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Introduction to Bioplastics
Engineering
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Introduction to Bioplastics
Engineering
Syed Ali Ashter

R&D Endovascular
Maquet Getinge Group
Merrimack, NH, USA
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In memory of my father, (Late) Professor Zaheer Haider
Preface
Introduction to Bioplastics Engineering is a practical, user-friendly

reference for plastics engineers working with biopolymers and biode-
gradable plastics. This book provides plastics engineers and researchers
with a fundamental, practical understanding of the differences between
bioplastics and biodegradable polymers and guidance on the different
methods used to process bioplastics. This book also covers additives
and modifiers for biopolymers and their effect on properties. Examples
are included of commercial applications of bioplastics, as well as new
bioplastics being developed and future trends in the industry.
Introduction to Bioplastics Engineering consists of 10 chapters that
will enable engineers, researchers, technicians, and students a sound
understanding on bioplastic background and its market. Chapter 1:
Introduction provides discussion on global bioplastic market, current
material and market trends, and limitation toward biopolymer commer-
cialization. Chapter 2: Overview of Biodegradable Polymers focuses on
defining biodegradable, biopolymer, bio-based, and oxo-degradable
terminologies.
Chapter 3: Mechanisms of Polymer Degradation reviews different
mechanisms of polymer degradation. In this chapter, degradation mech-
anism of five different engineering polymers, some of which are com-
mercially available and some that has potential for the future.
Chapter 4: Fundamentals on Biodegradability will discuss fundamentals
on biodegradability, testing standards, and ways to measure biodegrad-
ability. Chapter 5: Types of Biodegradable Polymers will review
different types of bio-based and synthetic biopolymers. It will also high-
light on polymers derived from monomers as well as bio-derived
polyethylene.
Chapter 6: Additives and Modifiers for Biopolymers talks about dif-
ferent types of additives and modifiers for biopolymers and study their
effects on properties. Chapter 7: Processing Biodegradable Polymers
includes discussion on different ways to process biodegradable poly-
mers. Processing of some of the commercial biodegradable polymers
will also be discussed. Chapter 8: Extrusion of Biopolymers reviews
extrusion of biopolymers. In this chapter, conventional extrusion
xi
xii PREFACE
process for biopolymer processing, starch extrusion, and different extru-

sion screw designs will be discussed.
Chapter 9: Commercial Applications of Bioplastics discusses differ-
ent areas of commercial applications of biodegradable plastics such as
packaging, bags and sacks, disposable housewares, agriculture and
horticulture, medical devices, consumer electronics, and automotive.
New developments of bioplastic in material, processing, and applica-
tions are reviewed in Chapter 10: New Developments.
Syed Ali Ashter

R&D Endovascular
Maquet Getinge Group
Merrimack, NH, USA
Acknowledgments
I would like to show my sincere appreciation to Professor Stephen

Burke Driscoll from Plastics Engineering Department, University of
Massachusetts Lowell for providing valuable inputs and guidance.
I would also like to thank Dr Sina Ebnesajjad, Plastics Design Library
Handbook Series editor for his support and constant mentoring during
the book-writing process. I would also like to thank my family
especially my wife, Tahira, and my two kids, Zayn and Noor for their
unconditional support. This work would have never been completed
otherwise.
xiii
1 Introduction
1.1 Background
Over the last several years, production of polymers from renewable
resources has shown significant growth. Some of the plastics produced
from renewable resources such as vegetable oil, corn, and pea starch
have been synthesized by microbes and are known as bioplastics. Its
development is driven by current demands to replace fossil fuel based
polymers. Limitation in fossil fuel resources, price volatility, impact on
the environment, and waste disposal problems are some of the main
reasons for this shift toward bio-based plastics.
The use of natural polymers is not a new idea. Fig. 1.1a c shows
natural resins like amber, shellac, and gutta percha that were used
during Roman Times and the Middle Ages [1 3]. Native Americans
were developing and refining techniques for making ladles and spoons
from animal horns long before there was any European contact. Initial
development work began in the 1920s when Ford Motor Co. began
experimenting with soybeans in the automobiles. However, it all began
in the 1940s when Ford Motor Co. gave a go-ahead to produce plastic
parts from soybeans to support the idea of sustainability [4].
Bioplastics are broadly classified as bio-based and/or biodegradable.
When the focus of the material is on the origin of the carbon building
blocks and not by where it goes at the end of its product life, it is
termed as bio-based. It is important to understand that all bio-based
materials are not often characterized as biodegradable, and similarly,
not all biodegradable materials are bio-based. Material is considered
biodegradable when materials are broken down under the influence of
microbes and right conditions and use them as food source. When a
complete microbial assimilation of the fragmented food source happens
within 180 days in a compost environment, it is considered as compost-
able. Fig. 1.2 shows pictorial difference between two branches of
bioplastics—bio-based and biodegradable, respectively [5,6].
American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) developed a
standardized test method, ASTM D6866 to determine bio-based content.
Originally, developed for the US Department of Agriculture (USDA)
Introduction to Bioplastics Engineering.

DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-323-39396-6.00001-4
© 2016 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved. 1
2 INTRODUCTION TO BIOPLASTICS ENGINEERING
Figure 1.1 Natural resins used during Roman Times and Middle Ages:
(a) Amber, (b) Shellac, and (c) Gutta Percha [1 3].
“Bio-based” feedstock
Must be certifiable as bio-based

Bio-based - ASTM D6866
Bioplastics
“Biodegradable” end of life
Must be defined as certified

compostable - ASTM D6868 & ASTM D6400
Figure 1.2 Differentiating between biodegradable and bio-based [6].
1: INTRODUCTION 3
Figure 1.3 The life cycle of bioplastics [9]. CTC Clean Tech Consulting GmbH;
WSJ reporting.
Bio-Preferred program, this test method uses radiocarbon dating to

determine bio-based contents of materials. Standardized test methods,
ASTM D6868 and ASTM D6400, were developed to set specification
for compostable plastics [5,7,8].
Fig. 1.3 provides an illustration on the life cycle of bioplastics. It all
starts with growing plants such as sugarcane and corn that are high in
starches. The plants are then harvested and processed to extract their
starches. The extracted starches are then refined and fermented using
special enzymes producing chemical compound that react to make plas-
tics. Plastics in the form of pellets are used to manufacture products.
The product at this stage is fully biodegradable. After its full use, the
product is then placed in an organic waste container, which starts the
last stage of the cycle [9,10].
Fig. 1.4 shows material coordinate system to classify type based on
their bio-based content and biodegradability. The coordinate system is
Bio-based
Bioplastics
Bioplastics
eg, PLA, PHA,
eg, biobased PE,
PBS, Starch
PET, PA, PTT
blends
Non- Biodegradable
biodegradable
Conventional Bioplastics
plastics
eg, PBAT, PCL
eg, PE, PP, PET
Fossil-based
Figure 1.4 Material classification system based on their biodegradability and bio-
based content [11].
subdivided into four quadrants: bio-based, biodegradable, fossil-based,

and non-biodegradable. Each quadrant represents a group of bioplastics
that are classified as follows [11]:
• Group 1 — Bioplastics that are bio-based or partly bio-based

non-biodegradable such as bio-based PE, PET, PA, and PTT.
• Group 2 — Bioplastics that are bio-based and biodegradable,
such as PLA, PHA, PBS, and starch blends.
• Group 3 — Bioplastics that are fossil-based and non-
biodegradable such as conventional PE, PP, and PET.
• Group 4 — Bioplastics that are fossil-based and biodegradable
such as PBAT and PCL.
To have sustainable production and consumption, bioplastics have

some added benefits. Some of the several advantages are as follows:
• Increase in efficiency
• Renewable resource that can be cultivated annually
• Reduction in carbon footprint
Currently, bioplastics is in infancy and going through growth

phase. There are lots of expectations pinned on bioplastics and many
aspects have to be evaluated to make the process commercially viable.
1: INTRODUCTION 5
Can replace many harmful

conventional plastics Nonrenewable
Can be fully biodegradable

Health impacts
Generally non-biodegradable
Can be made from a variety with devastating affects on
BIOPLASTICS PETROPLASTICS
of renewable sources ocean life
Can be composted locally

into a soil amendment Demand and production skyrocketing
Can contribute to healthier Plastics industry supports

rural economics more drilling
Figure 1.5 Differences between bioplastics and petroplastics [12].
Cost feasibility is the most important of all however, other factors such
as concerns about genetically modified organisms, sustainably grown
biomass, composting programs and infrastructure, lack of adequate
labeling, and concern over contamination of recycling systems have to
be thoroughly understood. Despite all these points, bioplastics have
many merits over the petroplastics as shown in Fig. 1.5 [12].
1.2 Understanding Global Markets

Bioplastics are a type of plastic that can be made from natural
resources such as vegetable oils and starches. Since bioplastics are
plant-based products, the consumption of petroleum for the production
of plastic is expected to decrease by 15 20% by 2025. By 2025, Asia
and Europe will have the largest share of bioplastics market. Asia will
account for 32% while Europe at 31% of the total market followed by
the United States at 28%. Currently, bioplastics market growth is at
10% annually covering approximately 10 15% of the total plastics
market. This number would increase to 25 30% by 2020 [13].
Nova Institute has done a global survey of 247 corporations covering
almost all major bio-based plastics. Based on the survey, they estimate
that the bioplastic production capacity will increase to nearly 12 million
tons by 2020. This would increase the bio-based share from 1.5% in 2011
to 3% in 2020. They estimate that most investment in bio-based capacities
will take place in Asia and South America because of better access to the
feed source. Fig. 1.6 shows an overview of the change in global bioplastics
productions by regions [14]. Europe’s share will decrease from 20% to
14% and North America will see a decrease from 15% to 13%. Asia’s bio-
plastics production share will see an increase from 52% to 55%, whereas
that of South America will see a jump from 13% to 18%.
2011 2020
20% 15% 14% 13%
13% 18%
52% 55%
North America South America Asia Europe
Figure 1.6 Overview of the change in global bioplastics productions by regions [14].
European Bioplastics Association estimated that 58% of 1.16 million

metric tons global bioplastics capacity in 2011 was bio-based. Global
bioplastics capacity will see almost a fivefold increase from 2011 to
2016. The composition of bioplastics production capacity is also
expected to change significantly from 58% bio-based/non-biodegradable
in 2012 to 87% by 2016. Some of the major factors driving the bioplastic
market are high consumer acceptance, high fossil fuel prices, increase in
the dependence on fossil fuels, and the need for more ecofriendly pro-
ducts. According to a study by Helmut Kaiser Consultancy, less than 3%
of all waste plastic worldwide gets recycled, compared with recycling
rates of 30% for paper, 35% for metals, and 18% for glass. Currently, the
demand for bioplastics is increasing due to its renewability and availabil-
ity of raw material, advanced functionality and technical properties, and
the recycling option that they present. [13].
Some of the major players competing in this market are Cargill’s
NatureWorks, DuPont, Braskem (BAK), Toray Industries, Lanxess AG,
Bayer, BASF, and Eastman.
1.3 Current Material Trends

One of the most important advancements from the last few years has
been the development of materials that are produced from monomer
building blocks from the natural feedstock. These materials are termed
as drop-ins and can directly replace conventional fossil-based plastics.
These drop-ins open a new route to produce bimonomers that can easily
fit into existing production cycle.
1: INTRODUCTION 7
Global production capacities of bioplastics

7000 6731
6000 1126
5000
4000
in metric kTon
3613
3000 1060
5605
1936 2039
2000 1622 1670
1492
759 862 2553
610 643
1000 571
921 1011 1028 1177 1177

0
2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018
Biodegradable Bio-based/non-biodegradable Forecast Total capacity
Figure 1.7 Global production capacities of bioplastics [15]. European Bioplastics,

Institute for Bioplastics and Biocomposites, nova-Institute (2014). More
information: www.bio-based.eu/markets and www.downloads.ifbb-hannover.de.
Among all drop-ins, partially bio-based PET leads the field. Bio-
based PET accounts for approximately 40% of the global bioplastics
production capacity. Fig. 1.7 shows global production capacities of bio-
plastics. A 10-fold increase to 80% of total bioplastics production
capacity is expected in 2018 to 5.6 million tons. Bio-based PE (polyeth-
ylene) follows bio-based PET, another drop-in material strongly driving
bioplastics growth with more than 4% of the bio-based production
capacity predicted for 2016. Fig. 1.8 shows global production capacities
of bioplastics by material type. There are materials that have been or
are being commercialized which include bio-based nylon, polypropyl-
ene, polystyrene, polycarbonate, polyvinyl chloride (PVC), and many
other traditional plastics. Europe has the world’s largest market for bio-
plastics; however, production capacities of Asia and South America are
seen to rapidly growing. [15,16].
Starch-based resins and polylactic acid (PLA) are projected to lead
bioplastic products through 2017, combining to account for over 60%
of demand. PLA demand will benefit from the development of resins
and compounds with enhanced performance for more durable applica-
tions such as fibers, automotive parts, and electronic parts.
A significant shift from the first-generation feedstocks to second-
generation feedstocks such as cellulosics will happen in coming years.
Cellulosic feedstocks consist of crop residues, wood residues, yard
Figure 1.8 Global production capacities of bioplastics by material type [16].

