5 -j45 2; Zo =75 2;
45 S2;Z,= +j225 l=2 m
(a) The short circuit load is entered as point Psr on the extreme left
of the Smith
Chart (Chart-16).
Normalized input impedance z,=

Z, 45 +j225 =
75 0.6+j3 2
Normalized impedance is entered as point P, in the Smith Chart.

A straight line OP, is drawn from the origin O and extended to P on the outer
circle at 0.197 2.
OP; 7.5 =
The ratio OP, and OP, i.e., 0.88
OP 8.5
o-2 al = 0.88
2x2 n=0.032
ln Np/m
1' = 0.197 2
Page 176 of 443
3.78| Transmission Lines and RF System:
2B1 = 2.
= 4n (0.197) = 0.788 T
B =
0.788 t
21
0.788 T =
0.197 n rad/m
4
(b) Normalized load impedance z, =z

67.5
+j45- 0.9+j0.6 2
75
The normalized load impedance is cntered in at
the Smith Chart (Chart-16)
point P,.
A straight line OP, is drawn from the origin and extended to P, on the outer
.
circle at 0.364
An impedance circle with 0' as center and OP, as radius is drawn.
The point P, is shifted
towards generator) at 0.061 .
to P: along the outer circle by 0.197 2 (wavelength
Point P, and origin O are joined by a straight line.

It cuts impedance circle at P3.:
A point P, OP,
ismarked on OP, such that =
0.88
OP3
Point P, shows z, =
0.65 +j0.28
Input Z, = z,Z, = (0.65 +
j0.28) 75
Z, = 48.75
+j212
Page 177 of 443
Impedance Matching
|3.79|
RADIALLY SCALEUPAPANNETEFiS SMITH CHART 16
CENTER
-
Smith Chart 16
Page 178 of 443
|3.80|
a single
a
stub match for load
of 150 +j225 ohms for
Example 3.29| Design
75 ohms line at 500MHZ using smith chart.

= 150 +j225 2
Data: Z,
Z, = 75 2
500 MHz
=
500x 10 Hz
f=
C
3 x x108 = 0.6m
500 106
Normalized load,
Z7
150 +j225 =
2+j3
75
The normalized load impedance is plotted at A on Smith chart and impedance
circle is also drawn. From the chart SWR is obtained as s = 4.8.
The normalized load admittance is diametrically opposite to the normalized load
=
impedance at B, i.e., Y
0.18-j0.25
The admittance point is rotated clockwise to a point C on the impedance circle
where it intersects the R=1 circle. At this point admittance y = 1 +j2.2.
The distance between the point C and point B is the distance of stub from the
load (d).
.
d = 0.31 -0.038 2 = 0.272 2
= 0.272 x 0.6 = 0.1632 m
The stub must have zero resistance and an susceptance that has an exactly opposite
value at E is yuh 0-j2.2.
The length of the stub between E and origin (X = 0),
| = 0.25 2 -0.18 2
= 0.07
= 0.07 x 0.6
= 0.042 m
Page 179 of 443
Impedance Matching
|3.81
SMITH -CHART
IMPEDANCE OR ADMITTANCE
COORDINATES
bata
Datanea
elv
PÀC
-0.072
RAOIALLY SCALED PARAMETERS
TOWAAo OAD
CENTER
Page 180 of 443
Exampe 3.30 502 transmission line is connected to a load impedanes

A
Z, = 60 + j802 The operating frequency is 300 MHz. DOUBLI

.
A
spaced on eighth of a wavelength apart is used to match the load to the

line. Find
required lengths of the short circuited stub using smith chart.

=
Data: Ro= 50 2; Z
60 +j80 2.
60+j80 =
ZL 1.2+jl.6
50
1 0.3-j0.4
ZL
3x 108
=
C = lm
300x 106
"wavelength toward
'B' for Y/G=1is drawn. This circle is rotated by 1/8
A circle
4T
load" in anticlockwise direction (by an angle =90°).
of
8
It is called 'A' circle.

= Smith chart. Since
Normalized load admittance Y, 0.3 -j0.4 is entered in the
locates a point (move Y, on 0.3 circle)
PA
Y,
stub 1 cannot alter the conductance
and PA on A circle.
VAI
= 0.3 +j0.29
VA2= 0.3 +j1.75

PR and PRo on the circle B' for Y/G
Using compass centred at origin O the points
respectively.
-l corresponding to the points and PA
PA
VBI = 1+jl.38
VB2=1-j3.5
Stub lengths A and a2
- 0.3
VsA = VAI-L= 0.3 +j0.29 +j0.4
= j0.69
O'sA) = yA2-V
=
0.3 +j1.75 – 0.3 +j0.4 = j2.15
lengu
Points A, and A, are located on the Smith chart and their corresponding
are 0.0962 and 0.1812.
lAI = (0.096 +0.25) A = 0.346 = 0.346 m
la2 = (0.181 +0.25) = 0.43 1 = 0.431 m
Page 181 of 443
Impedance Matching |3.83
SMITH - CHART
COORDINATES
.11
cEPTANG
chart S
cickl
B'
aAx': o-s4b
Aaax': o-431 Bute
Nhre 1m. RADIALLY SCALED PARAMETERS
ondine CENTER
Page 182 of 443
3.84| Systen
Sublength and g2>

Ose)) = jl.38
OsB) = j3,5
on the chart at 0.35A and 0.2062 respectively
Points B, and B, are noted
= 0.l = 0.1m
la = 0.35 –0.25
= = 0.456 m
lao= 0.206 + 0.25 0.456
wavelenol
70 S2 loss less line is used at frequency where
A
a
Example 3.31
reflectio
(2) equals 80 cm terminated by
a
load of (140 + j91) s2 Find the
coefficient, VSWR and input inpedance using Smith chart.
Given: Characteristic impedance Zo= 70 2
Load impedance Z, = (140++j91) S2
80 cm = 0.8m
=
Normalized load impedance ZL

Zo
140 + j91 =
2+jl.3
70
Plotting the normalized load impedance z, at P on the Smith chart. The
impedam
as
circle is drawn with (1 +j0) as centre
0
and OP radius, From this OP reflecie
coefficient K is obtained and SWR is measured as OS.
SWR = OS = 3
S-1
K= S+1
= 0.5
Extending OP to A at 0.21 outer circle

Phase angle = (0.25 – 021) x 47 = 28.5°
K= 0.5 Z28.3°
Page 183 of 443
Impedance Matching |3.85
IMPEDANCE OR ADMITTANCE COORDINATES
O.Js
0.11
cONOucTA
910
Sro
RADIALLY SCALED PARAMETE RS
CENTER
Page 184 of 443
n
|Example 3.32 A 7575 S2 lossless transmission line is to be itsmatched
A with
from
(100-j80) 2 load using single stub. Calculate the stub length and distance
the load corresponding to the frequency 30 MHz using Smith chart.
of
Given:
= 100-j80 2
30 MHz
f=
C
3x 108
30 × 10
= 10m
Normalized load impedance z = ZL
100 -j80 = 1.33 -jl.067

75
The normalized load impedance z, is marked in Smith chart at P and the
impedance circle with (1 +j0) as centre '0' and “OP' as radius.
From chart SWR = 0S = 2.5
The normalized load admittance is diametrically opposite to the normalized load
impedance at Q is V,.-0.46 +j0.36. is moved in clockwise direction to a point A
on the impedance circle where it intersects R= 1
circle i.e., at 1
+j0.956.
The distance between Q and A is the distance from the load to the location of the
stub
d
=
0.1605 -0.0655 2 = 0.095 2.
0.095 x 10
= m
0.95
The stub must have zero resistance and susceptance that has an exactly opposite
value at C i.e., ysub =0-j0.095.
= 0))
The length of the stub is measured from the right side of the chart (X at B to
the point C.
-
l== (0.379 0.25) = 0.129 2
0.129 × 10 = 1.29 m
Page 185 of 443
Inmpedance Matching
3.87|
IMPEDANCE OR ADMITTANCE COORDINATES

tbo52~.0655a)
. 0.[ O.12
O.0 o.90 0.P
O.s
0.09
. ()
couOMCH .33
sKPTANCE
C4 C.Ie
0.02
itHHHA
T
oucri
kbLEo)

tpsIrotvr
CENTER
Page 186 of 443
Example 3.33 A 50 S2lossless transmission line is lerminated in a o.

impedance ofZ, = 25 +j50 12 Usethe Smith chart to find:
(1) Voltage reflection coeficient.
(2) VSW.
(3) Input impedance ofthe line, given that thelineis 3.32 long, and
(4) Input admittance ofthe line.
Given: Zo = 50 2
=
Z, 25 +j 50 2
Normalized load impedance Z25+j50 -0.5 +j
Z= Z, 50
The normalized load impedance 7, is plotted at P on the Smith chart and

impedance circle is with O (1 + j0) centre is drawn. SWR is directly read from
intersection of the impedance circle and X = 0 line on the right side ie., OS = 4.3.
SWR = 4.3
A straight line OP is drawn from and is extended to P' on the outer circle at
0.135
.
The phase angle of reflection coefficient = (0.25 -0.135) 4n = 82.8°
=
0.62 Z82.8°
S+1
Rotate P' in a clockwise direction by 3.3 2 i.e., 0.3 2 to the point Q' at 0.435
(0.135 2 +0.3 2).

The straight line OQ' is drawn and it cuts the impedance circle at Q.
The normalized input impedance Zijn = 0.275-j0.405
Input impedance Z = Zi, Zo = (0.275-j0.405) 50

= (13.75 -j20.25)
Zin 2
Diametrically oppositë point of Zin gives normalized input admittance y,"
V, = 1.125 +j1.675
Input admittance Yin = Yi, Z0
= (1.125 +jl.675) 50
=(56+j83.75)
Page 187 of 443
mpedance Matching
|3.89|
COORDINATES
0-352
0.t.
G.32
90
HttALII
o.4)52
o
40
RADIALLY SCALED PARANETERS
¿NTER
Page 188 of 443

|3.90|
to an antenna with
50 sQ lossless feeder line is to be matched
Example 3.34 A stub. Calculate the stub length
MHz using single shorted
Z1 = (75 -j 20) S2at 100
antenna and stub using Smith chart.
and distance between the
= 502
Given:
Z = (75 -j20) S2
100 MHz
.f=
3x 108
100 x 100
= 3 mn
75-j20 = 1.5-j0.4
= S0
Normalized load impedance Z
plotted at P on the Smith chart and the.
is
Normalized load impedance Z,
circle with '0' centre and OP as radius is drawn.
impedance
as SWR = 1.7
From the'smithchart OS read load
is diametrically opposite to the normalized
admittance
The normalized load
impedance at Q i.e.,
V
=0.62 +j0.17.
where it
dircction to a point A on the impedance circle
V, is moved in clockwise
1 +j0.525.
intersects R =1circle i.e., at location of the
between Q and A is the distance from the load to the
The distance
stub. 2
d = 0.1455 -0.0415
= 0.104 2
x3 =
m
0.104 0.312
zero resistance and susceptance that has an exactly opposite

The stub must have
value atC i.e., Ystub =0-j0.525.
= 0) at B to
The length of the stub is measured fom the right side of the chart (X
the point C. , = 0.173 2
l= (0.423-0.25)
= 0.173 x 3 = 0.519 m
Page 189 of 443
3.91
Impedance Matching
JMPEDANCE OR ADITTANCE COORDINATES

zC312m
0.104 0.12 0.3
-Oo-4152) 0.04
O.rs
o40
O,
j4557
0.4 coMPONCNT(2e
o4 .3:
THHfiAI
o.0
400 2
c-
RADIALLY SCALED PARAMETERs
"OVAkt cENEA10A -
CENTER
Page 190 of 443
Systeme
3.92| ANSWERS:
MARK QUESTIONS AND
TWO transmission line to
a 200 olhms load to
a 300 ohnns
to match characteristic
1. It is required What nust be the
line to 1. directly
reduce the SWR along the transformer used forthis purpose if it is
wave
impedance of the quarter
coninected to tlhe load?
Zin = 300 ohms
Z = 200 ohms
ZR = V(300) (200)
Zo
=Zn
244.94 ohms
source
to match a load of 200S2 to a
wave transformer
2. Design a quarter
200 MHZ.
resistance S002 The operating frequency is
Z = 200 2
Data:
= 5002
200 MHz
f- 108
C 3x
=
200 x 10
2 = 1.5 m
1.5 =
Length of quarter wave line
=
4 4
0.375 m or37.5 cm
= V 200 x 500
Characteristic impedance, Z, = V Z Z.
Z, = 316.22 2
3. Design a quarter wave transform to natch a load of 200 S2 to a source
resistance 500 S2 The generator frequency is 200 MHL.
Given: Zs = 500 2, Zp = 200 Q. MHz f=200
Characteristic impedance Z = | Zs IR |=V s00 x 200
= 316.22 m
For quarter wave line' x =

4
C 3x 108
= 1.5 m
2x 108
= 0.375 m
4
Page 191 of 443
nedane Matching 393

Name fewapplications of half-wave line.
() One to one transformer.
(ii) Used to connect a load to a source when the load and source cannot be
made adjacent.
5. What are constant S circles?
The input impedance equation for a dissipationless line if expressed in terms
of standing wave ratio S, results in the form of a circle. These circles are called as
constant S circle.
Since, the minimum value of S is unity, S circles surround the 1, 0 point.
6. Explain how Smith chart can be used as an admittance chart.
The Smith chart may be used as an admittance chart, the R and X axes
becomes g and b axes, with the usual implication that capacitive susceptance is
positive above and inductive susceptance below the V or real axis. The point at
the leftof the conductance of g axis then represents zero conductance or an open
or a short
circuit, while the point at extreme right represent infinite conductance
circuit.
7. What are the advantages of double stubmatching over single stub matching?
at
(1) Double stub matching does not require that the stub should be placed
definite point on the line like single stub matching.
(ii) Double stub matching requires only the length of the stubs being
changed
over the transmission line can
while the position (or location) of the stubs
over single stub matching.
arbitrary. This a definite advantage
be is
8. What is stub matcing?
impedance and the
For the maximum transfer of powe, the sending end
should be matched perfect. In
receiving end impedance of a transmission line
not perfect. So, a stub is placed on the
practical cases, this impedance matching is
maximum power transfer.
transmission line and its length position is adjusted for
This is called stub matching.
Give the nanes of circles
on Smith chart.
on Smith chart are
The names of circles
(i) -
Constant R circles.
(i)Constant-X circles.
Page 192 of 443
3.94|
Smith Chart.
10. Mention two applications
of
SWR, sending end impedance and load admittance.

Determination of
()
matching problem may be easily carried out
The solution of the stub
-
(ii)
using a Smith chart
Smitlh Chart. of
11. List the advantages admittance of a transmission
can be used to find the impedance and
() It
line. maxima can be easily found out.
voltage minimaand
(ii) The position of stub matching problem
can be
location of stub in
(iii) The position and
solved using smith chart.
of singlestub matching?
12. What are the limitations
Limitations of single stub matching
at a definite point
on the line.
stub should be placed
() Itrequires the and
two adjustment should be made, these being location
(i) It requires that
the length of the stub.
Clhart?
utilized for formulatingthe Smith
13. What is thetransfornation as
utilized for formulating the Smith chart is called
The transformation
Bilinear or Molius transformation.
to an open cicuited stub?
14. Why shortcircuited stub is preferred
stub is preferred over an open circuited stub for the reason
The short circuited
the short at any desired
that the length of stub is easily alterable by moving
length of stub.
15. Distinguish between single and double stub matching.
Single Stub Matching Double Stub Matching

(i) It has one stub to match the It requires two stub for impedance
transmission line impedance. matching.
(i) 'It necessities both length and It requires only to alter the length or
location of stub to be altered for stubs for matching.
matching.
(ii) It requires stub should be placed The location of
stub is arbitrary.
on a
definiteplace on a line.
Page 193 of 443
16. On what mathematical formulation are the curves, circles etc., of a Smith chart
obtained?
The curves, circles of the Smith chart are obtained by the bilinear
transformation.
17, Wly is single stub matching inaccurate on coaxial line?

For a coaxial line, it is not possible to determine the location of a voltage
minimum without a slotted line section, so that the placement of a stub is
extremely difficult at the required point. Hence the single stub matching is
inaccurate on a coaxial line.
18. What is the importance ofaquarter wave line? or Mention the uses of quarter
line?
The impedance of a quarter wave line is that it matches the load with the
source andensures that maximum power is being transferred to load. The quarter
wave line may be used as
() an impedance inverter
as antenna
(ii) couple a transmission line to resistive load such
a
(iii) serve as an insulator to support an

open wire line.
wave transformer?
19. What is thefunctionaloperation of quarter
A quarter-wave section of line
may be thought as a transformer to match a
a match can be obtained if the
load Z ohms to a source of Z ohms. Such .
as R Z,
characteristic impedance Ro of matching line is given =|/Z,
an inpedance transformer?
be used as
20. How
tappedAI4 line can
wave may be considered as an impedance inverter in that it can
A quarter line
versa. This effect is
transfornm low impedance into a high impedance and vice
zero impedance short
illustrated by ./4 short circuited line in transforming the
Circuited termination to an apparent
open circuit and of the open circuited A/4
Iine in transferring the open circuited termination
to a low value of an apparent
short circuit.
stub.
expression to determine the length the
21. Write down of
the
l, = 2T
tan-1 -K2
2| K|
Page 194 of 443
3.96|
1, = tan
or
27 (Z-Z)
where K is the reflection constant
2 is the wavelength.
Z, is the load impedance.
Z, is the characteristic impedance.
22. Write down the expression to determine the position of the stub.
1, =¢ 2T +
[ +-cos|K|]
or tan-!
2T
where is the angle of reflectioncoefficient.
K is the reflection coefficient.
is the wavelength.
Z
is the load impedance.
Z, is the characteristic impedance.
EXERCISES
1. Discuss how a Smith chart is constructed and explain its applications.
2. Originating from the bilinear transformation derive the analytical formulation of
the Smith chart for a iossless transmission line.
3. Derive from first principles how the Smith Chart
analytical equations can be
obtained from abilinear transformation. Is the Smith chart an
approximation?
4. Enumerate the advantages of Smith chart, single stub and double
stub matching
on a line.
5. Explain, with diagrams, the method of deriving constant S circles and constant Bs
circles used for impedance determination. IMlustrate one application.
6. Derive from first principles, the resistance and reactance circles converging
through the centre of the Smith chart.
7. Obtain from first principles, the Smith chart formulation using the bilinear
transformation. Explain how double stub matching is undertaken.
Page 195 of 443
ImpedanceMatching
3.97
R
Explain the following:
(a) Single stub matching, (b) Double stub matching.
What are the features a quarter wave
of transformer? Discuss its properties.
9.
10 A single stub tuner is to match a lossless line of 400
2 to a load of
800 -j300 S2. The frequency is.3 GHZ. Find the distance from the load and
determine the length of the stub. (1.42m, 0.0135 m).
11. A line of Zo = 300 S2 is connected to a load of 732, for frequency of 40 MHz.
Find the length and location of the nearest load stub to produce an
ofa single
impedance match. (69 cm, 106.9 m).
12. A 30OS2 line feeding an antenna has a standing wave ratio of 4 and the distance
from the load of the first voltage minima is 6 cm. If the frequency is 150 MHz,
design a single stub matching the system to eliminate the standing wave from the
maximum possible length of the line. (81 cm, 51 cm).
13. A lossless line 2 long has a normalized input impedance of 1.2 +j0.95. Find
the normalized load impedance and standing wave ratio.
14. An antenna, as load on a transmission line, produces a standing wave ratio of 3
with a voltage minimum 0.12 from the antenna terminals. Find the antenna
impedance and the reflection coefficient at the antenna, if characteristic
impedance is 300Q for the line.
a wave ratio
15. A lossless line terminated in a resistance is found to have standing
matches
of 4. The characteristic impedance is 100 S2. A short circuited stub that
the line to the load is placed less than 2/8
from the load.
resistance?
(a) What is the value of the load
wave lengths?
(6) What is the stub length in
a
l6. Determine the sending end impedance of lossless line
whose data is given
below
2, length of the line =4.2
..
bo=70S, Z =20 +j100
a line. Calculate the
17. A load impedance. of 40 -j80S2 is connected to 100 2
the line of length 0.7A.
reflection coeffcient at the load, input impedance of
length of the stub
connected to the above load impedance. Determine the
susceptance utilizing the Smith chart.
required to connect the
Page 196 of 443

3.98
18. A
SWR on a
lossless line is found toand the successive voltage minimum
be 5
is observed to be 15 cm from the

are 40
Cm apart. The first voltage minimum
load. The length of the line is 160 cm and the characteristic impedance is
300 S2.Using Smith chart determine
(a) The load impedance; (b) The sending end impedance.
19. Using Smith chart, find the length, termination and location nearest to the load of
a single stub to produce impedance matching for a line of characteristic
impedance of 500 S2 connected to a load of 63 2 if the frequency is 50 MHz.
DO
Page 197 of 443
WAVEGUIDES
A4 ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES BETWEEN PARALLEL PLANES
The electromagnetic waves that are guided along or over conducting or

dielectric
surfaces are called guided waves. Examples of guided waves are
the electromagnetic
waves along ordinary
parallel wire and coaxial transmission lines, waves in
waveguides and the waves that are guided along the earth's surface from a
radiotransmitter to the receiver.
Consider an electromagnetic wave propagating between a pair of parallel perfectly
conducting planes of infinite extent in the y and z directions as shown in Fig.4.1.
X=a
x =0
Fig. 4.1. Parallel conducting guiles
Maxwell's equations will be solved to determine the elecctromagnetic field

cOntigurations in the rectangular region.
Maxwell's equations for a non-conducting rectangular region are given as

Vx = j0E
H
= -j o p H
VxE
Page 198 of 443
Transmission Lines and RF Systenme
a,
=
VxH Ox .ôy Oz
H, H, H,
OH, OH,
OH, OH,
OH, OH, + a,
=
+ 4y oz ax ây,
Qy .8z
E; +.a, E, + a, E,
=j0 [4,
on both sides,
Equating x, andz components
y
OH, OH, =
z jotE;
ôy
oH, =
.. (4.1)
Ox
jocE,
Oz
H, OH,
= jo:E,
Ox ôy
a, ay
=
Similarly, VxE Ox ôy Ôz
E, Ey E,
ÔE, OE,
+ a, Ox ôy
ôy Ôz Ox
= -j o [a, H, + a,
H, + a. H,]
Page 199 of 443
Waveguides 4.3
Equating, y and z components on both sides,

AE, OE,
oy -joyH,
OE, OE,
@x -jouH, (4.2)
OE, OE,
ôx y -jopH,
The wave equation is given by
y²E =
E
=
y'H y'H
y =
where (o+joæ) jo)
For a non-conducting medium, it becomes
= o'ueE
v'E -
V'H = - o'ueH
aE +
aE + E -ouE
=
aH +
a'H +
aH =
-o'ucH ... (4.3)
assumed that the propagation is in the z direction and the variation of feld
It is
components in this z direction may be expressed in the form eY
where Y is propagation constant.
Y =a +jß
attenuation.
If a=0, wave propagates without
an exponential decrease
If a is real i.e.. B=0, there is no wave motion but only
in amplitude.
e
Let H, = H
aHy = -y H e =-y H,
OH,
Similarly,
= -y Hg
Page 200 of 443
|4.4
= e
Let E, E
OE,
Similarly
ôz
=-yE,
There is no variation in the y direction ie., derivative of y is zero. Substituting the
values of z derivatives and yderivatives in the equations (4.1), (4.2) and (4.3).
yH, = ja0EE,
OH.
- yH, =
joeE,
... (4.4)
Ox
=
Ox jo:E,
YE, = -jouH,
- yE, =-jouH, ... (4.5)
ôx
- jopH,
oE + y'E = -o'ueE
a'H - o'ucH
ay2 tyH = ... (4.6)
where = y'E and a'H

Solving the equations (4.4) and (4.5), the fields H,, H,, E, and E, can be found out.
To solve H,
ôH, -
-y H, Ox jocE,
YE, =-jouH,
From the above equations,
H, =
jou
11 OH,
E, = joe* + ax
Page 201 of 443
Waveguides 4.5
Substitutingthe value of E, in the above equation,
OH,
H, = jou yH, ax
+
OH,1
H, o'ueYH
H,-[H ax
OH,
dx
OH.
H, :
oH,
H, = Gx
where h² = y'+ o' ue

To solve H, YE, + = jouH, [From eqn. (4.5)]
Gx
yH, = jocE, [From eqn. (4.4)]
From the above equations,

j0E
H,
OE,
E, = jouH, Ox
Substituting the value of E, in the above equation,
H, = ax
- o'uE
H, = Hy
H, 1+9'E -
jo ôE,
OE.
(y + ouE) = -jo:
H, ôx
Page 202 of 443
4.6
H, =
-j08
(y²+ ous) ôx
h = y+ o'ue
-jo: ôE.
H, =
To solve E
= [From eqn. (4.5))

YE, + Ox jopH,
H, = Log E, [From eqn. (4.4)]
Substituting the value of H, in the above equation,
YE, + ax - jop E,
= E,
OE,
YE, +
E.|y+0uE =
OE,
Y
ôE.
E,[y²+ o'us] = -Y
Ôx
E, = 2 Ox
To solve Ey:
yH, + ax = -josEy [From eqn. (4.5))
H, eqn. (4.4)
jou |From
Substituting the value of H, in the above equation,
-yE, +
OH,
=
jou Ox -joE
OH,
+ jo8 -
Ljou Ox
Page 203 of 443
Waveguides 4.7|
OH.
E, [y+ o'ue ] = jop
Ôx
oH,
E, =
1vhere
The components of electric and magnetic field strengths (Eg, E,, H, and H,) are
exDressed in terms of E, and H,. It is observed that there must be a z component of
either E or H; otherwise all the components would be zero. Although in a general case
both E. and H, may be present at the same time, it is convenient to divide the
solutions intotwo sets. In the first case, there is a component of E in the direction of
propagation (E.), but no component of H in this direction. Such waves
are called E
waves or Transverse magnetic(TM) waves. In the second case, there' is a component
of H in the direction of propagation (H.), but no component of E in this direction.
Such waves are called H waves or Trasverse Electric (TE) Waves.
4.2. TRANSVERSE ELECTRIC WAVES
Transverse electric (TE) waves are waves in which the electric field strength E is
entirely transverse. It has a magnetic field strength H, in the direction of propagation
same direction. (E, = 0).
and no component of electric field E, in the
Substituting the value of E, =0 in the following equations.
E. and H, 2 Ox
Then E,
= 0 and H, =0
The wave equation for the component E,
= - o'ueE,
+y'E,
- o'ucE, -E,
=-(o'uE +y) E,
But 42 = y'+ o'us
a'E, +
hE, = 0
Page 204 of 443
4.8
This is a differential equation of simple harmonic

motion. The solution of this
equation is given by
Ey = C,
sin hx + C, cos hx
where C, and C, are arbitrary constants.
IfE, isexpressed in time and direction (E, = E

e), then the solution becomes,
(C, sin hx +C, cos hx)

= e
E,
"The arbitrary constants C, and C, are determined from the boundary conditions.
The tangential component of E is zero at the surface of conductors for all values
of z.
E, = 0 at x= 0
E, = 0 at x=a
Applying the first boundary condition (x=0)
0 = 0+ Cy
C, = 0
Then E, = C, sin hx eY
Applying the second boundary condition (x= a)
sin ha = 0
h=
where m = 1, 2, 3,
Therefore, E, = C; sin
OE,
C, cos
a
From eqn. (4.5),

YE, = -jopH,
OE, =
Ox
= -jouH,
From the first equation, -yE,
H, = jou
Page 205 of 443
Waveguides 4.9
Substituting the value of E., in the above equation
H, =
-Y C,
sin
mTt
jou a
From the second equation, H, = 1 1
OE,
ÔE,
Substituting the value of E,, in the above equation

=
H, C, cos
joua
jmT
H, = C, cos
The field strengths for TE waves between parallel planes are
E, = C, sin a
... (4.7)
H, = C,
sin
a
jou
H, =
jopa,
C, cos xee
Each value of m specifies a particular field of configuration or mode and the wave
associated with integer m is designated as TEmo wave or TEmo mode. The second
y.
subscript refers to another integer which varies with
If m = 0, then all the fields become zero E, 0, H, =0, H, =0. Therefore, the
=
lowest value of m = 1, The lowest order mode is TE0- This is called the dominant
mode in TE waves.
The propagation constant y = a +jß. If the wave propagates without attenuation,
.=0, only phase shift exists.
Then the field strengths for TE waves are
E,
=
C; sin
a
*eiBz
H, -B C, sin xle-/B:
a xeißz
... (4.8)
jou
jmT
H, Cj cos a
oa
Page 206 of 443
are shown in Fig.4.2.

The field. distributions for TE, mode between parallel planes
X
X
Ey
Fig. 4.2. Electric and magnetic fields between parallel planes for the TEp
4.3. TRANSVERSE MAGNETIC WAVES

strength
Transverse magnetic (TM) waves are waves in which the magnetic field
of
H is entirely transverse. It has an electric field strength E, in the direction
same direction (H, = 0).
propagation and no component of magnetic field H, in the
Substituting the value of H, =0 in the following equations,
OH, OH,
H, = and E, @x
Then H, = 0 and E,0 [: H,=0]

The wave equation for the omponent H,
H, +y' H, = -o'ueH,
a'H, =
- (o'ue +
y)H,
But
H,
+ h² H, = 0
Page 207 of 443
Waveguides
4.11|
This is also a differential
equation of simple harmonic motion,
The solution of this
equation is
=
H,
C, sin hx +C4 cos hx
where C; and C are arbitrary constants.
IfH, is expressed in time and direction,
then the solution becomes
H, = (C, sin hx+ cos hx) e CA Y
The boundary conditions cannot be applied directly to H,, to determine the

arbitrary constants C; and C, because the tangential component
of H is not zero at the
surface of a conductor. However, E, can
be obtained in terms of H,.
Ox
- josE, [eqn. (4.4)1
E, =
1 oy
jOE Ox
h
[C, cos hx -C sin hx]e1
joe
at x
Applying the first boundary condition (E, =0 =0)
C3
Then E, -h Ca sin hx e Y2
at x = a)
Applying the second boundary condition (E, =0
sin ha = 0
h= a
where mn
is a
mode m= 1, 2, 3,
Therefore, E, = j@sa
C4 sin
mTt
a Jer
C,
sinxe
H, =
C,
cose a
Page 208 of 443
Transmission Lines and RF Systenns
4.12
But yH, = joeE,
E, = H,
jOE
mTt
C4 Cos
jos
The field strengths for TM waves between parallel planes are
H, = C4 cos
E, = C4 cos x
...(4.9)
a
jmT
E, |
C4 sin
a *ete
The transverse magnetic wave associated with the integer m is designated as TM,n0
wave or TM,mo mode. If =0 all the fields will not be equal to zero i.e., E, and H,
m
exist and only E, 0. In the case of TM waves there is a possibility of m = 0.

