MEBS7015

Fire Science and

Smoke Control
Dr. Candy M.Y. Ng
becandy@hku.hk
Atrium Smoke Movement

2
 Atrium Smoke Movement
Topics to include:
• Idealized Smoke Plume
• Virtual Origin, Flame Height
• Centerline Temperature, Plume Diameter
• Axisymmetric Plume without Virtual Origin
• Wall and Corner Fires
• Balcony Spill Plumes, Window Plumes
• Mass Flow, Temperature
• Plume Temperature & Height
• Smoke Flow for Natural Venting
• Preventing Plugholing
• Minimum Smoke Layer Depth
3
Reference: Principles of Smoke Management, Klote, 2002
Idealized Smoke Plume

4
 Idealized Smoke Plume
• When smoke propagates upwards from a fire, air is
entrained at the plume edge into the rising smoke,
and increases the size of the plume
• This can be presented in an idealized model as
shown
• Note the virtual origin which is at a height zo above
the burning fuel

5
• The equations developed by Heskestad for the mass flow
of an axisymmetric plume is given by
1 5 2 5
• 𝑚ሶ = 0.071𝑄𝑐ሶ 𝑧 − 𝑧𝑜 [1 + 0.026𝑄𝑐ሶ 𝑧 − 𝑧𝑜
3 3 3 −
3 ] for 𝑧 ≥ 𝑧1

• 𝑚ሶ =
0.0054𝑄𝑐ሶ 𝑧
2 for 𝑧 < 𝑧1
ሶ
0.166𝑄𝑐 5 +𝑧𝑜

• Where
• 𝑚ሶ = mass flow in axisymmetric plume at height 𝑧 (kg/s)
• 𝑄𝑐ሶ = convective heat release rate (kW) (it is common to take
convective heat 𝑄𝑐ሶ as about 70% of heat output from fire 𝑄)ሶ
• 𝑧 = height above fuel (m)
• 𝑧𝑜 = virtual origin correction of the axisymmetric plume (m)
• 𝑧1 = mean flame height (m)

6
 Virtual Origin & Flame Height
• The virtual origin is given by
• 𝑧𝑜 = 0.083𝑄ሶ 2/5 − 1.02𝐷𝑓
• Where
• 𝑄ሶ = heat release of fire (kW)
• 𝐷𝑓 = diameter of fire (m) = 2 𝐴/𝜋 (in case the fire is not circular)
• 𝐴 = area of the fire
• The flame height (where the maximum plume temperature
is 500K) is given by
• 𝑧1 = 0.235𝑄ሶ 2/5 − 1.02𝐷𝑓
• Where
• 𝑧1= mean flame height (m)

7
 Centerline Temperature
• The temperature varies over the fire plume cross section,
with the temperature being highest at the centerline
• The centerline temperature is given:
1/3 2/3
• 𝑇𝑐𝑝 = 𝑇𝑎 + 9.1
𝑇𝑎
𝑔𝐶𝑝 2 𝜌𝑎 2
𝑄𝑐ሶ
(𝑧−𝑧𝑜 )5/3

• Where
• 𝑇𝑐𝑝 = absolute centerline plume
temperature at elevation 𝑧 (K)
• 𝑇𝑎 = absolute ambient temperature (K)
• 𝜌𝑎 = density of ambient air (kg/m3)
• 𝐶𝑝 = heat capacity of air (kJ/kgK)
• 𝑔= gravitational acceleration = 9.81m/s2

8
 Plume Diameter
• The plume diameter is given by:
• 𝐷𝑃 =
𝑧
𝐶𝑃𝐷

• Where
• 𝐷𝑃 = diameter of visible axisymmetric plume (m)
• 𝑧 = height above fuel (m)
• 𝐶𝑃𝐷 = plume diameter coefficient ranging from 2 to 4

9
 Axisymmetric Plume without Virtual Origin
• In atrium fire, the height of the atrium is usually much greater
than the virtual origin, thus when consider the plume at various
height 𝑧, it is much greater than the virtual origin 𝑧𝑜
• Equations for mass flow are thus simplified:
1 5
• 𝑚ሶ = 0.071𝑄𝑐ሶ 3 𝑧 3 + 0.0018𝑄𝑐ሶ for 𝑧 ≥ 𝑧1
3
• 𝑚ሶ = 0.032𝑄𝑐ሶ 5 𝑧 for 𝑧 < 𝑧1
• The flame height equation is simplified:
2
• 𝑧1 = 0.166𝑄𝑐ሶ 5

• The centerline temperature is given by:

1/3 ሶ 2/3
• 𝑇𝑐𝑝 = 𝑇𝑎 + 9.1
𝑇𝑎
𝑔𝐶𝑝 2 𝜌𝑎 2
𝑄𝑐
𝑧 5/3

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 Wall and Corner Fires
• A fire next to a wall will result in air entrainment into the
plume being restricted
• For wall fire, the fire and the plume may be considered
half that of the axisymmetric plume
• Mass flow rate of wall plume = ½ that of axisymmetric plume
• In reverse analogous fire for the axisymmetric plume is twice
that of the ‘real’ fire of the wall plume
• Therefore, the mass flow rate of a wall plume is estimated
• 𝑄ሶ = twice that of the wall plume
• Apply plume equation to calculate mass flow 𝑚ሶ of an
axisymmetric plume

• Smoke production of wall plume is

𝑚ሶ
2

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Balcony Spill Plume
Window Plume

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 Balcony Spill Plumes
• Originates from a fire when the smoke flows under a
balcony and spills into an atrium

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Mass Flow of Smoke in Balcony Spill Plumes
• The mass flow of smoke from a fire room into the balcony
is given by:
• ሶ 2 )1/3 𝑧𝑏 + 0.25𝐻
𝑚ሶ = 0.36(𝑄𝑊
• Where
• 𝑚ሶ = mass flow in plume at height 𝑧𝑏 (kg/s)
• 𝑄ሶ = heat release rate of fire (kW)
• 𝑊= plume width as it spills under balcony (m)
• 𝑧𝑏 = height above balcony (m)
• 𝐻 = height of balcony above top of fuel (m)
• If smoke curtains (or downstand) are used, the width 𝑊 of the
spill plume is the distance the curtains.
• In the absence of curtains, the approximation is given by:
• 𝑊 =𝑤+𝑏

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• It should be noted that equations
only apply when the height of the
opening to the fire room is
sufficiently below the ceiling such
that the momentum of the ceiling
jet in the fire room does not directly
contribute to the flow out of the
opening
• Ceiling jet thickness is typically 10
– 20% of the height from the base
of the fire to the ceiling
• Thus the room opening (door)
height should not be more than
80% of the height of the fire room
Opening
Distance from fire height
15

base to ceiling (h) (<0.8h)

 Window Plume
• One that flows through an opening such as a
windows or door to a room with a fully involved fire
• Flashover has been considered to happen in the
room
• Therefore, the average heat release rate for normal
wood and polyurethane fires
• 𝑄ሶ = 1260𝐴𝑤 𝐻𝑤 1/2
• Where
• 𝑄ሶ = heat release rate of fire (kW)
• 𝐴𝑤 = area of ventilation opening (m2)
• 𝐻𝑤 = height of ventilation opening (m2)

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• The height term of the axisymmetric plume in this
window plume has to be adjusted
• 𝑎 = 2.40𝐴𝑤 2/5 𝐻𝑤 1/5 − 2.1𝐻𝑤
• The original axisymmetric plume equation is adjusted
1 5
• 𝑚ሶ = 0.071𝑄𝑐ሶ (𝑧𝑤 + 𝑎) + 0.0018𝑄𝑐ሶ
3 3

• Incorporating the effect of the walls and the 𝑄𝑐ሶ

1 1 5 1
• 𝑚ሶ =
1
𝑛
[0.68(𝑛𝐴𝑤 𝐻𝑤 2 )3 (𝑧𝑤 + 𝑎) + 1.59𝑛𝐴𝑤 𝐻𝑤 ]
3 2

• Where
• 𝑧𝑤 = bottom of smoke layer above the top of window (m)
• n = number of identical windows
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Plume Temperature and Height

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 Plume Temperature
• The average temperature of the plume can be obtained
from the first law of thermodynamics
• 𝑄𝑔ሶ + 𝑄𝑡ሶ = 𝑚ሶ ℎ𝑒 − ℎ𝑖 + ∆𝐾𝐸 + ∆𝑃𝐸 + 𝑊ሶ
• Where
• 𝑄𝑔ሶ = heat generated within control volume (kW)
• 𝑄𝑡ሶ = heat transferred from surroundings into control volume (kW)
• 𝑚ሶ = mass flow rate (kg/s)
• ℎ𝑖 = enthalpy of flow entering the control volume (kW/kg)
• ℎ𝑒 = enthalpy of flow leaving the control volume (kW/kg)
• ∆𝐾𝐸 = change in kinetic energy (kW/kg)
• ∆𝑃𝐸 = change in potential energy (kW/kg)
• 𝑊ሶ = work done by system on its surroundings (kW)