European Bioplastics, Institute for Bioplastics and Biocomposites, nova-Institute
(2014). More information: www.bio-based.eu/markets and www.downloads.ifbb-
hannover.de.
waste, municipal solid waste, algae, or other biomass. They can be con-
verted to sugars via various technologies, including enzymatic hydroly-
sis and biomass pretreatment. Cellulosic feedstocks currently produced
are cellulose acetates and lignin-based polymers. However, in order to
generate more cellulosic feedstocks, sophisticated biorefineries are
needed that can perform the process steps needed to produce various
bio-products as shown in Fig. 1.9. Once these are in place, a stream of
nonfood crop based fermentable sugars will become available for
energy, chemicals, and polymers [17,18].
Bio-based additives and modifiers are another area which will see a
strong development. Because of its added advantage and enlarged con-
cerns that plasticizers used in PVC and Bisphenol-A in polycarbonate
impose to the environment, there is a drive to find a health and environ-
mentally friendly solutions. Bio-based additives are not only relevant
for engineering durable biopolymers with enhanced performance prop-
erties but also used to develop an alternative to the conventional
modifiers. Increasingly, bio-based formulations are also being used to
1: INTRODUCTION 9
Biorefinery concept
Sugar feedstocks
Sugar platform
“Biochemical”
Residues
Combined Fuels,
Biomass heat & chemicals,
power & materials
Clean gas
Syngas platform
“Thermochemical”
Conditioned gas
Figure 1.9 A concept of biorefinery [18].
Figure 1.10 PHA-based polymeric modifier developed by METABOLIX [20].
modify conventional materials, as these have been found to enhance the

performance of these materials in various ways while at the same time
improving their carbon footprint [19].
Metabolix Inc. has developed a series of PHA-based polymeric modi-
fiers that demonstrate very good miscibility with PVC and improve its
mechanical and environmental performance characteristics. This additive
and modifier is sold under the trade name Mirel as shown in Fig. 1.10.
Similarly, Mitsubishi Chemical produces a polycarbonate in which the
Bisphenol-A is has been replaced by isosorbide, a biomonomer that can
be safely used in food applications. Isosorbide-based copolyesters are

extremely promising materials that offer enhanced performance proper-
ties. PLA, blended with PMMA, enhances the processability and other
properties far beyond those of conventional acrylic resins [20].
1.4 Current Market Trends

Fig. 1.11 shows global production capacities of bioplastics by market
segment. Bioplastics are segmented into a variety of applications includ-
ing packaging, agriculture, food services, automotive, consumer elec-
tronics, household appliances, and consumer goods. Bioplastics markets
will see high growths over 6 billion US dollars in 2015 which is expected
to significantly grow to over 12.5 billion US dollar by 2020 [21]. Rigid
packaging will outpace other markets by showing higher growth espe-
cially in food and beverage packing, catering products, and bags [16].
Global production capacities of bioplastics 2018 (by market segment)
5000 4,916
In metric kTon
1000
514
500 449
337
142 185
133
19 36
0
Electrical &
electronic
Building &
construction
Others
Agriculture &
horticulture
Automotive &
transports
Textiles
Flexible
packaging
Consumer
goods
Rigid
packaging
Biodegradable PLA & PLA-blends Starch blends Other1 (biodegradables)

Bio-based/non-biodegradable Bio-PET302 Bio-PE Other3 (bio-based/non-biodegradable)
1 Contains regenerated cellulose and biodegradable cellulose ester 2Biobased content amounts to 30% 3Contains
durable stratch bends, Bio-PC, Bio-TPE, Bio-TPE, Bio-PUR (except thermosets), Bio-PA, PTT
Figure 1.11 Global production capacities of bioplastics by 2018 [16]. European

Bioplastics, Institute for Bioplastics and Biocomposites, nova-Institute (2014). More
information: www.bio-based.eu/markets and www.downloads.ifbb-hannover.de.
1: INTRODUCTION 11
2016
12.0%
4.0%
Packaging
7.5% Agriculture
Electronics
3.5%
Textiles
6.5% Medical
66.5% Others
Figure 1.12 Bioplastics application by market share [22].
Figure 1.13 Packaging applications in bioplastics industry [23].
Fig. 1.12 shows bioplastics application by market share. The packag-

ing industry by itself represents the biggest application field of these
materials. It is estimated that 66% of the global bioplastic production is
used in packaging applications and it will represent up to 80% of its
global production in the coming years [22].
Fig. 1.13 shows packaging applications in the bioplastics industry.
The increase in packaging is mainly due to the increase in PET-
manufactured bottles made from renewable sources [23].
Packaging being the largest application, the most common bioplas-
tics that is used for food packaging applications are plastics based
on starch or cellulose, PLA, polyvinyl alcohol, aliphatic aromatic
copolyesters and polyethylene (PE) and polyethylene terephthalate

(PET) partially or completely obtained from renewable sources (Bio-
PE and/or Bio-PET). Some of the bioplastics applications by market
share are shown in Fig. 1.14.
Figure 1.14 Bioplastics applications by market share [24 35].

1: INTRODUCTION 13
Figure 1.14 (Continued)

Figure 1.14 (Continued)
1.5 Barriers to Biopolymer Commercialization

Biopolymer development is still in its early stages. Due to the grow-
ing needs of the customers, there is a strong demand to develop pro-
ducts that are environment-friendly and sustainable. However,
biopolymer innovations to market pose significant technological and
application challenges. Constant increase in demand to manufacture
biopolymers from the plants put pressure on agricultural crops as they
have to satisfy the needs of the ever growing population. In addition,
poor performance characteristics and high cost when compared against
conventional polymers are the key drawback. High investment costs to
process biopolymers also poses as a challenge [36].
The technology to develop number of bio-based non-biodegradable
biopolymers like PA6, PA66, and Bio-PP is still in its infancy period,
and these biopolymers are yet to mature at commercial stages. Plastic
processing technologies that can efficiently process new generation of
1: INTRODUCTION 15
Multiple feedstock options; proven technologies, products, markets,

supply chains, business models
Maturity
Petroleum based
Maturity
gap
Bio-based
Uncertain feedstocks, supply chains, markets; finance and sustainability
concerns; suboptimal technologies
1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010

Time
Figure 1.15 Major differences between conventional plastics and bioplastics [37].
biopolymers need to be developed and hence pose another major

challenge. The product performance of biopolymers in the market is
directly associated with their bio-based content in bioplastics. The area of
challenge is in developing the right tool that can accurately measure bio-
based content for bio-based biodegradable as well as non-biodegradable
bioplastics [37].
Biopolymers face significant challenges in taking products to market
faster and focus on quick solutions by integrating the product into the
existing structures. The growth of biopolymers is hampered by their poor
price competitiveness and lack of appropriate feedstocks. Fig. 1.15 shows
how biopolymer market is doing against conventional polymer. Over the
last decade, biopolymer market has seen large growth; however, there
exist considerable gap for biopolymer market realization [37].
In comparison to conventional polymers, biopolymers are still in
their early growth phase. They are yet to establish proven technology to
drive growth through innovation, have a production platform to operate
with reliability, establish a reliable supply-chain and establish customer
base by marketing the product.
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Production, Consumption, Helmut Kaiser Consultancy, ,http://www.
hkc22.com/bioplastics.html..
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www.european-biotechnology-news.com/news/news/2013-01/bioplastics-
production-to-triple.html..
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predict_significant_growth_bioplastics_2018..
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Institute (2014).
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com/biochemicals_bio_plastics.php..
[19] N. Lardjane, N. Belhaneche-Bensemra, V. Massardier, Migration of new
bio-based additives from rigid and plasticized PVC stabilized with epoxi-
dized sunflower oil in soil, J. Polym. Res. 20 (2013) 209.
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com/articles/bioplastics-2013-5-trends-watch-122720121..
1: INTRODUCTION 17
[21] Bioplastics Market Forecast 2014 2024, Prospects for Bio-based/Non-

Biodegradable Packaging, Consumer Electronics Products, Catering,
Agriculture & Pharmaceuticals, 2014.
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Demand to Grow 15% Annually to 2015, Plastemart, ,http://www.
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2 Overview of Biodegradable
Polymers
2.1 Introduction
Due to the increased consumption of fossil-based fuel, resource
limitation, price fluctuation, and impact on the environment, there has
been a considerable shift toward using biodegradable materials [1].
Polymer materials are comprised of repeating macromolecules known
as mer units. Each mer unit is called a monomer, while multiple repeat-
ing units are known as polymers. Fig. 2.1 shows examples of the mer
units for different polymer systems [2].
Plastics that are derived from fossil-based feedstocks resist degradation
leading to discussions on how to dispose them. These discussions have
been critical toward the development of biodegradable polymers. As
shown in Fig. 2.2, biodegradable polymers come from various sources,
from natural to synthetic polymers. Natural polymers are available in
large quantities from renewable sources, while synthetic polymers are
produced from nonrenewable petroleum resources [3,4]. Renewable
resource feedstocks also include microbially grown polymers and those
extracted from starch [5].
Fig. 2.3 shows a typical biodegradation process. In this process,
organic molecules in the environment are broken down into simpler
compounds by breaking bonds, either hydrolytically or by using bacte-
ria, fungi, yeast, and their enzymes [6]. Under the ideal conditions of
temperature, moisture, and oxygen, biodegradation process happens
relatively fast [6]. Material usage and final mode of biodegradation
are dependent on the composition and processing method employed.
An integrated waste management system may be necessary in order to
efficiently use, recycle, and dispose of biopolymer materials. Reduction
in the consumption of sources, reuse of existing materials, and recycling
of discarded materials must all be considered.
Biodegradable polymers are the solution to disposal problems
commonly encountered with conventional polymers. In the case of
biodegradable polymers, it is not necessary to recycle after the end of
its useful life and they can be left in the environment to biodegrade.