If the wave propagates without attenuation (a = 0), the propagation constant
become y =JB. The field strengths for TM waves between parallel conducting planes
are:
H, = C cos a eiB:
E, = C, cos (4.10)
jmT
E, = C, sin
a
The field distributions for TMo wave between parallel planes are shown n
Fig.4.3.
Page 209 of 443
Waveguides
4.13
Hy
E,
Fig. 4.3. The TM, weve between parallel planes
4.4. CHARACTERISTICS OF TEAND TM WAVES
The transverse electric and transverse magnetic waves between parallel conducting
planes exhibit some interesting properties. It is quite different from those of uniform
plane waves in free space. .These properties can be studied by investigating the
propagation constant for these waves.
Propagation constant is determined by
Substituting the value of h =
- o'ue
a +jß
freguencv is the frequency at which propagation constant y = 0.
ut-off
Page 210 of 443
The attenuation constant due to- losses in the dielectric at frequencies above cut-of
frequency fe
Y= a
-jo' -((mn
=8 -
Substituting jg.
Vo'nlo)-("
2
a
2
=j
2
MT joug
a
1
2
us -
tuting
Substituting /o
Page 211 of 443
Waveguides
4.15|
2
oE
By rearranging,
But y= ytJB
Equating real andimaginary quantities,
Attenuation constant due to dielectric loss
where n =1 Nepers / m
rad / m
Attenuation constant decreases when frequency increases. The expression for the
attenmuation constant due to dielectric loss TE waves between parallel plates is the
same as
that for TM waves.
For very high frequencies
2
o'ue >
a
Ihe propagation constant y becomes purely an imaginary quantity
Then V-oue -
B =
waves will be zero and the waves
Under
these conditions attenuation of these will
Pogress in the z
direction.
thefrequency is decreased, a critical frequency is reached
As at which
12
Page 212 of 443
Transmission Lines and RF Systerme

4.16|
m
2 av uE
The frequency f, at which wave the motion ceases, is called the cut-off frequency
of the guide.
Below the cut-off frequency the wave propagation cannot occur and the phase shift
is zero. Above the cut-off frequency, the wave propagation does occur and the
attenuation of the wave is zero.
2a
where velocity v
Cut-off wavelength is e fe
2a
The wavelength of the wave is given by

2r
B [by definition]
The phase velocity of the wave is given by
v = = 2uf
f B
27
The guide wavelength g
a
Substituting the value of (

2Tt
Page 213 of 443
Waveguides
4.17
2Tt
2v
where
2rf
g f
But C
Or
where hg isthe wavelength of an unbounded medium.

V
lhe velocity of wave propagation is given by
Substituting the value of

Page 214 of 443
Transmission Lines andI RF Systemy
4.18|
V=
or
When the frequency is very high or is very less.

f
Then VVo
If the dielectric medium between the two planes is air, then the velocity becomes
free space velocity.
1
Vo = C = 3x 10 m/sec
As the frequency is reduced from extremely high value to cut-off frequency

G),
the phase velocity of the wave varies from free space velocity to an
infinitely large
value.
4.5. TRANSVERSE ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES

It is a special type of transverse magnetic wave in which electric
field E along the
direction of propagation is also zero. The transverse
electromagnetic (TEM) waves
are waves in which both electric
and magnetic fields are transverse entirely but has no
component of E, and H,. is referred to as
It principal waves.
The field strength for TM waves are
H,
=
C4 cos
a
E, = C, cos (4.11)
a
E, = C4 sin
Page 215 of 443
Waveguides |4.19|
For TEM waves E, =0and the minimum value of m

= 0.
H, = C4 eiß:
E, =
E, = 0
These fields are not only entirely transverse, but they are constant in amplitude
betwéen parallel planes.
Characteristics:
For the lowest value m =0 and dielectricis air.
Propagation constant y = o = jo yHo E0
/0-oo
Velocity
= 2T
Wavelength 2 =
Unlike TE and TM waves, the velocity of TEM wave is independent of frequency

and has the value c=3x 10° m/sec.
X
Ex
X
Ex
Hy
wave between parallel planes

Fig. 4.4. The TEM
Page 216 of 443
4.20
zero.
Ine cut-off frequency for TEM waves is
m = 0 (m= 0)
This means that for TEM waves, all frequencies down to Zero can propagate alono
the guide. The ratioof E to H between the parallel planes for a travelling wave is
The fields distributions are shown in Fig.4.4.
4.6. VELOCITIES OF PROPAGATION
The velocity with which the energy propagates along a guide is called group
velocity. It is denoted by
do
dß
If the frequency spread of the group is small enough do may be considered tobe
dß
constant throughout the group. It is always less than the free space
velocity c.
Phase velocity is defined as the velocity of propagation
of eguiphase surfaces
a
along guide. It is denoted by
Itis always greater than the free space velocity c.

The phase-shift is given by
12
Differentiating the above expression,

2B dß = 2 o do e -0
do
dß
Page 217 of 443
Waveguides
4.21
where do
group velocity
dß
Vp: phase velocity
free space velocity
The product of group velocity and phase velocity is the square of free space
velocity
4.7. WAVE IMPEDANCES
In transmission-line theory power is propagated along one axis only, and only one
impedance constant is involved. However, in three dimensional wave propagation
power may be transmitted along three axes of the coordinate system and consequently
three impedance constants have been defined.
Wave impedances are defined by the following ratios of electric to magnetic field
strengths for the positive directions of the coordinates.
E, ||
E,
H, H,
E, =
E
H, H, H,
directions of the coordinates are
The wave impedances for the negative
E, E.
E, Z H.
H,
Z, E
H.
Zy H,
H,
by
For TE waves, the wave impedance is given
B
Page 218 of 443
4.22
12
mT
1 mT
At cut-off frequency o'ue = ,

wave impedance Z
a "yx
becomes infinity. At
very high frequency (greater than cut-off frequency) wave impedance becomes,
mT
a
At o >>o,,the wave impedance is equal tothe intrinsic

impedance.
For TM waves, the wave impedance is given by
) 1
Page 219 of 443
Waguides |4.23|
Atteut-oft frequeney o'ue

=* the wave impedance becomes zero.
At very high fequency (greater than cut-off frequency), the wave impedance
bacomes
For TEM wave, the wave impedance is
E
xy H,
= 110 intrinsic impedance
The wave impedances for TE, TM and TEM waves between parallel planes are
shown as functions of frequency in Fig.4.5.
n
impedance,
TE
Region
TEM
Wave
of no
propagation
TM
waves
Fig. 4.5. Wave impedance versus frequency characteristics of
between parallel conducting plane
Page 220 of 443
4.8. RECTANGULAR WAVEGUIDE

or circular cylinders because of
Waveguides usually take the form of rectangular
its simpler forms and lower cost of manufacture. A hollow
conductng metallic tube
or circular) is used for propagating
of uniform cross-section (rectangular
the tube is
electromagnetic waves, waves that are guided along the surface (walls) of
can be considered as a phenomenon in
called a waveguide. Propagation of waveguide
pass down the waveguide
which the waves are reflected from wall to. wall and hence
wave travels longitudinally down along the
in a zig-zag fashion. The resultant
waveguide.
guide,
In order to determine the electromagnetic field configuration within the
at the
Maxwell's equations are solved subject to the appropriate boundary conditions
walls of the guide.
The Maxwell's equation for non-conducting medium
VxH = jo E [ G=0]
a, ay
VxH = = jo (a, E, + a, E, +a, E)
H, H, H,
Equating x, y, and z
components
OH, oH, =
ôy Ox j0 Ex
oH, OH,
... (4.12)
= jo E,
Ôx
OH, OH =
ôy Ox jo E,
-
Similarly Vx E = jouH
a.
Vx E =
Ox ay oz
E, E, E,
-jou [a, H, +4, H,+4, H]
Equating x, y and z Components
Page 221 of 443
Waveguides |4.25
OE, OE,
ôy =-jopH,
OE. ... (4.13)
= -jouH,
Ox
OE,
= -jopH,
ôy
Similarly for the wave equation,
aH +aH
H
= - o'ueH
+
a²E
Ox?
aEaE
+ = - o'ueE ... (4.14)
Let H, = H, e:
ôH, =
-y H, e* =-y H,
ôH, =
Similarly -yH,
ôz
e 1:
Let E, = E,
y e =
-y E,
= -yE,
OE,
Similarly = -yE,
(4.14)
Substituting these values in equations (4.12), (4.13) and
OH, ... (4.15)
= jo E,
ay +yH,
OH, ... (4.16)
ax
+y H, = -jo E,
OH, ... (4.17)
joe E.
Ox
+yE, = -jop H, (4. lS)

ôy
... (4.19)
+yE, = jou
H,
Page 222 of 443

4.26
OE, OE, . (4.20)

= -jou H,
ôy
Wave equations thus become
aE, A +y E, == - oue E,
aH, aH, +H, = - oue H,

ax?
Solving the followingequations (4.16) and (4.18),

OH, = .
-yH, -joe E., .. (4.16)
oE, ... (4.18)

+yE, = -jou H,
ôy
1
H, dy tyE,
jouoy L dy
"j
Substituting in equation (4.16),
OH,
+y H, = -jo ... (4.16)
ôx E,
ôH,
+y +yE, =
ôx ôy -j0e E,
OH, Y
ÔE,
ôx jon ôy jop =-j0 E,
OH, OE,
joy ôy -j0 E;
OH, OE,
jou ax
Oy
=
(+ o'ue) E,
OH,
Ey 2
Ox
h² ôy
Similarly, = OH,
H,
Page 223 of 443
Waveguides |4.27|
Solving the equations (4.15) and (4.19),

OH, = ...
joe E,
ôy tyH,
Ay (4.15)
+y E, = jou H, ... (4.19)

Ox
Substituting E, in equation (4.19)

E, -o
E. = 1
j0E
OH,
ôy
+yH, |
OE, =
+y ay +y H, joy Hy
io: ôy
OE, OH,
@x jo Oy
ôy
+
ioe
joE
H, = jou H.
OE. OH,
x +
j OE Oy
-jou-]H,
jo
OE, OH, - (o'ue +)H,
-
Ox
= -
H,
-j0 OE, oH,
H,
=2 Ôx
OE,
jou oH,
Similarly
E,
= axy
among the fields within the
The following equations give the relationships
rectangular wave guide.
OE, OH,
E, = Ox
OH,
+ jou
E, h2 ôy
=
... (4.21)
H, ax
h2
OH,
H, -
=
ay
ôy h2
4.28| Page 224 of 443
Transmission Lines
and RF Systems
y
a
b
Fig. 4.6. A rectangular waveguide
Two sets of waves that travel in a rectangular waveguide as

shown in Fig.4.6 are
the Transverse magnetic waves (TM) and Transverse electric waves
(TE).
4:9. TRANSVERSE MAGNETIC WAVES(TM) IN RECTANGULAR WAVEGUIDES
The wave equation in a rectangular wave guide is given by
+ y' E, :
The solution of the equation is
B, (*, y, 2) =
E, (%, y) ey
Let E, = XY
where X isa function of x alone
Y is a function ofy alone
Substituting the value of E, in the wave equation
dy?
XY = - o'ueXY
yY'x +
Y
(y'+ o =
dy' +X dy? ue) XY 0
Substituting =
y'+ o'ue
Then = 0
Y dy? +X +XY
Page 225 of 443
Waveguides
|4.29
Dividing by XY,
X dy?+ Y dy? + h' = 0.
X dy2 +h2
= -1 Y
Y dy
The expression equates a
function of x alone to a function of y alone and this can
be equated to a constant.
+ =
X
dy? h' A2
1
d'x t+
h²-A? =
X d
Let B² = h - A?
x
1 = 0
X d2 +B²
A solution of the equation is
X= C,cos Bx +C, sin Bx
Similarly = A?
Y
1 Y
Y dy' +A22= 0
The solútion of this equation is

=
Y C cos Ay + C, sin Ay
Then E =
XY
= (C,cos Br + C, sin Bx) (C,
cos Ay +C4 sin Ay)
= C, Ca cos Bx cos Ay+ C, C4 cos Bx sin Ay
+C, Ca sin Bx cos Ay + C, Ca sin Bx sin Ay
Ihe constants C, Cz C, Ca, A and B are determined by boundary conditions.
E,=0 when x=0, x= 4, y= 0, y
=b.
When x=0, E. = 0
E, =C, C, cos Ay+C} C4 sin Ay =0

nis is possible only if C, = 0. Then the general equation
This is
E = C, C, sin Bx cos Ay+C, C, sin Bx sin Ay

Page 226 of 443
|4.30
y
When =0, E, =0.
=
E, = C,G sin Bx 0
or 0. If C, = 0, E, is identically Zero.
This is possible only if either C, =0 C,
So, substituting C, = 0.
E, = C, C, sin Bx sin Ay
Let C= C,
E, =
sin B.x sin Ay
C
Applying the boundary conditions in order to evaluate the value of constants A

and B.
If x=a, E, = C sin Ba sin Ay = 0
This is possible only if B = for all values of y.
B
.". where m
a =1,2, 3,
If y= b, E, = C
sin x sin A
b= 0
This ispossible only if A= for all values of x.
A = where
b n=1,2,3.
Hence E, = C
sin
a * sin
For propagation,y
=jB (=0), the field expressions are as
follows :
E, = -ißC B cos OE.

Bx sin Ay
=
E, A
sin Bx cos Ay
H, A sin Bx cos Ay ...(4.22)
cos Bx sin
B
Ay
Page 227 of 443
Waveguides
4.31|
where A = and B=
In the above expressions a and b are the vidth and height
of the waveguide and m
and n are integers.
=
B²
It is known
= h?
2-A
A+ B²
and
A+ - o'ue B
Y=1/
112Tt
+
b
- o'ue
This is theequation of propagation constant for a rectangular guide forTM waves.
Cut-off frequency and cut-off wavelength
Propagation constant is a complex number,
Y= a+jß
For low frequencies o
ue is small. Therefore the propagation constant y becomes
Teal a number.
i.e., y a (:: B 0). It indicates that there won't be any wave
=
propagation.
If the frequency is increased, a
value (o) may be reached.at which
2
+
b
1 2
+
mTT 2
f. =
Or
2 ue
This is Cut-off frequency
wave
the cut-off frequency. is the frequency below which
Propagation will not occur.
The Corresponding cut-off wavelength is
fe
Page 228 of 443
( +
b
If the frequency is greater than the cut-off

will be imaginary. frequency, the propagation constant y
i.e., Y
=JB (: a=0)
Velocity of propagation
Propagation takes place only

when the frequency is greater
frequency. The attenuation constant than the cut-off
becomes zero.
Propagation constant Y =
-
iß =j / o'e a
B=
a
The velocity of wave propagation
in waveguide
The corresponding wavelength in the guide

-(
MT \2
a +
Page 229 of 443
Waveguides |4.33
o
2 nTT
[: =2rf]
If m=0 or =0, the fields for TM waves willbe identically zero. So, the lowest
n
possible value for m or n is unity.(m=1, n= 1) for TM waves. This particular wave

is called the TMi wave. Larger values of m and n require high frequencies in order to
be propagated along a guide of given dimensions. The field configuration for the
lower order of TM waves in rectangular guides are shown in Fig.4.7.
TE1, Wave
Fig. 4.7. Electric field and magnetic fieldconfigurations for the dominant
mode in a rectangular wave guide
4.10, TRANSVERSE ELECTRIC WAVES IN RECTANGULAR:WAVEGUJDES
The wave equation in a rectangular waveguide is

given by
aH, a³H, -oue H,
+ ôy2 +H,
The solution of the equation is
e
H, (r, y,z) = H,H (,y)
== XY
Let H, (, y)
where X is the function ofx only.
Y is the function ofy only.
Page 230 of 443
4.34| Transnission Lines and RF Systems
Substituting the value of H, in the wave equation,
dx +y'XY = -
0 u XY
Y
dy? +X dy?
Y
=
+X dy +h² XY 0
d
where h - y'+ou.
Dividing by XY,
1 dx 1 d²y +
h = 0
X d? dy?
can be
expression relates a function ofx alone to a function ofy alone and this
The
equated to a constant.
+}' = A'
X dx
=
0
X dx' +h?-A²
Let B² = }2- A?
1 d'x = 0
X dy2 +B
The solution of this equation is
X = C, cos Bx + C, sin Bx
Similarly, = A'
1 y
Y dy'
+ A' = 0
The solution of this equation is Y = C, cos Ay + C, sin Ay
But H. = XY
= (C, cos Br+ C, sin Br)(C, cos Ay + C4 sin Ay)
= C, C; cos Ay cosBx + C, C, cos Ay sin Bx
Br
+C, C, cos Bx sin Ay + C, C, sin Ay:sin
Page 231 of 443
Waveguides |4.35|
It is known that
OE,
E, h2 Ox oy
For TE waves E, =0.
OH,
=
Ay cos Bx -
-C C,A sin C,GA sin Ay sin Bx
+C, C A cos Bx cos Ay +C, C4 A cos Ay sin Bx]
Applying boundary conditions, E, = 0 when y= 0, y= b.
Ify = 0, the general solution is
= C
C4 A cos Bx +
C, C, A sin Bx ]=0
2
For E,
=0, C4 = 0. (Cy is common)
Then the general solution is
-jou
E, = -C, C, A sin Ay sin Bx-C, C, A sin Ay sin Bx]
y=
If b, E,= 0.
For E, =
0, it is possible either B =0 or A = B
If =0, the above solution is
b
identically zero. So it is better to select A=h:

The general solution is
= [C, C, A sin Ay cos Bx +C C, A sin Ay sin Bx]
Similarly for Ey
OH,
B, = h2 ôy + h2 ax
oH,
= io Ox
(::E,=0)
cos Ay cos Bx
-C, C, B cos Ay sin Bx + C, C B
=
h2
C,C,B sin Bx sin Ay +C, C, B sin Ay cos Bx]
Page 232 of 443
RAF
Transmission Lines and Systems
436
Applying boundary conditions
E, 0; x=0 and
= =a
x
If =0,
E, =
iC, CG B cos Ay +
C, C, B sin Ay]
For E, = 0, C,=0.
Then the gencral expression is
E, 2 -C C, B cos Aysin Bx - C, C, B sin Bx sin Ay]
If x=a, then E, =0.
E, = -jou
=
[C, C, B sin Bacos A y + C, C, sin Ba sin Ay]
For E
=0, B =
E, c, C, B sin Bx cos Ay+C, C, B sin Bx sin Ay ]

jou
E, [C, C, A sin Ay cos Bx + C, C; A sin Ay sin Bx ]
Substituting the value C, = C, =0.
jou C,
C,A cos Bx sin Ay
A cos
C
C * sin
E C;C,B sin Bx cos Ay
-ZO c, C, B sin B x cos

Let C = C, Ca
E, CA sin Ay cos Bx
E, CBsin Bx cos Ay
Page 233 of 443
Waveguides 4.37
where A = b
and B=
Similarly for H,,
OH,
H,
OH, joe OE, = [:E,=0]
ax
For propagation, y=jß, [: a=0]
IB OH,
H, ax
But E, =h2 ax
OH,
jo ·E,
OH,
Substituting the value of Ox in the above H, equation
H, = E,
?jo
E,
Substituting the value of E,, in the above H, equation
H,
-B -iou CB sin Bx cos Ay
H, CB sin Bx cos Ay
CB sin| X cOs
nT
h2
Similarly for H, ,
OH,
H, = ay
1 OH,
=
ôy [: E,= 0]
For propagation, y =jß. [:a=0]

Page 234 of 443
Transmission Lines and RF Systenme
|4.38
oH,
H, h?
oy
ou OH,
But E, =
2 ôy.
OH,
E,
ôy jou
OH,
Substituting this value of oy in the above H, equation
H, E, E,
h' jop
Substituting the value of E, inthe above H, equation
H, sin Ay cos Br
0u2A
H, CA cos Bx sin Ay
H BCA cos x sin nT

a
H, = XY
C,
C cos Ay cos Bx+C,C, cos Ay sin Bx
+C, C,cos Bx sin Ay + C, C, sin Ay sin Bx
But Cz 7C4= 0
H, = C,C cos Ay cos Bx
C= C,C
H, = Ccos Ay ços Bx
H, = CcoS mT
x cos
a
Page 235 of 443
Waveguides
4.39|
The field equations for TE waves are as follows :

H = CB sin Bxcos Ay
h2
H, - cos Bx
CAcOs
CA sin Ay
H, = C cos Ay cos
Bxis si tit io.i (4.23)
CA cos Bx sin Ay
E, CB sin Bx cos Ay
A = b
111T
where and B=
For TE waves the equations for B, fe, es V and à are found to be identical to
those of TM waves.
-(
1
V-)
The corresponding cut-off wavelength is
2
(-()
The velocity of propagation
)-(9)
2r.
Vo'se -(-(
Page 236 of 443
Transmission Lines amd RF Systeng
440
WAVES
411 CHARACTERISTICS OF TE AND
TM
equation
The value of h for which a solution of Helmholtz
v'E,+E, = 0
exists, are called the characteristic values or eigen values of the boundary val..
of
problem. Each of the eigen values determines the characteristic properties
particular TE or TM mode of the given waveguide.
= + = A'+ B
h o'u
where A = b
and B= a
a
is the width of the waveguide.
b is the height of the waveguide.
m and n are integers.
y² = A'+B²-o'uE
\2
+
nT 2
- o'ue
This is the equation of propagation of constant in a rectangular waveguide for TE
or TM waves.
If the propagation constant is Zero, i.e., y=0.
2
1 2
mTt
Or
2n
E
The frequency f., at whichy=0.is called cut-off frequency. The value
of f, for a
The corresponding wavelength ,

particular mode in a waveguide depends on the eigen value of this mode.
is
=
Page 237 of 443
Waveguides |4.41|
2T
The propagation constant can be written as
Y= V
h-o2
2
Y = h
= h
The two distinct ranges for y can be given interms
i.e., >1 and <1.
() >1 or f>f when the operating frequency is greater than the cut-off
frequency, y is imaginary.
= jo Vpe.
Or B = -( 2
The phase velocity of a propagating wave in the waveguide

Vp BB
1
Page 238 of 443
The phase velocity within a waveguide is always greater than that in an unbounded
medium and is frequency dependent. The group velocity for a propagating wave in a
waveguide is given by
dß
do
Thus
-i-4
In a lossless waveguide the velocity of propagation is equal to the group velocity.
The guide wavelength is given by
2
2t
2T
.22
-
Page 239 of 443
Waveguides 4.43
g
22 =
or +
(i) <1 or f<f.when the operating frequency is lower than the cut-off
frequency, y is real.
2
Y = C, = h
where
Since allfield components contain the propagation factor

diminishes rapidly with z and is said to be evanescent.
eY: =ea
the wave
Therefore, a waveguide
exhibits the property of a high pass filter.
411TDominant Mode
The lowest mode for TE wave is TEo ( =1, n =0) whereas

the lowest mode for
TM waye is TM,, (m=1, n=1). This wave has the lowest cut-off
frequency. Hence
the TE,, mode is thedominant mode a
of rectangular waveguide. Because the TE0
mode has the lowest attenuation all of modes in a rectangular waveguide and its
electric field is definitely polarized in one direction everywhere.
For TE,n mode m=1, n =0.
(}
2
h +
+0
Page 240 of 443
|4.44| Transnmission Lines and RF Systems
The field expressions are

H CB sin Bx cos Ay
H,
)-&:)
c) sin
a
ißaC
sin
a
H, = 0
H, =
- cos
C
E, = 0
E,
(
c.
ioL
-jou sin
-jon aC
sin
T
The instantaneous field expressions for the dominant TE,, mode are obtained by
the phasor expressions in above equations with e'or-p) and then taking the real part
of the product.
H, (%,y, z, 1) = -ßaC Sin sin (ot- Bz)
z, t) = C cos T
H, (*, y, cos (@t-Bz)
E, (*, y, z, t) = Csin
sin (or- Bz)
E, = H, =
0
For TEjo mode, n=1, n=0.

Page 241 of 443
2
(3) C
E 2a
1
where c= = 3 x 10 m/sec
For TEo mode the cut-off wavelength is'equal to twice the width of the guide. Its
cut-off frequency is independent
of the dimension b'. The field configurations for
the lower order
TE waves in rectangular waveguides areshown in Fig.4.8.
Degenerate Modes : Some of the higher order modes, having the same
cut-off
frequency, are called degenerate modes. In a
rectangular waveguide
TE,my and TM,n
modes (both m 0 and n # 0) always degenerate. In a square waveguide (a = b), all
e IEpq TEop, TMpg and TMg, modes together degenerate.
TE0 Wave
Fig. 4.8.
Electric and magnetic field configurations for the lower order
mode ina rectagular waveguide
Page 242 of 443

4.46
The surface current density on surface waveguide walls is given by

Jg = a, x H
t=0,
At
When x=0,
Jç = -a, H,
Jç (x=0) = -a, cos (0 -B2) C
When x=a,
= a, H,
,
Jg
Js (x= a) = C cos Bz
When y=0,
Jç = , H,-a, H,
Substituting the values of H, and H, in the above equation,
T BaC
Jç (y=0) = a, cosxcos
C
Bz-a, sin sin Bz
When y = b,
Jç (y=0)= Jg (y=b)
The surface currents on inside walls at x = 0 and at y

=b are selected in Fig.4.9.
Bz
Wa = 1 2T
3r/2
T2
xla = 0
Fig. 4.9. Surface currents on waveguide

waveguide walls for
TE,, nmode in rectangular
Page 243 of 443
MPOSSIBILITAOF TEM:WAVES INWAVEGUIDES
Since Transverse electromagnetic (TEM) wave do not have axial component of

either E or H, cannot propagate within a single conductor waveguide.
it
Consider a TEM wave to exist within a hollow guide. In non-magnetic materials
V.H = 0
which requires that the lines of H be closed loops in a plane perpendicular to the axs.
According to Maxwell'sfirst equation, the magnetomotive force around a closed loop
is equal to the axial current. For a co-axial line the axial current is conduction current
an
whereas 'for a hollow waveguide, the axial current is a displacement current. But
axial displacement current requires an axial component of E which is not present in
TEM wave.Therefore the TEM wave cannot exist in a waveguide.
4.13, WAVE IMPEDANCE
In a cartesian coordinate system three wave impedances (impedance constants)

must be defined, The wave impedances defined as the ratio of electric field intensity
to magnetic field intensity are
+ E, E,
Zy H, H, H,
The wave impedances in the opposite directions
are the negative of those given
above.
E, E,
Zyx Zzx
1.e., Zzy H, H,
H,
For waves guided by transmission lines
or waveguides, the wave impedance which
IS seen in the direction of propagation z is given by
Z, = Zy Zyg
/E +E
Z, =
VH +H?
For TMwaves ina rectangular waveguide
Ex= EB
ZTM
=H
H,
H,
H, 0E
constant is
IS known that, the propagation
Page 244 of 443
Transmission Lines and. RF Systems

448
At cut-off frequency fe: Y0.
|h- os=0
o' ue = h
C
2 =
tJe =
(2) u
The cut-off frequency is
= h
f.
For propagation, y must be imaginary
Y=jB [a=0]
[:: =o ps]
= 2
The wave impedance of TM waves
-()
ZTM
"where n is the characteristic impedance,

Page 245 of 443
Wneguides
4.49
The wave
impedance of propagating
Aielectric TM modes in a waveguide
is purely resistive
and is always less than with a
dielectric medium. the intrinsic impedancelossless
When the operating of the
frequency is lower
constant is real. than the cut-off
frequency, the propagation
ie.,
< 0,
Or
a. = h
For a given mode, the waves with frequencies
vannot be lower than the cut-off frequency
propagated. i.e., waves are attenuated as
T
the operating frequency eY = e Cz with z.It propagates,
is greater than the cut-off frequency.
Waveguide exhibits
the property Therefore
of a high pass filter.
The wave impedance
in a non-propagating mode is
ZTM
joE jos
–jh
for f <fe
Wave
impedance is purely reactive, indicating that there is no
i<fe power flow for
For TE waves a
in rectangular waveguide.
ZrE
E, E,
H.
H, H,igo,
B
Page 246 of 443
|4.50
For propagation, y must be imaginary.
2
=
Thewave impedance of TE waves
=
B
where n is the characteristic impedance.
The wave impedance of propagating

TE modes in a
dielectric is purely resistive waveguide. with a lossless
and is always larger than
dielectric medium. the intrinsic impedance O
Whenthe operating frequency
is lower than the cut-off
does not take place. i.e., propagation frequency, the propagation
constant
becomes real.
2
Page 247 of 443
Waveguides
4.51
The wave impedance in a non-propagating
mode
jou
h
Wave impedance is purely reactive, indicating
that there is no power flow for
j<fe
For TEM waves in a
rectangular waveguide,
Wave impedance ZTEM
- E, jou
H,
ZTEM
The propagation constant y = a+jß =jB [:: a=0, for propagation]
Substituting in the wave impedance equation
ZTEM
jou
Or ZTEM
Wave impedance of TEM waves is the characteristic impedance of any medium.