Figure 2.1 Examples of “mer units” for different polymer systems [2].
Biodegradable polymers
Biomass products From micro- From biotechnology From oil-products

(agropolymers) organisms (conventional synthesis (conventional synthesis
(obtained by extraction) from bio-derived from synthetic monomers)
monomers)
Polysaccharides Proteins
PolyHydroxy- Polycaprolactones
Alkanoates Polylactids (PCL)
Starches Animals (PHA) (PLA)
Polyesteramides
Ligno- Plants (PEA)
cellulosic
products
Aliphatic copolyesters
(PBSA...)
Others:
Gums,
chitosan... Aromatic copolyesters
(PBAT...)
Figure 2.2 Classification of biodegradable polymers [4].
Organic
molecules Inorganic
nutrients
CO2, H2O and

Biodegradable other metabolic
substance by-products
such as methane,
Biodegradation by microbes methanol, ethanol
Under suitable
conditions
— optimum pH,
temperature and O2
Figure 2.3 A typical biodegradation process [6].

2: OVERVIEW OF BIODEGRADABLE POLYMERS 21
Figure 2.4 Application of biodegradable polymers [815].
Other benefits that biodegradable polymers offer are increased soil fer-
tility, low accumulation of plastic materials in the environment, and
reduction in the cost of waste generated. However, some existing obsta-
cles prove challenging for biodegradable polymers. These challenges
are as follows:
1. The rate of biodegradation is often dictated by the type

and ratio of the components in biopolymer.
2. Favorability of environmental conditions of biodegradation.
3. Inferior properties of biodegradable polymers in comparison

with conventional plastics. Biopolymers are often blended
with different additives to improve the properties.
Biodegradable polymers have found their use in applications

such as packaging, medical, agriculture, and pharmaceutical. Some of
the other applications where biodegradable polymers have been used are
cosmetics, adhesives, lubricants, textiles, electronics, and high-strength
structural materials [7]. In a biomedical industry, biodegradable polymers
have found use in large implants, such as bone screws and bone plates,
small implants, such as staples, sutures and drug delivery vehicles, plain
membranes for guided tissue regeneration, and multifilament meshes or
porous structures for tissue engineering as shown in Fig. 2.4 [815].
New biopolymers that can substitute or replace synthetically derived
materials in traditional applications as well as range of new commercial
opportunities are being investigated by chemical and biotechnology
corporations [16].
2.2 Definitions
There has been a considerable shift from fossil-based resources
to more environment-friendly resources because of their added
benefits. In order to protect the environment, there has been a steady
and rapid increase in the usage of products not only made from
natural renewable resources but also products that decompose into
environmental-friendly constituents. Globally, every country has set
stringent regulations to restrict amount of solid waste generated by
consumers. There are new programs that are initiated each year to
offer consumer’s benefits to make a switch from synthetic-based
products to renewable resources.
In literature, there has been no consensus on the exact definition
of the generic terms biodegradable, biopolymer, bio-based and
oxy-degradable, which appear to have multiple and overlapping
meanings. According to the European Union (EU) Norm EN 13432,
titled “Requirement for packaging recoverable through composting
and biodegradation: Test scheme and evaluation criteria for the final
acceptance of packaging,” has clearly stated standard set of criteria to
determine whether a material can be considered compostable. An
in-depth review of each term has been provided in the following
sections.
2.2.1 Biodegradable
The terms biodegradation, biodegradable, and compostable are
frequently misused and create misunderstanding. The European Norm
EN 13432 has defined the term biodegradable as the one where degrada-
tion mechanism is characterized by the breakdown of organic chemical
by microorganisms in the presence of oxygen to carbon dioxide, water,
and mineral salts of any other element present (mineralization) and new
biomass or in the absence of oxygen to carbon dioxide, methane, mineral
salts, and new biomass. Microorganisms present in the disposal environ-
ment utilize the carbon product to extract chemical energy for their life
processes. They do so by breaking the material into smaller molecules,
transporting these small molecules inside the microorganisms cell and
further oxidizing these small molecules to carbon dioxide and water,
and releasing energy as shown in Fig. 2.5 [1719].
The term biodegradable is also directly associated with different
disposal ways such as composting, sewage treatment, denitrification, or
anaerobic sludge treatment. The rate of degradation should be consistent
with the disposal method. According to the European Norm EN 13432,
compostable material is differentiated from biodegradable if their
characteristics show [20]:
1. Biodegradability—In order to show complete biodegrad-

ability, a biodegradation level of at least 90% must be
reached in less than 6 months.
2. Disintegrability, namely fragmentation and loss of visibility
in the final compost.
CO2 , H2O , CH4

other metabolic products
Excretion of Intermediates are

extracellular enzymes assimilated into the
cells
Microorgan
Enzymes attach to the ism Short degradation
surface and cleave intermediates are
polymer chains dissolved into the
HO medium
Surface erosion
Extracellular enzymes O Water-soluble intermediates
OH C C O
O
Figure 2.5 Biodegradation of polymeric materials [17].

3. Absence of negative effects on the composting process.

4. Low levels of heavy metals which are below given max
values and the absence of negative effects on the final
compost.
2.2.2 Biopolymer
Similar to any other polymers, biopolymers are chain-like molecules
made up of repeating chemical blocks with very long lengths. The
prefix “bio” indicates that they are produced by living organisms and
are therefore biodegradable. Biopolymers can be classified in three
groups, depending on the nature of the repeating unit they are made of:
(i) polysaccharides are made of sugars, (ii) proteins of amino acids, and
(iii) nucleic acids of nucleotides. Glycoprotein, which is a combination
of protein and carbohydrate, plays a role in immune cell recognition
and tissue adhesion. Nucleic acids are involved with the storage of the
genetic code (DNA) and the translation of the genetic information into
protein products (RNA) as shown in Fig. 2.6 [21].
O 5′ end O 5′ end
–O P O –O P O
O O
5′ CH2 Base 5′ CH2 Base

O O
3′ 3′
O OH O
–O –O
P O P O
O O
5′ CH2 Base 5′ CH2 Base

O O
3′ 3′
3′ end O OH 3′ end O
RNA DNA
Figure 2.6 Chemical structures of ribonucleic acid (RNA) and deoxyribonucleic
acid (DNA) [21].
Table 2.1 Biopolymers Found in Nature and Their Functions [22]
Polymer Monomers Function(s)

Nucleic acids Nucleotides
Carriers of genetic information
(DNA and RNA) universally recognized in all
organisms
Proteins Alpha-ammo Biological catalysts (enzymes),
acids growth factors, receptors,
structural materials (wool,
leather, silk, hair, connective
tissue), hormones (insulin);
toxins, antibodies
Polysaccharides Sugars Structural materials in plants and
(carbohydrates) some higher organisms (cellulose,
chitin); energy storage materials
(starch, glycogen); molecular
recognition (blood types)
Polyhydroxyalkanoates Fatty acids Microbial energy reserve materials
Polyphenols Phenols Structural materials in plants
(lignin), soil structure
Polyphosphates Phosphates Inorganic energy storage materials
Polysulfates Sulfates Inorganic energy storage materials
Table 2.1 shows different kinds of naturally occurring biopolymers

defined by the chemical structure of their monomeric units [22].
A typical biopolymer is made of blocks of monomer units connected
to another in a linear chain; however in some cases, they can be
branched or cross-linked. Biopolymers can also exist as heteropolymers
because they may contain variety of monomeric units. Biopolymers have
the ability to form hierarchical structures at successive lengths. Starting
out at primary structures, the monomeric units are organized in a local
molecular conformation. This local molecular conformation is referred
to as secondary structure. Sometimes, biopolymer has the ability to take
the shape of three-dimensional conformation known as tertiary structure.
Some of the advantages of biopolymers are as follows:
• Help in the reduction of carbon dioxide from atmosphere

and carbon emissions. Carbon dioxide released during
biodegradation process is reabsorbed by crops grown as a
substitute in their place
• Compostable and help in reducing environmental pollution
• Biopolymers are renewable because of neutral carbon in

them. Because they are composed of living organism, the
process is completely sustainable
• Reduce dependency on fossil-based plastics
2.2.3 Bio-based
Definition of Bio-based plastics is drawn from the European
Committee for Standardization (CEN) literature, which defines as
the plastics that is derived from biomass [20,23]. In general, biomass
is referred to biodegradable organic material derived from plants,
animals, and microorganisms and is considered as renewable. Some
plastics are fully bio-based and may be biodegradable, such as starch
and polyhydroxyalkanoates; some may be partially bio-based and
biodegradable such as polylactic acid and cellulose, whereas others
may be partially bio-based and nonbiodegradable such as bio-
polyethylenetetraphlate, bio-polypropylene, and bio-polyethylene. It
is important to understand that the ability of the bio-based plastics
to degrade does not depend on its bio-based content but rather on its
structure and physical properties.
Some of the advantages of bio-based plastics are as follows:
• Bio-based plastics contain renewable carbon.

• Some types of bio-based plastics can be degraded through
composting:
• A benefit for applications such as disposal cutlery and
flexible food packaging where the plastics can be dis-
posed of alongside food wastes.
• Biodegradable agricultural plastic mulches may also be
simply ploughed into the field when needed, saving the
need for collection and storage of plastics.
• Drop-in bioplastics such as bio-based polyethylene
terephthalate (bio-PET) are similar to fossil-based plastics
and can be recycled in the same way as conventional
plastics.
• At the end of their life, when recycling is no longer an
option, these materials can be combusted to produce
renewable energy and/or be used to make biofuels.
• Bio-based plastics can reduce energy consumption and
carbon dioxide emissions compared to fossil-based plastics.
Bio-based
plastics
Polymerized
Based on
from bio-based
natural polymers
monomers
Lignin Monomers from

Isosorbide,
chemical
furanics, etc.
Proteins synthesis
Natural rubber Monomers from

Succinic acid,
biochemical
lactic acid, etc.
Polysaccharides synthesis
Cellulose,
Structural P.s.
chitin, etc.
Storage P.s. Starch
Cyanophycin,
Others
PHAs, etc.
Figure 2.7 Overview of bio-based plastics [23].
Fig. 2.7 shows an overview of bio-based plastics [23], which can be

distinguished based on natural polymers and the ones polymerized from
bio-derived monomers.
2.2.4 Oxo-degradable
Oxo-degradable plastics are based on conventional plastics, like
polyethylene (PE), polypropylene (PP), polystyrene (PS) and polyeth-
ylene terephthalate (PET), to which additives (also known as
oxo-degradable additives) are added. This causes plastics to degrade
by a process initiated by oxygen and accelerated by light and/or heat.
These oxo-degradable additives are metal salts of carboxylic acids or
dithiocarbamates based on cobalt (Co), iron (Fe), manganese (Mn),
nickel (Ni), or Cerium (Ce), with Co being used more for packaging
and Fe and Ni more for mulch film. The actual content of metal in a
salt is typically less than 10% with the addition level of the active
ingredients being approximately 0.1% of the finished film [24].
The general degradation mechanism for oxo-degradable plastics

consists of three stages [2530]:
1. The initiation stage

RHðheat; O2 ; stressÞ-ROOH
ROOHðheat and=or UV lightÞ-ROd 1 d OH
PH-Rd 1 POHðH2 OÞ
2. The propagation stage
Rd 1 O2 -RO2 d
RO2 d 1 RH-ROOH 1 Rd
3. The termination stage
2Rd -R R
Rd 1 ROOd -ROOR
2ROOd -O2 1 ROH 1 R 5 O
The degradation process not only involves fragmentation but also

changes the molecular structure of the material so that it ceases to be a
plastic and becomes biodegradable. It then disappears completely
without leaving any fragments or toxic residues, instead changing into
carbon dioxide, water, and biomass.The end result is no plastic, no
harmful residues, and no long-term damage at all. The length of useful
life of an oxo-degradable plastic is determined by processing aids such
as antioxidants, processing stabilizers, and UV stabilizers contained
within the formulation and can be modified to match degradation
timescale needed. Oxo-degradable plastics do not meet ASTMD6400
specifications for compostability and are therefore not approved by the
Biodegradable Products Institute (BPI). According to the standard,
the product is required to degrade within 180 days.
References
[1] M. Niaounakis, Biopolymers reuse, recycling, and disposal, Introduction to
biopolymers, Plastics Design Library, William Andrew Publications,
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Product Overview and Market Projection of Emerging Bio-Based
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[8] B. Ghanbarzadeh, H. Almasi, Biodegradable Polymers, InTech
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[9] L. Averous, E. Pollet, Biodegradable Polymers, Environmental Silicate
Nano-Biocomposites, Green Energy and Transport, Springer-Verlag
London, 2012.
[10] RESOMERs Biodegradable Polymers, Evonik Industries AG—Pharma
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[17] R.J. Muller, Biodegradability of polymers: regulations and methods
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3 Mechanisms of Polymer
Degradation
3.1 Introduction
Polymers are a broad class of materials that are made from repeating
units of smaller molecules called monomers. Polymers can be natural in
origin or synthetic. Polymer obtained from lignin of the tree branches
is considered natural while anything that is made by humans from natu-
rally occurring materials is considered synthetic [1]. Very small varia-
tions in the chemical structures of polymer could lead to large changes
in their biodegradability. Biodegradability depends on the molecular
weight, molecular form, structure, and crystallinity. It decreases with
increase in molecular weight, while monomers, dimers, and repeating
units degrade easily.
There are three main biodegradation mechanisms [2] that are used to
degrade biopolymers. They are:
• Microbial biodegradation
• Aerobic biodegradation
• Anaerobic biodegradation
Microbial degradation takes place through the action of enzymes or

by-products generated by microorganisms such as bacteria, yeasts, and
fungi. Two key steps happen in the microbial polymer degradation
process: (1) depolymerization and (2) mineralization.
Fig. 3.1 shows reaction pathways during biodegradation of polymers
[3]. Depolymerization is a free-radical mechanism in which the polymer
is degraded to monomers, oligomers, and dimers which when exposed
to an aerobic environment will yield carbon dioxide and water [3].
However, when the same depolymerized oligomers, dimers, and mono-
mers are exposed to anaerobic environment, the end products are meth-
ane, carbon dioxide, and water [3]. Depolymerization occurs outside the
organism due to the size of the polymer chain. Extracellular enzymes
are responsible for this step [4].
Synthetic polymers such as poly(caprolactone) (PCL) are depolymer-
ized by microbial enzymes abiotically, after which biodegradation of

Polymer
Depolymerases
Oligomers, dimers, monomers
Aerobic Anaerobic
Methane, H2S
CO2, water CO2, water
Figure 3.1 Reaction pathways during biodegradation of polymers [3].
the monomers by microorganisms proceeds as a secondary process.

Abiotic hydrolysis is the most important reaction for initiating the envi-
ronmental degradation of synthetic polymers such as polycarboxylates,
poly(ethylene terephthalate) (PET), polylactic acid (PLA), and their
copolymers. For all of these materials, hydrolysis acts as the initial step
of splitting the polymer into its monomers, after which the monomers
can be biodegraded [5]. Abiotic oxidation can also initiate the degrada-
tion of some polymers. As an example, polyethylene undergoes an
auto-oxidation, which gradually reduces its molecular weight to the
point where biodegradation can proceed [6].
Mineralization is the process of conversion of organic products to inor-
ganic. Thus, in the mineralization or organic C, N, P, S, or other elements,
carbon dioxide (CO2) or inorganic forms of N, P, S, or other elements
are released by the organisms and enter the environment. However, in
mineralization of synthetic chemical, microorganisms are frequently the
sole means of converting synthetic chemical to inorganic product.
Mineralization results in the total destruction of the parent product [7].
Aerobic biodegradation is the process of breaking down organic con-
taminants by microorganisms during the presence of oxygen. Organic
contaminants are rapidly degraded under aerobic conditions by aerobic
bacteria called aerobes. Anaerobic degradation generally occurs when
anaerobic microbes are dominant over aerobic microbes such as
Clostridia, Eubacterium spp. Typically, there are four key stages of
anaerobic degradation [8]:
• Hydrolysis
• Acidogenesis
• Acetogenesis
• Methanogenesis
3: MECHANISMS OF POLYMER DEGRADATION 33
Table 3.1 Modes and Corresponding Factors of Degradation [9,10]
Mode of degradation Factors

Thermal degradation Exposure to heat
Thermo-oxidative Exposure to heat and oxygen
degradation
Photo-degradation Exposure to visible light and ultraviolet (UV) light
Irradiation Exposure of high-energy radiation such as X-rays
degradation and gamma irradiation
Mechanochemical Exposure to mechanical stress
degradation
Chemical degradation Exposure to chemical attack such as solvolysis/
hydrolysis, ozonolysis, catalytic degradation
Biodegradation Exposure to aerobic and anaerobic environment
Table 3.1 provides different modes of degradation and their contrib-

uting factors [9,10].
3.2 Polyesters
Polyesters are polymers in which component monomers are bonded
via ester linkages. These ester linkages are generally easy to hydrolyze
and hence a number of synthetic polyesters are biodegradable.
Therefore, bacterial polyesters (polyhydroxyalkanoates, PHAs) have
been used to make biodegradable plastics. Hydrolytic cleavage of the
ester bond in the low molecular weight polyester by the lipase of
Pseudomonas sp. is well known. The generalized structure of polyester
is shown in Fig. 3.2 [11].
In general, polyesters are hygroscopic in nature and thus sensitive to
moisture. PET is a very common polymer of polyester family. When an
amorphous PET is exposed to high temperature, it undergoes hydrolytic
degradation. A generalized reaction representing polycondensation and
hydrolysis of polyesters is shown in Fig. 3.3 [12].
In the figure, R and R0 represent aromatic and aliphatic groups,
respectively. Both polycondensation and hydrolysis happen above the
melting point of polyester. The bulk material is only attacked at the sur-
face when the temperatures are below melting point of the polymer and
there are no solvents involved.
Fig. 3.4 shows ester linkage which binds together two monomer
components together to form polyester [13]. When ester linkages get
O(CH2)2O C C
O O
n
Figure 3.2 Generalized structure of polyester [11].
O O Polycondensation O O
R + HO-R'-OH R O-R'-O + 2H2O
HO OH Hydrolysis
Figure 3.3 A generalized reaction showing polycondensation and hydrolysis of
polyesters [12].
Ester linkage
O
Figure 3.4 Ester linkage [13].
exposed to an enzyme, they are broken down. These enzymes termed as

esterase splits esters into an acid and an alcohol in a chemical reaction
with water in a process known as hydrolysis as shown in Fig. 3.3.
Using this process, number of synthetic polyesters can be hydrolyzed to
make them biodegradable. As an example, PHAs have been success-
fully made into biodegradable plastics using this approach. In other
cases, lipases from Pseudomonas have been used to hydrolyze low
molecular weight polyesters [13].
For semicrystalline polyesters in aqueous solution, degradation hap-
pens in two stages: (1) diffusion of water and (2) degradation. It all
starts when water diffuses into randomly oriented amorphous regions of
the polyester. Water is able to penetrate more easily because amorphous
regions are less organized. The process of degradation is initiated at the
second stage where amorphous regions are attacked by water undergo-
ing hydrolysis. The hydrolysis starts at the edge and then proceeds to
the center of the crystalline domains. The rate of this hydrolytic attack
is much faster for amorphous polyesters as compared to semicrystalline
polyesters [14].
There are two different mechanisms that are associated with biodeg-
radation of polyesters: (1) bulk degradation and (2) surface erosion
[15]. Bulk degradation process is initiated when water diffuses into the
polymer matrix faster than the polymer is degraded. This results in the
O O H O O
C C O ( CH2 )m HC C C
CH2 O
Δ
O O O O
C C C ( CH2 )m CH=CH2 + H O C C
m = 0, 1, 2, 3, 4
Figure 3.5 General degradation mechanism of aromatic polyesters [1821].
hydrolyzable bonds in the polymer matrix to get cleaved homo-

geneously resulting in decrease in the average molecular weight of the
polymer. The process of degradation through surface erosion happens
when the diffusion rate of water into the polymer matrix is slower than
the rate of degradation of the polymer. The degradation rate is depen-
dent on the size of the exposed surface, resulting in a heterogeneous
process. The degradation only happens on the thin surface layer result-
ing in average molecular weight of the polymer to remain unchanged
[16]. Bulk degradation process happens in majority of polyesters with
an exception of polyanhydride materials which differ from the common
polyesters by the fact that they undergo degradation through surface
erosion mechanisms [17].
Fig. 3.5 shows general degradation mechanism of aromatic polyesters
[1821]. Thermal degradation of aromatic polyesters at high tempera-
ture has been extensively studied. In addition to the list of aromatic
polyesters, PET and poly(butylene terephthalate) have also been stud-
ied. As shown in Fig. 3.5, the CaO bonds located at position from
CQO bonds are subjected to thermal cleavage [1821].
Fig. 3.6 shows a two-stage thermal degradation mechanism of aro-
matic polyester [2225]. Poly(diphenolic acid-isophthaloyl chloride) is
exposed to elevated temperatures of higher than 400 C. The first stage
involves six steps. Dehydration reaction between carboxyl groups hap-
pens during the first step generating anhydride groups and water. The
second step involves elimination of carbon dioxide from the anhydride
groups forming ketone bonds [2225]. Further elimination of carbon
monoxide leads to the formation of double CQC bonds in the third
step of the first stage. Next step of this stage is the elimination of ethyl-
ene as shown in reaction (d) of Fig. 3.6. Other reactions in this stage
include dehydration reaction between phenolic hydroxyl groups and
transesterification between anhydride and hydroxyl groups from which
water is produced and ether and ester bonds are formed, respectively.
O a: –H2O
O
O O O b: –CO2
c: –CO, –CH2=CH2
O O d: –CH2=CH2
HO HO e: Transesterification
f f: Etherization
O O O
a e
HO O HO O HO O
O O O
HO O O
O
HO
O OH
O O
O
HO O b
O
O O
d HO O
O c
HO O O
O OH
O
Figure 3.6 Two-stage thermal degradation mechanism of polyester [2225].
In second stage, ordinary thermal oxidization degradation of the

polymer backbone takes place and large amount of carbon dioxide is
released [26].
In case of aliphatic polyesters, degradation proceeds by one or more
mechanisms which include hydrolysis, microbial, enzymatic, and ther-
mal. The degradation happens either at the surface or within the bulk
[25]. In a typical aliphatic polyester such as poly(propylene succinate)
(PPSu), the degradation happens by two consecutive mechanisms [26].
Similar to other aliphatic polyesters such as PCL, PPSu sees decrease in
its molecular weight, while water, carbon dioxide, and 5-hexamoic acid
are released as a by-product [27].
Fig. 3.7ad presents different stages of the degradation mechanism
of aliphatic polyester [26]. Fig. 3.7a represents the first stage of the deg-
radation mechanism. During the first stage, the gases that are produced
from the decomposition of hydroxyl and carboxylic end-groups of
polyesters cause increase in the degradation temperature. Among the
released gases, carbon dioxide is slightly reduced while hydrogen
increases with increase in the degradation temperature. As the tempera-
tures exceed 450 C, it will result in homolytic cleavage of ester groups
and produce large amounts of carbon monoxide and methane.
Fig. 3.7b is the second stage of the degradation mechanism. It is wor-
thy to note that the by-products are formed by the β-hydrogen bond
scission of the propanediol monomer. At low degradation temperatures,
HO-CO-CH2-CH2-CO-O-CH2-CH2-CH2-O
CO2
CH3-CH2-CO-O-CH2-CH2-CH2-O
CO-O-CH2-CH2-CO-O-CH2-CH-CH2-O-H
H2O
CO-O-CH2-CH2-CO-O-CH2-CH=CH2
(a)
H H
O-CH2-CH-CH2-O-CO-CH2-CH2-CO-O-CH2-CH-CH2-O-CO-CH2-CO-O
β-Hydrogen bond scission
OH + CH2=CH-CH2-O-CO-CH2-CH2-CO-O-CH2-CH CH2 + HO-CO-CH2-CH2-CO-O