ZrEM = n
The variation of wave impedance with frequency is shown in Fig.4.10.
n
impedance,
TE
Regiorn
Wave
o no
Oation
propagau
TM
versus frequency characteristics of

Fig. 4.10. Wave impedance
waves between parallel conducting plane
Page 248 of 443
Transniission Lines and RF System
452
different modes are given below.
The wave impedance for
Mode Wave Impedance
TM 1-4) 2
Z=
TE
TEM
The phase velocity in a waveguide is given by
V=
=
where B
oVe
Vo
where vo =
The wavelength in the waveguide is
Since
Page 249 of 443
aveguides
|4.53
or 22 =
.
(a+ 22) =
22+
414. CIRCUARWAVEGUIDES
lhe wave guides are in the form of hollow metallic

tubes, either rectangular or
circular in cross-section. Generally circular wave
guides are avoided because of the
following reasons.
1. The frequency difference between the lowest frequency on dominant mode
and the next mode is smaller than in a rectangular wave guide, with
a =0.5
2. The circular symmetry of the wave guide may reflect on the possibility of the.
wave not maintaining its polarization throughout the length of the pgujde.
3. For the same operating frequency, circular wave guide is bigger in size than a
a
Tectangular wave guide.
However. circular wave guides are used as attenuators and phase-shifters. For
IEon (Smok ring) mode, there is no equivalent in a rectangular wave guide. istudes
The method of solution of the electromagnetic equation for guides of circular
Cross-section is similar tothat followed for rectangular guides. However, in order to
simplify the application of boundar conditions, cylindrical co-ordinates are used.
4.14:1:
Bessel Functions
In solving for the electromagnetic fields 'within the circular waveguides, a
differential equation known as Bessel's cquation is encountered, The solution of the
equation leads to Bessel Functions.
PageRF250 of 443
Transmission Lines and Systei
4.54|
The differential
eguation has the form
n = 0, 1, 2, 3,
.
0 where
d2P
dp?
1
p
dP
dp
+|1-P=
p2 assuming power series
a
equation can be obtained by

The solution
of thisBessel's
expansion. p + a, p²+
P= a, ta,
case (n =0), the Bessel's
èquation becomes
For special ...(4.24)
d'P + 1 dP + P =
0
ôp p
and equating the suns of
the
P in the above equation
Substituting the value of
coefficients of each power of p to zero. 6
.:.
P= P, =
1-(6) + (2!)2 (3!)2
r=0
(r!?
The series is convergent for all values of p either real or complex. This is called
Bessel's function of the first kind of order zero and is denoted by Jo (p) P, for
n=0.
corresponding solutions for n = 1, 2, 3,
The ...... are designated J,(p). Jz{p).
J(p),
.....
where n denotes the order of the Bessel's function. Fig.4.11 shows the
Bessel functions of first kind of different orders.
Since equation (4.24) is a second order differential equation, there must be two
linearly independent solutions for each value of n. The second
solution may be
a
obtained in similar manner that is used for the first,
but starting with a slighty
different series. This second solution is known as
Bessel's function of the second
kind, or Neumann'sfünction N,(p).
The zero order of the second kind is,
2
Ge)"
-(.)
Page 251 of 443
Waveguides
|4.55
+ 1.0
+ 0.8 Jop)
Ji(p)
+0.6
+0,4 Jzlp)
(d)r
+0.2
0
-0.2
-0.4
8 10 12
Fig. 4.11. Besselfunctions of

first kind of differenit orders
The complete solution of the cquation (4.24) is

P = A Jop) + B No(p)
Fig.4.12 shows the zero order Bessel functions of the first and second kinds.
+ 0.8
Jolp )
No(p)
(d)ON + 0.4
pue
(d)or
-0.4
-0.8
2 4 6 10 12 14 efe
Fig. 4.12. Zero-order Besselfunctions

of tlhe firstand second kinds
4.14.2. Field Waveguide

Equations in Circular
in a cylindrical co-ordinate
TheMaxwell's equation for non-conducting medium
Systemis given by
Page 252 of 443
456
VxH joeE
= joeE
VxH =
ôp ôz
H,
OH,
pH,
ôH,
I,
H
OH,
,f o(pH) ôH,1
Oz ôp
.pô ôz
= + a, E,+a, E]
jo [a, E,
Equating both sides,
OH, = jos E
pô
OH,
= -joc E,
O(pH,) = jo E,
PL Op
Let H, = H,°e
-yH,° ee = –y H,
and H,= H,°e
-yH,
Substituting these values in the above equations
OH, (4.25)
pô
OH, ... (4.26)
+ yH, = -j08 E
1
(pH,) ôH, = jo (4.27)
p E,
Page 253 of 443
Maxwell's equation is 4.57

VxE = -jouH
VxE =
-jouH
pE
E,
Lpô +
a
O(pE)
pOp
-jo u[, H, + a, H,
Equating both
sides
+, H,]
pô -jop H,
OE,
=-jop H,
O(pE,) E, =
jo H,
ôp
Let e e
E= E,°
=-yE,
and E, = E°e
=-yE
Substituting
these values in the above equations
OE, +
yE, = -jou H,
=
.
pôy (4.28)
OE
+ yE, = jou H, •.. (4.29)
ôp
DE) OEe - -jou H,
(4.30)
Page 254 of 443

4.58
Solving equations (4:26) and (4.28)
From equation (4.26), E,

= -10HyH,
ôp
+
Substituting E, in equation (4.28),

OE. OH,
+ y H, = -jou H,
põ jOE ôp
OH, H, -
pô joE ôp
--jen +
h2
jOE H,
OH,
h² H, = ... (4.31)
= y2+
where h2
a² u
Similarly by solving equations (4.25) and (4.29)
ÔE, ÔH,
h2 H, = -jo (4.32)
By
solving equations (4.25) and (4.29)
OE,
.. (4.33)
By solving equations (4.26) and (4.28),
+ jop OH, (4.34)

The wave equation in'cylindrical co-ordinates
for E, is given by
02E,
1 8E, 2E,
Oz2 = -
0²u E, 4ststited.. (4.35)
Let the general solution
of this equation be
E, = P (p) Q () e =
PQ e-e ...(4.36)
where P (p) is a
function of p alone
Q () is a function
of ¢ alone
Page 255 of 443
Waveguides
4.59
Substituting the value
of E, in the wave equation
Q P dQ
dp? + p² d? + PQy2 + dP =
dp -a²uE Pl
d2P
dp?
+
P dp + P Q
+ PQy2 + o²ue PQ =
p² d2 0
Dividing by PQ
1 d²p 1 do
1
dP 1
P dp? +oP
pP QP2
opz + h2 = 0
d¢2 * (4.37)
where =
h2 y2 + o²u
Let = -n2Q .. (4.38)
d2
The solution of this equation is given by
... (4.39)
Q = A, cos
n + B, sin no
where n is a constant.
Substituting eqn. (4.38) in eqn. (4.37)
1
d'P 1
i dP I2
1
+ = 0
P dp? pP dp p?
n2
h
h2
1
dP
p P= 0
dp? dp
Dividing byh²
1
dP ... = 0
(plh)2. |P
-
d(phy? ph d(ph) (4.40)

This is the standard form of Bessel's equation in terms of (ph). The solution of
this
equation is finite at (ph) =0. i.e.,
P
(ph) = J, (ph) (4.41) •..
n.
Where J. (o) is Bessel?'s function of the first kind of order
Substituting equations (4.39) and (4.41) in the general solution equation (4.36)
E. = J, (ph) (A, coS
n +
B,, sin n) e
Smilarly the solution for H, is given by
e
H. = J, (ph) (C, cos no + D, sin n¢)
18 in the case of rectangular wave guides the solutions of
circular waveguides is
also divided magnetic waves.
transverse electric and transverse
lnto
Page 256 of 443
Transmission Lines and RF Systene
|4.60
Circular Waveguide
4.14.3. TM Waves in identically zero. The
boundan.
(TM) waves, H, is
For Transverse magnetic
E, must vanish at the surface of the guide.
conditions require that
.J, (ha) =0
where a is the radius of the guide.
TM waves corresponding to the infinite
There are an infinite number of possible
=
number of roots of J, (ha) 0.
The first few roots are (ha)o = 2.405
(ha), = 3.85
(ha)o2 = 5.52
(ha),, = 7.02
The various TM waves will be referred to as TMo1, TM,, etc. The first subscript
refers to the value of n.and the second subscript refers to the roots in their order of
magnitude.
The propagation constant
For propagation,
B=o²ue- hm
The cut-off frequency
where h,,
nm
= (ha)m
a
The phase velocity is
show
The field equations for

yo²ue- h
TM waves are given
Substituting H, = 0. by (4.31), (4.32); (4.33)
and (4.34)
.. (4.42)
OE.
.. (4.43)
.. (4.44)
Page 257 of 443
Navegides
4.61
... (4.45)
The expression of E, for TM wave is
E,° = A, J,(hp) cos n¢
OE° oJ, (hp)
ôp A, h coS n¢
-A, n J,(hp) sin n

Substituting these values in equations (4.42), (4.43), (4.44) and (4.45)
-j A, 0 n J, (ph) sin n¢
H,°
-j A, oE ôJ, (hp)
H,° cos no
h ôp
OJ,(hp)
h
E,° =-jßA, COS n) ["y=jP]
H, ["y=jß]
A,,n n
J, (hp) sin
-ß H•
z
direction are
T'he varjations of these field components with time and in the A:),
shown in Fig.4.13 by multiplying the above expressions by the factor elor-
elol
00o
TMo1
waveguide
Fig. 4.I3. TM wvaves in circular
waves in
a circular waveguide.
Fig4.13 shows the
the TM
Page 258 of 443

4.62
4.14.4. TË Waves in Circular Waveguide

transverse electric (TE) waves,E. is identically zero. Ihe Iield equations
For
1b waves are given by the equations (4.31), (4.32), (4.33) and (4.34).
== -Y ap
oH, ...(4.46)
RH,
OH, ...(447)
=
h H,
-
=
jo ôH, ...(4.48)
RE,
PE, =
jou
OH, .. (4.49)
The expression ofH, for TE waves is

H,° = C,J, (ph) cos no
H.° hô J, (ph)
= C, coS no
ôp
OH°
-C,n J, (ph) sin n¢
Substituting these.derivatives in equations (4.46), (4.47), (4.48) and (4.49)
-JBC, J, (ph)
H° coS no
ôp
H, J, (ph) sin n¢
EO
ph? C,n, (ph) sin n¢ = H,
E
Cn
ôJ, (ph)
h
coS no
The boundary condition is E =

0 at p a.
Since E, is proportional to ap
aJ, (ha)
=0.
J (ha) = 0
Page 259 of 443
Waveguides
4.63|
The first few roots
of this equation are
(ha' o = 3.83
(ha)' = 1.84
(ha)'o2
7.02
(ha' = 5.33
The corresponding TE waves are
referred to as TEOl, TE,l) TEo2 and
TE2
Fig.4.14 shows the TE waves a
in circular waveguide.
TEo1 Wave
Fig. 4.14. TE waves in circular waveguide
4.14.5. Wave Impedance

The wave impedance of a circular waveguide is the ratio
of the resultant
transverse electric field to the transverse magnetic field.
For transverse magnetic (TM) waves,
ZTM
H
But ß = V o'ue -h?
02
But h= uE
Page 260 of 443

|4.64|
ZTM =
ZTM
where n is the intrinsic impedance of the medium.
n =
The wave impedance of TM waves is
LTM Vi-(4
For transverse electric (TE) waves, the wave impedance is
E
H
But ß = V
oue- h
Vo'ue-h?
Since h' o,
=
Page 261 of 443
4.65
Since intrinsic impedance ,

the wave impedance for TE waves
A14.6. Excitations
of Modes in Circular Waveguides
........
TE modes have no z component
of an electric field, and TM modes have no z
component of magnetic field. a
way that
If device is inserted in a circular waveguide in such a
it excites only a z component of electric
field, the wave propagating through
the guide will be in
the TM mode. On the other hand, if a device is
circular waveguide in such a way placed in a
that it exits only in thez component of
field, the travelling wave will be in the magnetic
the TE mode. The methods of excitation for
various modes in circular waveguides are
shown in Fig.4.15.
In Fig.4.15 (a) coaxial line probes excite the dominant
mode TEjo in a rectangular
waveguide which is converted to dominant mode TE,u
in the circular waveguide
through the transition length between them. In Fig.4.15
(b) longitudinal coaxial line
probe directly excites the symmetric node TMo1 in a
circular waveguide. TEo1 mode
excited by means of two diametrically oppositely placed longitudinal narrow
slots
parallel to the wall of the rectangular waveguides as shown in Fig.4.16 (c).
Coaxial line
Short circuited end
Antenna probe
(a) TMo1 mode (b) TE1 mode
Fig. 4.15. Methods of exciting various modes in circular waveguides

A common method of excitation of TM modes in a circular waveguide by coaxial
line is shown in Fig.4.17. At the end of the coaxial line a large magnetic field exists in
the direction of propagation. The magnetic field from the coaxial line will excite the
IM modes in the guide. However, when the guide is connected to the source by a co
axial line, a discontinuity problem at the junction will increase the standing wave
Page 262 of 443
ratio (SWR) on the line and eventually decrease the power transmission. It is often
necessary to place a turning device around the junction in order to suppress the
reflection.
Coaxial line TEM
TE10
Rectangular
waveguide Circular waveguide
(a)
Coaxial
TMo1 TMo1
TEM
Circular waveguide
(b)
TE10 TE01 Y y180° TE10
Rectangular Rectangular
waveguide
Circular waveguide
(c)
Fig. 4.16. Methods of excitationof TE and TM modes in circular waveguides

(a) TE;, node excitation, (b) TMo, nnode excitation, (c) TE, mode excitation
Single stub Single stub
Waveguide slot
Coaxial line Coaxial line Waveguide
(a) Coaxial line with a slotted waveguide (b) Coaxial line in series with
a
circular waveguide
Fig. 4.17. Methods of exciting TM modes in a cylindrical waveguide

Page 263 of 443
4.67|
Waveguides
SOLVED PROBLEMS
good
parallel plane wave guide consists .of tvo sheets
of
A
Example 41 at frequencies -of
conductor separated by 10 cm. Find the propagation consiant
100 MHz and 10 GHZ, when the
wave guide is operated in TEjo mode. Does the
case.
propagation take place in each
Given : TEJomode
:
m= 1, n=0
a= 10 cm
=
0.1 m
.
f= 100 MHz, 10GHz

For free space =
and = Eo
=
Free space velocity c= 3x 10 m/sec
Propagation constant is given by

I12T 2
(a)-(?a [:: o=2n]
For f= 100 MHz

2x 100 x 10°
(0.1) 3x 108
100 -(
= 31.346 Nepers/metre
y=a
Ihe propagation costant has a real value. i.e.,
y
Hence nopropagation takesplace at 100 MHz.:

1 2 x 10x 10)2
For
f=10 GHz (0.1) 3 x 108
(200
/ 100 - 3) -
= j207.07
Y
has imaginary value i.e., y=jß. Hence propagation takes place at 10 GHz.
Page 264 of 443
Transmission. Lines and RF Systems
4.68 .,
o
by &
perfectly conducting planes are separated
Example 4.2 pairA
of excited find thefollowing
the TM,mode
5000MHz with
air. Forfrequency of
() cut-off frequency
(ii) characteristic impedance

(ii) attenuation constant forf= 0.95j,
(iy) phase shift
group velocity
() phase velocity and
(vi) wavelength measured along the guiding walls
Given : TM,
m
mode: =1
a = 8 cm = 0.08 m F/m
36T x 10
H/m
f= 5000 MHz Ho= 4T × 10
() Cut-off.frequency
a
1
2a [:v=:
But V= c = 3
x10 m/sec
1
2x0.08 x3x 108

= 18.75 × 10°
Hz = 1.875 GHz
(i) Characteristic inpedance :
z = = 120 T
1= 120 T
ohms or 377 ohms
(iii) Propagation constant becomes attenuation constant
operating frequency is less than the cut-off frequency. (i.e.,
real value) if the
Page 265 of 443
Waveguides
4.69
f.= 0.95 f.
f= 0.95 f
Cut-off wave length e == 2a
-(2r0.95:
2a
111T
a Vl- (0.95)2
= = 12.26 Nepers/m
39.270.0975
(iv) Phase
shift :
2
B = -
f=5000 MHZ
102T \2
B= a
2x 5000 x 10ó )2 -(obe)
= I 3 x 108
() - 156.25
= 97.08 radians
) Phase velocity
:
2f
2T × 5000 x
10
3.236 x 10° m/sec
97.08
Page 266 of 443
4.70|
or
3 x 108
1.875 x 10° )2
5000 x 10
3.236 x 10 m/sec
Group velocity :
(3x 108)² = 2.78 m/sec
p 3.236 x 10
(vi) Wave guide wavelengtlh :
But = 3x 108
=
50 x 108 0.06 m
2a =
m
0.16 m
0.06
= 0.0647 m
Example 4.3 For a frequency

the following for the TE, mode.
of 6000 MHz and plane separation =
7 cm, find
() cut-off frequency
(i) angle of incidenceon the
planes
(ii) phase velocity and group
Is it possible to propagate velocity
TE, mode ?
Given : TE, mode: m=
1, a=0.07 m
() Cut-off:
f= 6000 MHz
Page 267 of 443
Waveguides
|4.71|
m
f. = 2a
m
2a
1
x 108
2x 0.07 3x
f. =21,4286 x 10 Hz
:
(iüi) Phase velocity
Vi-97
3x 108
21.4286 x 108 )2
6000 x 10º
= 3.2118x 10 m/sec
Group velocity v, =
(3x 1092
3.2118 x 108
= 2.802 m/sec
(i) Angle of incidence:

C
COs
= C 3x 108
cos 3.2118 x 108
Vp
0= cos-! (0.934)
20.920
2
Page 268 of 443
|4.72 Transmission Lines and RFSystems
2x 6000 × 10° \2
3x 108
T/ 1836.735 - 16000
= TV.236.735
= 48.337] Nepers/m
Propagation constant has a real value i.e., Y=a.

Therefore propagation is not possible for TE,mode.
|Example 4.4 Consider a parallel plate wave guide with plte separation 20
cm
with the TE,, mode excited at l GHz. Find the propagation constant, the cut-of
,
frequency and guide wavelength assuming = 4 for medium of propagation in the
-guide.
m=1, n=0, a=
m
Given: TE, mode: 0.2
1 GHZ
f=
2
- oue
2x 10x2
T
3 x 108
= j39.3 radians/m
Cut-off Frequency
2a e
1
2a 4
3x 108
2x 0.2x2 =375 MHIz
Guide wavelength
g
Page 269 of 443
Waeguides
4.73
2a =
2x 0.2 = 0.4 m
3x 108
= 0.3 m
1x 109
0.3
= 0.16 m
(0.3 )2
Exanple 4.5 A 4GHz signal is propagated in a rectangular wave

guide with
internal dimensions of 2.5
x5 cm. Assuming the dominant mode, calculate :
) cu-off wavelength (i) guide wavelength
(ii) group velocity (iv) phase velocity and
(v) wave impedance
Given : TE,o mode : m=1, n=0

f= 1
GHz
a = 0.05 m
b= 0.025 m
() Cut-off wave length

2a = m
2x 0.05= 0.10
12
(i) Guide wave lengtl
3 x 108 = 0.075 m
4x 10°
f
0.075 = 0.1134 m
0.075
0.1
(ii) Group velocity

Page 270 of 443
|4.74| Transmission Lines and RF Systenme
0.075
0.1134) x3 x 108
= 1.984 x 10 m/sec
(iv) Phase velocity

C
mv 1n.
fe
2a 2'c
1
108
0.1 x3×
= 30 ×
10 Hz
f.
3 x 108
= 4.5356 x 10 m/sec
30 × 1082
4 x 10
Or
0.1134 x = 4.5356 ×
0.075 x3 10
10 m/sec
() Wave impedance
Zo
ZTE
Intrinsic impedance
Zo 120 T ohms
120 T
ZTE
1 - 0.075 )2
0.1
= 570 ohms
Example 4.6 A uniforn plane wave propagates in a lossless medium whos

=
8, 4, u, = l in the z direction. Assume that E, is siusoidal with a frequency of 10
MHz and has a maximum value of 1 m/ at t = 0 and z
=l/8 m, Write down
instantaneous expressions for E and Hfor any t and z.
Page 271 of 443
Wavegides
4.75|
Given :
f.= 100 MHz

= 10 V/m
1
at t =
0
and z= m
The instantaneous
value of electric field is given
by
(, t) = E,, cos (ot
E
-ßz+ )
Use cos otas reference because maximum occurs at
=
t =0]
2T f ,Ho&, E0
=
2T x 100 x
10°xE, VHo &0
2T x 108 V4
C
4n x 108 4T
x
3
108 3
If cos (ot– Bz + )=1, then only E has maximum value of E,.

:. ot-Bz + y
should be equal to 0.
Bz + y = 0
Ot-
4T
2T x 10 t 3
z+y = 0
1
Att=0 and z =
8
0-) +y =0
y=6
*. The
E ,
instantaneous expression of E is
t) = 10- cos
2 x 10°
4
t- 32 6 V/m
E
H !
4 E0
Page 272 of 443
|4.76
Transmission Lines.and RF Systems
x 120 TL =n0=120r
2
= 60Tt
E
H =
60
:. The instantaneous expression of magneticfield is given by
103 4T
H = cos27t x 10° t -2 Z+ A/m
60 T
,
Example 4.7| A waveguide is formed by two parallel copper sheets o = 5.8 x
10 s/m separated by a 5 cm thick lossy dielectric = 2.25, 4, = 1, o= 10 s/m.
For an operating frequency of 10GHz, find ß, ay, Vp, v, and , a,
TM, mode and TEM mode.
for TE, mode,
Given : For copper g=5.8 x 10' s/m.
For lossy dielectric = 101 s/m
E, = 2.25
=1
a =5 cm = 5 x 10-2 m
f= 10 x 10 Hz
120 Tt
= 251.33 S2
V 2.25
2a ue
1
2x5x 10/
3x 108 =
2
x5 x 10 2.25 2x 10 Hz
/2rx10o x 4n x 10- x 2.25 x 0.854 x 10-12

= 308 rad m
/
Page 273 of 443
Waveguides
4.77|
10 x 10-0 x 251.33
21/1-(
= 128.26 x 10-10 Nepers/m
2 R,
na
where R, =
Cm
4 x 10-7
T X
10"x
5.8 x 10
= 2.61 x 10- Q
x x
10-2
2x 2.61
251.33 x 5 x 102n/1-(
= 1.696 x 10* Nepers /m
V Ho Eo E,
3x 108 = 2x 10 m/s
V 2.25
2x 108
= 2,04 x 10m/s
Page 274 of 443
4.78
=y
Vp
=
2x 108
|1-(6
Vg
= 1.96 x 108 m/s
x
f 2x 108/ 10 10
= 0.0204 m or 2.04 cm
For TM, mode : m =

2
m
2a E
2x3x 108
2x5x 10-22.25
=
4× 10 Hz
B= a
(2Tt x
10'x 4n x 10 x 2.25 x 8.854 ×
10-2 2T
= 288.165 rad/m 5x 10-2
10 x 10x 251.33
=
1371.11 x 10 Nepers /m
Page 275 of 443
Waveguides
4.79
2 R,
na
2 x 2.61 x 10-2
251.33 x 5 x
x5x1 1021/1 -
= 4.53 x 10 Nepers/m
Vp
2x 108
Vi-(0)
= 2.182 x 10 m/s
-
= 2x 10"/1-(6 =1.83 x 108 m/s
2x 10/ (10 x 10)

0.02182 m or 2.18 cm
For TEM mode:
2nx 100/2.25
1
-=3 x 108
3 x 108
= 314.16 rad/m
Page 276 of 443
Systeme
4.80|
10-10
x 251.33
2
= 125.665 x 100 Nepers /m
1
na 2o
1 R,
ma
2.61 x 1o-2 = 2.08 x
10 Nepers /m
251.33 x 5 x 102
Since fc=0, v = V,=Vg

1
3x 108
= 2x 10 m/s
V2.25
med!
dired
3.x 108 Dete

= 0.03 m or 3 cm
10 × 10
Example 4.8| A parallel plate waveguide

has plate separation 1 cm and filled (
with a perfect dielectric
of dielectric constant 9. Find the cutoff
dominant and next higher TM modes. freguencies
a = 1 cm = 1 x 10- m
, 9
The
Propagation constant y =
For cut-off frequency,

2
mTT
C
1
Page 277 of 443
Waveguides
|4.81|
Eor dominant mode TM,, m

=1.
1
VHo Eo Er
C
3 x 108
=5 GHz
x 10-2
2/9
For next dominant mode TM, m =2
1
2T , a
2x3x 10 10 GHz
2ae, 2x 10x3
medium ,
Example 4.9 An infinite parallel plate waveguide has lossless dielectric
within wo perfectly conducting plates separated by distance b in y
direction. The guide is excited in TM, mode for propagation in z direction.
Determine :
average powerflow,
() the expression for time
(ii) show that velocity at which energy propagates along the guide is OBA,
where
k=ous, B=propagation constant.
a wave is given by
Ihe time average power density in propagating
Re [Ex H*]
2
Re
(-, E, H* +a, E° H°]
P
,= -; Re [E H°]
But E = A, sin
Page 278 of 443

4:82
H =
h
A,cos
nTY
b
)
E, A,cosTy
-,Re (E, H,") 2 h

A; cos
))
() The time average power (P)o is equal to the time average Poynting vector P
integrated over the guide cross-section.
Pav =P ds
For unit width of the parallel plate waveguide
P)a =Par
ay a. dy
=
A cos? dy
2
h'
0
weß A
cos? Ty dy
2h b
nTTy
sin 2 b
n
+
2 /2 2 4nn
A
weß
2h
l3+o
4 7
..
The time average power flow is
weßbA
Pav 4 12
Waveguides Page 279 of 443
|4.83|
(i) The electric energy density
is
W, =
The average electric energy

density is
(W)a
=5 Re (W,)
1
7e Re (E· E*)
The magnetic energy density

is
1
Wm
2 HH?
1
2 HH·H*
The average magnetic energy density is
(W-)r =;21
Re(W_)
Re(H : H*)
4
For electric energy calculation,
E = E + E =
A, sin uny)BA,
- h cos
-
E·E* A, sin
Y
bh
cos
sin 2n)BA,
A,
+
h COS
())
BA
A sin?| nIy cos
b
Average electric energy density
*· (W,) = 4 Re (E-E*)
-:si)o))
=
Page 280 of 443
4.84 Transmission Lines and RF Systerme
he time average stored electric energy per unit guide width is given by
sin2 cos
4 42 0
nny
- sin 2 b
+
B
+
sin 2 b
4n 4nn 2 Ann
--o 4
A
2
1+:
+0
eb A?
n
82
b A2
8 h2
=
where +B²
Similarly for magnetic energy calculation
nTy
H
cos
h A,
H.H* = A2 cos?
4n
Average magnetic energy density

(Wm)av Re (H- H*)
4
(W)av 4
The time average stored magnetic energy per unitguide width is given by
(W) dy = 4 H2 (o)A? cos?] dy

|4.85
|W)ey =
0
dy
4 (os)A?
sin 2
2
2
4n
b
41
87
8 h?
where Wave number k = 0 us
The total time average stored energy
W
(W)a +
(W)ar
b A
4h
For signal transmission in a lossless waveguide the energy transport velocity v is

defined as the ratio of the time-average propagated power to the time average stored
energy per unit guide length.
A
Ppa 4}2
Wa
4
h
2
through a
wave at 2.45. GHz is transmitted
uniform plane
Example 4.10A = 47ep !
= H Find the complex propagation
medium having
=
2.17 s/m, medium.
If the electric feld
wave impedance of the
constant, phase velocity and the per unit area.
average power flow
magnitude Vn, findthe time
is 10 = 2.45 x 10 Hz
= 2.45 GHz x 10 radians
f = 2 x 2.45
x 10 = 15.394
O
=
2f F/m
2.17 s/m x = 416.14 x 1o-12
o= A7e.
x
= 47 8.854 102
= 47 En
H/m
10-
H, = 47x
Page 282 of 443
Propagation constant is given by

Y= Vjou (G +joc)
=
V-oue +jouo
(15.394 x 10} x 4T x 10 x 416.14 x
102
i15.394x 10 x 4T x 10 x2.17
V-123922.51+j 41977.94
V 130839.34 Z 161.26°
= 361.5 Z 80.63
Y = 58.85 +j356.65
a +jß
where a = 58.85 Nepers
/m
B = 356.65 rad/ m
Phase velocity Vp
B
27 x 2.45 x 10°
356.65
0.4316 >x 10 m/sec
Wave impedance Z
B
2 x
2.45 x 10 x 4T ×
10-7
356.65
Z = 54.24 Q
Intrinsic impedance n= G+joE
1
jOE
X
4.87|
120 T
N47 X
V1-j0.339
= 52.1
Z18.7° 2
E = 10 V/m
H - E 10
52.1 = 0.192 A/m
Time average power flow unit
l area
1
Pay
EH
x 10 × 0.192 =
2 0.96 W/m
Example 4.11 For an air filled copper
For X-brand wave guide with dimensions
a= 2.286 cm, b = 1.016 cm,
determine the cut-off frequency
propagating modes. What is the of the first four
attenuation for l metre length
qperating at the frequency of the guide when
of 10 GHZ ?
Given: a = 2.286 cm: b 1.016 cm
=
f= 10 GHz: length = ]m
TE0 TEol TE|; TEo2
2
2
=
2
+
Vu
1
Vue
For TE,o mode :
m=1, n=0
C
2a
3x 108x 6.56 GHz
2x 2,286 10
For TE, mode :
m=0, n=1
3 x 108 = 14.76 GH2
2x 1.016 10*
x
Page 284 of 443

4.88
For TE,y mode :

m=1, n=1
102 )2 102
+ = 16.156 GHz
2.286 1.016
For TEp mode :
m=0, n=2
c 2
2 b
C3x 108
1.016 x 10-2 = 29.53 GH2

Propagation Constant
2
Y = +
a
If the operating frequency is less than

the cut-off frequency, attenuation
place i.e., propagation does not take place. takes
For TEo, TEjl TEo2 modes,
propagation will not take
constant y=. place ie.. Propagation
For TE;, mode : m=1, n=1

102 102
Y = + 2x 10x 10
2.286 1.016 3 x108
Y = a = 265.77 Nepers/m
Attenuation = al= 337.4 x 1
337.4 Nepers
For TEp mode: m=0, n=1
10 2x 10 >x 10
1.016 3 x108
227.5 Nepers/m
Attenuation = al = 227.5 x 1 =
227.5 Nepers
Page 285 of 443
Waveguides
4.89
For TEp2 mode : m=0, n=2
2x 102)2
a =
1.016 -(
-|
2x 10 x 10
3 x108
2
581.88 Nepers/m
Attenuation = al = 581.88 x 1 = 581.88 Nepers
Example 4.12 A
rectangular waveguide has cross-section dimensions
a=7 cn and b 4 cm. Determine all the modes which will propagate through the
waveguide at a frequency of 6 GHz.
Given : a= 7 cm 7x 10m
b = 4 cm 4x 10 m
f = 6 GHz
C
I Method:
3 x 108
= 5 cm
6x 10
The cut-off wavelength

2
For TE,n mode : m=1, n=0
If,> , = 2a = 2x7=
then propagation takes place i.e., the cut-off
greater than the minimum wave length (h) for propagation.
14
wave length
cm
, should be
, mode.
Once o propagation is possible for TE
For TEn, mode : m=0, n=1
cm
=
26 = 2x4 =8
mode.
Propagation is possible for TEo,
.^eo
For TE;j mode : m=1, n=1
2 = 6.946 cm
mode.
propagation is possible for TEj
Page 286 of 443

4.90
For TE,n mode : m=2, n=0

2
2
a
7 cm=
he>ho. propagation is possible for TE0 mode.

For TE mode : m=0, n=2
2
= h 4 cm
<oy Propagation will not take place for TE0 mode.

Therefore TE0, TEol TE, TE, modes will propagate through the wave guide.
II Method : Propagation constant
2
+
(e}-(6) -
For TEn mode: m=1, n=0
10°
/-(2x6x 3 x 108
2
= T V204.08- 1600
= j117.38 radians/m
Ify is imaginary, the propagation definitely will take place i.e.,
y=jß (: a=0)
Propagation is possible for TEo mode.
For TE mode : m=0, n=1
Y = T 1600 =
j98.1 rad/m
Propagation is possible for TEg mode.
For TE, mode : m=1, n=1
Y = T
Propagation is possible for TE, mode.