Diallyl succinate
(b)
H H
O-CH2-CH-CH2-O-CO-CH2-CH2-CO-O-CH2-CH-CH2-O-CO-CH2-CH2-CO-O
OH + CH2=CH-CH2-O-CO-CH2-CH2-COOH + CH2=CH-CH2-O-CO-CH2-CH2-CO-O
Allyl succinate
(c)
H
CH2=CH-CH2-O-CO-CH2-CH2-CO-O-CH-CH=CH2
α-Hydrogen bond scission
CH2=CH-CH2-O-CO-CH2-CH2-CO-H + H-CO-CH=CH2
(d)
Figure 3.7 General degradation mechanism of aliphatic polyesters [26].
the bond scission of chains happens simultaneously at positions just

right and left from a succinic acid monomer, producing diallyl succi-
nate. However, allyl succinate is produced if one of the two chain
scissions does not follow same reaction path as shown in Fig. 3.7c.
Fig. 3.7d shows a reaction in which diallyl succinate is further degraded
at low decomposition temperatures producing two aldehydes. These
aldehydes are produced not by β-hydrogen bond scission but by a
hydrogen bond scission, as shown in Fig. 3.7d [26].
3.3 Polyamides
Polyamides are a group of polymers which contain an amide group
in their repeating unit. They can be produced by either ring-opening
polymerization of cyclic lactames (eg, polyamide 6 (PA-6) and polyam-
ide 11 (PA-11) or from condensation reactions between diacarboxylic
acids and diamines (eg, polyamide 6,6 (PA-6,6) and polyamide 4,6
(PA-4,6)). Structures of some of the commonly available nylons are
shown in Fig. 3.8 [27].
O
Nylon 6 (PA-6)
NH C (CH2)10
n
O O
Nylon 6,6 (PA-6,6)
NH (CH2)6 NH C (CH2)8 C
n
Nylon 6,10 (PA H H O O

-6,10) (CH2)6 (CH2)4
N N C C
n
H O
Nylon 11 (PA-11)
N (CH2)5 C
n
Figure 3.8 Different types of nylon [27].

Another random document with
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JUDA.
his name.
The number of instances, among the men of the apostolic age, of

two persons bearing the same name, is very curious, and seems to
show a great poverty of appellatives among their parents. Among the
twelve there are two Simons, two Jameses, and two Judases; and
including those whose labors were any way connected with theirs,
there are three Johns, (the Baptist, the Apostle, and John Mark,) and
two Philips, besides other minor coincidences. The confusion which
this repetition of names causes among common readers, is truly
undesirable; and it requires attention for them to avoid error. In the
case of this apostle, indeed, the occasion of error is obviated for the
most part, by a slight change in the termination; his name being
generally written Juda, (in modern versions, Jude,) while the
wretched traitor who bears the same name, preserves the common
form terminating in S, which is also the form in which Luke and John
express this apostle’s name. A more serious difficulty occurs,
however, in a diversity noticed between the account given by the two
first evangelists, and the forms in which his name is expressed in the
writings of Luke and John, and in the introduction to his own epistle.
Matthew and Mark, in giving the names of the apostles, mention in
the tenth place, the name of Thaddeus, to whom the former
evangelist also gives the name of Lebbeus. They give him a place
before Simon Zelotes, and immediately after James, the son of
Alpheus. Luke gives the tenth place to Simon Zelotes, in both his
lists, and after him mentions “Judas, the brother of James”; and John
speaks of “Judas, (not Iscariot,”) among the chosen disciples. Juda,
in his epistle also, announces himself as “the brother of James.”
From all these circumstances it would seem to be very fairly inferred,
that Judas, or Juda, the brother of James, and Lebbeus or
Thaddeus, were all only different names of the same apostle. But
this view is by no means universally received, and some have been
found bold enough to declare, that these two sets of names referred
to different persons, both of whom were at different times numbered
among the twelve apostles, and were received or excluded from the
list by Jesus, from some various circumstances, now
unknown;――or were perhaps considered such by one evangelist or
another, according to the notions and individual preferences of each
writer. But such a view is so opposed to the established impressions
of the uniform and fixed character of the apostolic list, and of the
consistency of different parts of the sacred record, that it may very
justly be rejected without the trouble of a discussion.
Another inquiry still, concerning this apostle, is, whether he is the

same as that Judas who is mentioned along with James, Joses and
Simon, as the brother of Jesus. All the important points involved in
this question, have been already fully discussed in the life of James,
the Little; and if the conclusion of that argument is correct, the
irresistible consequence is, that the apostle Jude was also one of
these relatives of Jesus. The absurdity of the view of his being a
different person, can not be better exposed than by a simple
statement of its assertions. It requires the reader to believe that there
was a Judas, and a James, brothers and apostles; and another
Judas and another James, also brothers, and brothers of Jesus, but
not apostles; and that these are all mentioned in the New Testament
without anything like a satisfactory explanation of the reality and
distinctness of this remarkable duplicate of brotherhoods. Add to
this, moreover, the circumstance that Juda, the author of the epistle,
specifies himself as “the brother of James,” as though that were
sufficient to prevent his being confounded with any other Judas or
Juda in this world;――a specification totally useless, if there was
another Judas, the brother of another James, all eminent as
Christian teachers.
There is still another question connected with his simple entity and
identity. Ancient traditions make mention of a Thaddeus, who first
preached the gospel in the interior of Syria; and the question is,
whether he is the same person as the apostle Juda, who is called
Thaddeus by Matthew and Mark. The great majority of ancient
writers, more especially the Syrians, consider the missionary
Thaddeus not as one of the twelve apostles, but as one of the
seventy disciples, sent out by Jesus in the same way as the select
twelve. Another confirmation of the view that he was a different
person from the apostle Jude, is found in the circumstance, that the
epistle which bears the name of the latter, was not for several
centuries received by the Syrian churches, though generally adopted
throughout all Christendom, as an inspired apostolic writing. But
surely, if their national evangelizer had been identical with the
apostle Jude who wrote that epistle, they would have been the first
to acknowledge its authenticity and authority, and to receive it into
their scriptural canon.
So perfectly destitute are the gospel and apostolic history, of the

slightest account of this apostle’s life and actions, that his whole
biography may be considered completed in the mere settlement of
his name and identity. The only word that has been preserved as
coming from his lips, is recorded in John’s account of the parting
discourses of Jesus to his disciples, on the eve of his crucifixion.
Jesus was promising them that the love of God should be the sign
and the reward of him who faithfully kept his
commandments,――“He that holds and keeps my commandments,
is the man that loves me; and he that loves me shall be loved by my
Father; and I will love him and manifest myself to him.” These words
constituted the occasion of the remark of Judas, thus recorded by
John. “Judas (not Iscariot) says to him, ‘Lord! how is it that thou wilt
manifest thyself to us as thou dost not to the world?’ Jesus answered
and said to him, ‘If a man love me, he will keep my words; and my
Father will love him, and we will come to him, and make our abode
with him.’” A natural inquiry, aptly and happily suggested, and most
clearly and satisfactorily answered, in the plain but illustrative words
of the divine teacher! Would that the honest inquirer after the true,
simple meaning of the words of God, might have his painful
researches through the wisdom of ages, as well rewarded as did the
favored hearers of Jesus! And would that the trying efforts of critical
thought might end in a result so brilliant and so cheering!
his epistle.
The solitary monument and testimony of his apostolic labors, are

found in that brief, but strongly characterized and peculiar writing,
which bears his name, and forms the last portion, but one, of the
modern scriptural canon. Short as it is, and obscure too, by the
numerous references it contains, to local and temporary
circumstances, there is much expressed in this little portion of the
apostolic writings, which is highly interesting to the inquirer into the
darker portions of the earliest Christian history.
Several very remarkable circumstances in this epistle, have, from

the earliest ages of Christian theology, excited great inquiry among
writers, and in many cases have not only led commentators and
critics to pronounce the work very suspicious in its character, but
even absolutely to condemn it as unworthy of a place in the sacred
canon. One of these circumstances is, that the writer quotes
apocryphal books of a mystical and superstitious character, that
have never been received by Christians or Jews, as possessing any
divine authority, nor as entitled to any regard whatever in religious
matters. At least two distinct quotations from these confessedly
fictitious writings, are found in this brief epistle. The first is from the
book of Enoch, which has been preserved even to the present day,
in the Ethiopic translation; the original Hebrew having been
irrecoverably lost. Some of the highest authorities in orthodoxy and
in learning have pronounced the original to have been a very ancient
writing;――a forgery, indeed, since it professed to be the writing of
Enoch himself,――but made up in the earliest ages of Rabbinical
literature, after the Old Testament canon was completed, but before
any portion of the New Testament was written,――probably some
years before the Christian era, though the means of ascertaining its
exact date are wanting. Another quotation, equally remarkable,
occurs in this epistle, without any mention being made, however, of
the exact source from which the passage has been drawn; and the
point is at present a subject of dispute,――as references have been
made by different authorities, ancient and modern, to different
apocryphal Jewish books, which contain similar passages. But the
most valuable authorities, both ancient and modern, decide it to be a
work now universally allowed to be apocryphal,――“the Ascension
of Moses,” which is directly quoted as authority on a subject
altogether removed from human knowledge, and on which no
testimony could be of any value, except it were derived directly and
solely from the sources of inspiration. The consequence of these
references to these two doubtful authorities, is, that many of the
critical examiners of this epistle, in all ages, have felt themselves
justified in condemning it.
Tertullian (A. D. 200) is the earliest writer who has distinctly quoted this epistle. He refers
to it in connection with the quotation from the book of Enoch. “Hence it is that Enoch is
quoted by the apostle Jude.” (De cultu feminarum, 3.) Clement of Alexandria also
repeatedly quotes the epistle of Jude as an apostolic writing. Origen (A. D. 230,) very
clearly expresses his opinion in favor of this epistle as the production of Jude, the brother of
Jesus. In his commentary on Matthew xiii. 55, where James, Simon and Jude are
mentioned, he says, “Jude wrote an epistle, of few lines indeed, but full of powerful words of
heavenly grace, who, at the beginning says, ‘Jude, the servant of Jesus Christ, and the
brother of James.’” Origen thought everything connected with this epistle, of such high
authority, that he considered the apocryphal book of “the Ascension of Moses,” a work of
authority, because it had been quoted by Jude, (verse 9.) He confesses however, that there
were some who doubted the authenticity of the epistle of Jude; and that this was the fact,
appears still more distinctly from the account of the apostolic writings, given by Eusebius,
(A. D. 320,) who sets it down among the disputed writings. The ancient Syriac version
(executed before A. D. 100,) rejects this as well as the second of Peter, and the second and
third of John. After the fourth century all these became universally established in the Greek
and Latin churches. The great Michaelis however, utterly condemns it as probably a forgery.
(Introduction, IV. xxix. 5.)
The clearest statement of the character of this reference to the book of Enoch, is given
by Hug’s translator, Dr. Wait. (Introduction. Vol. II. p. 618, note.)
“This manifestly appears to have been the reason why Jude cited apocryphal works in
his epistle, viz. for the sake of refuting their own assertions from those productions, which,
like the rest of their nation, they most probably respected. For this purpose the book of
Enoch was peculiarly calculated, since in the midst of all its ineptiae and absurdities, this
point, and the orders of the spiritual world, are strongly urged and discussed in it. It is
irrelevant to the inquiry, how much of the present book existed at this time, for that it was
framed by different writers, and at different periods, no critic can deny; yet that this was the
leading character of the work, and that these were the prominent dogmata of those parts
which were then in existence, we have every presumptive evidence. The Hebrew names of
angels, &c., such as the Ophanim, plainly indicate it to have been a translation from some
lost Jewish original, which was doubtless known both to Peter and to Jude; nor can the
unprejudiced examiner of these epistles well hesitate to acknowledge Hug’s explanation of
them to be the most correct and the most reasonable.”
The whole defense of the epistle against these imputations, may
be grounded upon the supposition, that the apostle was writing
against a peculiar class of heretics, who did acknowledge these
apocryphal books to be of divine authority, and to whom he might
quote these with a view to show, that even by their own standards of
truth, their errors of doctrine and life must be condemned. The sect
of the Gnostics has been already mentioned in the life of John, as
being the first ever known to have perverted the purity of Christian
doctrine, by heresy. These heretics certainly are not very fully
described in those few passages of this short epistle that are
directed at the errors of doctrine; but the character of those errors
which Jude denounces, is accordant with what is known of some of
the prominent peculiarities of the Gnostics. But whatever may have
been the particular character of these heretics, it is evident that they
must, like the great majority of the Jews in those days, have
acknowledged the divine authority of these ancient apocryphal
writings; and the apostle was therefore right in making use of
quotations from these works, to refute their very remarkable errors.
The evils which he denounced, however, were not merely of a
speculative character; but he more especially condemns their gross
immoralities, as a scandal and an outrage on the purity of the
Christian assemblies with which they still associated. In all those
passages where these vices are referred to, it will be observed that
both immoralities and doctrinal errors are included in one common
condemnation, which shows that both were inseparably connected in
the conduct of those heretics whom the writer condemns. This
circumstance also does much to identify them with some of the
Gnostical sects before alluded to,――more especially with the
Nicolaitans, as they are called by John in the beginning of the
Apocalypse, where he is addressing the church of Pergamos. In
respect to this very remarkable peculiarity of a vicious and
abominable life, combined with speculative errors, the ancient
Christian writers very fully describe the Nicolaitans; and their
accounts are so unanimous, and their accusations so definite, that it
is just and reasonable to consider this epistle as directed particularly
against them.
Nicolaitans.――An allusion has already been made to this sect in the life of John, but
they deserve a distinct reference here also, as they are so distinctly mentioned in Jude’s
epistle. The explanation of the name which in the former passage (page 343,) was crowded
out by other matters prolonging that part of the work beyond its due limits, may here be
given most satisfactorily, in the words of the learned Dr. Hug. (Introduction, Vol. II. note, §
182, original, § 174, translation.)
“The arguments of those who decide them to have been the Nicolaitans, according to
my opinion, are at present the following:――John in the Apocalypse describes the
Nicolaitans nearly as the heretics are here represented to us, with the same comparison,
and with the same vices; persons who exercise the arts of Balaam, who taught Balak to
ensnare the children of Israel, and to induce them to partake of idolatrous sacrifices, and to
fornicate, (Acts ii. 14: Jude 2: 2 Peter ii. 15.) Even ‫ בלעם‬according to its derivation, is
equivalent to Νίκολαος. They also certainly denied the Lord’s creation and government of
the world. Alterum quidem fabricatorem, alium autem Patrem Domini ... et eam
conditionem, quae est secundum nos non a primo Deo factam, sed a Virtute aliqua valde
deorsum subjecta. (Irenaeus L. iii. c. 11.) If now all corporeal and material existence has its
origin from the Creator of the world, who is a very imperfect and gross spirit, it flows
naturally from this notion, that they could not admit a corporeal resuscitation by the agency
of the Supreme Being, or by the agency of Jesus, in a universal day of judgment. With
respect to the spiritual world, they also actually taught such absurdities, that it must be said
of them δοξας βλασφημοῦσι; for they supposed, Aeones quosdam turpitudinis natos; et
complexus, et permixtiones execrabiles, et obscaenas. (Tertullianus in append. ad Lib. de
praescript. c. 46.) But, as to their excesses and abominable mode of life, the accounts of
the ancients are so unanimous, and the accusations are so constituted, that the two
apostolic epistles may have most pertinently referred to them.”
The passage from Irenaeus relating to this sect, (quoted on page 343,) contains a
remarkable Latin word, “vulsio,” not found in any other author, and not explained at all, in
the common dictionaries. That miserable, unsatisfactory mass of words, Ainsworth’s
Thesaurus, does not contain it, and I was left to infer the meaning from the theme, vello,
and it was therefore translated “fragment,”――a meaning not inconsistent with its true
sense. Since that was printed, a learned friend, to whom the difficulty was mentioned, on
searching for the word in better dictionaries, found it in Gesner’s Thesaurus, distinctly
quoted from the very passage, with a very satisfactory explanation of its exact meaning.
Gesner’s account of it is as follows: “Vulsio, Irenaeus, iii. 11. Nicolaitae sunt vulsio ejus. i. e.
surculus inde enatus, et revulsus, stolo, ἀπὀρρώξ. Secta una ex altera velut pullulavit.” The
meaning therefore is a “sucker,” “a shoot or scion, springing out of the root or side of the
stock,” and the expression in this passage may therefore be translated, “The Nicolaitans are
a slip or sprig of the old stock of the Gnosis.” And as Gesner happily explains it, “One sect,
as it were, sprouted up from another.”
The word “scientia” in this wretched Latin translation, is quoted along with the adjacent
words from Paul’s second epistle to Timothy, (vi. 20.) where he is warning him against the
delusions of the Gnostics, and speaks of “the dogmas of the Gnosis,” (γνωσις,) translated
“science,” but the word is evidently technical in this passage. Irenaeus no doubt quoted it in
the Greek, but his ignorant translator, not perceiving the peculiar force of the word,
translated it “scientia,” losing all the sense of the expression. The common translations of
the Bible have done the same, in the passage in 2 Timothy vi. 20.
Another circumstance in this epistle which has attracted a critical
notice, and which has occasioned its condemnation by some, is the
remarkable coincidence both of sense and words between it and the
second chapter of the second epistle of Peter. There are probably
few diligent readers of the New Testament to whom this has not
been a subject of curious remark, as several verses in one, seem a
mere transcript of corresponding passages in the other. Various
conjectures have been made to account for this resemblance in
matter and in words,――some supposing Jude to have written first,
and concluding that Peter, writing to the same persons, made
references in this manner to the substance of what they had already
learned from another apostle,――and others supposing that Peter
wrote first, and that Jude followed, and amplified a portion of the
epistle which had already lightly touched in some parts only upon the
particular errors which the latter writer wished more especially to
refute and condemn. This coincidence is nevertheless no more a
ground for rejecting one or the other of the two writings, than the far
more perfect parallelisms between the gospels are a reason for
concluding that only one of them can be an authorized document.
Both the apostles were evidently denouncing the same errors and
condemning the same vices, and nothing was more natural than that
this similarity of purpose should produce a proportional similarity of
language. Either of the above suppositions is consistent with the
character of the writings;――Peter may have written first, and Jude
may have taken a portion of that epistle as furnishing hints for a
more protracted view of these particular points; or, on the
supposition that Jude wrote first, Peter may have thought it worth
while only to refer generally, and not to dwell very particularly on
those points which his fellow-apostle had already so fully and
powerfully treated.
The particular churches to which this epistle was addressed, are