( - 1600 = j87.228 rad/m
Page 287 of 443
Fveguides 4.91|
For TEg. mode : m=2,

n=0
V-1600
= j87.95 rad/m
7
1600
Propagation is possible for TE, mode.

For TE2 mode : m=0, n=2
2x 10 - 1600 =94.24
y
becomes real value i.e., y = . (: B 0)
Propagation will not take place in this mode.
: TELO TE), TE, and TE,, modes will propagate.
Example 4.13 An air filled rectangular waveguide has cross-sectional

frequencies for the following
dimensions x = 8 cm and y = 4 cm. Find the cut-off
modes TE0, TEz0, TEjr:
a=8 cm =0.08
m
Given :
b=4 cm = 0.04
m
Cut-offfrequency :
2
For TEo : m=1, n=0

3x 108 1 + 0
2
18.75 x 108
= 1.875 GHZ
For TE20 m=2, n=0
2
3x 108 + 0
2
3.75 GHZ
37.5 x 10 =
For
TE1:m=1, n=1 1
3 x 108
2
=, 4.19 GHz
Page 288 of 443

4.92|
cm internally and hoe

Example 4.14 A rectangular waveguide measures 3 x5
a 10 GHz signal propagated in it. Calculate the cut-off wavelength, the guide
wavelengthand the characteristic wave impedance for the TEj0 mode.
a=5 cm = 5x 10
m
Given:
b-3 cm 3× 10m
=
f=10 GHZ, TEI0, m=1, n=0

Cut-off wavelength
2a =
m 2x5 x
102 = 10 ×
10m
Cut-offfrequency
3x 108
= 3 GHz
p 10 × 102
Guide wavelength
But o =
f
3 x 108
= 3 cm or
10 x 10 3x 10 m
= 3.145cm or 3.145 x
10 m
Characteristic waveinpedance
[:n=120 S2]
120
1
-(
395.19 ohms
Woveguides Page 289 of 443
|4.93|
Example 4.15A10 GHz signal is to be

propagated in the dominant mode in
a
rectangular waveguiade, If its group velocity is to be 90% of

the free space velocity af
what must be the breadth of the waveguide. Calculate the characteristic
impedance.
=
Given : f 10GHZ
() = 0.9
Group velocity v, = c
()-Vi-9
1
-(
(4 -1-(} = 1-(0.9) = 0.19
= 4.359 GHz
3x 108 = 6.88 cm.
4.359 x 10
2a
But
2a= e [:m=1]
a
2
6.88
=
Breadth of the wave guide 2
3.44 cm or 3.44 10-2
>x
h=
120 T = 418.9 ohms

V1 - 0.19
Page 290 of 443
4.94 Transmission Lines and RF Systeme
Example 4.16 Design a rectangular waveguide with the followino

Specifications (a) At a 7.5 GHZ, the guide wavelength for TEjo mode is 90% of the
Cur-otf wave length. (b) TE) and TE,, have the same cut-of frequency.
Given : f= 7.5 GHz
= 0.9
3xx108 10
= 4 cm
7.5
2
1
Cross multiplying
- = 1
= =
| + 1+ (0.9) = 1.81
= 1.35 x 4 = 5,40 cm
But = 0.9
5.4
= 6 Cm
0.9 0.9
2a
(a) For TE0: = 2a

[: m=1]
Ap
a
Page 291 of 443
Waveguides
|4.95|
a= 3 cm
(b)For TE0: 2a
a = =
6x3
2 2
a= 9 cm
For TE;p : m=1, n=2

2
4
2
- 1
= 0.099
= 40.4 4
0.099
h = 6.36 cm
a = 9 cm
Example 4.17 An air filled hollow ectangular conducting waveguide has

Cross section dimensions of 8 x 10 cm. How many 1E modes will this waveguide
are
Iansmit at freauencies below 4 GHz? How are these modes designated and what
lheir cut-offfrequencies?
0.1 m: b=0.08 m; f=
4 GHZ.
a =
Giyen :
C
=
=
3x 108 = 0.075 m
4x 10
The cut-off wavelength,
2
Page 292 of 443
4.96| Transmission Lines and i RF Systems
Propagation constant,
V +
0.08
2 \2
Y = +
(-(
V-0-(24)
4 x 10
Í 40
C 3x 108 3
2
Y = V n
0.08
-(2x 3
Let m=1, n =0.
Y =
+0-( = j77.66 radians / metre
n
m=0, =1,
80 \ 2
Y = TT
Vo+loss-9) = j74 rad
/m
m=1, n.=1,
= j64 rad
NGj(o)-9)
/m
m=2, n =0,
Y =, T = j55,4
rad/m
m=0, n=2,
2 2
0.08
= j62.72 rad / m
Page 293 of 443
Waveguides
4.97
m=2, n=1,
* j39.1 rad/ m
-(os-()
m=1, n=2,
11.708 Nepers/mn
-)
m=2, n=2,
Vl
55.66 Nepers /m
If propagation constant y is imaginary,propagation will
take place.
For TEJ0 TEol: TE|, TE0 TE02: TE modes, y is
imaginary. These are the
modes that will be
propagated.
The corresponding wavelength for each mode is given by
TE10
3 x 108
2
= 1.5 GHz
TEo1 3 x 108 yo-(oa)

2
1.875 GHz
3 x 108
1
2 = 2.5 GHz
TEj1: +
0.08
2
TEa0 3x 108 +0
2
3 GHZ
TEg2 3 x 108
2
/o+a = 3.75 GHz
1 2
= 3.457 GHz
TEa: 3x 108
2
Page 294 of 443
Example 4.18 An air filled rectangular waveguide of inside dimensior
7x3.5 cm operates in the dominant TEo mode.

(a) Find the cutofffrequency.
(b) Determine the phase velocity at a
frequency of 3.5 GHz.
(c) Determine the gide wavelength at afrequency of 3.5 GH.
Given : = 7cm = 7x 10 m
3.5 cm = 3.5 x 10- m

(a) Cut-off frequency :
For mode TE0 :
3x 108 = 2.14 GHz
2a 2 x7x 10-2
(b) Plhase velocity :
3x 108
p = 3.78 x 10 m/s
(c) Guide wavelength:
3x
10/ 3.5 x 10 = 0.108 m
.14 12
Example 4.19| A rectangular air filled copper

waveguide with dimensio
2 cm xl cm cross-section and cm
30 length is operated at 9 GHz yith a dominaa
mode. Find cul-off frequency, guide wavelength,
phase velocity, characterst
impedance and attenuation. Assume o= 5.8 x
10 s/m for copper.
Given : a = 2 cm = 2x 10- m
b= 1cm = 1x 10-2 m
Hz
f= 9x 10
l= 30 cm = 30 x 10- m
3 x 108
2= = 3.33 >x
10- m
9x 10
The dominant mode is TE10
Page 295 of 443
Waveguides
|4.99|
Cut-off frequency
C C 3 x 108
2 2a 2'x 2 x 102
= 7.5 GHz
f.
Guide wavelength
3.33 x 1o-2
Vi-(
= 6.02 x 10 m
Phase velocity
3x 108
V, = 5.43 x 108 m/sec

ZTE
120T
Le 682 ohms
Surface resistance
R,
T X9× 10 x
4 x 10-7
5.8 x 10"
R, = 2.475
x
10- ohms
Page 296 of 443
Systerme
Transmission Lines and Rr
14100|
Attenuation constant
R 1+
2.475 x 10 1+2x% x
x
1
10 x 120 T Vi-(3)2
=
0.02 Nepers /m (e
Total attenuation Th
al = 0.02 x 0.30 = 0.006 Nepers

Example 4.20 A TE,0 Wave at 10 GHz propagates in a brass ,
= 1.57 x 10
gIVen
,
(s/m) rectangular waveguide with inner dimensions. a = 1.5 cm and b = 0.6 cm,
which is filled with polyethylene - 2.25, 4, =1, loss tangent = 4 x
10. Determine
(a) the phase constant, (b) the guide wavelength, (c) the phase velocity, (d)
the wave
impedance, (e) the attenuation constant due to loss in dielectric,
and () the
attenuation constant due to loss in guide walls.
At f = 10° Hz. The wavelength in unbounded
polyethylene is
3x 108
2x 108
= 0.02 m
V2.25 x 1010 1010
The cutoff frequency for the TEo mode is,
2 x 108
2a 2 x (1.5 x 10) 0.667 x 10° Hz
(a) The phase constant is
B = 27t x 1010
2 x 108 |1-(0.667)
B = 74.5 = 234 rad l m
(b) The guide wavelength is
0.02
= 0.0268 m
0.745
Page 297 of 443
Waveguides
4.101
(c) The phase velocity is
2x 108
= 2.68 x 10 m/s
0.745
(d) The wave impedance is
377
(Zre)io V 2.25
337.4 S2
-4 0.745
(e)The attenuation constant due to loss in dielectric.

The effective conductivity for polyethylene at 10 GHz can be
determined from the
given loss tangent.
G =
oE = x (2n 2.25 x
4x 10 4x 10 x
10") x 109
36
G = 5x 10- s/m
5x 10-4
Thus x 337.4
2 2
= 0.084 Np/m = 0.73dB/m
() The attenuation constant due to loss in guide walls.
R,
TIX 10° x (47x 10-) = 0.0501 2
1.57 x 10"
Rs 1 +
0.0501 1+(0.667
251 x 0.006 x 0.745
= 0.0605 Np /m
= 0.526 dB /m
Page 298 of 443
4.102
Example 4.21 Calculate and compare the values

of ß. y V
d, and ZyEofor a
Z.5 cm x 1.5 cm rectangular waveguide operating
at 7. GHz (a)ý the waveguide :.
1
a dielectric medium characterized
hollow, b) if the waveguide is filled with
E, =2, u, =l and o= 0.
Given: a = 3.5 cm = 3.5 × 10 m
b= 1.5 cm = 1.5x 10-
m
×
10 Hz
f= 7.5 GHz =7.5
TE, Mode: n= 1, n =0
(a) Waveguide is lhollow :
Wavelength à
3x 108 =
0.04 m or 4 cm
7.5 x 10
Cut-off frequency Jc 2a
x 108
3
2x 3.5 x 10-2
= 4.286 x 10 Hz
Phase constant B =
2rx 7.5 x 10 2
3 x 108
= 128.9 rad / m
Guide wavelength g 4× 10
Vi-( 4.286 )2
7.5
= 0.0488 or 4.88 cm
Phase velocity V
3x 108
Vi-[(4.286
7.5
= 3.66x 10 m/s
Group velocity v, = v
Page 299 of 443
ovegides
4.103|
= 3x 108 4.286 )2
)
7.5
= 2.46x 10 m/s
Wave impedance
ZTE10
-4
120 T
4.286 )2
= 459.74 Q
(6) Waveguide is filled with dielectric medium.
E, =2; H,=l and g=0
Velocity v 1
1
V Ho
eo V2
3x 108
= 2.12 x 10° m/s
2.12 x 108
=
7.5 x 10
cm
= 0.0283 m or 2.83
Cut-off
frequency for TE,o mode
:
fe
2a
2.12 x 108 = 3.03 x 10 Hz
x 10:2 .
2x3.5
Phase constant B
Page 300 of 443
Transnission Lines and RF Systemg
4.104
3.03 )2
27x 7.5 x
10
7.5
2.12 x 108
= 203.39 rad/m
Guide wavelength g *
2.83 x 10-2
(3.03 )
Phase velocity y,
2.12 x 108
3.03
= 2.317x 10 m/s
Group velocity v,
= 2.12x108
4 3.03 2
= 1.94 x 7.5
10 m/s
Wave impedance ZTELO
120
2 3.03
Vi 7.5
2 291.37
Q
Page 301 of 443
4.105
Comparison
ofParaneters
Paramneters Hollow Waveguide with
Waveguide
dielectric
B rad/ m 128.9
V, m/s 203.39
3.66 x 108
V, m/s 2.317 x 108
2.46 × 108
1.94 × 108
4.88 3.09
459.74 291.37
Example 4.22 () ) What do you understand

by degenerate modes in
waveguides ?
(it) Arectangular air filled waveguide with dimension
and 0.9" x 0.4" cross-section
12" length is operated at 9.2 GHz with dominant mode.
guide wavelength, phase velocity, Find cutoff frequency,
characteristicimpedance and conductor loss in dB.
(i) Different modes having the same resonant frequency are
called degenerate
modes.Thus TM,nn and TEmpp modes are always
degenerate if none of the
mode indices is zero.
(ii) a = 0.9" = 2.54 x
10x 0.9 = 2,286 x 10-2 m
b= 0.4'" = 2.54 × 10x 0.4 = 1.016x 10-
m
j= 9.2 GHz = 9.2 x 10 Hz

TEJomode (dominant mode)
mn)2
1 2 2
H
+
a
For TE,o mode m=1, n =0.
Cutoff frequency Je = 2T
C
2a
Page 302 of 443
|4.106| Transmission Lines and RF Systenm
3 x 108
x 10-2
2x 2.286
=
6.56 GHz
C 3x 108
9.2 x 10
f
= 3.26x 10 m
Guide wavelength
e=
0.0978
Vi-(
= 4.29 x 10 m
Phase velocity v
3 x 108
6.56 2
9.2
= 4,278×
10 m/sec
ZE
9 120
= 537.68 S2
Vi-s6 9.2
Surface resistance R, =
Conductivity of copper o =5.8 x 10' mho lm

T X 9.2 x 10 × 4T x 10-7
R,
=\ 5.8 × 107
= 2.5 x 10- 2
Page 303 of 443
Waveguides
4.107
Attenuation constant a =
R, 142b
a 4
Vi-(4
2
2.5 x
10-22x1.016x x 102 (6.56 )
2.286 10-2 9.2
1.016x
6.56)2
10-× 120 T
9.2
= 1.354 × 10 Nepers mn
/
Attenuation al = 1.354x 10-x 30.48 x 10
= 4.15 x 10 Nepers
Attenuation in dB
=
8.686 x 4.15 x 10-3
36 x
=
10 dB
a=
Example 4.23 An air filled rectangular waveguide with dimensions 8.5 of
cm
and b = 4.3 cm is fed by a 4 GHz carrier from coaxial cable. Determine the cut
off frequency, phase velocity and group velocity for TE,, nmode.
Data: a = 8.5cm = 0.085 m

4.3 cm = 0,043 m
=
b
4 GHz = 4x 10 Hz
f=
TE, mode: n= 1, n
=1
Cut-off frequency, Je = (()

3x 108 loo85
1 12
2 0.043
= 3.9 GHz
C 3 x 108
Phase velocity 3.9 x 1o2
x 10
44x
= 14.14 m/s
Page 304 of 443
Transmission Lines and REF Systeme
4.108|
Group velocity, Vg =
= 3x 108 3.9 x 0.9 )2

4 x 10
= 0.636x 10* m/s
Example 4.24 The cut-off wavelengths ofrectangular waveguide are measured

to be 8 cm and 4.8 cm for TE,oand TEy mode respectively. Determine waveguide
dimensions.
Data: TE Mode: in = 1, n =0, = 8cm = 0.08 m
TE Mode: m = 1, n=1, o = 4.8 cm = 0.048 m
e =
2a = 0.08 m
a= 0.04
m =
4 cm
2 2
2 ab
Va+2
4 a? b2
62
(0.048) = 4x (0.04)
(0.04)° + b2
6.4 x 102
2.304 × 10- = 1.6 × 10+62
2.304 × 10 (1.6 x 10 + b) = 6.4 x 10-
2
3,6864 x 10 +2.304 b =
6.4 b2
4.096 b' = 3.6864 x 103
b = 0.03 m = 3 cm
a= 4 cm
b= 3 cm
Page 305 of 443
Waveguides
4.109
Example 4.25 A
TEjo Wave
in abrass
10 GHz propagates with velocity x 108
= 1.57 x 10
s/m rectangular waveguide of2 m/sec
cm
and b = 0.6cm, which is with inner dimensions = 1.5
a
filledwith polyethylene s, = 2.25, u,
phase constant, guide
wavelength, phase velocity, wave
=1. Calculate the
among the two impedance which signal
separate signals with frequency
by the rectangular 5 GHz and 15 GHz willbe supported
waveguide for propagation
through it?
Data: y=2x 10 m/s: 10";
o=1.57x
a =1.5 cm; b=0.6 cm; ,= 2.25;
H,=1; f =5 GHz; f, =
15 GHZ.
Wavelength in polyethylene unbounded, A 3x 108

=7525 x
V2.25 1010
= 2 cm
fe TEj)
2a
2x 108
1.5 x
10-2 6.67 GHZ
2x
Phase constant,
2 x 10l0 6.67 x 10
2x 108 1010
B= 234 rad/m
0.02
Guide wavelength, g 0.745
=
0.0268 m
1-(4
2x 108 = 2.68x 10 m/s
Phase velocity, Vp
0.745
This waveguide only support the signal with irequency of 15 GHz and it does not
GHZ
support the 5 GHz signal for propagation, Since its cut-off frequency is 6.67
Page 306 of 443
Example 4.26 What are the dimensions of a waveguide with the following
specifications:
(4) At afrequency of 9959.5 MHz, the guide wavelength for TEjo mode is
87.57o the cut-off wavelength.

of
(2) TE0 and TE,, mode have the same cut-off frequency.
f= 9959.5 MHz
= 0.8757
3 x 108
= 3x 10- m
9959.5 x 100
=
1+
= 1+ (0.8757) = 1.767
= 1.33
= = 1.33
1.33
x3 x 10-2
= 3.99 x 10 m
3.99 x 10-2
0.8757 0.8757.
= 4.56 x 10- m
2 a
m
For TE10 m = 1,
e = 2a
a = =2.28 x
10- m
For TE30> m = 3,
e = 2a
m
3 =
a 2 6.84× 10- m
TE12 m = 1, n=2
Page 307 of 443
Waeguides 4.111
4 11
x
(4.56 10 (6.84 x 10-22
4
= 0.171 × 10"
4
0.171 × 10
= 4.84 x
b
10m
a = 6.84 x 10 m
Example 4.27 A X-band air flled rectangular waveguide has inner
dimensions of a = 2.3 cm and b = I cm. Calculate the cut-off frequencies in the
following modes: TEj0 TE20 TM)|, TMI2: Also check which of the modes will
propagate along the waveguide when the signal frequeney in 10 GHz.
Given: a= 2.3 cm = 2.3 x 10 m
b= 1 cm = 1× 10
m
f= 10 GHz = 10 × 10 Hz
Modes TEJ0 m=1, n =0
TE20 m=2, n=0
TM1 m=1, n=1
TM12 m=1, n=2
2
Cut-off frequency Se = 2T
e
3 x 108
For TEJ0 2 10-2
= 6.52 GHz
3x 108 2
For TE20 2
= 13.04 GHz
Page 308 of 443
Transmission Lines and RF System.

4.112
3x 108
For TM1: 2
= 24.5 GHz
3x 108
For TM12:
n2.
= 30.7 GHZ
frequency, propagation takes
If the operating frequency is greater than the cut-off
place.
For TEJ0 mde 10 GHz >6.52 GHz Propagation takes place
mode 10 GHZ<13.04 GHZ No propagation
TE20 f>fe
TM; mode
f<f. 10GHZ<24.5 GHz No propagation
TMp mode f<f. 10 GHZ<30.74 GHZ No propagation
Example 4.28 A pair conductng plates are separated by 3 cm in

of
perfectly
air and carries a 10 GHz signal in TM, mode. Find the cut-off frequency, phase
constant, cut-off wavelength.
Given: a = 3cm = 3 x 10-12

m
f= 10 GHz =
10 × 10
Hz
TM, mode m = 1
Cut-off frequency fe =
m 3x 108 =
C= x 10-2 0.5 x 1010
2a 2x3
Cut-off wavelength , = 5GHZ

= 2a =
2x 3 × 10-2
= 0.06 m = 6 cm
2
Phase constant B = m Tt
-V-) (** 1
2rt x 10 × 10° )2
3 x 108
= 181.38 rad/m
Page 309 of 443
Faveguides
4.113
Example 4.29 A
TE0 Wave at 10 GHz a
rectangular wave guide whose Propagates in X-band copper
inner dimensions are: a = 2.3 cm
with Teflon &, =
2.1, p, = and b = l cm, which
isfled 1. Calculate the
cut-off frequency, velocity of
propagation, phase velocity, phase constant,
guide wavelength and wave impedance.
Given: a= 2.3 cm = 2.3 x 102
m
b= cm = 1× 10
1 m
E, = 2.l & 1: ,=
f= 10 GHz & TE,n mode
1
Velocity of propagation v =
C 3x 108
=
2.07 x 10 m
V2.1
Cut-off frequency
Je 2a
2.07 x 108
2 x 2.3 x 10-2
= 4.5 GHz
3x 108
Wave length =
10x 10
= 3 cm or 3x 10
m
Phase velocity p
3x 108
4.5 × 102
10× 10
=
3.36 x 10 m/s
=
Phase constant B
x 10 4.5 x
2 x 10 10?
10 x 10°
2.07 x 108
= 271rad/m
Page 310 of 443
|4.114| Transmission Lines and RF Systeme
Guide wavelength g
3 x 10-2
4.5 × 10
10 x 10
= 3.36 × 10 m or 3.36 cm
Wave impedance ZTE
120T
V2.1
4.5 x 10
10x 10
= 291.3
Example 4.30 A
rectangular waveguide measuring a =
internally has a 9 GHz signal 4.5 cm and b = 3 cm
propagated in it. Calculate the guide wavelength,
phase and group velocities, and churacteristic
impedance for the dominant mode.
Given: a = 4.5 cm = 4.5 x 10-2 m
h= 3 cm =3x 10- m
f.= 9 GHz = 9 x 10 Hz
Mode TEn, m=1, n=0.

Wavelength in free space
3 x 108
= 0.033 m
9x 10
Cut off wavelength

2
4.5 x 10-2
hc = 2 (4.5 x 10)
=
0.09 m
Page 311 of 443
Guide wavelength |4.115|
0.033
0.033 2
0.09
o = 0.0354 m
Phase velocity
3x 108
0.033
0.09
=.3.2246 x 10 m/sec.
Group velocity
= 3× 108 0.033 2
0.09
=
2.7909 × 100 m/sec
120T
Zo (TE)
2 0.033 )2
0.09
cm in
Example 4.31 A
pair ofperfectly conducting planes are separating by 8
cutoff frequency.
or a frequency of 5000 MHz with. TMI mode extracted, find
phase group velocity.
shift, phase velocity and
5x 10 Hz
Solution: f= cm = 8 x 10m
a= 8
m = 1 for TM, mode
2a
Cut-off wavelength, e m
10-2
2x 8x1 1
= 16x 10" m
= 16 cm
Page 312 of 443
4.116
Cut-offfrequency, Jc =
() 2aue
m
2a (4o H) (e, €,)
2x 8x 10x(4
x
10x 1) (8.8423 x 10*× 1)
1.875 GHZ
fo=
(ii) Phase constant
= 8.8423 x 1012 x
2
4nx 10x
V(5000 x 109-(1.875 x 109
B= 97.08 rad/m
(ii) Phase velocity is given by
[: in airy =c=3 × 10 m/s]
3x 108
Vp
1.875 x 10 )2
5000 x 10
= 3.2361 × 10 m/sec
(iv) Group velocity
= 1.875 x 10)2
3x 108
5000 x 10
Vg = 2.781 x 108 m/sec
Page 313 of 443
Mveguides
4.117
Erample. 4.32 If the plate separation
is 10 cm, find the
phase velocity, group velocity and wave
impedance at 6 GHz propagation constant,
TE10 mode:
for TEo mode.
Given: m = 1,
n0
f= 6GHz
a = 0 cm = 0.1 m
Propagation constant,
Y=
2x6x 10)2
3 x 108
1
= j121.67
[v=3x 10
Cut-off frequency, jc = m
1
2a
1
x3 x
108 = 15 x 109
2 x 0.1
C
Phase velocity, V
3x 108
10
(1.5x
6x 10
= 3.098 x 10 m/s
Group velocity, ; Vp
3x1092 =
2.9 x
10 m/s
= 3.0988x 108.
rs
Z
Wave impedance, ZE
120
389.35 S
0.05 2)
(0.2.
Page 314 of 443
J4.118|
x
2a 2 0.= 0.2m
1
Cut-off wavelength, m
3x 108 0.05 m
6x 10
dimension of cross-section of a rectangular

Example 4.33 | The large
frequency and cutoff wavelengih for dominant TE
waveguide is 2 cm. Find the cutoff
mode. m
Given:
a = 2 cm or 2× 10
Dominant TE mode: TE10 m = 1, n=0
Cutoff frequency,
3x 108
2
3 x 108
x 50
2
= 75 x 10 = 7.5 GHz
2
Cutoff wavelength, p
Ve)-0)
2 2a
m
+0
2x 0.02
1
= 0.04 m
Example 4.34 Find the cutoff wavelength in a standard waveguide for TBn
mode.
Note: For a standard rectangular waveguide the dimension will be in the ratio 9f
2:1.
Solution: Let the length be 'a' meters and the breadth be b=.
Page 315 of 443
Moveguiades
4.119
Cutoff wavelength, , 2
nc 2
+
al2
2
m 4 n
2a 2a
For TE1 mode,
e Vm'+4n²V1+4
o = 0.894 a
or
= 0.894 x 2b = 1.788 b
are separated by 5 cm in
Example 4.35 parallel perfectly conducting planes
A
a frequency of 10 GHz in TMp mode. Find the cutoff
air and carries a signal with
requency and cutoff wavelength. m
a = 5cm or 5>x 10
Given:
f= 10 GHz
Mode: TM0:
m = 1, n=0
1
= EX3x108
Cutoff frequency, Jo 2a 2x 0.05
= 3 GHz
2 x5x 102
2a =
0.1 m
Cutoff wavelength, e 1
cross-section 5 cm x 2 cm
waveguide of
rectangular u
Fwavelength.
Example Determine the cutof
A
4.36
Propagates mode at 10
GH.
in a TM,, m
10-
= 5cm or 5x
Given:
Page 316 of 443
4.120 m
2cm or 2
x 10
Hz
10x 10
f=
Mode TM1
2
Ve-6
)2
(o)
0.0371 m
i=
Example 4.37| A TEM
which is filled with
Wave at
dielectric
propagates in the region
1 MHZ
material of u,
=l and
between
= 2. Find ,
conducting planes
characteristic wave impedance.
the phase constant and
Hz
Given: f= 1x 10°
, =2
Phase constant, ß = 0Ve =
2rf ,Eo &,
= x x x 10-2 x2
2tx 1 10° 4nx 10 x1 8.854
= 0.029 rad/m
Characteristic impedance, ZyEM
4nx 10x1
8.854 x 10-12 x 2
ZTEM = 266.32 Q2
Page 317 of 443
Haveguides
4.121
Bxample 4.58 4 rectangular waveguide has the dimension a =
Calculate the cutoff frequency for 2.54 cm, b =
127cm.
TEj mode.
Given: a = 2.54 cm or
0.0254 m
b= 1.27 cm or 0.0127 m
Mode: TEI) m
= 1,
n=1
1
3x 108
(a(ao27 2
1
= 13.205 GHZ
Example 4.39 X-band waveguide with dimensions 2.286 x 1.016 cm has

A
f.-6.56 GHz for dominant mode. Find v, and v, at 8 GHz and 10 GHz.
Given: a = 2.286cm or 0.02286 m
b = 1.016 cm or 0.01016 m
= 8GHz
For f
3x 108
6.56 x 10)2
8× 10
3x 108
0.572
= 5.241 x 10 m/s
5.241 x 108
= 1.717 x
10 m/s
= 10GHz
For f
Page 318 of 443
Transmission Lihes Unu
4122 3x 108
6.56 x 10 )2
10x 10
3.973 × 10 m/s
(3x 102
3.973 x 108
= 2,265 x 10 m/s.
used forasignal at a fequency of
Example 4.40 Given circular waveguide
a
mode and the internal diameter is 4.5 cm. Calculate:

11 GHZ propagated in the TE,
cut-off wavelength (ti) guide wavelength

() characteristic impedance
Given : f=11 GHz, d= 4.5 cm, a=2.25 cm
For TE1 (ha), = 1.84
3 x 108
11 x 10
= 0.02727 m
() Cut-off wavelength cho

2ra
(ha)1 4C
2x 2.25
1.84
=7.68 cm or 0.0768 m
(i) Guide wavelength

0.02727
0.02727
0.0768
= 0.029 m
ides.f)et Page 319 of 443
ait) Phase velocity 4.123
-).
0.029
\0.02727 3x 108
3.209 x
10 m/sec
(iy) Group velocity
=
) C
0.02727
3x 108
0.029
2.804 x 10° m/sec

(o) Characteristic impedance
Z=
120 T = 1108 Q
(0.02727 )?
0.029
wavelength and the

Calculate the cut-off wavelength, the guide
Example 4.41 waveguide whose internal
dimeter' is
Characteristic wave impedance of
a circular
mode.
propagated in it in the TEy
4cmjfor a 9 GHz signal
Given : 9 GHz
j=
d = 2 cm
cm, a =n
d =
4
For TE! :
1:84
(ha)
Cut-off wavelength
2ra
(ha)1
Page 320 of 443
TransmnissloN
4.124|
27t x 2 m
= 6.83 cm or 0.0683
1.84
3x 108 = 3.33 cm or 0.0333 m