utterly unknown; nor do modern writers pretend to find any means of
detecting the places to which it was addressed in any peculiar
passage, except so far as the chief seats of the heretics, against
whom he wrote, are supposed to be known. Asia Minor, Syria and
the East, were the regions to which the Gnostical errors were mostly
confined; and in the former country more especially they were
objects of attention, to the ministers of truth, during the apostolic age
and in succeeding times. It was probably intended for the same
persons to whom Peter wrote; and what has been said on the
direction of his two epistles, will illustrate the immediate design of
this also.
Its date is involved in the same uncertainty that covers all points in
its own history and that of its author; the prominent difficulty being its
great brevity, in consequence of which it offers but few
characteristics of any kind, for the decision of doubtful points; and
the life and works of Juda must therefore be set down among those
matters, in which the indifference of those who could once have
preserved historical truth for the eyes of posterity, has left even the
research of modern criticism, not one hook to hang a guess upon.
JUDAS ISCARIOT.
This name doubtless strikes the eye of the Christian reader, as
almost a stain to the fair page of apostolic history, and a dishonor to
the noble list of the holy, with whom the traitor was associated. But
he who knew the hearts of all men from the beginning, even before
their actions had developed and displayed their characters, chose
this man among those whom he first sent forth on the message of
coming grace; and all the gospel records bear the name of the traitor
along with those who were faithful even unto death; nor does it
behove the unconsecrated historian to affect, about the arrangement
of this name, a delicacy which the gospel writers did not manifest.
Of his birth, his home, his occupation, his call, and his previous
character, the sacred writers bear no testimony; and all which the
inventive genius of modern criticism has been able to present in
respect to any of these circumstances, is drawn from no more
certain source than the various proposed etymologies and
significations of his name. But the plausibility which is worn by each
one of these numerous derivations, is of itself a sufficient proof of the
little dependence which can be placed upon any conclusion so lightly
founded. The inquirer is therefore safest in following merely the
reasonable conjecture, that his previous character had been
respectable, not manifesting to the world at least, any baseness
which would make him an infamous associate. For though the Savior
in selecting the chief ministers of his gospel, did not take them from
the wealthy, the high-born, the refined, or the learned; and though he
did not scruple even to take those of a low and degraded occupation,
his choice would nevertheless entirely exclude those who were in
any way marked by previous character, as more immoral than the
generality of the people among whom they lived. In short, it is very
reasonable to suppose; that Judas Iscariot was a respectable man,
probably with a character as good as most of his neighbors had,
though he may have been considered by some of his acquaintance,
as a close, sharp man in money matters; for this is a character most
unquestionably fixed on him in those few and brief allusions which
are made to him in the gospel narratives. Whatever may have been
the business to which he had been devoted during his previous life,
he had probably acquired a good reputation for honesty, as well as
for careful management of property; for he is on two occasions
distinctly specified as the treasurer and steward of the little company
or family of Jesus;――an office for which he would not have been
selected, unless he had maintained such a character as that above
imputed to him. Even after his admission into the fraternity, he still
betrayed his strong acquisitiveness, in a manner that will be fully
exhibited in the history of the occurrence in which it was most
remarkably developed.
Iscariot.――The present form of this word appears from the testimony of Beza, to be
different from the original one, which, in his oldest copy of the New Testament, was given
without the I in the beginning, simply; Σκαρίωτης; (Scariotes;) and this is confirmed by the
very ancient Syriac version, which expresses it by (Sekaryuta.) Origen also, the
oldest of the Christian commentators, (A. D. 230,) gives the word without the initial vowel,
“Scariot.” It is most reasonable therefore to conclude that the name was originally Scariot,
and that the I was prefixed, for the sake of the easier pronunciation of the two initial
consonants; for some languages are so smoothly constructed, that they do not allow even S
to precede a mute, without a vowel before. Just as the Turks, in taking up the names of
Greek towns, change Scopia into Iscopia, &c. The French too, change the Latin Spiritus into
Esprit, as do the Spaniards into Espiritu; and similar instances are numerous.
The very learned Matthew Poole, in his Synopsis Criticorum, (Matthew x. 4,) gives a
very full view of the various interpretations of this name. Six distinct etymologies and
significations of this word have been proposed, most of which appear so plausible, that it
may seem hard to decide on their comparative probabilities. That which is best justified by
the easy transition from the theme, and by the aptness of the signification to the
circumstances of the person, is the First, proposed by an anonymous author, quoted in the
Parallels of Junius, and adopted by Poole. This is the derivation from the Syriac
(sekharyut,) “a bag,” or “purse;” root cognate with the Hebrew ‫( סכר‬sakhar.) No. 1, Gibbs’s
Hebrew Lexicon, and ‫( סגר‬sagar,) Syrian & Arabic id. The word thus derived must mean the
“bag-man,” the “purser,” which is a most happy illustration of John’s account of the office of
Judas, (xii. 6: xiii. 29.) It is, in short, a name descriptive of his peculiar duty in receiving the
money of the common stock of Christ and his apostles, buying the necessary provisions,
administering their common charities to the poor, and managing all their pecuniary
affairs,――performing all the duties of that officer who in English is called a “steward.”
Judas Iscariot, or rather “Scariot,” means therefore “Judas the steward.”
The second derivation proposed is that of Junius, (Parall.) who refers it to a sense
descriptive of his fate. The Syriac, Hebrew, and Arabic root, ‫( סכר‬sakar,) has in the first of
these languages, the secondary signification of “strangle,” and the personal substantive
derived from it, might therefore mean, “one who was strangled.” Lightfoot says that if this
theme is to be adopted, he should prefer to trace the name to the word ‫ אשכרא‬which with the
Rabbinical writers is used in reference to the same primitive, in the meaning of
“strangulation.” But both these, even without regarding the great aptness of the first
definition above given, may be condemned on their own demerits; because, they suppose
either that this name was applied to him, only after his death,――an exceedingly unnatural
view,――or (what is vastly more absurd) that he was thus named during his life-time, by a
prophetical anticipation, that he would die by the halter!!! It is not very uncommon, to be
sure, for such charitable prophetic inferences to be drawn respecting the character and
destiny of the graceless, and the point of some vulgar proverbs consists in this very
allusion, but the utmost stretch of such predictions never goes to the degree of fixing upon
the hopeful candidate for the gallows, a surname drawn from this comfortable anticipation of
his destiny. Besides, it is hard to believe that a man wearing thus, as it were, a halter
around his neck, would have been called by Jesus into the goodly fellowship of the
apostles; for though neither rank, nor wealth, nor education, nor refinement were requisites
for admission, yet a tolerable good moral character may be fairly presumed to have been an
indispensable qualification.
The third derivation is of such a complicated and far-fetched character, that it bears its
condemnation on its own face. It is that of the learned Tremellius, who attempts to analyze
Iscariot into ‫( שכר‬seker,) “wages,” “reward,” and ‫( נטה‬natah,) “turn away,” alluding to the fact
that for money he revolted from his Master. This, besides its other difficulties, supposes that
the name was conferred after his death; whereas he must certainly have needed during his
life, some appellative to distinguish him from Judas the brother of James.
The fourth is that of Grotius and Erasmus, who derive it from ‫( איש יששכר‬Ish Issachar,) “a
man of Issachar,”――supposing the name to designate his tribe, just as the same phrase
occurs in Judges x. 1. But all these distinctions of origin from the ten tribes must have been
utterly lost in the time of Christ; nor does any instance occur of a Jew of the apostolic age
being named from his supposed tribe.
The fifth is the one suggested and adopted by Lightfoot. In the Talmudic Hebrew, the
word ‫( סקורטיא‬sekurti,)――also written with an initial ‫( א‬aleph) and pronounced
Iscurti,――has the meaning of “leather apron;” and this great Hebraician proposes
therefore, to translate the name, “Judas with the leather apron;” and suggests some
aptness in such a personal appendage, because in such aprons they had pockets or bags
in which money, &c. might be carried. The whole derivation, however, is forced and far-
fetched,――doing great violence to the present form of the word, and is altogether unworthy
of the genius of its inventor, who is usually very acute in etymologies.
The sixth is that of Beza, Piscator and Hammond, who make it ‫( איש־קריות‬Ish-Qerioth or
Kerioth,) “a man of Kerioth,” a city of Judah. (Joshua xv. 25.) Beza says that a very ancient
MS. of the Greek New Testament, in his possession, (above referred to,) in all the five
passages in John, where Judas is mentioned, has this surname written απο Καριωτου. (apo
Cariotou,) “Judas of Kerioth.” Lucas Brugensis observes, that this form of expression is
used in Ezra ii. 22, 23, where the “men of Anathoth,” &c. are spoken of; but there is no
parallelism whatever between the two cases; because in the passage quoted it is a mere
general designation of the inhabitants of a place,――nor can any passage be shown in
which it is thus appended to a man’s name, by way of surname. The peculiarity of Beza’s
MS. is therefore undoubtedly an unauthorized perversion by some ancient copyist; for it is
not found on any other ancient authority.
The motives which led such a man to join himself to the followers
of the self-denying Nazarene, of course could not have been of a
very high order; yet probably were about as praiseworthy as those of
any of the followers of Jesus. Not one of the chosen disciples of
Jesus is mentioned in the solemnly faithful narrative of the
evangelists, as inspired by a self-denying principle of action.
Wherever an occasion appeared on which their true motives and
feelings could be displayed, they all without exception, manifested
the most sordid selfishness, and seemed inspired by no idea
whatever but that of worldly honors, triumphs, and rewards to be
won in his service! Peter, indeed, is not very distinctly specified as
betraying any remarkable regard for his own individual interest, and
on several occasions manifested, certainly by starts, much of a true
self-sacrificing devotion to his Master; yet his great views in following
Jesus were unquestionably of an ambitious order, and his noblest
conception was that of a worldly triumph of a Messiah, in which the
chosen ones were to have a share proportioned no doubt to their
exertions for its attainment. The two Boanerges betrayed the most
determined selfishness, in scheming for a lion’s share in the spoils of
victory; and the whole body of the disciples, on more than one
occasion, quarreled among themselves about the first places in
Christ’s kingdom. Judas therefore, was not greatly worse than his
fellow-disciples,――no matter how bad may have been his motives;
and probably at the beginning maintained a respectable stand
among them, unless occasion might have betrayed to them the fact,
that he was mean in money matters. But he, after espousing the
fortunes of Jesus, doubtless went on scheming for his own
advancement, just as the rest did for theirs, except that probably,
when those of more liberal conceptions were contriving great
schemes for the attainment of power, honor, fame, titles, and glory,
both military and civil, his penny-saving soul was reveling in golden
dreams, and his thoughts running delightedly over the prospects of
vast gain to be reaped in the confiscation of the property of the
wealthy Pharisees and lawyers, that would ensue immediately on the
establishment of the empire of the Nazarene and his Galileans.
While the great James and his amiable brother were quarreling with
the rest of the fraternity about the premierships,――the highest
administration of spiritual and temporal power,――the discreetly
calculating Iscariot was doubtless expecting the fair results of a
regular course of promotion, from the office of bag-carrier to the
strolling company of Galileans, to the stately honors and immense
emoluments of lord high-treasurer of the new kingdom of Israel; his
advancement naturally taking place in the line in which he had made
his first beginning in the service of his Lord, he might well expect that
in those very particulars where he had shown himself faithful in few
things, he would be made ruler over many things, when he should
enter into the joy of his Lord,――sharing the honors and profits of
His exaltation, as he had borne his part in the toils and anxieties of
his humble fortunes. The careful management of his little
stewardship, “bearing the bag, and what was put therein,” and
“buying those things that were necessary” for all the wants of the
brotherhood of Jesus,――was a service of no small importance and
merit, and certainly would deserve a consideration at the hands of
his Master. Such a trust also, certainly implied a great confidence of
Jesus in his honesty and discretion in money matters, and shows not
only the blamelessness of his character in those particulars, but the
peculiar turn of his genius, in being selected, out of the whole twelve,
for this very responsible and somewhat troublesome function.
Yet the eyes of the Redeemer were by no means closed to the

baser inclinations of this much-trusted disciple. He knew (for what
did he not know?) how short was the step from the steady
adherence to the practice of a particular virtue, to the most
scandalous breach of honor in that same line of action,――how
slight, and easy, and natural was the perversion of a truly mean soul,
or even one of respectable and honorable purposes, from the honest
pursuit of gain, to the absolute disregard of every circumstance but
personal advantage, and safety from the punishment of crime,――a
change insensibly resulting from the total absorption of the soul in
one solitary object and aim; for in all such cases, the honesty is not
the purpose; it is only an incidental principle, occasionally called in to
regulate the modes and means of the grand acquisition;――but gain
is the great end and essence of such a life, and the forgetfulness of
every other motive, when occasion suggests, is neither unnatural nor
surprising. With all this and vastly more knowledge, Jesus was well
able to discriminate the different states of mind in which the course
of his discipleship found this calculating follower. He doubtless
traced from day to day, and from week to week, and from month to
month, as well as from year to year of his weary pilgrimage, the
changes of zeal, resolution and hope, into distaste and despair, as
the day of anticipated reward for these sacrifices seemed farther and
farther removed, by the progress of events. The knowledge too, of
the manner in which these depraved propensities would at last
develope themselves, is distinctly expressed in the remark which he
made in reply to Peter’s declaration of the fidelity and devotion of
himself and his fellow disciples, just after the miracle of feeding the
five thousand by the lake, when some renounced the service of
Christ, disgusted with the revelations which he there made to them
of the spiritual nature of his kingdom, and its rewards, and of the
difficult and disagreeable requisites for his discipleship. Jesus seeing
the sad defection of the worldly, turned to the twelve and said, “Will
ye also go away?” Simon Peter, with ever ready zeal replied, “Lord!
to whom shall we go but unto thee? For thou only hast the words of
eternal life.” Jesus answered them, “Have I not chosen you twelve,
and one of you is an accuser?” This reply, as John in recording it
remarks, alluded to Judas Iscariot, the son of Simon; for he it was
that was to betray him, though he was one of the twelve. He well
knew that on no ear would these revelations of the pure spiritualism
of his kingdom, and of the self-denying character of his service, fall
more disagreeably than on that of the money-loving steward of the
apostolic family, whose hopes would be most wofully disappointed
by the uncomfortable prospects of recompense, and whose thoughts
would be henceforth contriving the means of extricating himself from
all share in this hopeless enterprise. Still he did not, like those mal-
contents who were not numbered among the twelve, openly
renounce his discipleship, and return to the business which he had
left for the deceptive prospect of a profitable reward. He found
himself too deeply committed to do this with advantage, and he
therefore discontentedly continued to follow his great summoner,
until an opportunity should occur of leaving this undesirable service,
with a chance of some immediate profit in the exchange. Nor did he
yet, probably, despair entirely of some more hopeful scheme of
revolution than was now held up to view. He might occasionally have
been led to hope, that these gloomy announcements were but a trial
of the constancy of the chosen, and that all things would yet turn out
as their high expectations had planned. In the occasional remarks of
Jesus, there was also much, which an unspiritual and sordid hearer,
might very naturally construe into a more comfortable
accomplishment of his views, and in which such a one would think
he found the distinct expression of the real purposes of Jesus in
reference to the reward of his disciples. Such an instance, was the
reply made to Peter when he reminded his Master of the great
pecuniary sacrifices which they had all made in his service: “Lo! we
have left all, and followed thee.” The assurances contained in the
reply of Jesus, that among other things, those who had left houses
and lands for his sake, should receive a hundred fold more in the
day of his triumph, must have favorably impressed the baser-
minded, with some idea of a real, solid return for the seemingly
unprofitable investment which they had made in his scheme. Or, on
the other hand, if the faith and hope of Iscariot in the word of Jesus
were already too far gone to be recalled to life by any cheering
promises, these sayings may have only served to increase his
indifference, or to deepen it into downright hatred, at what he would
regard as a new deceit, designed to keep up the sinking spirits of
those, who had begun to apprehend the desperate character of the
enterprise in which they had involved themselves. If his feelings had
then reached this point of desperation, the effect of this renewal of
promises, which he might construe into a support of his original
views of the nature of the rewards accruing to the followers of Christ,
on the establishment of his kingdom, would only excite and
strengthen a deep rooted spite against his once-adored Lord, and
his malice, working in secret over the disappointment, would at last
be ready to rise on some convenient occasion into active revenge.
An accuser.――This is the true primary force of διαβολος (diabolos) in this passage.