9x 10
Guide wavelength
3.33
3.33
-
6.83
3.81 cm or 0.0381 mn
Characteristic wave impedance
120 T
I-(338
6.83
435.7 ohms
Example 4.42 A
circular waveguide has an
Calculate the cut-off frequencies internal diameter of 5 Cm.
for the first four modes of TE
and TM Waves.
Given :
d=5 cm,
a== 2.5 cm
For TE Waves : (ha)o
3.832
(ha)i 1.841
(ha)i2 = 5.331
(ha)o = 7.106
For TM waves :
(ha)o 2.405
(ha)i1 = 3.832
Page 321 of 443
Toeguides
4.125
(ha)2 = 7.106
(ha)o = S.52
For TEo1: cut-off wavelength
=
2na 2r x 2.5
(halo 3.832
=
4.1 cm
Cut-off frequency
3x 10
4.1x 102
= 7.318GHz
2T x 2.5
For TE1 : =
1.841
= 8.427 cm
3 x 108
8.427 x 10-2
= 3.516 GHz
2 x 2.5
= 2.95 cm
For TEp i 5.331
3x 108
2.95 x 10-2
10.18GHz
27 x 2.5
For TE2 7.106
=
2.21 cm
3x 108
2.21 x 1o-2
= 13.57 GHz
2T x 2.5 =6.53 cm
For TMo1 : 2.405
108
3x
fe 6.53 x 102
4.593 GHZ
Page 322 of 443
|4.126|
e
2 x 2.5
For TMy: 3.832
= 4.1 cm
3x 108
4.1x 10
= 7.319 GHZ
2t x 2.5
For TM;2 : 7.106
= 2.21 cm
3x 108
fe = 2.21 x 10-2
= 13.57 GHZ
2u x 2.5
For TMo2 *
5.52
= 2.85 cm
3x 108
Je 85 x
10*
= 10.542 GHz
Example 4.43 Determine the cut-off frequencies of the first bwo propagating
modes of a circular wave guide with a = 0.5 cm
and s, = 2.25 ifthe guide is 50 cnis
at
in length operating f= 13 GHz. Also determine the attenuation.
Given : a = 0.5 cm = 0.5 x 10 m
E, = 2.25, u=Ho
1= 50 cm = 0.5 m
f= 13 GHZ
Cut-offfrequency :
(ha), c
2ra
For TEp mode :
(ha)o = 3.832
Page 323 of 443
Wreguides |4.127|
3.832 x 3 x 108
2T x 0.5 x 102
= 36.6 GHz
:
For TEj mode
(ha), = 1.841
1.841 x3x 10
= 17.58 GHz
2T x 0.5 x 102
Y =
or TE1
2rrf&,
C
=
3.832 2 2x 13x 10x/ 2.25
0.5 x 10-2 3 x 108
a = 648.5 Nepers/m
Propagation constant y becomes real value i.e.,

y
=a
If the length of the waveguide is 0.5 m, then the
= 648.5 x 0.5
Attenuation al
= 324.26 Nepers
a waveguide. The
Etample 4,44A TE, mode is propagating through circular
radius of contains an air dielectric. Determine (a) the
the guide is 5 cm and the guide
cl-off frequency, (b) the wavelength in the guide for an operating frequency of 3
GHZ.
(c)the wave impedance in the guide.
m
For TE11 mode (ha),i

= 1.841 ; a=5x 10
(a) Cut-of frequency :
(ha) c 1.841 x 3 x 108
2 x
5x 10-2
2ra
Page 324 of 443
(b) The phase constant in the guide is
But {= 3x 10
l= 4nx 10-7
= 8.854 x 10-l2
(ha)1
h =
a
1.841 2
(2r x 3 x 10 4n X 10- x 8.854 x 10-12
(5x 102
= 50.9 rad / m
The wavelength in the guide is

27 2T
B 50.9
= 12.3 cm
(c) The wave impedance is
27t x 3 x 10 x 4 x 10-7
ZTE
50.9
ZTE = 465 ohms
Example 4.45 An air filled circular waveguide having an
inner radius of I cm
is excited in dominant mode at 10 GHz. Find (a) the cut-off
frequency of the dominant
mode at 10 GHz. (b) the guide wavelength wave
and (c) impedance. Also find the
bandwidth for operation in the dominant mode only.
The dominant mode is
TE.
For TE mode (ha),, = 1.841
f= 10 x 10 Hz
a= 1x 10-2 m
(a) Cut-off frequency
(ha), c
2Tt a
1.841 x 3x
108
2Tn x 1 x 10-2 = 8.795 GHz
Pguides Page 325 of 443
Guide wavelength |4.129
3x 10
10 x 109
=
3x 10:2 m
g 3x 102
8.795)2
6.3 x 10 m
(c) Wave impedance
120
[::n=120 ]
= 792 ohms
Bandwidth
=Cut-off frequency of TMO1 -Cut-offfrequency of TE,,
(ha)o e
fof TM1 2T a
(ha)o = 2.405
2.405 x
3x 108 I149 GHZ
f.of TMo1 2xnX.lx103
= 2.695 GHz
Bandwidth = 11.49– 8.795
cm and is to
Example 4.46 An air flled circular waveguide has radius of2
a
Carry energy GHz. Find all the TE,m, and TMmn modes for which
a frequency of 10
energy al
transmission is possible.
Page 326 of 443

4.130
=
10 x 10 Hz
f.
m
a = 2x 10
h = 0,V u
(ha) = o,Ve a
10-9
= 2 <10°/4nx 107x 36 n
x 10 × 10
x
2× 10 = 4.18
or equal to 4.18 will propagate the

Any mode having a product of (ha) less than
wave with a frequency of 10 GHz.
(ha) = 4.18
The possible modes are
(ha),, = 1.841 TEI
(ha), = 3.054 TEI
(ha)o = 3.832 TE;0
(ha)o = 2.405 TMo1
(ha), = 3.832 TM1
Example 4.47| A
circular waveguide has a cut-off frequency of 9 GHz in the
:
dominant mode
(a) Find the inside diameter of theguide ifit is air filled.
(6) Determine the inside diameter of the guide
The relative dielectric constant is =4. , if the guide is filled with dielectric.
Given : f. = 9.x 10 Hz
The dominant mode is TE|:
For TE (ha),, = 1.8141
(ha),| e
(a)
2T a
(ha),, c 1.841 x 3 × 108
a 2Tt x 9 x 10
= 0.0878m
Page 327 of 443
4.131
(b)
(ha (ha)ic
21f.N4
1.841 x
3 x 10
2Tx9x 10 x2
0.0439 m
Example 4.48
An air filled
circular
operated in the TEo mode. Waveguide of 2 cm inside
radius is
(a) Compute
the cut-offfrequency,
A) If theguide is to be filled
with a dielectric
must its radius material of e, = 2.25,
be changed in order to to what value
maintain the cut-off
original value? frequency at its
(a) For TE, mode,
(ha)o = 3.842
Cut-off frequency,
(ha)o, C 3.842 x 3 x 10
2 a 21t x 2 x 102
= 0.92 x
100
= 9.2GHz
(ha) C
(b)
2rae,
(ha)o, C
3.842 x 3 x 108
a.= 2rr x 0.92 >x
2r f.N&, 10" 2.25
= 1329 x 10m
Example 4.449 An air filled circular waveguide having an inner radius 1 cm
excited
is
in dominant mode at 10 GHE. Find the guide wavelength, wave impedance
andthe mode only.
frequency bandwidth for operationin dominant
lhe dominant mode

is TE1
ForTE1 mode = 1.841
(ha)1
= 10° Hz
10x
f m
a= 1x10
Page 328 of 443
Systems
4.132

1.841 x 3 x 108 =
(ha), c 8.795 GHz
x 1x 10-2
2T a 2T
(b) Guide wavelength
3xx108
10 109=3x 10-m
3x 102 = 6.3 x 10 m
8.795
(c) Wave impedance
120 T
("n =120 ]
= 792 ohms
Bandwidth =Cut-off frequency of TMo1 -

Cut-off frequency of TE|
(ha)o, C
fof TMol
2T a
(ha)o = 2.405
2.405 x 3 x 108
f.of TMo1:
2xTX lx 10-3= 11.49 GHz
Bandwidth = 11.49 – 8.795
= 2.695 GHz
Page 329 of 443
Faveguides
|4.133|
|Example 4.50 Given a circular
Waveguide of
qperating with GHz signal internal diameter 12 cm
propagating TM,, mode.
Calculate 2, 2e, hg,
[(ha)y 8.427 and ng
and
Data: a =12 cm = 0:12 m
f= 8GHZ = 8x 10 Hz
(ha), = 8.42
TM,, Mode: m = 1,
n=1
C
3x108 = 0.0375 m
8x 10
Cut-off wavelength, 2T a x
e (ha
2r
8.42
0.12
0.0896 m
Guide wavelength,
g
0.0375
0.0413 m
0.0375 )2
-
0.0896 )
Characteristic wave 120

impedance, g 0.0375 \2
0.0896
= 415.2 Q
Exanple 4.51 Given acircular waveguide used for a signal at a frequency of

llGHZ
propagated in the TE,, mode andthe internal diameter is
4.5 cm. Calculate:
ct-off wavelength (i) guide vwavelengih

") characteristic impedance

Given cm
For
: í=11 GHz, d=4.5 cm, a=2.25
TE1 (ha),, = 1.84
C 3x 108 = 0.02727 m
11 x 10
Page 330 of 443
() Cut-offwavelength
2na
(ha)n
2nx 2.25
1.84
7.68 cm or 0.0768 m
(t) Guide wavelength
0.02727
0.02727)?
0.0768
0.029 nm
(ii) Phase velocity
=
p
0.029
0.02727 3 x 108
= 3.209 × 10 m/sec
(iy) Group velocity
0.02727
0.029 3x 108
= 2.804 × 108 m/sec
() Characteristic innpedance
Zo
120
|
= 1108 2
0.02727 2
0.029
Page 331 of 443
Woeguides
|4.135
Example 4521 Calculate
thecut-off wavelength,
characteristic wave impedance the guide wavelength and the
ofa circular Waveguide
whose internal
fcmfor
a s 9 GHz signal propagated
in it
inthe TE,, mode.
diameter is
Given : f= 9 GHz
d = 4 cm, a = d = cm
2
For TE, :
(ha),i = 1.84
Cut-off wavelength
2Ta
(ha)
2T x 2
1.84 6.83 cm or 0.0683m
3x 108
= 3.33 cm or 0.0333 m
9x 10°
Guide wavelength
3.33
)2
I-
3.33
6.83
= 3.81l cm or 0.0381 m
Characteristic wave
impedance
Z, =
120
(3.38
= 435.7 ohms
Page 332 of 443
Transnission Lines and RF System
4.136
of 5
Example 4.53 circular waveguide has an internal diameter

A
waves.
cut-offfrequencies for the first four modes of TE and TM
Calculate the
Given : d=5 cm, a== 2.5 cm
For TE Waves : (ha)o = 3.832
(ha),, = 1.841
(ha), = 5.331
(ha)o2 = 7.106
For TM waves :
(ha)o1 = 2.405
(ha), = 3.832
(ha),2 = 7.106
(ha)oz 5.52
For TEo1, cut-off wavelength
2 x 2.5
2na
(ha)o1 3.832
= 4.1 cm
108
Cut-off frequency
C 3x
4.1 x 10-2
= 7.318 GHZ
For
27 x 2.5
TEj 1.841
8.427 cm
3 x 108
8.427 x 10-2
= 3.516 GHZ
2T x 2.5
For TEj2: =
5.331
= 2.95 cm
=
3x 108
2.95 x 10-2
= 10.18 GHz
Page 333 of 443
For TEo2: 2T x 2.5 4.137

7.106
2,21 cm
fe 3x10
2.21 x 10-2
13.57 GHz
For TMo : 2 x 2.5
2.405
6.53 cm
3x x108
6.53 10-2
= 4.593 GHZ
27 x 2.5
For TM1 :
3.832
= 4.1 cm
3x 108
fe= 4.1 x 102
= 7.319 GHZ
2T x 2.5
For TMp2:
7.106
= 2,2l cm
3x 108
2.21x 102
= 13.57 GHZ
27x 2.5
For TM02 5.52
= 2.85 cm
3x 108
2.85 x 1o2
10.542.GHz
=
Page 334 of 443
Transmission Lines and RF Sy'stems

|4.138
two propagating
Example 4.54 Determine the cu-off frequencies of the jirst Cme
wave witlh a = 0.5 cm and E, = 2.25 j the guide is 50
a
modes of circular guide
GHZ. Also determine the attenuation.
in lengih operating atf= 13
a = 0.5 cm = 0.5 x
10 m
Given :
E. = 2.25, =Ho
1= 50 cm = 0.5 m
13 GHz
f=
Cut-offfrequency :
(ha), e
2Ta
For TEo mode :
(ha)o = 3.832
3.832 x 3x 10
= 36.6 GHZ
Í. = 2T x 0.5 x 102
For TE mode :
(ha),, = 1.841
1.841x 3 x 108
= 17.58 GHz
x 0.5 x 102
2r
Prepagation constant
=
a
or TEoL
2fE,
3.832 2 2T x 13 x 10 x
2.25
0.5 x 10-2 3 x 108
648.5 Nepers/m
Propagation constantybecomes real value i.e., y= a
If the length of the waveguide is 0.5 m, then the
Attenuation = 648.5 x 0.5 = 324.26 Nepers
al
Page 335 of 443
Moeguides
4.139|
Example 4.55 A
TE, mode is
propagating through a circular waveguide. The
the guide is cm and the guide contains an air
S
radus of dielectric Determine (a) the
the wavelength in the guide
for an operating frequency of
(c) the wave impedance in the guide.
GHe
mode (ha) =
For TE, 1.841; a=5x 10 m
:
(ha), e
1.841x 3 x10
Je 2na 2 × 5 x
102
(b) The phase constant in the guide is
But f= 3x 10
4TX 10-7
l=
E = 8.854 x 1012
(ha),
h =
x 8.854 x 1.841 2
(2r x3x 10 4n x 10 10-2–
Sx 102
=
50.9 rad/m
The wavelength in the guide is
27
2 =
2T
50.9
= 12.3 cm
(0) The wave impedance is
2 x3x 10 x 41 x 10-7
50.9
= 465 ohms
Page 336 of 443

4.140
air filled circular waveguide having an inner radius of l cm
Example 4.56 An
is excited in dominant mode at 10 GHz. Find (a) the
cut-ofrequency of the dominant
mode at 10 GHZ. (b) the guide wavelength and
(c) wave impedance. Also find the
only.
bandwidth for operation in the dominant mode
The dominant mode is TE,t

For TE, mode (ha), = 1.841
f = 10 x 10 Hz
a = 1x 10
m

e
(ha),
2T a
1.841 x 3 x 108
x 1 x 10-2
2
8.795 GHz
(b) Guide wavelength
2
g
C
2 =
3x 108
10 × 10
= 3x 10 m
3x 102
8.795 2
10
=
6.3 x 10 m
(c) Wave impedance
ZE
Waveguides
Page 337 of 443
|4.141
120 T
(8.795 [:n=120 ]
= 792 ohms
10
Bandwidth =Cut-off frequency of
TMg-Cut-off frequency
of TE1
feof TMo1
2 a
(ha)o = 2.405
2.405 x
f, of TMQ 3x10
x
2x X 1
10-3 149 GHz
Bandwidth = 11.49
-8.795 = 2.695 GHZ
Exanmple
4.57| An air filled circular waveguide has a radius of 2 cm
carry energy
at a frequency of 10 GH2. Find all the TE, and is to
and TM,,modes for which
energy transmission
is possible.
Solution: f= 10x 10° Hz
a = 2x 10 m
(ha) = 0,Ve a
109
x 10 x
10 x x 2x 10 =
= 2
101/4X 36 T 4.18
Any mode having a product of (ha) less than or equal to 4.18 will propagate the
Wave
with:a frequency of 10 GHz.
(ha) = 4.18
Ihe possible modes are
(ha),, = 1.841 TE,
(ha), = 3.054 TE1
(ha),, = 3.832 TE0

TMO1
(ha)o = 2.405
TM1
(ha),, = 3.832
Page 338 of 443
Example 4.58 A circular waveguide has a
cut-off frequency of 9 GHz in the
dominant mode :
(a) Find the inside diameter ofthe guide ifit is air filled.
The relative dielectric constant is

=4. .
(b) Determine the inside diameter of the guide if the guide is
filled vith dielectric
Hz
Given: J.=9x 10°
The dominant mode is TE,,.
For TE,, (ha) = 1.8141
(ha),, c
(a)
2T a
(ha), c 1.841 x 3 x 108

a =
21fe 2r x 9 x 10
0.0878 m
(b)
(ha), (ha), c
a
2r f.v4
x
1.841 3x 10
x
2Tx9x 10 2
= 0.0439 m
|Example 4.59 An air filled circular waveguide of 2 cm inside radius is

operated in the TEo mode.
(a) Compuue the cut-offfrequency,
(b) Ifthe guide is to be filled with a dielectric material of E, = 2.25, to what value
must its radius be changed in order to maintain the cut-off
frequency at its
original value ?
(a) For TEo, mode,
(ha)o = 3.842
Cut-off frequency,
(ha)o c 3.842 x3x 108
= 0.92x 10!0
2T a 2T x 2 x 10-2
=9.2 GHz
Page 339 of 443
4.143
(ha)o C
(6)
2a8, (ha)o, c
Ho
2Tr a
ae,
(ha)on
3.842 × 3 x 10
2T x 0.92 x 100 V 2.25 = 1329x 102 m
Example 4.60 A
lossless air dielectric
cylindrical waveguide whose
10 mm, andf-= inner
diameteris 1.3f. for TMg, mode. Find ,
fe, ZTM: V, Ve:
Given: d =
10 mm, a d mm or
==5 5x 10 m
f= 1.3f.
Mode: TMo1 (ha)o =
2.405
Cutoff frequency, (ha),m 3 ×10 x 2.405

=
Žr a ue 2 x 5 x 10-3
= 22.9 GHz
J.
f= 1.3f.
= 1.3 × 22.9 GHz
= 29.71 GHz
Cutoff wavelength,
g
3x 108
= 0.01m
29.77 x 10
0.01
22.9 x 10 \2
29.77 x 10
0.016 m
Characteristic impedance, ZTM =
R Systeme
Transmission Lines andPage 340 of 443
4.144
22.9 xx10
- 377/1-29.77 2
1
10
= 377 x 0.638
= 240.52 2
Phase velocity, V
3x 108
22.9 x 10
29.77 x 10
3 x 108
0.638
=
4.70 x 10 m/s
Group velocity, y = c (3x 108?

470x 108
= 1.91× 10° m/s

for an air filled cylindrical waveguide
radius for
Example 4.61 Calculate 2,, radius
= where f. = 20 GHZ.
operating in TM,, node forf 1.5f,
Given: S.
=
20x 10 Hz
f= 1.5f.
x 10 Hz
f=30
:
Mode TE
3 x 108
2 = 0.01 m
30 × 10
(ha)pn
Cutoff frequency, fe = 2 a
= 3 x 10 x
3.832
20 x 10
2x T X a
x
3x 10 3.832
× 10
2x T
X20
a= 0.915
m
Page 341 of 443
Foreguides
4.145
3 x 108
20 x 10)2
30 × 10
0.013 m
Axample 4.62 A circular waveguide has adiameter
of 5 cm. Calculate
cutotf
fequency for ) TEjj and (ii) TMoj-
Given: d = 5 cm
a = 2.5 cm or 2.5 x 10 m
For TE;:
(ha) x
Cutoff frequency, 3x 10 1.841
f= 2r a ue
2xnX 2.5 x 10-2
= 3.517GHz
J.
For TMat :
(ha).
Cutoff frequency,
f,= 2T a LE
3 x 10 x 2.405
=
2x nx 2.5 x 10-2
S. = 4.595 GHz

1.
What are
guided waves? Give examples.
Ihe electromagnetic waves that are guided along or over
dielectric conducting or
surfaces are called guided waves.
Lxamples : Parallel wires and transmission lines.
What
is TE Wave or H
wave?
Transverse
electric (TE) wave is a wave in which the electric field strength E
is entirely transverse.
It has a magnetic field strength H, in the direction of
propagation
and no component of electric fieldI strength E, in the same direction.
Page 342 of 443
Transmission Lnes and RF Systene

|4.146|
wave?
3. What is TM wave orE magnetic feld
(TM) wave is a wave in which the
Transverse magnetic an electric field strength E. in the
transverse. It has
strength H is entirely magnetic field strength H, in
the
no component of
direction of propagation and
same direction.
4. What is dominant mode? Give examples.

mode.
The lowest order mode is called dominant
12.
Examples :
TEo and TM.
wave guide.
5. Give the dominant mode for TE and TM of rectangular
Dominant mode : TE,o and TM1:
6. What is cut-offfrequency?
The frequency ) at which the wave motion ceases, is called the cut-off
frequency of the wave guide.
7. Write down the expression for cut-off frequency when the wave is propagated 13.
in between two parallel plates.
The cut-off frequency, fe =

2a e 2a
8. Write down the expression for cut-off wavelengtlh

of the wave which is
propagated in between two parallel plates. 14,
The cut-off wavelength

c = 2a
9. Give the expression for the guide
wavelengtl when the wave is transnitted in 1.
between two parallel plates.
The guide wavelength 2T

g
l6,
10. Write down the

relation between guide wavelength
and cut-off wavelengt.
g 17.
2 1
Page 343 of 443
Waveguides
4.147
1l.
Give the expression for velocity of
propagation of wave in between
plates. two parallel
y'=
Vo 1
12. What is TEM wave or principal wave?

TEM wave is a special type of TM wave in which an electric field E along the
direction of propagation is also zero.
[ORJ
The transverse electromagnetic (TEM) waves are waves in which both electric
and magnetic fields are transverse entirely but have no components of E, and H,.
Itis referred to as principal wave.
waves.
13. Mention thecharacteristic of TEM
It isa special type of TM wave.
It does not haveeither E, or H, component.
Its velocity is independent of frequency.
Itscut-off frequency is zero.
velocity and group velocity.
14. Give the relation between phase
or
15, Define attenuation factor. Power lost /unit length

transmitted
Attenuation factor a 2x Power attenuation
attenuation factor for TE waves and
tlhe
10. Give the relation betveen
factor for TM waves.
-4' CTM
minimumattenuation for
TM. mode.
17, Findthe,frequency
of
value at a frequency
equal to V3
a minimum
reaches
I
The attenuation TM
times the cut-off frequency.
Page 344 of 443
18. Distinguislh TE and TM waves.

TE
TM
Electric field strength E is entire Magnetic field strength H is entirelvy
transverse. transverse.
It has z component of electric field
E
It has z component
ponent of magnetic field H,.
(direction of propagation)
It has no z component of electric field E, It has no component of magnetic field
=
H,. (H, = 0)
0)
E,
19. Define wave impedance.
Wave impedance is defined as the ratio of electric tomagnetic field strength
E
in the positive direction
E,
in the negative direction
H,
20. What is a wave guide?
A hollow conducting metallic tube

of uniform cross section is used for
propagating electromagnetic waves. Waves,
that are guided along the surfaces
(walls)of the tube is called a waveguide.
21. Wlhy are rectangular
waveguides preferred over
circular waveguides?
Rectangular waveguides are preferred over
circular waveguides because of the
following reasons.
1.
Rectangular waveguide is smaller
in size than a circular waveguide
same operating of the
frequency.
2. It does not maintain
its polarizationthrough the circular waveguide.
3.
The difference between
the lowest frequency on a
next mode of a rectangular dominant mode and tne
waveguide is higher than
waveguide. that in a circula
22. Mention the
applications of waveguides.
The waveguides are
employed for transmission
frequencies where.
theattenuation caused by a waveguideof energy at very n
Waveguides are is smaller.
used in microwave
used as attenuators transmission. Circular
and phase shifters. waveguides
Waegiaes Page 345 of 443
Why waveguide is
is taken circular 4.149
Waveguides usually
or rectangular
taketheform of
form?
of its simpler forms in
use and rectangular or circular
less expensive cylinders because
to manufacture.
24. For an air filled copper X-band
waveguide
b=1.016cmis, determine with dimensions
thecut-offfrequencies a= 2.286 cms aInd
= 2.286 cm for
a
2.286 x 10*2
TE| and TM,;; modes.
m
h= 1.016 cm = 1.016 x 10 m
For TE1 mode,

m=1, n=1.
Cut-off frequency, =
1
2
f, 2
2E
3x 108
10 2 10 2
2 + (1.016)
2.286
16.156 GHZ
i.=
The cut-off frequency for TE, mode is the same as that of TM,,.he
25. Define wave inpedance.
to the
Wave impedance is defined as the ratio of the electric field intensity
magnetic field intensity.
E, +
i.e., Zy H,
Zi,
yx H, H,
s are the negative of those given
opposite directions
The waveimpedanee in the
above.
-Ey -E,
-E H,
H,
26.
What mode?
is an evanescent lower than the cut-off frequency, the
frequency is
When
the operating i.e., Y = a.
The wave cannot be propagated.
real
propagation constant becomes mode.
known as evanescent
This non-propagating mode is TE mode in a rectangular
27, components for the
Which are non-zero field
lhe
Waveguide?
H, H, and Ey
Page 346 of 443
4.150
non-zerofield components for the TM, mode n a rectangule
28. Which are the
waveguide?
H, H, E, and E,.
frequency
sketch showing the variation
a neat of wave inmpedance with
29. Drc.
waves in a waveguide.
for TE and TM
n
impedance,
TE
Region
of no
Wave
propagation
TM
Wave impedance versus freguency characteristics of waves betveen

parallel conducting plane
30. What is the cut-off wavelength and cut-off frequency of tlhe TEjo mode in a
rectangular waveguide?
Cut-off wavelength, =
2a ,
Hi Cut-off frequency, e =
2a
31. What is the cutotf wavelength and cut-off frequency of the TM,, mode in a
2
Cut-off wavelength,
e
1
Cut-off frequency, je =
32. What is the wave impedance the TEM waves in a waveguide?

of
Wave impedance of TEM becomes the intrinsic impedance of the medium
z =
n=
4.151
Write
the expressionfor wave
impedance of
the TE node.
Z =
34. Write the expressionfor wave

impedance of the
TM mode.
25. Write the expression

for phase velocity in awaveguide.
36. Define characteristic impedance in a waveguide.

For transmission lines the integrated characteristic
impedance Z, can be
defined as in terms of the voltage-current ratio or in terms power
of transmitted
for a given voltage or a given current.
=
i.e., Z, (V, I)
2W
Z, (W, I) = II*
V) =
Z, (W, 2W
power transmitted.
where V and I are peak phasors. W is the
* indicates complex conjugate.
37. Explain whyTMo, and TM, modes in a rectangular wayeguide do
not exist.
zero because
waveguides, neither m or can be
n
For TM modes in rectangular
m=
0, n
or
m=
all the fieldequations vanish (i.e., E, = E, =H,=H,=0). If =l
a rectangular
1, n = 0 no fields
are present. Hence TMo1 and TM10 modes in
Waveguide do not exist.
dimensions l= 2.54 cm, b =
1.27
38. waveguide has the following
A rectangular
= 0.127 n. Calcuate the cutoff frequency for TE|
Cm waveguide thickness
mode.
Page 348 of 443
Transmission Lines and RF Systene

4.152
Data: = a=2.54 cm
b = 1.27 cm
1 nTt
+
m = 1, n=1, Ho &
=E0
V
1
102 )2 10 )2
+ F=c
(1.27
= 1.5x 10× 88.03
= 13.20GHz
f.
39. What are dominant mode and degenerate modes in rectangular waveguide?
The mode having 1lowest cut-off frequency is called the dominant mode of
waveguide.
e.g. TEo
Different modes having same resonant frequency are called degenerate modes.
e.g. TEmnp
40. WLy the TE0 wave is called as dominant wave in

In TE,mn waves, either 'm' or 'n' equal to zero without causing all the field to
vanish. The lowest order TE wave in rectangular guides
is TEo wave which has
the lowest cut-off frequency. So, it is called dominant wave.
41. A rectangular waveguide with dimensions a = 8.5 cm

GH,carrier. Will aTEj mode be propagated?
and b=4.3cm is fed by 5
a = 8.5 cm = 8.5 x 10-2 m

b= 4.3 cm =4.3 × 10-
m
f = 5GHZ = 5x 10 Hz
TE,|: m = 1, n=1
Y= +
x x 5 x 1o
10 )22 2
+ 4.3 -
3 × 108
4.153
ein= TV 67923 -1111.11
= jn (20.8)
becomesimaginary
and hence propagation
42. Calculatethe cut-off wavelength takes place.
of a rectangular
dimensions are a = 2.3 cn waveguidle whose iuner
and b= 1.03 cm
operating at TE Mode.
a = 2.3cm = 2.3 x
10 m
b = 103 cm =
1.03 x 10 m
TE10 = m =
1, n = 0
Cut-off wave length 2.. = 24a =
2x2.3 x 10
= 4.6 x 10-2,
m
43, For a frequency
of 6 GHz and plane separation 3 cm,
phase velocities for the dominant of fnd the group and
mode.
a = cm =
3
3 x 10- m
f= 6GHz = 6 x 10 Hz
Dominant Mode,
m=1
Cut off frequency
fc
2an (H,,) (,
Assuming free space between parallel plates
1
, 8,)
=1, e,=1
fc = 2x3x
10-/ (4 nx 10 x 1) x
(8.854 x 1012x 1)
= 4.996 GHz
Phase velocity is given
by
C 3x 108
Vp
4.996 x 10 )2
6x 10
= 5.4179 x 10 m/sec.
Group velocity
- 3x 10'7/ 4.996 x 10)2

1-6x10
= 1.6611 × 10 m/sec.
Page 350 of 443

4.154
a standard rectangular
44. Calculate the cutoff wavelength for the TMy mode in
waveguide if a = 4.5 cut.
2
Cut off wavelength c
2
r = 9m
45. Mention the applications of a circular waveguide.