(John vi. 70.) This word is never applied to any individual in the sense of “devil,” except to
Satan himself; but wherever it occurs as a common substantive appellation, descriptive of
character, pointedly refers to its primary signification of “accuser,” “calumniator,” “informer,”
&c., the root of it being διαβαλλω, which means “to accuse,” “to calumniate;” and when
applied to Satan, it still preserves this sense,――though it then has the force of a proper
name; since ‫( שטן‬Satan,) in Hebrew, means primarily “accuser” but acquires the force of a
proper name, in its ordinary use. Grotius however, suggests that in this passage, the word
truly corresponds to the Hebrew ‫( צר‬tsar,) the word which is applied to Haman, (Esther vii.
6. viii. 1.) and has here the general force of “accuser,” “enemy,” &c. The context here (verse
71,) shows that John referred to this sense, and that Christ applied it to Judas
prophetically,――thus showing his knowledge of the fact, that this apostle would “accuse”
him, and “inform” against him, before the Sanhedrim. Not only Grotius, but Vatablus,
Erasmus, Lucas Brugensis, and others, maintain this rendering.
This occasion, before long, presented itself. The successful labors

of Jesus, in Jerusalem, had raised up against him a combination of
foes of the most determined and dangerously hostile character. The
great dignitaries of the nation, uniting in one body all the legal,
literary and religions honors and influence of the Hebrew name, and
strengthened too by the weight of the vast wealth belonging to them
and their immediate supporters, as well as by the exaltation of high
office and ancient family, had at last resolved to use all this immense
power, (if less could not effect it,) for the ruin of the bold, eloquent
man, who, without one of all the privileges which were the sources
and supports of their power, had shaken their ancient dominion to its
foundation by his simple words, and almost overthrown all their
power over the people, whose eyes were now beginning to be
opened to the mystery of “how little wisdom it took, to govern them!”
Self-preservation seemed to require an instantaneous and energetic
action against the bold Reformer; and they were not the men to
scruple about the means or mode of satisfying both revenge and
ambition by his destruction. This state of feeling among the
aristocracy could not have been unknown to Iscariot. He had
doubtless watched its gradual developments, from day to day, during
the displays in the temple; and as defeat followed defeat in the strife
of mind, he had abundant opportunity to see the hostile feeling of the
baffled and mortified Pharisees, Sadducees, scribes and lawyers,
mounting to the highest pitch of indignation, and furnishing him with
the long-desired occasion of making up for his own disappointment
in his great plans for the recompense of his sacrifices, in the cause
of Jesus. He saw that there was no chance whatever for the
triumphant establishment of that kingdom in whose honors he had
expected to share. All the opportunities and means for effecting this
result, Jesus was evidently determined to throw away, nor could
anything ever move him to such an effort as was desirable for the
gratification of the ambition of his disciples. The more splendid and
tempting the occasions for founding a temporal dominion, the more
resolutely did he seem to disappoint the golden hopes of his
followers; and, proceeding thus, was only exposing himself and them
to danger, without making any provision for their safety or escape.
And where was to be the reward of Iscariot’s long services in the
management of the stewardship of the apostolic fraternity? Had he
not left his business, to follow them about, laboring in their behalf,
managing their affairs, procuring the means of subsistence for them,
and exercising a responsibility which none else was so competent to
assume? And what recompense had he received? None, but the
almost hopeless ruin of his fortunes in a desperate cause. That such
were the feelings and reflections which his circumstances would
naturally suggest, is very evident. The signs of the alienation of his
affections from Jesus, are also seen in the little incident recorded by
all the evangelists, of the anointing of his feet by Mary. She, in deep
gratitude to the adored Lord who had restored to life her beloved
brother, brought, as the offering of her fervent love, the box of
precious ointment of spikenard, and poured it over his feet, anointing
them, and wiping them with her hair, so that the whole house was
filled with the fragrance. This beautiful instance of an ardent
devotion, that would sacrifice everything for its object, awakened no
corresponding feeling in the narrow soul of Iscariot; but seizing this
occasion for the manifestation of his inborn meanness, and his
growing spite against his Master, he indignantly exclaimed, (veiling
his true motive, however, under the appearance of charitable regard
for the poor,) “To what purpose is this waste? Why was not this
ointment sold for three hundred pence, and given to the poor?” So
specious was this honorable pretense for blaming what seemed the
inconsiderate and extravagant devotion of Mary, that others of the
disciples joined in the indignant remonstrance against this useless
squandering of property, which might be converted to the valuable
purpose of ministering to the necessities of the poor, many of whose
hearts might have been gladdened by a well-regulated expenditure
of the price of this costly offering, which was now irrecoverably lost.
But honorable as may have been the motives of those who joined
with Iscariot in this protest, the apostle John most distinctly insists
that he was moved by a far baser consideration. “This he said, not
because he cared for the poor, but because he was a thief, and kept
the coffer, and carried what was cast into it.” This is a most distinct
exposition of a piece of villainy in the traitor, that would have
remained unknown, but for the record which John gives of this
transaction. It is here declared in plain terms, that Iscariot had
grossly betrayed the pecuniary trust which had been committed to
him on the score of his previous honesty, and had been guilty of
downright peculation,――converting to his own private purposes, the
money which had been deposited with him as the treasurer and
steward of the whole company of the disciples. He had probably
made up his mind to this rascally abuse of trust, on the ground that
he was justified in thus balancing what he had lost by his connection
with Jesus; and supposed, no doubt, that the ruin of all those whom
he was thus cheating, would be effectually secured before the act
could be found out. What renders this crime doubly abominable, is,
that it was robbing the poor of the generous contributions which, by
the kindness of Jesus, had been appropriated to their use, out of this
little common stock; for it seems that Iscariot was the minister of the
common charities of the brotherhood, as well as the provider of such
things as were necessary for their subsistence, and the steward of
the common property. With the pollution of this base crime upon his
soul, before stirred up to spite and disgust by disappointed ambition,
he was now so dead to honor and decency, that he was abundantly
prepared for the commission of the crowning act of villainy. The
words in which Jesus rebuked his specious concern for the
economical administration of the money in charity, was also in a tone
that he might construe into a new ground of offense, implying, as it
did, that his zeal had some motive far removed from a true affection
for that Master, whose life was in hourly peril, and might any moment
be so sacrificed by his foes, that the honorable forms of preparation
for the burial might be denied; and being thus already devoted to
death, he might well accept this costly offering of pure devotion, as
the mournful unction for the grave. In these sadly prophetic words,
Judas may have found the immediate suggestion of his act of sordid
treachery; and incited, moreover, by the repulse which his
remonstrance had received, he seems to have gone directly about
the perpetration of the crime.
The nature and immediate object of this plot may not be perfectly
comprehended, without considering minutely the relations in which
Jesus stood to the Jewish Sanhedrim, and the means he had of
resisting or evading their efforts for the consummation of their
schemes and hopes against him. Jesus of Nazareth was, to the chief
priests, scribes and Pharisees, a dangerous foe. He had, during his
visits to Jerusalem, in his repeated encounters with them in the
courts of the temple, and all public places of assembly, struck at the
very foundation of all their authority and power over the people. The
Jewish hierarchy was supported by the sway of the Romans, indeed,
but only because it was in accordance with their universal policy of
tolerance, to preserve the previously established order of things, in
all countries which they conquered, so long as such a preservation
was desired by the people; but no longer than it was perfectly
accordant with the feelings of the majority. The Sanhedrim and their
dependents therefore knew perfectly well that their establishment
could receive no support from the Roman government, after they
had lost their dominion over the affections of the people; and were
therefore very ready to perceive, that if they were to be thus
confounded and set at nought, in spite of learning and dignity, by a

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Introduction to Bioplastics Engineering

1st Edition Ashter

Syed Ali Ashter

AMSTERDAM • BOSTON • HEIDELBERG • LONDON

Copyright r 2016 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

For Information on all William Andrew publications

Publisher: Matthew Deans

Typeset by MPS Limited, Chennai, India

Introduction to Bioplastics Engineering is a practical, user-friendly

process for biopolymer processing, starch extrusion, and different extru-

Syed Ali Ashter

I would like to show my sincere appreciation to Professor Stephen

Introduction to Bioplastics Engineering.

Must be certifiable as bio-based

“Biodegradable” end of life

Must be defined as certified

Bio-Preferred program, this test method uses radiocarbon dating to

subdivided into four quadrants: bio-based, biodegradable, fossil-based,

• Group 1 — Bioplastics that are bio-based or partly bio-based

To have sustainable production and consumption, bioplastics have

Currently, bioplastics is in infancy and going through growth

Can replace many harmful

Can be fully biodegradable

Can be composted locally

Can contribute to healthier Plastics industry supports

Figure 1.5 Differences between bioplastics and petroplastics [12].

1.2 Understanding Global Markets

20% 15% 14% 13%

North America South America Asia Europe

European Bioplastics Association estimated that 58% of 1.16 million

1.3 Current Material Trends

Global production capacities of bioplastics

921 1011 1028 1177 1177

Figure 1.7 Global production capacities of bioplastics [15]. European Bioplastics,

Figure 1.8 Global production capacities of bioplastics by material type [16].

Figure 1.9 A concept of biorefinery [18].

Figure 1.10 PHA-based polymeric modifier developed by METABOLIX [20].

modify conventional materials, as these have been found to enhance the

be safely used in food applications. Isosorbide-based copolyesters are

1.4 Current Market Trends

Global production capacities of bioplastics 2018 (by market segment)

Biodegradable PLA & PLA-blends Starch blends Other1 (biodegradables)

Figure 1.11 Global production capacities of bioplastics by 2018 [16]. European

Figure 1.12 Bioplastics application by market share [22].

Figure 1.13 Packaging applications in bioplastics industry [23].

Fig. 1.12 shows bioplastics application by market share. The packag-

copolyesters and polyethylene (PE) and polyethylene terephthalate

Figure 1.14 Bioplastics applications by market share [24 35].

Figure 1.14 (Continued)

Figure 1.14 (Continued)

1.5 Barriers to Biopolymer Commercialization

Multiple feedstock options; proven technologies, products, markets,

1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010

biopolymers need to be developed and hence pose another major

[4] Benson Ford Research Center, ,https://www.thehenryford.org/research/

[21] Bioplastics Market Forecast 2014 2024, Prospects for Bio-based/Non-

Introduction to Bioplastics Engineering.

Biomass products From micro- From biotechnology From oil-products

Figure 2.2 Classification of biodegradable polymers [4].

CO2, H2O and

Figure 2.3 A typical biodegradation process [6].