Circular waveguides are used as attenuators and phase-shifters.
46. Vich mode in circular waveguides has attenuation effect decreasing with
increase in frequency?
TEo1
47. Mention the dominant modes in rectangular

and circular waveguides.
a
For Rectangular waveguide,
the dominant mode TEo
For a Circular waveguide,
the dominant mode
TE.
48. 1Write the expression
for cut-offfrequency ina circular waveguide.
where h,m=
(ha)n
49. Calculate the cut-off frequency

of a copper tube with 3 cm diameter, filled
with air filled, in the TE,,mode.
3 m
a=7x 102
(ha)
h =
3.85 x 2
3x 10-2
[: (ha),, =3.85 ]
= 2.566x
10
anguies Page 351 of 443
2.566 x 10 4.155]
2T x3 x 108
= 12.25 GHz
50
Determine the cut-off frequency of a circular
2.36 cms waveguide with a diameter
operating in the dominant mode.
of
2.36
x 10-2,m
2
Dominant mode is
TE,
(ha)m (ha)u
a
- 3.85 x 2 x 10²
2.36 [ (ha),= 3.85]

3.263 x 10
2
E
3.263 x 10
=3x 108
x3 x 108
2T
=
15.58 GHz
S1. to the TEgj mode in acircular Vaveguide?
Why
is TMp, mode preferred
i diameter
a
to the TE Imode, since it requires smaller
IMo mode is preferred
IOr the same cut-off wavelength.
cm.
GHzhas the internal diameter of 4.5
S2, A
circular Waveguide operated at ll
caleulate 2 and a, (
(ha)o, =2.405).
For a
TEpl mode propagation.
Given: f = 11 GHz
cm
d = 4.5
a = 2.25 cm
(ha)oy = 2.405
m
C
3x 10 = 0.0272 1
1l x 10 m
xTx2.25 = 5.878 cm or 0.05878
2T
(ha)o
a2 2.405
Page 352 of 443
Trans
4156
zero.
offirst kind of order
53. Write Bessel's function
Jolp) =C (r!)'
r=0 function) not
Bessel's fumction of second kind (Nemann's
J4. Why is the
qpplicable for the fieldanalysis inside
circular waveguide?
a region
to wave propagation through the circular waveguide
When analyzing
r 0 is considered. If the argument r = 0, the Bessel's function N(r)
with
to have an infinite field and hence the
becomes infinite. So, it is not possible
Bessel's function of the second kind (Neumann's function) is
not applicable for
field analysis in circular waveguide.
55. What is Bessel function?
The Bessel function is the solution of the Bessel differential equation.
x*y" +xy' + (*-n)y = 0
Bessel functions are also known as cylinder functions or cylindrical
harmonics.
SUMMARY
Guided
... Waves
The electromagnetic waves that are
guided along or over conducting or
surfaces are called guided waves. dielectriC
Transverse Electric (TE) Waves :

Transverse electric
(TE) waves are the waves
entirely transverse. in which the electric
It has a magnetic field strength 1s
field strength
propagation and no component
of electric field E, (H) in the direction Ol
The field strength in the same direcion (E, = 0).
for TE waves between
parallel planes are
E, = C sin a
H, = - C, sin )
jou
H, = mTt
C, cos
e-re
Waveguides
Page 353 of 443
|4.157|
Transvese Magnetic TM Waves :
Transverse magneuc, (IM) waves are

the waves in which the magnetic
strength H
is entirely transverse. It has an electric field
field strength E, in the direction of
propagation and no component of

magnetic field H, in
the same direction(H, =0).
The field strength for TM waves
between parallel conducting are
planes
= C, cos -jß:
E, =
jOE
Ca cos a*eBz
E, C4 sin evßz
a
:
Transverse Electro-Magnetic (TEM) Waves
transverse magnetic wave in which electric field E along the
a
It is special type of waves
also zero. The transverse electromagnetic (TEM)
direction of propagation is have
electric. and magnetic fields are transverse entirely but
are waves in which both
as principal waves.
ho component of E, and H,. It is referred to
Page 354 of 443
Systems
H,=0
=C
RF TEM
and
E.=
Lines
Transmission
Planes
2
oue
0
TM =
Parallel
-
H,
E Vo
two
2a 2a
between
in
Waves
0 oue 2
Guided
TE =
E. -
2
p=1/o'E
Vo
2a
V
Parameters in
strength
of (2)
direction
propagation Propagation
shift
wavelength
frequency /propagation
constant
of
Field Cut-off
Cut-off Velocity
Phase
|4.158|
the Imcters
Page 355 of 443
|4159
ohms
TEM
no 120
7= =
TM
TM,,
TE0
TE
yx
impedance
mode
Paraneters
Wavelength
IWneguides Dominant
Wave
Page 356 of 443
Transmission Lines and RFSystems

4.160
Rectangular Waveguides
For TM waves the field expressions are given by
E, = -ißC B cos Bx sin Ay
= -ßC A
sin Bx cos Ay
josC A
sin Bx cos Ay
H,
-jo:C B cos Bx sin Ay
H,
where A = and B= a
a is the width of waveguide.
b is the height
of waveguide.
m and n are integers.
For TE waves the field equations are
H, CB sin Bx cos Ay
H, CA cos Bx sin Ay
H = Ccos Ay cos Bx
E, CA cos Bx sin Ay
E, CB sin Bx cos Ay
where A = and B=
b a
For TE and TM waves in rectangular
waveguides
\2
Propagation constant y = +
[: a=0]
Page 357 of 443
4.161
Phaseshift
ß -oae -(
Cut-off frequency,
je
Cut-off wavelength, , 2
+
Velocity of propagation, v
Wavelength of the wave,

2 2T
2
For dominant
TEy,mode :
()
2a
= 2a
1M,, Mode:
2
2
Mode Wave Impcdance
TM
Z=
TE Vi-4
TEM z--Ve
Z= =
Page 358 of 443
4.162|
Characteristic impedance:
=
Z, (V, I)
4 Z,
(V, I)
Z, (W, I) =
Z, (W, V) =
2b 4 Z% (V, I)
T
Parameters TE TM
Field in the |E, = 0 H, = 0
|direction (z) of
propagation
Field jBC, OJ, (ph) OEn J, (ph) sin n¢
expressions |H, =
ôp
cos n¢ H=n hp
jß n Ch
H, hp J, (ph) sin n¢ H, coS n0
h ôp
p C,n J, (ph) sin n
E,=-j ß A,h OJ, (ph)
coS n¢
J, (ph)
0 ôp
coS noE, A, n J,, (ph) sin n¢
Wave
|impedance
Roots |(ha)o = 3.83 (ha)or = 2.405

J(ha),, = 1.84 (ha)i =3.85
=
|(ha)o2 5.52
(ha)o = 7.02
(ha)i2 7.02
|(ha)2 = 5.33
Cut-off
2T h nm
frequency E (ha)n
where
hm
Page 359 of 443
Waveguides
|4.163
EXERCISE
Starting from the Maxwell's equations, éxplain
1.
how a wave propagates in
between two infinite parallel planes.
2. Derive the field components of the wave propagating between
parallel planes.
3. Derive the electromagnetic field expressions for TM waves guided by a parallel
plane perfectly conducting structure.
4. Derive the electromagnetic field expressions for TE waves guided by a parallel
conducting plane.
5. Explain the characteristics of TE and TM waves.
6. Derive the field expressions for TEM waves guided by a parallel conducting
plane.
7. What are the different types of velocities of propagation in between two plates ?
Explain.
8. Prove that v, V, =c.
9. Define wave impedance. Obtain the expressions for wave impedance of TE, TM
and TEM waves in two parallel conducting planes.
waves.
10. Bring out the differences between TE, TM and TEM
11. A pair of perfectlyconducting planes is separated by 8 cm in air. For a frequency
of 6 GHZz with TM mode excited, determine the cut-off frequency and
characteristic impedance.
cm. Determine the TEM modes for a
12. Two guiding planes are separated by 3
wave frequency of 10 GHz, assuiming free space between the plates. For each
:
mode find
(a) the cut-off frequency
wave becomes oblique between conductors
(b) the angle at which the
(c) the guide wavelength
() phase velocity
(e) guide impedance.
13. For a frequency of 6 GHz and plane separation
of 7 cm, find the following for the
TE mode.
(a) cut-off frequeney
Page 360 of 443

|4.164|
on the planes
(b) angle of incidence
(c) phase velocity
group velocity
() yeINO
(e) Is it possible to propagate the TE2 mode?
o:
14. Show that
where
,
g isthe free space wavelength.
is the cut-off wavelength.
the guide wavelength.
is
15. Derive expressions for the field components of TE0 waves in a rectangular
waveguide. Sketch the field distributions.
16. Derive the expressions for the field components of TM waves in a rectangular
waveguide.
17. an expression for the cut-off frequency
Derive
for the TE0 mode for a
rectangular waveguide.
18. Using the wave equation, derive from
first principles .the transverse. field
components for the TM,m Inode.
Hence obtain the wave impedance
rectangular waveguide. for a
19. Explain why it is not possible to propagate a
TEM wave inside a hollow
waveguide of any
cross-section.
20. A 10 GHz signal is
propagated in a
rectangular waveguide with
3 x 5 cm
in TEo1 mode. Calculate the cut-off dimensions of
velocity, phase velocity frequency, guide wavelength, group
and wave impedance.
21. An air filled
hollow rectangular
dimensions of 4 x 6 cm. conducting waveguide
How many TE modes has cross-sectional
frequencies below3 GHZ. will this waveguide
transmit
at
22. Define wave impedance
of a rectangular waveguide.
TEM waves in a rectangular Derive its expression tor
waveguide.
23. Derive the
expressions of wave
impedance of TE
waveguide. and TM waves in a
rectangular
Page 361 of 443
Define characteristic 4.165)

4 impedance
expressions in three forms. of a rectangular
waveguide and
air flled rectangular derive its
25. An waveguide mode
h=3.4 cm operates at a frequency of copper
and having a
cut-off frequency, guide
3 GHz
in the TE dominant =7.2 cm and
wavelength mode. Find the
and attenuation constant.
Caalculate and compare
26.
the values of phase velocity,
wavelength and wave impedance group velocity,
for TE0in a rectangular guide
1.5cm) operating at 7.5 GHZ. waveguide (2.5 cm x
(a) when the waveguide is hollow,
h) if the waveguide is filled with a dielectric (,=2,
1. A
!,=1 and g =0)
rectangular.waveguide is filled by a dielectric material of
e, =0 and has inside
dimensions of 7 x 3.5 cm. It operates in the
dominant TEo mode.
(a) Determine the cut-off frequency.
(b) Find the phase velocity in the guide at a frequency of 2 GHz.
(c)Find the guide wavelength at the same frequency.
28.
An air filled rectangular copper waveguide of cross-section 2.2 cm is x 1
constant. in dB/m. ind the

operated at 10 GHz. Calculate the attenuation
is minimum for TEo mode.
Irequency and attenuation at which the attenuation
. Design a rectangular waveguide with filling bya dielectric of
,
= 4, so that the
frequency for
Cut-off frequency for thedominant mode is 14 GHZ and the cut-off
TIM mode is 30 GHz.
waves in circular
components of TM
Derlve expressions for the field
waveguide. waves in a circular
components of TE
the. field
erive expressions for characteristic
Waveguide. wavelength and the
wavelength, the guide internal diameter is 5 cm, for a 6
Calculate the cut-off waveguide whose
circular mode.
wave
impedance of a dominant TE
GHz signal propagates it in the waveguide.
that a circular
can be excited in Calculate the cut-off
Explain various modes
of 6 cm.
how diameter
34. A has an internal and TM waves.
circular waveguide modes of TE
frequencies for the first four
Page 362 of 443
TransmisslUH
A4.166
two propagating modes of acircular
35. Determine the
waveguide with a
cut-off
,
frequencies of the first
= 1 cm and =2 if the
attenuation in dB.
guide is l m in length operatino **
determine the Ct.oe
GHz. Also
with a lossless dielectric of e, =g. If the
36. A circular
waveguide is filled upper trequency limit Qvee
diameter and the
frequency is 6 GHz, calculate the
willpropagate.
which only the dominant mode to carry enerov at
.
cm and is
circular waveguide has a radius of 1.5 i.
37. An air filled
all TE and TM modes for which transmission
frequency of 10 GHz. Find
possible. the
wave propagating through a circular waveguide. The diameter of
38. A TE, is
guide is 10 cm, and the guide is air filled.
(a) Find the cut-off frequency.
(b) Find the wavelength ., in the guide for a frequency of 3 GHz.
(c) Determine the wave impedance in the guide.
39. Anair-filled circular waveguide has a diameter of 4 cm and is to carry energy at
a frequency of 10GHz. Determine all the TE, modes for which transmission is
possible.
40. A circular waveguide has a cut-ofr frequency of9 GHz in the dominant mode.
(a) Find the inside diameter of the guide if it is air filled.
(b) Determine the inside diameter of the guide
if the guide is filled with a
dielectric. The relative dielectric constant
is ,=4.
Page 363 of 443
RF SYsTEM DESIGN CONCEPTS

51 ACTIVE RF COMPONENTS
Components that are used for low frequency operation are no

longer useful in
radio frequency (RF/MW) region. At high frequency
modes of operation,
additional capacitive and inductive effects enter the solid state devices and
change their performance.
* By analysing the pn junction and the Schottky contact, it gives the foundation of
rectifier, amplifier mixer and switching system. Metal-semiconductor interface
is more useful for high frequency operation.
The implementation of bipolar and field effect transistors ismore complex than
that of pnjunction and Schottky contact.
5.2 SEMICONDUCTOR BASICS

on
The operationof the semiconductor devices depends the physical behaviour
are
of the semiconductor used. The most commonly used semiconductors
(GaAs).
germanium (Ge), silicon (Si) and gallium arsenide
When the temperature is zero degree Kelvin (1"K= 0) all the electrons are
behaves like insulator.
Donded totheir atomsand the semiconductor
some electrons attains sufficient energy to
When the temperature increases,
cross the energy gap. E, = Ec-E,.
break up the covalent bond and
band gap energy E, = 0.62 eV for Ge,

At room temprature, the
= GaAs. When an electron bregks tho
E,
=
1.12 eV for Si andE, 142 eV for
COvalent bond. it tends behind a positive
charge vacancy which is called hole
Transmission Lines and Page
RF Systems
364 of 443
52 holes
energy(T > 0°K) electrons and holes move
presence of the thermal thermal
In the
recombine and become neutral. In
towards each other and
they
recombinations and generation of holes
equilibrium, there are equal
number of
and electrons.
electrons, and
Let. 'n' be the concentration of conduction
'p' be the concentration ofholes.

as,
The concentration obey Fermi statistics
Eç-E;
n = Nce kT ....1a)
Ec-E
p = Nye kT ......(1b)
where Ne-Effective carrier concentration in conduction band,
Ny- Effective carrier concentration in valence band,
E; - Fermienergy level, and
k- Boltzmann's constant.
In an intrinsic -semiconductor, the number of
free electrons produced by
thermal excitation is equal to the number holes.
of
i.e., n = p n,
np =y2
n
.(2)
where n, is the intrinsicconcentration.
In a semiconductor both electrons
and holes are contributing to
(o) of the material and the conductiiy
it is given by
where - Charge .......3)

of particle.
H,-Mobility of electrons
Ho - Mobility of holes.
Page 365 of 443
System. Design Concepts
5.3
major change. n the electrical properties of semiconductor is done by
A
introdueing mpurity atons. This process of adding impurities to semiconductor

is called doping.
When pentavalent impurity (phosphorus, arsenic, antimony or bismuth) is added

to an intrinsic semiconductor (silicon or germanium), then it is said to be an n
type semiconductor.
A pentavalent inpurity is called a donor (dopan) because it is ready to give a
free electron toa semiconductor (Fig 5.1).

Free electron
ED Si
si
. si Si EDSiC3
Si EOSi Pha
Hole
psi
Si
ESi 3
Conduction Band Ec
Ec
EF.
EF EF
77
Valence Band Evy
(c) p type
(b) ntype
(a) Intrinsic
energy band diagram
Fig 5.1 Lattice structure and as,
semiconductor is expressed
n type
The electron concentration
in
=
Np tPn ..(4)
concentration,and
where Np- Donor concentration.
Minority hole
Py -
Np t/ N, +4 n7
2
....5a)
Page 366 of 443

5.4|
-N, tyN3 +4ni

Pn 2 ......56)
.. n,= Np
(i) IfN, >> n;)
-N, +
Np| 1+ Np
=
Pn 2
4 n?
-N, Np|1+2N,
+
.......6)
Np
When trivalent impurity (aluminium, gallium, indium or boron) isadded toan
intrinsicsemiconductor, then it is said to be p-type semiconductor. A trivalent
impurity is called an acceptor because it creates one hole which can accept one
electron (Fig 5.1).
The hole concentration in p-type semiconductor is given as,
Pp = NA+n ......(7)
where NA - Açceptor concentration, and
n, - Minority électron concentration.
Na n;
Pp
t/ N+4
2 ..(8a)
n
-NA + N
+4n2cS trosi
+4
2 ..8b)
(ii) IfN,>>n,. P, NA
+
4 n;
-N, 1+ NA
p 2
Page 367 of 443
NA ......9)
Minority and majority concentrations
are responsible for
the semiconductor. establishing current in
s21 P-N JUNCTION

When p-type and n-type semiconductors
are joined together, a pn
formed. There is a current junction is
flow across the pn junction, because of
in carrier concentration on
the difference
pn
both sides of junction. This current
is called as
diffusion current.
The diffusion current consists of electron diffusion current

and hole diffusion
current which is shown in Fig 5.2.
Laisr= , dit p ditr
dn
aA
D,tDpdpdx ...(10)
where -
D,
n Diffusion constant for electrons,
-
D, Diffusion constant for holes, and
-
A Area of cross-section.
By using Einstein relation,
kT =
Dn,p
9
where and
k- Boltzmann's constant,
T-Temperature.
When current an electric field
E
is generated. This electric
the diffusion flows,
field in turn induces a
=
currentGAE which opposes the diffusion current.
Ir
lptLir = 0) iLe., I, =-Lyi

By substituting of o,
the value
I; = gAE
Page 368 of 443
Transmission Lines and RF System.

5.6
=
(g n #tgp ) AE =I,F +IoF .....(11)
to electron is also zero.
Sincethe total current is zero, the current due
dn dn
(: D,-, V,]
,
InF
=9 n AE = -qn H, A
dx
dn_-0
dn dv = 0
VT
dx" dx
dV V dn
dx n dx
dV = n
dn ....12)
By using equation (12), the diffusion barrier voltage or built in potential is
determined by
Vdir
=
aV V, dn
n
"p
Vdir =V, ......13)

where n, - Electron concentration in n type semiconductor,
and
n, - Electron concentration in p type semiconductor.
Similarly the same diffusion barrier voltage can
be obtained by considering the
hole current flow.
Vaifr =
Pn ......14)
where Pp - Hole concentration in p type semiconductor,
and3ttsi
p, -Hole concentration
inn type semiconductor.
Page 369 of 443
RFSystem Design Concepts
(5.7
For z type, NA n,and for n type N

> n,, then n, =Np npN,
(NA Np
V
diff
= V
ln n ..(15 )
By Poisson's equation,
dv)
dr?
p)dE
dx
where p(*)-
p(x)- Charge density,
E- Permittivity of free space, and

, -
Relative pernmittivity of the semiconductor.
p(*) = -qNA for -d, sxs0 ......16a)

= q N, for0 Sx S d.
g
Np ......16a)
where d, and d, are the distances of the space charges in p and n type
semiconductors.
The electric field in the semiconductor (Fig 5.2) is obtained by
9A+ d) (x for - d,
sx=0
P) dx =
E(x) =
for 0 <x sdn
V(r) = E(¢) dx
voltage Vair (Fig 5.2).

The voltage drop is equal to the diffusion
q g Np d
NA
d, +
V(d) = Vair 22 &, E, 2 &
E,
Np,
But d NA
Page 370 of 443
5.8
gNp
+
2 E, E, N, J
2Eo
E,
[2 E
e,Vdifr NA
Np NA +Np ...1)
NA we get
o Similarly by substituting d, -d,,
•......(18)
By using equations (17 &18), then total diffusion length is expressed as,
d, = d, td,
-[am(t)
By using equation (19), the junction
...19)
capacitance can be calculated by
Eo&, A
C=
d,
- A 0E, N N, 1
2 Vdir N, +Np ......(20)

A When pn junction
is forvward biased using external
space charge voltage VAs it reduces u
region by injecting excessive
type semiconductor. electrons into n type
and holes into?
o
The current
flows through
the pn junction
equation as is given by using Slockley diode
I= I, (eA VT -1)
where In - Reverse ...(21)
saturation or
leakage current.
Page 371 of 443
Design Concepts
5.9
P-type
n-type
Hole
diffusion
Current Electron
diffusion
Current
+++++t
Space Space
charge charge
- dp
X=0 dn
(a) pn-junction withi space
charge region
Att n, p
Pp =
NA (majority carrier)
nn = No (majority
carrier)
np << Pp
Pn << nn
- d,
(b) Acceptor and donor concentrations
pr)
dn
dp.
qNo
qNA
X=0
(c) Polarity of churge density distribution
-dp 0 dn
/(E, Eo)
Eo =-qN d,
(d) Electric field distribution
V(x)
|Vdif
-dp dn
distribution
(e) Burrier voltage
Fig S.2 charge carrier transition without applied voltage
The p-1.junction with abrupt
Page 372 of 443

510 no
region 1S increased and
reverse biased, space charge
When pn junction is
except leakage current due to minority carrIers. By applying
current flows
space charge region in p ype and n type
external voltage V, then
VA
semiconductor given by replacing Vair With Vdir-
2 &, 6, (Vin
..22a)
d, =
f2E, 8, (Vait- VA)NA ...(22b)
N, +Np
From equations (22a & 22b), the toal space charge region or
depletion region
is expressed as,
d, = d, d, t
..23)
During reverse bias of a diode
junction capacitance C, (depletion
capacitance)
exist across the junction as in Fig.5.3(a).
VA <0, C
& During forward bias, encounters

it additional diffusion capacitance
diffusion charge Q stored. C, due to the
(Fig.5.3(b).
0<V,
A<Vdiff: C = G+C+ The
G
C= Ca
The diffusion charge Q
can be calculated
by multiplying diode
transition time current I and tho
of carriers t, and it is expressed as, 22SCH
Q = It, = I, tr 4 When
(e'AT -l)
....(24)
Page 373 of 443
Sstem Design Concepts
5.11
++++
++++
Space clharge distribution in the pn-junction
E E
Electric fielddistribution in the pn-junction
Vdif
- dp d
- do dn
Voltage distribution in the

pn-jnction
(b) Forward biasing (V, > 0)
(a) Reverse biasing (V,
< 0)
andforward biased
in reverse
Fig 5.3 pn-junction
calculated as
4 The
diffusion capacitance is
dQe e VaT .....(25)

C, dVA
A2.2
SCHOTTKY CONTACT clectrons
with metal (copper/aluminum),
&
When
a p type
semiconductor is joined concentration of holes in the
an increased
and leaving
diffuse into the metal
Semiconductor.
Page 374 of 443
concentrati
bends toward the Fermi level because of higher
The valence band
away from the Fermi level because of lo
band bends
of holes and conduction
as Fig 5.4(a).
concentration of electrons shown in
reverse bias, this Schottky configuration offers low
For both forward and
both the biases. Its V-I characteristic is shown in
resistance and current flows in
Fig 5.4 (b).
I
Ec
VA
EF
Ey
Metal p-type semiconductor
(a) Energy band diagram (b) V-I characteristic
Fig 5.4. Metal with p type semiconductor

When an type semiconductor is joined with metal, a small positive volume
charge density is created due to electron migration from the semiconductor to the
metal.
Electrons diffuse from the n

type semiconductor and leave behind positive space
charges. The depletion layer increase until the
repulsion of the space charges
stops the further electron diffusion.
o Schottky contact refers. to metal-semiconductor

contact having a large barrie
height and lowdoping concentration
which is less thn the density of stales
the conduction band or valance band.
o
Fig 5.5 shows the metal p
type semiconductor before Work
function of metal (E) is higher than the and after bonding.
work function of semiconductor (s
The work function is measured
from Fermi level to the reference
electron becomes free particle. level,w
Page 375 of 443
Free electron energy 5.13

level
|qy Es
EM
Ec
Ef EF
Eb
EF Ec
EF
Ey
Metal Ey
n-semiconductor
-Metal
n-semiconductor
(a)
(6)
Fig 5.5 Energy-band diagram of
Schottkycontact
(a) before and (b) after contact
The energy E; = q V,is related to metal work function
(Ey) and electron affinity
(gy).
EM 9 m
where V.m - Work function potential.

The electron is measured from the conduction band to the same
afinity (qy)
Teferencelevel. where w = 4.05 V for Si, 4V for Ge and 4.07Vfor
GaAs
E; = EM-V sies
q (Vm-y) =gV,
where V,=Vm-
Ve
The Schottky barrier voltage V= V,-
= (V-y)-V,
Férmi levelI and it as,
band and is expressed
conduction
is Poltage between
V, - V, ine) ND
Systeme
Transmnission Lines and RFPage 376 of 443
€,
2 E0 (V-V)
region is d, q Np
The space charge
Schottky contact is given by
The junction capacitance of
C= A d,
|2
A
20V,-Vo
3
BIPOLAR JUNCTION TRANSISTOR
The Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT) is one of the most widely used active RF
elements due to its low cost construction, relatively high operating frequency,
low noise performance and high power handling capacity.
. The high power capacity is achieved through a special inter digital emitter base
construction part of a planar structure as shown in Fig.5.6.
3
The interleaved construction maintains the base-emitter resistance as minimum
without compromising the gain performance. The low base resistance improves
the signal to noise ratio by reducing the current density through
the base-emitter
junction and reducing the random thermal motion.
Improvement in gain and frequency response is possible

by reducing the base
doping and base width. However, low doping
in a small base may increase the
resistance of the base too high and degrade
the transistor performance.
B E B E B B
E B
p-base
nt nt
nt nt
n-type collector
Fig 5.6 Multifinger bipolarjunction

transistor
Cepts
Page 377 of 443
To achieve both 5.15
high gain and
Transistor (HBT) low resistance,
is
(GaAlAs-GaAs) shown
used by introducing Heterojunction Bipolar
in Fig additional
5.7. semiconductor layers
Because.of the hetero structure
layer an enhanced
is achieved while the reverse electron injection into
hole injection into the base
increases the emitter efficiency. the emittr is
suppressed. It
Dielectric. E nt
n-GaAlAs
B
p-substrate
Fig 5.7 GaAs heterojunction bipolar transistor
the highest
* Bipolar transistor is a current controlled device in which emitter has
lowest. Normally. emitter-base junction is
doping concentration and base has the
reverse biased. This is known
base-collector junction is
Jorward biased whereas
as forward active mode.
electrons into the
forward active mode emitter injects
h In/npn transistor under recombine with holes in the base becoming
electrons
base and Small amount of collected
electrons reach the collector junction and
amount of
neutral. The large
by the reverse voltage. reverse biased, whereas base-
is
emitter-base junction the
For the reverse bias mode,
Nowthe collector injects electrons into
forward biased.
collector junction is
emitter. are forward
base and reaches the base-collector junctions
emitter-base and acts as a switch.
mode both The transistor
For saturation current flows.
collector
biased and maximum
ySiems
Page 378 of 443
Rc
RB
VCE Voc
VeB VBE
(a) Biasing circuit

for npn BJT in comnon-emitter
configuration
Load line-1/Ra
Vgg/Rg
Vcc/ Rc Load line -1/Rc
Saturation
current
Increasing
Q
point Q point
Ig2
base
VgB VeE Cutof VCE

CE Vcc
(b) Input characteristic
of transistor (e) Output characteristic
Fig 5.8 Biasing of transistor
and input, output characteristics
4
Fig 5.8 shows of an npn BJT
the common-emnitter
characteristics. configuration output
The load
line has been drawn and its input and
current flows) in between cut-off point (where no
and saturation
point (where
(Q-point) identified zero voltage point
is on the load line.
oltage exists). Operating
The BJT
behaviour
appropriate operating
is analysed using three choosing
modes of operation by
points.
Page 379 of 443
Concepts
RFSystem Design
5.17|
Mode
1)Forward Active
Eor forward active mode, emitter-base iunction is
forward biased and base
collector is reverse biased,
Forward biased Reverse biased

junction junction
n
E
po
I
Po
X=0 X= dg + dc
X=- dE
concentrations in forwardactive BJT
Fig 5.9 Minority carrier
concentrations in the configuration. The
Fig 5.9shows the minority
distance across three layers.
concentration is plotted as a function of
concentration in emitter at distance x dg and x =0. -
Minority charge
= .....1a)
P (d) P no
VBE/ V ......15)
p (0) = Pnp
= 0 x
x and =dg
concentration in base at distance
Minority charge
eVag/Vr ..(2a)
(0) = nB
n Po
,BVsc/VT =0 ....26)
n (dg) n
collectorat distance x=d
concentrationin
Minority charge
= e Bc/V =0 .3)
P(dg)
C (ap)
P C
Page 380 of 443

318
Since base-collector voltage is negative (reverse biased), (a) = 0 and
P, (da)= 0.
to holes in emitter is
4 The diffusion current due
dp (*)
p diff dx
P0)-PEd)
By using equations (la & 1b), substitute the values ofp
Vgg/VT p
P
Similarly,
D
9 Pno
p diff dg
..5)
fo The diffusion current due to electrons in base is

dn (x)
p
DB
dx
9DBn
dg L"p
By using equations (2a & 2b), substitute the values of n",
-q D?
TB
n diff dg .....(6)
o The forward collector current can be obtained as
n diff A
q D
"
-AeEVT
dg
......7)
Page 381 of 443
Concepts
RFSstem Design
5.19
g D „B
Po
where ls = Saturation
current.
A
is junction cross-Sectional area
Theforward,base current is
#
A
p diff
q D
-A(e BE-1) ...(8)

. The forward emiter current Ig is the sum of collector current and base current.
Forward current gain B is
n
D PO
d
DE E
=
q D, P E
[:e'BE»1| ....(9)
* Collector current to emitter

current ratio a, is given by
= .10)
-Ipg lVcE 1+PF
3) Reverse Active Mode

reverse biased and base-collector is
* For mode, emitter-base is
Teverse active concentrations in the BJT are shown in
forward biased. The minority
charge
Fig 5.10.
at distance x(-d) and x(0).
The minority Charge concentrations in emitter
=0
.....11la)
P-d) VBgT =0 .....11b)
E
D(0) = Pro e
Page 382 of 443
Reverse biased Forward biased

B
junction junction
n P
-I
n8
P
X=- de X=0 x= dg t dc
Fig 5.10 Reverse active mode of
BJT
Since emitter-base is reverse biased, minority charge concentrations (p)
are zero.
The minority charge concentrations in base at distance x =0 and x = d.
n (0)nB.
Po
e
BET = 0
n (d) = nB eBc/ V, ..12)

Po
The minority charge concentrations in collector at distance x = d, and

+
x=dg dc
p, (dp) Png e'Bc/V
n .....13)
The reverse emitter current IRE s given by
n
diff A
A
dx
-g DB
dg n(0) -n (da)
Page 383 of 443
RFSjstem Design Concepts
5.21
Sibstituting the values of nB.

q D
Po
e'Bc/ V
dg
= I,e Bc/V
....14)
q D n
where Ig = nPo A
4 The reverse base current, -J A
= -q D; dx |A
Substituting the values ofp

= (e,Vpc/r -1) .15)
* Reverse current gain B

is given by
IRE
DB dc
D°,C
>>1]
D C
ratio ag is given by
reverse emitter current
Reverse collector current to'
PR ...16)
1+BR
Page 384 of 443
5.22
(3) Saturation Mode etr

junctions are forward biased. The diffusion
For saturation mode, both the
current and reveres
density in the base is the algebraic sum of forward collector
emitter current
JB = + JRE
n diff -Jc
The emitter current is given by
ac/V, Vgg/VT
+I,e Br
(e 1)
Add and subtract Ig,
I = -Ige VBE/V (e aET-1)
= VBE
VT-1) + I (e Bc'NT- 1)
-I (eBET1) (e ..(1)
The collector current I, is
Iç = Ic-IRE+ IRB
= (eVsc'T-1)
Ie BR
Add and subtract ls,
-IeVac/V, + Is
BR
(e
Vac–1)
Base current I, is given by
= Iac/N-1)+
BR
(e -
...(19)
Page 385 of 443
RFSJstem Design Concepts
5.23
RF FIELD EFFECT TRANSISTOR
64 (FET)
Field Efect Transistor(FET)
is a voltage controlled
monopolar device because device. It is also called as a
only majority
responsible for current carriers (one carrier type) are
jlow. A variable
electric field
from source to drain by changing controls the current flow
the applied voltage on
There are four types
the gate.
of FETs based on the gate
connection to the
channel. conducting
MetalInsulator Semiconductor
() FET (MISFET): Gate is connected to the
channel through the insulation
layer. (Metal oxide semiconductor FET
(MOSFET) belongs to
this type (Fig 5.10(a)).
() Junction FET (JFET): The reverse biased pn ijunction

isolates the gate from
the channel(Fig 5.10(b).
(iüi) Metal Semiconductor FET (MESFET): The reverse biased pn

junction is
a
replaced by Schottky contact in JFET (Fig 5.10(c).
as
(iv) Hetero FET: The hetero structures utilise abrupt transitions between layers
of different semiconductor materials (GaAlAs to GaAs). High Electron
Mobility Transistor (HEMT) belongs to this type.
* MISFET and JFET have relatively low cut-off frequency because of large
capacitance formed in between gate and insulator. These devices can be operated
can
upto 1 GHz. GaAs MESFET can be operated upto 60-70 GHZ. But HÈMT
operate beyond 100 GHZ.
mixer and oscillator circuits. The

MESFET RF amplifier,
is mainly used in
is almost same as that of JFET. Fig 5.11 shows the
Operation of MESFET
OPeration of MESFET in depletion mode.
4 The Schotky a space charge region which aaffects the current
contact develops
flow from source to drain.
Page 386 of 443

5.24|
Source Gate Drain
Insulator
Induced
p-type substrate
n-channel
(a) Metal insulator semiconductor FET (MISFET)

Source Gate Drain
Insulator
n pt |nt
pt substrate
(b) Junction field effect transistor (JFET)

Source Gate Drain
nt nt
Semi-insulating layer Buffer

layer
(c) Metal semiconductor FET (MESFET)
Fig 5.10 Construction of (a) MISFET, (b) JFET, and (c) MESFET
4 The space charge extent d can be controlled by gate voltage and it is given by
ds =
N ..(1)
Page 387 of 443
RFSstem. Design Concepts |5.25

Barrier voltage.
where
V-
W -Gatë width.
Low Vbs High Vos
D -D
VGs Ves
nt y
tds(y) nt nt
(a) Operation in the linear region (b) Operation in the saturation region
Fig 5.11MESFETfor different drain-source voltages

expressed as,
The resistance (R) between source and drain is
R= o (d -d)N .....2)
Conductivity, o = q H, ND
The drain current is
I, = R
2 &, &,/ a-Vas
Np ....(3)
Conductance, Go = L
where non-
space charge region increases
increases, the
&As the drain source voltage over the entire channel width d, this
charge extends
uniformly. When the space
Sltuation js called saturation.
saturation voltage is
The drain
q
Npv,-Vos)
Vpst 28
Page 388 of 443
5.26 Transmission Lines and RF Systeme
=
V,-V,+as
= VGs-VT0 (4)
where Pinch-off voltage, Vp

2 E &,
Threshold voltage, Vyo= V-V,
The drain saturation current is
2
lo sat
Dsat = Go-V-Vos) +:
(Vp-Vos)
V Gs
Ipss
2
1-* ...6)
Inss is naximum saturation drain current and is expressed as,
V,t
3 V, ..6)
4 The transfer and output characteristics of an n-channel MESFET is shown in
Fig 5.12. As the drain source voltage (V ps) increases, the drain current
(p) is
also increases linearly.
Further increase in Vps leads to channel pinch off (Vps > Vpsat). Then drain
current becomes the saturation current (In ca).
Linear Saturation
VGs =0
<0
Vos
VGs
Vos
(a) Transfer characteristic (6)Output characteristic
Fig 5.12 Transfer and output clharacteristics of an n-channel MESFET

Page 389 of 443
RFSstem, Design Concepts
527
HIGH ELECTRON MOBILITY TRANSISTOR
65 (HEMT)
high electron mobility transistor
The (HEMT) exploits the differences in band
an energy between dissimilar semiconductor materials such as GaAlAs ana
CaAs. It operates upto 100 GHz and even above 100GHZ.
The high electron mobility transistor (HEMT), also known as heterostructure

FET or modulated doped FET (MODFET), is a field effect transistor
incorporating a junction between two dissimilar materials with different band
as GaAlAs
gaps such and GaAs as the channel Gallium Arsenide is generally
Ised because of its high electron mobility and carrier drift velocity than silicon.
& It operates at very high frequencies, say 100 GHZ and above. The advantage of
HEMT is it provides high gain, high switching speed and low noise. It is used in
high frequency amplifiers, high speed switch, low noise amplifiers.
converters,
4 It has wide application in satellite receivers, cell phones, voltage
defense equipments, etc.
The basic heterostructure is shown in

Fig 5.13. Initially an intrinsic layer of
thick is set down on the semi-insulating
gallium Arsenide (GaAs) of micron
1
gallium arsenide substrate.

intrinsic Aluminium Gallium Arsenide
* A very thin layer of 30-60A° of
to
on top of this layer. This layer plays an important role
(AlGaAs) is set down
aluminium gallium arsenide
high electron mobility. The doped layer of
achieve
set down on this ndoped
AlGaAs layer as
(n"AIGaAs) about 500A° thick is
shown in Fig.Fig 5.13.

crystal lattice and
n-type doped region move through the
* lhe electrons from Atwo dimensional electron
gas or plasma of
hetero junction.
remain close to the undoped GaAs layer for zero gate bias
formed in the
Very high mobility is
condition.
gate is used
to modulate the number of electrons
The bias voltage applied to the
dimensional electron gas and in turn this controls the
inthe channel from the two channel width.
varying the
conductivity of the device by
Page 390 of 443
5.28|
Gate Drain
Source
um 30 nm
n-GaAlAs
0.1
20000o0000o0000000 00o00 10nm
oo0oo00o0000o00oo000o00r GaAIAs oo00000000 o0000
Oo0000o 00000o000000o oo00000000
:GaAs
Prn
300 Semt-isplated GaAs 2DEG
Fig 5.13 Generic heterostructure of a depletion-mode HEMT
E
Schottky
Contact
2DEG
EH
EGaAs
Ef --H
FoaAlAa EF
-EG AEC
GaAlAs GaAs,
-d
(a) Energy band diagram (b) Close-upview of conduction band
Fig 5.14 Energy band diagran of GaAlAs-GaAs interface foran HEMT
as The energy band diagram of GaAlAs-GaAs interface of HEMT is shown in
Fig.5.14. To determine the potential distribution along the x-axis, Poisson's
equation is used.
dy
p(*) = q
Np
qNp
dy
where N, isthe donor concentration in GaAlAs hetero structure.
Eu is the dielectric constant in GaAlAs hetero structure
Page 391 of 443
|5.29|
RFSstem Design Concepts
bo
# Byapplying boundary conditions at metal-semiconductor side
V(x =-d) = -V,+ VGt

where V, is the barrier voltage
1S the energy difference in the conduction levels
between
AEç
GaAlAs and GaAs
VG =
-Vs + V(y)
and V(x=0) = 0
& Potential at metal-semiconductor
= x-E, (0) d
2 EH
where, E,(0) = Vos-V(o)-V, +
= VGs -V(y)-Vro)
AEc
where, Threshold voltage, VTo = Vg -V,
g Np d²
Pinch-off voltage, Yp 2E
The electron drain current is given by
But o = q H, Np and
A = wd
I = 9 Hn ND E, wd
dV
Page 392 of 443
S30
o =
But wLd d
=
Surface charger density Q,
| wL
where L is the channel length.
Ip = oE, A = Hsp. wd
d
= L, Qs wE = , dV
Qs w dy
..
I, dy
= , w
VGs
s dv
= #, w Qs dV
| Idy
By Gauss's law, Qs = EH E(0)

VGs
Hn w
I, L = H, W Ey E(0) dV
H, w En } Vas - V - Vro)dV
: E(0)
=Vos-V-Vo)
:.
b=
I
Ld Vs(Vas- Vto) DS
2
Pinch-off occurswhen Vps S Ves-VT
,W EH
- Vto) VTo
Ld Vos
(Vos-V)s- 2
2Ld (Vos -Vo)?
i) If VT, >0, HEMT operates in enhancement mode.
(ii) If VTo <0, HEMT operates in depletion mode.

ESstem1 Design C'orncepts
Page 393 of 443
LOW NOISE AMPLLIFIER 531

S6 (LNA)
# Atthe firont end ofthe receiver,

a
low noiseamplifier
power signal without (LNA) amplifies a very
sacrificing low
noise which is introduced
its signal to noise ratio. LNA minimises
by the amplifer. the
This
is done only
by choosing
thelow noise
circuit topologies components, operating
of amplifier. LNAs are the points, and
building blocks
systems and instruments. of communication
The fourimportant
parameters in
figure, and impedance
matching. LNÀ are gain, noise
Noise factor is
the ratio of
input signal to noise
ratio to the output signal
ratio. Noise figure to noise
is defined as the noise factor
in decibels (dB). A good
has a low noise figure LNA
(2 dB) and enough gain to boost
the signal (15 dB).
In general, the source impedance is matched to the
input impedance because
will maximise the power that
transfer from the source to the device.
5.6.1 BIPOLAR
LNA
* The simple common emitter LNA is shown in Fig
5.15 (a). The transistor Q, and
current I, are used to bias the
transistor Q. Resistor R, isolates the signal path
from the noise of O,. If R, > Rs, the effect of bias circuit upon the LNA's
performance can be neglected.
* The input referred noise voltage per unit bandwidth is given by
- 4KT|
4*Tr,*2gm) r,+)
Red
T2I
lo reduce the noise voltage V, the Reg Must be low value. So the transistor O,
must be current Iç. For the noise figure-of

relatively large biased at high 2 dB,
KegS 29
S.
Page 394 of 443
Transmission Lines and RF Systemg

5.32
capacitance and
Large device size increases the input capacitance and diffusion
reasons noise figure attains a low value for a
base shot noise. Because of these
proper choice of device size and bias current of transistor Q1:ii
+Vcc
-o Vout
Rc Rs
021bs2t1i23u
oVout
Rl,: Q
R2
(Vin
Vin
R1
(a) Simple bipolar LNA (b) LNA with base shot noise
Fig 5.15.
h To get accurate noise voltage, base shot noise is included as a current source
(Fig 5.15(b).
= 4 kT
Iç/B
2n 2 VT
4 The total input referred noise voltage including the source resistance Rg is
R
tot
4 KT|
Rtrb*218m
gm+ 2B
1 &m
.:. The noise figure, NF = tof
= |+
4 KT Rs Rs 28mRs 2ß
5.6.2 TWO STAGE LNA
The two stage LNA is designed to minimise the noise figure and maximise the
gain. The first stage has to drive the input capacitance of the second stage and
e
exhibit sufficient gain to minimise the noise.
4 Fig 5.16 shows the simplified circuit of LNA consisting of two common emitier
stages, one with inductive generation and other with resistive feedback. The
RFSstem
Design Concepts Page 395 of 443
5.33
function of the inductor L,
i to allowthe conjugate matching of the input and
linearises the circuit.
+Vcc
W
oVout
Vin o
Fig 5.16 Two stage LNA

&m Le 1
The input impedance is +L,
C, sC,s.
With proper choice of gm
L, and C,, last two term are cancelled.
&m
= 50
Then, Zin r,+ C, 2
G The feedback in the second stage serves to both linearise the circuit and lower
the output impedance.
5.6.3 CASCODE CMOS LNA

because
MOSFETs are most preferedthan tripolar devices
* For RF applications,
Fig.Fig 5.17.
and low noise. A cascode CMOS LNA is shown in
of its linearity source of
a common emitter stage loaded by the
consists of
A cascode amplifier input and output impedances, and
has a high gain, high
Common gatestage. It
high bandwidth.
matching at the input of common
are used for conjugate
The inductors Lg and L,
Source stage (M).

Page 396 of 443
5,34
of common gate stage (M,) provides

The onchip inductor Lp at the output
significant voltago gain. The common gate stage improves the
stability of circuit
andprovides the isolation,

+VpD
o Vout
Vin
L
O
M
Fig 5.17 Cascode CMOS LNA

5.7 POWER AMPLIFIER
power amplifier is an electronic amplifter designed to increase the power of a
A
given input signal. The power of the input signal is increased to a level high
enoughto drive the loads of
output devices like speakers, RF transmitter, etc.
o A general single shape amplifier with input and output matching networks is
shown in Fig.5.19. The characteristics of power amplifier are gain, gain flatness,
bandwidth, output power, input and output reflection cocfficients, and noise
figure. The amplificr shown in Figure is characterised through its S-matrix.
The normaliscd incident power waves at port 1

and2are Q, and Q, respectively.
The normalised reflected power waves at port I and 2 are b, and b, respectively.
RF
Source
iPinc
Input
matching
Amplifier
[S)
Output
matching
tst
PL
Load
network network
Tout
in
Fig 5.19 General single stage amplifier system

Page 397 of 443
RFstem. Design Concepts

5.35|
The
simplified amplifier system
is shown in Fig.5.20
graph shown
(a) and its signal flow
is in
Fig.5.20 (b).
Is
b b
a
Pinc
P
Zin
a
Vs
b4
a
out
(a) Simplified single stage amplifier
bs b 1 a S21
b 1 a bs
b
VS11 S2/^
1
a b S12 a b
a
(b) Signal lowgraph
Fig 5.20
* The ratio of b, toa, is called input reflection coefficient.
= S1
*....(1)
a (extended nodes)
Ihe source reflection coefficient is the ratio of b, to
(2)
le
input side and output side and Z, is
Sthe characteristic impedance between
he source impedance, then
Z + Zo ....3)
Page 398 of 443
From the signal flow graph,

At node b,, b, = bg
t a, Is
a =
b Tn
Substitute the value of a, ,
bg =
= b,
(1-T;, Ts)
bs ....
b,1L,'s (4)
The incident power wave associate with b, is given by
1
P inc 2 ..(5)
2 2|1-T,,r.
The above expression power applied to the amplifier. Theactual input power P
observed by the amplifier is composed of the incident and reflected power
waves.
Pi= Pic-|Ti I Pnc

where P
|I is the power of reflected wave in opposite direction.
=
P, Pine
(1-|Ti, )
Substitute the value of P,e
1
b2 )...)
2 |1-T,r,2(-|Tn
The maximum power transfer from the source to the amplifier occurs if
the input
impedance is complex conjugate of source impedance (Z = Z
). In terms ol
reflection coefficients, I;,
=T.
Under the condition of maximum power transfer,
the available power PA 1S
Page 399 of 443
5.37
2
|1-|Ts
If T,=0, then P. =
2 (7)
FUNDAMENTALS OF MMIC
68
58.1 INTRODUCTION
The current trend in circuit design

is toward miniaturization
Prime reasons for the and ntegration.
trend toward miniaturization
in asmaller space and are more electronic
lower function
weight, especially
electronic applications. useful for airborne
microwave
4 An RF and Microwave
Integrated Circuits (RFICs
and MICs) consist
assembly that combines of an
different circuit functions are
that connected by
microstrip transmission lines. These
different circuits all incorporate
planar
semiconductor devices, passive lumped elements
and distributed elements.
a Definition
Microwave Integrated Circuit (MIC) techniques represent an extension

of
integrated circuit to microwave frequencies.
MICs are hybrid because both active and passive elements that are
manufactured by successive diffusionor ionimplantation processes on a
semiconductor substrate.
components, where as
The passive elements are either thin or thick film
silicon planar chips.
active elements are generally
Advantages
traditional circuits using printed circuit
The advantages of RF/MICs compared to
technology are,
components are fabricated simultaneously, and
) Higher reliability - Allthe
there are no soldered joints.

ImprovedIreproducibility.
Better performance.
5.38
Transmission LinesPage
and 400 of 443
RF Systems
(iv) Smaller size.

(v) Lower cost.
(vi) Light weight.
5.8.2 TYPES OF MICS
Microwave Integrated
Circuits (MICs)
Hybrid Monolithic
MIC MIC
Standard Miniaturized
Hybrid Hybrid
MIC MIC
Fig 5.21 Types of

MICs
There are two classes of MICs:

(() Hybrid Microwave Integrated Circuits (HMICs).
(ii) Monolithic Microwave Integrated Circuits (MMICs).
The HMICs can be further subdivided into standard

and miniature circuits.
Hybrid Microwave Integrated Circuits(HMICs)
The HMICs is a type of circuit in which solid state devices and passive elemenis
are bounded to a dielectric substrate. The
passive elements (both lumped ana
distributed) are fabricated by using thick or thin technology.
The lumped elements are either bonded in chip form (or) are fabricated by
using multi-level deposition and plating techniques.
The distributed elements are fabricated by using single-level metallization
processes.
Page 401 of 443
68.3 MONOLITHIC
M
MICROWNAVE
INTEGRATED 5.39
Definition
a CIRCUITS
(MMICS)
A
Monolithic Microwave
Integrated
crystal with lowpackage Circuits
(MMICs) are,
density. fabricated on a single
twoor more caregoOrtes MMICs are
hybrid
of integrated circuits integrated circuits as uses
MMICs are a type of it
circuit in
which all
transmission lines are active and
formed into passive elements as well as
by some deposition the bulk or
scheme onto the
Such as
surface of a substance
evaporation, or diffusion. epitaxy, ion implantation,
sputtering,
Difference
between MMIC's
and Conventional IC's
MMICs are
quite different from
the. conventional
(i1)
IC's
The conventional
IC's contain very high packing
packing density of a MMIC densities whereas
is quite low. the
(ii) Hybrid Integrated Circuit:
An MMIC consists
of two or more integrated circuit types
discrete elements and it is referred as together with
to a hybrid integrated circuit.
(ii) Filmn Integrated Circuit:
AnMMIC whose elements are

formed on an insulating substrate,
such as
glass or ceramic is called a film integrated circuit.
A Applications:
Ihe applications of MMICs are,
) MMIC's
are currently being used for variety of applications including space and
military because
they meet the requirements for shock, temperature conditions
and severe vibration.
() MMIC's of microwave
has been the advances in the development solid - state
devices.
Page 402 of 443
Transmission Lines and|RF Systems
5.40
MMICS MATERIALS
5.8.4 MICS MATERIALS (OR) either are used in ol:
types of circuit elements that
There are three general
form or are fabricated in MMICs:
(i) Distributed transmission lines
-
Microstrip, strip, coplanar.
-
(i) Lumped elements R, L, and
C.
diodes.
(iii) Solid state devices- FETs, BJTs,
are broadly divided into four
The basic materials for fabrication of MMICs
categories,
() Substrate materials.
(ii) Conductor materials.
(ii) Dielectric materials.

(iv) Resistive materials.
MMIC Materials
Substratè
materials Resistive
films
Conductor
materials Dielectric
materials
Fig 5.22 Types of MMICmaterials
(1) Substrate Materials:

A substrate.of MMIC is a piece of substance on which electronic devices are
built. The ideal characteristics of a substrate material are
High dielectric constant (> 9).

Low dissipation factor or loss tangent.
Dielectric constant should remain constant over the frequency an
the temperature ranges.

Design Concepts
Page 403 of 443
High purity and 5.41

constant thickness.
High surface smoothness.
High resistivity
and dielectric strength.
High thermal conductivity.
The selection of a substrate material depends

on the required circuit
dissipation, its circuit functionand
the type of circuit to be used.
Alumina, beryllia, ferrite/garnet, GaAs, glass, rutile
and sapphire are used
as substrate materials.
12)
Conductor Materials:
The ideal conductor materials used for MMICs applications should have the
following properties:
High conductivity.
Low teiperature coefficient of resistance.
Good adhesion tothe substrate.

solderability.
Good etclhability and
or electroplated.
Easily deposited
RF/microwaves.
Lowresistance at
Gold (Au) are mainly used as conductor
and
Aluminum (A), Chromium (C) bottom
the conductor pattern and the
materials. They are used
to form both
ground plane.
Dielectric Materials: as
as insulators for capacitors and
MMICs are used
0 Dielectric materials in and
passive devices.The typical
for active
protective or
insulating layers are: Al,O3, SiOz, SiO, SiN,
and
microcircuits
used in
dielectric materials
Ta,0s.
Page 404 of 443
5.42 Transmission Lines
and RF System
o
Thin film Si0 is not very stable and can be used only in non –
critical
applications, such as bypass capacitors. The desirable properties of dielectrio
materials are:
Good reproducibility.
Capability of handling high voltages.

Ability to undergo processes without developing pin holes.
Low RF dielectric loss.
High breakdown voltage.
Good processability.
(4) Resistive Materials:

For fabricate (or) realizing bias network, terminations,
and attenuators, resistive
materials are employed. The desirable properties of resistive
materials are,
Good stability,
Low temperature coefficient of resistance,
Adequate dissipation capability, and
Sheet resistivities in the range
of 10to 2000 2 per square.
The typical resistive materials are: Cr, Cr - SiO, NiCr, Ta and Ti.
5.9 BASIC CONCEPTS OF RF DESIGN
5.9.1 FILTERS
A Definition
A flter (or) resonant circuit function is to pass selectively a
certain frequenc)
(or) frequency range from the source to the load,
while alternating all other
frequencies outside of this pass band.
o In designing a filter, the following important parameters are
generally
considered,
(i) Pass bandwidth.

RFSj:Stem. Design Concepts
Page 405 of 443
5.43
band alternation
(ii) Stop and frequencies.
Input andoutput impedances.

(i)
loss.
(iv) Return
(v) Insertion loss.
(vi) Group delay.
(ATT)
Passband
0 dB
Attenuation
(a)
Passband
2f
Source Load
PL
f
P,R-P,
(6)
response
Fig 5.23 An idealfilter circuit (a) frequency
load (application).
(b) A filter between a generator anda
block diagram of a filter fed by generator and

a basic a
* Figure 5.23 shoys
terminated by a load, Let P, be the incident power at the filter input, P. is the
power passed on to the load.
tectedpower, and P, is the
à Insertion Loss (|L)

from inserting a filter circuit
Insertion Loss (IL) is an attenuation resulting
as, " the
between sOurce and load which usually expressed in dB. It is defined
is
filter input to load power at
the filter outpu".
ratio of
incident power atthe
Page 406 of 443
5.44|
Incident Power
IL(dB) = 10 l0g Load Power
= 10 P;
logP,
P;
= 10log
P,-P,
1 P,
IL (dB) = 10 log P;
1-Ir?
coefficient,
where P. =P,-P, if the filter is lossless and I isthe voltage reflection
A Return Loss (RL)
The return loss isameasure the power reflected by a line or network or device
of
and it is defined as, "the ratio of incident power to the filter to the reflected
power at the input of the filter.
Input Power to the device

RL (dB) = 10log Reflected Power at the input of the device
= P
10 l0gP.
1
= 10 log
Ir|?
RL quantifies the amount of impedance matching at the input port.
(1) Filter Configuration

The most commonly used RF/MW filters are
(i) Low-Pass (LP) filter.

(ii) High-Pass (HP) filter.
(ii) Band-Pass(BP) filter.

(iv) Band-Stop(BS) filter.
Page 407 of 443
545
IL(dB) (a)
IL(dB)
L 0
1
f
Low- pass filter High - pass filter
IL(dB) IL(dB)
IL o
f
f
f
0
f Bandstop filter
Bandpassfilter
(b)
circuits (b) Frequency responses
Electrical equivalent
Fig 5.24 Four basic filter types (a)
Page 408 of 443
5.46|
a Ripple
The flatness in the passband can be quantijied by specifing the
of the signal
ripple or diference between maximum and minimum amplitude response in
either dB or Nepers.
22 Bandwidth
The difference between upper (o,) and lower (o) angular frequencies at which
the amplitude response is 3 dB below the passband response value.
BW = (0,– 0)=f2-f1|
Circuit Q
The ratioof center frequency f) to the bandwidth is called as circuit Q.
BW
2-1 Af
ATT (dB)
0 dB
Insertion e(dB)
loss Ripple
3 dB
Ultimate
60 dB (or Skirt)
Attenuation
0
ffa
Fig 5.25 A practicalfrequency response
Page 409 of 443
Sstem. Design Concepts
RF 5.47
(2).
Low-Pass (LP) Filters
Low pass filters are conveniently constructed
using TEM structures such as
coaxial lines, strip lines and micro
strip lines. Micro strip filters are used in
satellite, airborne communication, and EW systems
for their small size, light
weight, and low cost.
In coaxial line and strip line low-pass filters, the shunt capacitors are realized by
very short sections

4 of relatively low characteristic impedance, and
the series inductors by short sections

4
of relatively high characteristic
impedance.
0000 0000
L L
C C
.L L
C
Zo Zo Zo
Zo
lc
(b)
(a)
L L
C
Zo Zo
(d)
(c)
a.
Microwave. low-pass flters (u) Coaxial section (b) Microstrip
Fig 5.26 n
section
MicrostripT section
(c) Coaxial T'section (d)
Page 410 of 443
Transmission Lines and REF System
5.48
() Inductive Length ()
For inductive reactance X, of
a short length , of a lossless line with short cis.
termination is expressed as,

sin-!
oL
2T Z,L
(ii) Capacitive Length (/.)

open circuit
For capacitive reactance X, of
a
short length l, of lossless line with
termination is expressed as,
sin-! (o,ZoC)
2T
where,
= Guide wavelength.
L&C = Inductance and capacitance required.

Zo = Characteristic impedance of the corresponding section.
Ze= Zo
R.
V1 Va
Z=Zo
Fig. 5.27 Low-pass filterconnected between a source and load
Figure 5.27 shows a first-order loW-pass filter connected to a generator and

load. In this standard filter circuit, the generator and the load impedances
equal to 2, for maximum power transfer from source to the load.
Zo refer to the transmission line characteristic impedance that we decide

connect transmission lines between the generator and filter, or between the 1
and load.
Design Concepts
1 Page 411 of 443
5.49
practice, fringe capacitance
In Catthe ends of the
inductive line must be taken
account, and must be
into addedto C and it
is expressed as,
C, = 1
oZ,L tan
al
2f Zo gl
C
W2 L4
W
WA
W3
Zo
4
Fig 5.28 Five-section low-pass microstripfilter

Chebyshev Filter
This filter is popular in RF application by using inductor

(L) and capacitor(C)
combinations that provides the fastest transition from passband to stopband
that
enables the best attenuation of unwanted signals to be achieved.
The steep roll-off is used to provide significant levels of attenuation of unwanted

SIgnal. The gain (or amplitude) response, Gn as a function of the angular
Irequency, o for an n-th order Chebychev filter can be expressed in the fom of
the function as,
=
|G, (o) =|H, (o)|
1+T
where
Ripple factor.
0,- Cut-off frequency
Chebychev polynominal
of
then" order.
n
Page 412 of 443

5.50
Binomial (or) Butterworth Filter

are simple and efficient structures based on binomial coefficiente
Binomial filters
profile that
implementing Gaussian filter. It exhibits a monotonic attenuation
for
isgenerally easy to implement.
IL (dB)
IL (dB)
f
f
1
0
Binominal filter Chebyshev filter
IL (dB)
f
1
Elliptic filter
Fig 5.29 Actual attenuation profilefor three types of low-pass filters
(3) High-Pass(HP) Filters

Replacing the capacitor with an inductor in Figure 5.27, permits the construction
of a first-order high-pass filter, as depicted in figure 5.30.
ZG R
VG
Fig 5.30 High-pass filter with load resistance

Page 413 of 443
5.51
In coaxial and microstrip

forms, short Ag
of relatively high
characteristic impedance
tee-connected to
4 lengths
the main line that approximates the
chunt inductors.
The series capacitors are
obtained by very
small| <<4 gaps
in the line as shown in figure
5.39.
2C 2C
2L 2L
(a)
(b)
2L 2L
20 2C
Zo Zo Zo Zo
(c) (d)
2L C 2L
Zo Zo
(e)
-
Fig 5.31 High pass filters (a) section
(b) T-section
T-section
(c) Coaxial a- section (d)Coaxial
Waveguide form, the change in broadwall dimension may be utilised to
simulatethe lump equivalent circuit.

&
The shunt inductor can be realized by an inductive iris or by a
realized by an
inductive a H-plane T-junction.

iris or by
Page 414 of 443

5.52
IL (dB)
0 1 f
Fig 5.32Butterworth response ofprototype high-pass
(4) Band-Pass Filters

ZG R C
Fig 5.33 Bandpass filter implenented in series configuration

L2 Cn
go Ln-1 9n+1
(a)
IL (dB) A IL (dB)
(b)
Fie5.34 (a) A bandpass fittercircuit derived from the low prototype
(b) Bandpass response transformed fromalow pass prototype
Page 415 of 443
RFSjstem Design Concepts
5.53
handpass filter can be constructed
through an RLC series circuit or through a
chunt connection of an RLC
parallel circuit which is shown
in Fig 5.33.
The low-pass prototype circuit in figure can
be transformed to band-pass filter
circuit of figure 5.34 (a). The response
characteristics of low-pass and its
transformation to band-pass are shown
in figure 5.34 (b).
The resonator circuits of these filters are realized by the use of a cascaded strip
line,coaxial line or cavity resonators of suitable configuration.
) Quarterwave Coupled Cavity Bandpass Filters
-jb -jbk -jbk

-jb -jb2 -jb, -jbn
(a)
LI (b)
Fig 5.350uarterwave coupled waveguide cavity flter

(6) Single section equivalent circuit
are realized by waveguide cavities

Quarterwave coupled cavity bandpass filters
as shown in Fig 5.35 (a).
coupled through irises
any kh section loaded with two identical
inductive
* The equivalent circuit for
susceptance -jb, is also shown in Fig 5.35 (b).
Each pair
irises with normalised
distance forms a cavity
k.
OT irises separated by l
by
For high O
narrow band filter b, >> land is given
... (1)
by = 2(0;-1)12
as,
kh reasonator is expressed
Bo
..(2)
2 B,-ß1
Page 416 of 443

5.54
The length of the cavity is expressed as,
... (3)
4 = Po
tan
Here g, is the normalized value of the element of prototype filter.
and
The physical length of the quarter-wave coupling line between the h
k+1h cavities will be
... (4)
2 4
The insertion loss of the Chebyshev band-pass filter is
Bo
=
IL 1+ T: (5)
where B =
5.9.2 CoUPLERS
a Definition
Microwave couplers are passive devices which divert a fraction of the signal on
one transmission line to another transmission line. Couplers
take one signal as
the input andprovide two outputs.
(i) Through Port
The port where the signal existing the output port of the first transmisston
line.
(i) Coupled Port

The port where the signal existing the other transmission line.
In general, couplers are called as directional couplers due to the directional

relationship between the coupled signals and the through signals.
RFSstem Design Concepts Page 417 of 443
() Forward-Wave Coupler 555

If
the coupled signal
is travelling
signal. in the same direction as
the through
(i) Backward-Wave Coupler
fIfthe coupled signal is travelling
in the opposite direction.
Input Port
Output Port
Port 1
Port 2
lsolated Port
Coupled Port
Port 4
Port 3
Fig 5.36 Block diagram of couplers
A Types of Coupling Devices:

The types of coupling devices that can be used in N-way multiple stages Power
combiner/dividers are
(i Lange couplers-a quadrature hybrid.
(ii) 90° branch-line hybrid couplers -a quadrature hybrid.
(iin) Wilkinson couplers.

(iv) Rat-race rings (or) hybrid ring - a 180° hybrid.
(1) Lange Couplers
* A Lange coupler is an inter digitated micro strip jour port coupler consisting of
lines tied together.
JOur parallel micro strip lines with alternate
a coupler. A 3dB Lange coupler
Pig 5.37shows a schematic diagram of Lange
wave enters Port 1, equal powers are
when an incident
is designed such that
are 90°out of phase) but none to the opposite port
sent to ports 2 and 3 (that
(Port 4).
Page 418 of 443
Power in Power out

1 2
Through
Isolated
Power out
4 3
Coupled
Fig 5.37 Lange Coupler

A lange coupler is an example of a larger class of 3 dB couplers called
"quadrature (909 hybrid."

The scattering matrix for an ideal 3 dB large coupler is given by
1
0 j 0
0 1
j 0
=
[s] 1 0
0j
0 1
j 0J
(2) 90° Branch-Line Hybrid (or) The Quadrature (90°) Hybrid
Definition:
Quadrature hybrids are 3 dB directional couplers with a 90° phase difference
in the outputs of the through and coupled arms. This type of hybrid is ofen
made in microstrip line or stripline form and it is also known as a branch-line
hybrid.
Zo142
Zo Zo
(lnput) (1) 2(output)
2I4
Zo Zo
J4
(Isolated) (4) 3) (Output)
Zo Zo
Fig 5.38 Geometry of abranch-line coupler

Page 419 of 443
RF System Design Concepts

5.57
Other 3 dB couplers, such as

coupled line couplers or Lange
couplers can also
be used as quadrature Couplers. We
will analyze the operation
of the quadrature
hybrid using an even-odd mode
decomposition technique similar to
that used
for the Wilkinson power divider.
With all ports matched, power entering

port 1 is evenly divided between
the
ports 2 and 3, with a 90•
phase shift between these outputs.
No power 1s
coupled to port 4 (the isolated port).
The scattering matrix is expressed as,
0 1
= j0
|S|
y2 1 0 0 j
L0 1
j 0J
There are two pairs of quarter-wave Transmission Line (TL)
sections in a 90°
branch-line hybrid where each pair has different characteristics
impedance than
the input or output transmission lines.
Design Equations:
Coupling factor (Cin dB) = -10 logo| ...

(6)
and
Zo1
Zo •.. (7)
B) Wilkinson
Couplers
Definition:
A network that divides the input power
dB coupler is three-port
Wilkinson a
3 (at
port 3 and assume
1)
equally between ports
2 and that ports 2 and 3 are
matched.
Page 420 of 443

S58
are not only equal in
In this type of coupler, the output signals at ports 2 and 3
a 3 dB
magnitude but also have the same phase. A schematic diagram for
Wilkinson power divider is shown in Fig 5.39.
50 2 2
70.70 2
Power out
Power in N4
100 2
1 50 2
N4
70.70
Power out
2 3
50 S2
Fig 5.39 WiIkinson coupler

& Reversing the direction of flow, that is, input at ports 2 and 3 and output at port 1
will make this divider act line a power combiner. From Fig 5.39, there is a N4
transmission line between the input and each output where is the TL
wavelength at the center frequency.
a Characteristic Impedance:
Assume that the input and outpuf transmission lines have a characteristic
impedance (Z) and both are matched.
The characteristic impedance of the /4 TL Section (Z) ava are calculated by
following procedure:
Consider the signal entering in port 1
and an input impedance js ZN =Z, There
are two matched TL sections where each should produce an input impedance of
2 Zo
VZ,2 Z
Zo2
The Scattering matrix of the Wilkinson coupler is given by
0 1 1
=
[S] 1 0 0
1 0 0 J
Page 421 of 443
Design Concepis 5.59|

RFJstem
Rat-Race Hybrid Ring (or) Hybrid Rings

4) use was the hybnd
One of the first nyorid junctions developed for microwave
which is
sometimes referred to as the rat race. It is a four port junction,
ing,
a
obtained by adding fourth port to the normal three port tee junction.
3h/4
Zo
FPort 1
rPort 4
Port 3 Port 2
Fig 5.40 TEM type hybrid ring
& Construction:
ports are connected in the form
By means of series or parallel junction, the four
sustain the standing
waves, these ports
of an angular ring at proper intervals. To
proper electrical length. For proper operation, it
should satisfy
are separated by
the following conditions.
race must be 3e(1.5h)

The mean circumference of
the total
() 2
is separated from its neighbour by a distance

(1) Each of the four ports
of
g
4
ofthe hybrid ring is equal to /2 Zo where
(ii) The characteristic impedance
lines.
impedance of the connecting
Lo is the characteristic
Page 422 of 443
5.60|
>a Properties:
followingproperties:
The hybrid ring has the
port 1 it splits equally (in
clockwise and
When power is fed into
i)
and nothing enters port 3.
anticlockwise directions) into ports 2 and 4
cancellation
ports 2 and 4 the powers combine in phase but at port 3
(ii) At
wave traveling in the
occurs because the difference of phase shifts for the
180°,
clockwise and anticlockwise directions is
reasons, any input applied at port 3 is equally divided between
(iii) For similar
zero.
ports 2 and 4 but the output at port l will be
can be expressed as,
The [S] matrix for an ideal hybrid ring
1 1
0 0
-1
1
1 0 0
0 -1 1
0
A Application:
a
The rat race is particularly used for combining two signals (or) dividing single
signal into two equal halves.
5.9.3 Power Dividers

22 Definition:
power divider is a device to split the input power into a number of smaller
A
amounts ofpower at multiple ports (N) to feed N umber of branching circuits

with isolation between the output ports.
For simplicity, a two-way equal power divider is shown in Fig 5.41, which is a
lossless three port junctions.
Page 423 of 443
RFSsiem. Design Concepts.
5.61
2
{2Zo Zo
2Zo 1111
Zo
2Zo
Zo
Fig 5.41 Two way pOwer divider
(a) E-plane waveguide T (b) H-plane waveguide T
(c) Microstrip line Tjunction divider
Fig 5.42 Various T-junction power dividers
* For equal power division, the device consists of two quarterwave sections with
characteristic impedance Z, connected in parallel with the input line, which also
has a characteristic impedance Zo
A is connected between ports 2 and 3 which are matched

resistor R=2 Z,
Leminated. The power applied to port divides equally between
1 Ports 2 and 3
With zero loss. Tt acts as a 3 dB power Combiner when fed from the
ports 2 and 3
with the Port 1.

Page 424 of 443
Transmission Lines and RF Systenns
5.62
The T-junction power divider is a simple three-port network that can be used fox
am
power division or power combining, and it can be implemented in virtually
type transmissionline medium.
of
micro
Figure 5.42 shows some commonly used T-junctions in waveguide and
line losS
strip line or strip line form which are in the absence of transmission
lossless junctions.
5.10 AMPLIFIER POWER RELATIONS
There are various power gain definitions that are critical to the understanding of
how an RF amplifiers works. For this reason, in all the power relations of circuit
two matching networks are assumed which includes in the source and load
impedances.
Is b
RF SOURCE LOAD
Zs Pino
[S] Zin
Vs
a
b, b2
Tin Tout
(RF source )
(a) Simplified schematics of a single-stage amplifier
bs b 1
af S21 b2 a2 bs b
1S11 S22 Tin
a b S12 a2 b
aj
(b) Signal flow graph
Fig 5.43 Source and load connected to a single-stage amplifier network

Page 425 of 443
5.63
Source:
side,the RF source
Inthe input is connectedtotheamplifier network.
Incident Wave PoWer:
The incident wave power

at node b, is given by,
P. =
Pine
2
2 ...1)
|1-TiIsl
Source node, Z,
where, bs =Zat
Z+Z V Z,
Z, - Characteristics impedance,
Z, - Source impedance,
T, - Source reflection coefficient, and
L, - Input reflection Coefficient.
This incident power is nothing but the power launched towards the amplifier.
A Input Power
(Pin:
the amplifier is composed
The actual input power Pin at the input terminal of
power waves and it is expressed in terms of
of the incident and reflected
as,
incident wave reflection coefficient
P, = Pic (1-|T,) .(2)

we get
equation (2),
By substituting equation (1) in
22
|1-Is
) .
3)
Page 426 of 443
Transmission Lines and RF'Systems
5.64|
Maximum Power Transfer: with complex conjugate of Source

If the input impedance is matched
coefficients (Ti, =T). fhar
impedance (Zi =Z) (or) in terms of reflection
source to the amplifier i
the maximum power will be transferred from the
expressed as,
PA =
inr=
1 bs
2|1-TS| in =I;
bg |2
1
2|1-T;Is |
-5)
1
..(4)
The above expression (4), mainly dependent on Ig. If I, =0 and Ig0,

then equation (1) becomes,
Pinc
bs ...(5)
2
(2) Transducer Power Gain (G)

Transducer power gain is nothing but the gain of the amplifer when placed
between the source and load.

Available power from the source
P
(6)
PA
1 .. (7)
Page 427 of 443
RFSstem. Design Concepts 5.65
substituting equation (4) for

By PA and equation (7) for P, in equation (6), We get
2
b,
G, = ***...8)
From the Fig 5.43(b), we can get b, and bs as,
b, = (9)
1-S,, I
1-S,I,.
-|(-s (-S, I))

.... (10)
((-S,;I)
ratio b, can be calculated
From the equations (9) and (10), the required
bs
as followS:
Sz1
-
..... (11)
bs (-S,)(-S,TL) SzSis
equation (8), we get
By substituting equation (11) in
(-5)s=(-s) (12)
Page 428 of 443

|5.66
becomes.
In terms of input and output reflection coefficients, the equation (12)
..
= (13a)
G
|1-T;T|1-S,|
(-) sf (
G, ......13b)
|1-HTou |1-S,S
A Unilateral Power Gain (GTu):
The transducer power gain without considering feedback effect of an amplifier
iLe. S2 = 0. Then the gain is called unilateral power gain. From equation (12), it
is expressed as,
GTU
..... (14)
|1-rs, |1-S,,
(3) Additional Power Relations
& Available Power Gain (G) at Load
The available power gain for load side matching (I =Tou) is given as,
Power available from the network PN

Power available from the source PA
GA
Is
(1-) .....(15)
(I-|Fou)|1-S,3!
A Power Gain (0perating Power Gain):
The operating power gain is defined as "th ratio of the power delivered to the
load to the power supplied to the amplifier".
G= Power supplied to the amplifier
Page 429 of 443
RFSstem. Design Concepts 5.67|
P
P'in
Gr soh. (16)ss
Pin
By substituting cquations (3), (4) and (13a) in equation (16) and consider
We get
I =lin
X
I|b 2|1-TS.
|1-G.f-sul-'b-r.f)
z(-|(-)
.... (17)
5.11 SOLVED EXAMPLES
Example 5.1| Consider a p-type Si semiconductor whose doping concentration

at room temperature is N, = 5 x 10°cm and intrinsic concentration
is
concentration and
n, = 1.5 x
10'cm. Find the minority and majority carrier
conductivity of the semiconductor
of u, =
1350 cm´v.s and u, = 480 cm.s.
© Solution:
/cm H, = 1350 cmv.s
N, = Sx
10
Given:
=
10°/cm, 480 cm/v.s
n, = 1.5 x
to the acceptor
Majority carrier concentration is approximately equal
Concentration.
= Sx 10!6lcm3
ps NA
(1.5 x 100)? 4500/cm
=
Minority concentration, n = N, 5x 10º
, tpH)
Conductivity, o = q (n
Page 430 of 443

5.68
= 1.6x 10-1 (4500 x 1350 +5 x 10'x 480)

= 3.84 s/cm
Example 5.2 In a p-type semiconductor, a linear hole concentration changing

from 5 x 10''Vem' to 10'/cm over a distance of 100 m. Find the current density if
the diffusion coefficient is given at T = 300°K is D, = 12.4 cm'/s.
OP 10!8–5 x 10" x
O Solution: 100 um = 100x 10 10
ax 100x 10-4
D, = 12.4 = 100 >x
10-4
5x 10!7
= 1.6x 10 =
Jr x 12.4 x 100y 10-4 99.2 A/cm?
Example 5.3 p-type semiconductor of N, = 10cm' joined with an n-type

A
semiconductor of
N, 5 x 10'/cm'. Find the barrier potential at room temperature
ifn, = 1.45 x 10cm'.
Solution: NA = 10/cm?
Np = 5x 10'5/cm?
n, = 145 x 10 cm
nj
V, = 26 mV at room temperature
10 × 5 x 10!3
Vdir = 26 x 10 n x 1010,? = 0.8 V
\(1.45
Example 5.4 silicon pn junction hasa conductivity of 10 s/em and 4 slemfor

A
p and n layers respectively. Calculate the built-in voltage of the junction at room
temperature if mobilities4, = 480 cm'v.s and ,= 1350 c'h.s.
O Solution:
Given: = 10 s/m
= 4 s/m
Page 431 of 443
Design Concepts
Jsem 5.69
H, = 480
cm'/v.sit
ai Pn= 1350 cm'/y.s
Op
NA =
gp 1.6 x 10-
10Sdt
x 480
= 1.3 × 10"/cm?
On 4
1.6x 10- x 1350
= 1.85 x 10/cm
V, = 26 mV at room temperature
N, Np
Vdtr = V, ln n
= 26 x 10 1.3 x 10"" x 1.85 x 10l6)

in
(1.45 x 10'02
0.78 V
Example 5.5 For

=
GaAs at room teimperature T 300°K, N, = 4.7 x10 "Wcm,
energy is
N,= 7x 10lcm', find the intrinsic carrier concentration if the bandgap
142 eV.
© Solution:
N,= 4.7 x 10'/cm'; Ny=7x 10'/cm

Given: T = 300°K;
E. = 142 eV
KT-= 26mV
V
Ny e-E/2KT
M= VN pe/NT
e
VNNy -1.42 x 1.6
x 10-19
26x10-3
x7x 108
= V4.7x 10"
rOEVE oo
2.197: 10/cm'
x
=
Page 432 of 443
S.70
QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS
6.12 TWOMARK
arsenide?
band gap energy forgermanium, silicon, and gallium
1. What is the
= 0.62 eV
For Germanium, E,
Silicon, E, = 1.12 eV
Gallium arsenide, E, = 142 eV
2. What is diffusion current?

are joined together, pn-junction is
When p-type and n-type semiconductors
in carrier
formed and current flows across the junction because of the difference
current.
concentration in the semiconductors. This current is known as diffusion
dn dp
qA| D, ds + Dp dx
P
3. What is diffusion barrier potential or built-in potential?

The potential across the (depletion layer) pn junction at thermal equilibrium is
called barrier potential or built-in potential.
4. What is
junction capacitance?
When pn junction is reverse biased, the width of depletion region increases and
size of the p-type and n-type region decreases. The depletion region acts as an
insulator or dielectric (no charge carriers present) and p-type
and n-type region
act as plates. This junction capacitance is formed.
The junction capacitance is the change in charge stored in

the depletion region
with respect to a change in junction voltage.
C= dy
5. What is diffusion capacitance?

Diffusion capacitance occurs due to stored charge
of minority carrier near the
depletion region. When pr junction is forward biased, the width
of the depletion
Page 433 of 443
RFSstem. Design Concepts
5.71
region decreases. As a
result, a large amount at both sides of
of chárge is stored
bedepletion region and
hence large diffusion capacitance occurs.
6 Define doping.
A major change in the electrical Droperties
of semiconductor is done by
introducing impurity atoms. This process of adding impurities to
semiconductor
is called doping.
2 What is Schottky contact?
Schottky contact refers to metal-semiconductor contact having a large barrier

height and low doping concentration which is less than thedensity of states in the
conduction band or valance band.
8. Differentiate between PN junction and Schottky contact. [APRMAY-2022]
Basis of Difference Schottky Diode PN Junction Diode
diode which is
A
diode which is
Description A
constructed by joining
constructed by joining
a P-type semiconductor
metal and
with an N-type
semiconductor is called a semiconductor is called
Schottky diode. PN junction diode.
Circuit Symbol
diode has PN junction diode has

Schottky semiconductor
Junction type metal semiconductor only a
a junction, which is a PN
junction. junction.
In
In
Schottky diode, the In PN junction
diode.
Terminals forms the P-region forms the anode
metal region
and the and N-region forms the
anode terminal
semiconductor region cathode.
the cathode
forms
terminal.
Page 434 of 443

5.72
on voltage of a
Cut-in (turn on) The turn on voltage for The turn
diode is
voltage the Schottky diode is PN junction
around
small, around 0.3 to 0.4 relatively high,
0.3 to 0.7 volts.
volts.
9. Mention the advantages of Schottkycontact.
The advantages of Schottky contact are,

(i) It provides low forward drop.
(ii) It has low junction capacitance.
(ii) It has high switching characteristics.

(iv) It operates at high frequency.
10. Define forwardcurrent gain in BJT.
Forward current gain is defined as the ratio of forward collector current to the
forward base current under constant collector emitter voltage.
DE n
n Po
dg
Bp = D
p
P dg
II. Define reverse current gain in BJT.

Reverse current gain is defined as the ratio of reverse emitter current to the
reverse base current under constant base collector voltage.
DB „B
Po
dc
= D p
|Vgc p dg
12. What are the salient features of RFFETs?
The salient features of RF FETs are,

(i) RF field effect transistors are monopolar devices.
(ii) Voltage controlled devices.

(ii) Have high input impedance.
(iv) Operate at very high frequencies.
Page 435 of 443
FSstem Design Concepts
5.73
How RF FETs are classified?
RF FETs are classified

based on
the gate connection
They are: to the conduction channel.
-
Junction FET
- Metal Insulator Semiconductor
FET (MISFET)
- Metal
Semiconductor FET (MESFET)
Hetero FET
L What is pinchoff voltage?
Pinchoff voltage
is the drain to source voltage
after which the drain to source
curent becomes
almost constant and JFET enters
intosaturation region.
1s, What is a high
electron mobility transistor (HEMT)?
A high electron mobility transistor is a
field effect transistor incorporating
junction between two materials a
with different bandgaps as the channel instead of
a doped region.
16. Mention the advantages of

HEMT.
The advantages
of HEMT are,
-
High speed and high frequency operation.
- High power
density.
-
High efficiency.
I, What is a low noise amplifier?
low noise amplifier (LNA) is an electronic amplifier which amplifies the very
A
a low power has low noise factor.

signal by reducing the noise. It
Mention LNA. [APRMAY-2021)
the requirements of
are:
most important LNASpecifications or attributes
0 Gain,
() Noise Figure (NF)»
(m) Linearity,
and
t) Maximum RF input.
Page 436 of 443

5.74|
A good LNA has a low NF (e.g. 1 dB), enough gain to b0ost the signal
(e.g. 10dB) and a large enough inter-modulation and compression point (IP3 and
PldB) to do the work required of it. Further specifications are the LNA's
operating bandwidth, gain flatness, stability, input and output Voltage Standing
Wave Ratio (VSWR).
19. Write the applications ofLNA. [APRMAY-2021]
LNAs are helpful in electronic equipment to amplify signals with very low power
without degrading the signal-to-noise ratio (SNR). They are useful in many
applications, including radio communication systems, medical equipment, mobile
phones, and electronic test equipment
20. List the characteristics of power amplifier.
The characteristics of power amplifier are,

-
Gain and gain flatness.
-
Bandwidth.
- Output power.
- Input and output reflection coefficients.
- Noise
figure.
21. Define MIC.
Microwave Integrated Circujt (MIC) techniques represent an extension of
integrated circuit to microwave frequencies.
MICs are hybrid because both active and passive elements that are manufaçtured
by successive diffusion or ion implantation processes on a semiconductor
substrate. The passive elements are either thin or thick film components, whereas
active elements are generally silicon planar chips.
22. Write the advantages of MICs.:
[OR]
Write the advantages of
MMICs.
The advantages of RFMICs compared to traditional circuits using printed circu
technology are,
FSstem. Design Concepts Page 437 of 443
5.75
) Higher reliability.
(ii) Improved
reproducibility.
(iü) Betterperformance,
(iv) Smaller size.
(v) Lower cost,

(vi) Light weight.
:
23.
Name the types ofMICS,
MICs are classified as,
) Hybrid Microwave Integrated

Circuits (HMICS).
G) Monolithic Microwave
Integrated Circuits (MMICS).
The HMICs can be further

subdivided into standard
and miniature circuits.
24. Deftne HMICs.
The Hybrid Microwave Integrated
Circuits (HMICS) is a type
of circuit in which
solid state devices and passive are
elements bounded to a dielectric substrate.
The
passive elements (both lumped and distributed) are
fabricated by using thick or
thin technology.
25. What is MMICs?
A Monolithic Microwave Integrated Circuits (MMICs) are fabricated on a single

Tystal with low package density. MMICs are hybrid integrated circuits as it uses
WO or morecategories of integrated circuits.
26.
Mention between MMIC and conventional ICs.
the diference
MMICs are
quite different from the conventional IC's
very high packing densities whereas the
9 The conventional IC's contain
packing density of a MMC is quite low.
() Hybrid Integrated Circuit:
An MMIC consists of two or more integrated circuit types together with

as a hybridI integrated circuit.
discrete elements and it is referred to
Page 438 of 443
5.76|
(ii) Film Integrated Circuit:

An MMIC whose elements are formed on an insulating substrate, such as
glass or ceramic is called a film integrated circuit.
27. Give the applications ofMMICS.

The applications of MMICs are,
) MMIC's are currently being used for variety of applications including
space and military because they meet the requirements for shock.
temperature conditions and severe vibration.
(i) MMIC's has been the advances in the development of microwave solid
state devices.
28. List the materials used for fabrication of MMICS.
The basic materials for fabrication of MMICS are broadly divided into four
categories,
() Substrate materials.
(ii) Conductor materials.
(iii) Dielectric materials.
(iv) Resistive materials.
29. Define filter (or) resonant circuits.

A
flter (or) resonant circuit function is to pass selectively a certain frequency
(or) frequency range from the source to the load, while alternating all other
frequencies outside of this pass band.
30. What do you mean by insertion loss?

Insertion Loss (IL) is an attenuation `resulting from inserting a filter circuit
between source and load which is usually exxpressed in dB. It is defined as, the
ratioof incident power at the filter input to load power at the filter output".
Incident Power
IL(dB) = 10 l08 Load
P;
Powersii
P,
=10 log p, 10logP,-P,
FSystem. Design Concepts
Page 439 of 443
5.77|
IL (dB) = 10 log
P,
1-\r|'
- P;
where PL
-P;-P,if the filter
is lossless and T
is the voltage reflection coefficient.
1 What is meant by return
loss?
The return loss is a measure
of the power
änd
it is defined as, "the ratio retlected by a line or network or device
of incident
power at the power to the filter to the reflected
input of the filter.
RL
(dB)= 10 log Input Power to the device
Reflected Power at
the input of the device
P
10108p,
= 10 log
Ir'
RL quantifies the amnount of impedance matching
at the input port.
32. Name the different types offilter configurations.

The most commonly used RFMW filters are
() Low-Pass (LP) filter.

(ii) High-Pass (HP) filter.
(ii) Band-Pass(BP) filter.

(iv) Band-Stop(BS) filter.
JJ, What do youmean bybandwidth of the filter?

The difference between upper (a,) and lower (o,) angular frequencies at which
response value.
the amplitude response is 3 dB below the passband
BW = (0,- 0) =f2-f
34, Define circuit
2.
bandwidth is called as circuit ).
The ratio of center frequency (,) to the
0= BW
S-fi 4f
Page 440 of 443
35. Define couplers.

a fraction of the signal on
Microwave couplers are passive devices which divert
one signal as
one transmission line to another transmission line. Couplers take
the input and provide two outputs.
36. List the types of coupling devices.

The types of coupling devices that can be used in N-way multiple stages Power
combiner/dividers are
() Lange couplers a quadrature hybrid.

(ii) 90° branch-line hybrid couplers -a quadrature hybrid.
(iüi) Wilkinson couplers.
(iv) Rat-race rings (or) hybrid ring -a 180° hybrid.
37. What do you mean by Wilkinson couplers?
A Wilkinson 3 dB coupler is a three-port network that divides the input power (at
port 1)equally between ports 2 and 3 and assume that Ports 2 and 3 are matched.
38. Define lhybrid ring.

Hybrid ring is a four port junction, which is obtained by adding a fourth port to
the normal three port tee junction. By means of series or parallel junction, the
four ports are connected in the form of an angular ring at proper intervals.
It is
also called as rat-race circuits.
39. Write the properties of hybrid ring.

The hybrid ring has the following properties:
() When power is fed into port 1 it splits equally (in

clockwise and
anticlockwise directions) into ports 2 and 4
and nothing enters port 3.
(ii) At ports 2 and 4 the powers combine in phase
but at port 3 cancellation
Occurs because the difference of phase shifts
for the wave trayeling in the
clockwise and anticlockwise directions is 180,
(iii) For similar reasons, any input applied at port 3
is equally divided between
ports 2 and 4 but the output at port 1 willbe zero.
RFstem Design Concepts Page 441 of 443
Write.ihe S-matrix 5.79

for hybrid ring?
The [S] matrix for an ideal
hybridring can
be expressed
as,
0 1
1
0 0 -1
1
0 0 1
0
. What is power divider?
0
power divider a
A
is device to split the input power
amounts of power at into a number of smaller
multiple ports (N) to feed N
number of branching circuits
with isolation between
the output ports.
42. Define transducer power gain.
Transducer power gain is nothing
but the gain of the amplifier
when placed
between the source and load.
Power deliveredto the load

GT
Availablepowerfrom the source
43. Define unilateral power gain.

The transducer power gain without considering feedback effect of an amplifier
that is, S12 = 0. Then the gain is called unilateral power gain.
What is available power'gain at load?

The available power gain for load side matching (T, =Tou) is given as,
Poweravailablefrom thenetwork P
GA =
Power availablefrom the source
45. Define of an amplifier.

operating, power gain
power delivered to the
The Operating power gain is defined as "the ratio of the
load tothe to the amplifier".
power supplied
G= Power supplied to the amplifier
PageRE442
Transmission Lines and of 443
Systems
80
513 REVIEW QUESTIONS

junction witlh neceSsary diagrams.
1. Explain the quantitative theory ofpn
reveree
theory of pn junction under forward bias and
2. Explain the quantative
bias with aid of space charge distribution,
electric field distribution and voltage
distribution diagrams.
3. With aid of energy band diagram, explain the Schottky cotact.

operation with
4. Describe the construction of high frequency BJT and explain its
the help of its characteristics.
reverse current gain of RE
5. Derive the expressions for forwardcurrent gain and
BJT.
reverse active
6. Explain the operation of BJT in (a) forward active mode, (b)
mode, (c) saturation mode.
7. Explain the construction and operation of high electron mobility transistor
with energy band diagram and necessary equations.
8. Draw the circuit diagram of low noise amplifier and explain its operation.
9. Discuss the various aspects of amplifier-power relations for RF transistor
amplifier design.
10. Explain the powver anplifiers used at RFfrequencies. [APRAMAY-2021]
11. Explain the working of FET at RFfrequencies. [APRMAY-2021/
12. Explain the design ofpower amplifiers. [APRMAY-2022/
13. Explain the principle and working of

RF fieldeffect transisto.
[APRMAY-2022/
14. Write note on MMICs.

15.
ofMMIC
List out and explain the basic materials required for mnanufucturing
16. Discuss in detail about RF filter design.

Page 443 of 443
RE System Design Concepts
17 Write note on
) Low-Pass (LP) filter.

(i) High-Pass (HP filter.
18. Explain in detail about design
of band-pass filter.
19. With neat sketches, explain the operation of
hybrid rin8
20. Write note on power divider.

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Page 1 of 443

Measurement of VSWR and wavelength.

1.5. Wavclength and Velocity of Propagation 1.14

1.6. Waveform Distortion 1.17

1.7. The Distortionless Line 1.18

1.8. Loading of Lines 1.20

1.8.1. Types of Loading 1.21

1.8.2. Inductance Loading of Telephone Cables 1.22

1.9. Reflection 1.25

1.9.2. Reflection Factor and Reflection Loss 1.27

CHAPTER 2: HIGH FREQUENCY TRANSMISSION LINES

2.4. Voltages and Currents on the Dissipationless Line 2.4

2.5. Standing Waves 2.6

2.6. Standing Wave Ratio 2.8

2.7. Input Impedance Dissipation Line 2.10

2.9. Reflection Losses on the Unmatched Line 2.13

CHAPTER 3: IMPEDANCE MATCHING IN HIGH FREQUENCY LINESi 3.1-3.98

Transverse Electric Waves 4.

4.7. Wave Impedances 4.21

4.8. Rectangular WaveGuide 4.24

4.9. Transverse Magnetic Waves (TM) in Rectangular Waveguides 4.28

4.10. Transverse Electric Waves in Rectanguiar Waveguides 4.33

4.11. Characteristics of TE and TM Waves 4.40

4.11.1. Dominant Mode 4.43

4.12. Impossibility of TEM Waves in Waveguides 4.47

4.13. Wave Impedance 4.47

4.14. Circular Waveguides 4.53

4.14.1. Bessel Functions 4.53

4.14.2. Field Equations in Circular Waveguide 4.55

4.14.3. TM Waves in Circular Waveguide 4.60

4.14.4. TE Waves inCircular Waveguide 4.62

4.14.5..Wave Impedance 4.63

4.14.6. Excitations of Modes in Circular Waveguides 3 4.65

SOLVED PROBLEMS 4.67

TWOMRK QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 4.145

Chapter 5: RF System Design Concepts 3.1 -5.81

5.2.1 p-n junction 5.5

5.2.2 Schottky Contact 5.11

5.3 Bipolar Junction Transistor 5.14

5.4 RF Field Effect Transistor (FET) 5.23

3.5 High Electron Mobility Transistor (HEMT) 5.27

5.6 Low Noise Amplifier (LNA) 5.31

5.6.2 Two Stage LNA 5.32

5.6.3 Cascode CMOS LNA 5.33

5.7 Power Amplifier 5.34

5.8.3 Monolithic Microwave Integrated Circuits (MMIS) 5.39

5.8.4 MICs Materials (or) MMICs Materials 5.40

5.9 Basic Concepts of RF Design 5.42

5.9.1 Filters 5.42

5.9.2 Couplers 5.54

TRANSMISSION LINE THEORY

() Parallel wire (balanced) line (b) Coaxial (unbalanced) line

1.2 Transmission Lines and RF Systems

1.2. TRANSMISSION LINE AS CASCADED T SECTIONS

One T section representing an incremental length Ax

Transmission Line Theory 13|

Substituting the values of Z, and Zz

If Ax tends to zero, then Z, becomes,

When applied to the incremental length of line Ax, then Z =Z Ax, Zy = y Aw

and propagation constant becomesy Ax,

1.4| Transmission Lines and RF Systems

Equating the above two expressions,

If Ax tends to zero then,