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• For steady plume
• Work done = 0
• Changes in KE and PE are negligible
• 𝑄𝑔ሶ = 𝑄ሶ (heat released of fire)
• 𝑄𝑡ሶ = −𝑄𝑟ሶ (radiative heat loss from fire)
• Thus, 𝑄𝑔ሶ + 𝑄𝑡ሶ = 𝑄ሶ − 𝑄𝑟ሶ = 𝑄𝑐ሶ (convective heat output of fire)
• Specific heat is considered constant ℎ = 𝐶𝑝 𝑇
• The equation can be simplified to
• 𝑇𝑝 = 𝑇𝑜 +
𝑄𝑐ሶ
ሶ 𝑝
𝑚𝐶

• Where
• 𝑇𝑝 = average plume temperature (oC)
• 𝑇𝑜 = ambient temperature (oC)
• 𝐶𝑝 = specific heat capacity (kJ/kgK) (usually taken as 1.0 kJ/kgK)

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 Maximum Plume Height
• The plume will finally become stagnant due to loss of
buoyancy due to decreasing temperature as it further rises
upwards
• Putting the plume temperature equation into the mass
equation gives:
3/5
• 𝑧𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑄𝐶ሶ
2/3 14
∆𝑇𝑚𝑖𝑛
− 0.0254

• Where
• 𝑧𝑚𝑎𝑥 = maximum height at which plume is
considered buoyant (m)
• 𝑄𝐶ሶ = convective heat release rate (kW)
• ∆𝑇𝑚𝑖𝑛 = minimum temperature rise of plume above ambient (oC)
(2oC is suggested to be the minimum)

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Smoke Flow for
Natural Venting

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 Smoke Flow for Natural Venting
• Mass flow out of a top vent
• 𝑚ሶ 𝑣 = 𝐶𝑣 𝐴𝑣 2𝜌𝑠 (𝑝𝑠 − 𝑝𝑜 )
• Mass of inlet air opening
• 𝑚ሶ 𝑖 = 𝐶𝑖 𝐴𝑖 2𝜌𝑜 (𝑝𝑜 − 𝑝𝑏 )
• Where
• 𝑚ሶ 𝑣 = mass flowrate through vent (kg/s)
• 𝑚ሶ 𝑖 = mass flowrate through inlet opening (kg/s)
• 𝐶𝑣 , 𝐶𝑖 = flow coefficient for vent and inlet respectively
• 𝐴𝑣 , 𝐴𝑖 = area of vent and inlet respectively (m2)
• 𝜌𝑠 , 𝜌𝑜 = density of smoke and outside air respectively (kg/m3)
• 𝑝𝑠 , 𝑝𝑜 , 𝑝𝑏 = pressure of smoke layer, outside, beneath smoke layer
(Pa)

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• Buoyancy pressure difference of the smoke layer
• 𝑝𝑠 − 𝑝𝑏 = 𝑔𝑑𝑏 𝜌𝑜 − 𝜌𝑠
• Where
• 𝑔= gravitational acceleration, 9.81m/s2
• 𝑑𝑏 = depth of smoke layer below the smoke vent (m)

• Taking the flow coefficients 𝐶𝑣 & 𝐶𝑖 to be equal, and

• Mass flow of smoke 𝑚ሶ 𝑣 = mass flow of inlet 𝑚ሶ 𝑖
• Smoke densities are presented in temperature
relations
• 𝜌𝑠 = 𝜌𝑜
𝑇𝑜
𝑇𝑠

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• Combining the equations gives
𝐶𝐴𝑣 𝜌𝑜 2𝑔𝑑𝑏 𝑇𝑠 −𝑇𝑜 𝑇𝑜 Τ𝑇𝑠 1/2
• 𝑚ሶ 𝑣 =
𝑇𝑠 + 𝐴𝑣 Τ𝐴𝑖 2 𝑇𝑜 1/2
1/2
𝑇𝑠 2 + 𝐴𝑣 Τ𝐴𝑖 2
• 𝐴𝑣 =
𝑚ሶ 𝑣
𝐶𝜌𝑜
x
𝑇𝑜 𝑇𝑠
2𝑔𝑑𝑏 𝑇𝑠 −𝑇𝑜 𝑇𝑜 1/2

• Where
• 𝑚ሶ 𝑣 =mass flow rate through vent (kg/s)
• 𝐶= discharge coefficient
• 𝐴𝑣 , 𝐴𝑖 = vent area, inlet area (m2)
• 𝜌𝑜 = outside air density (kg/m3)
• 𝑑𝑏 = depth of smoke layer below smoke vent (m)
• 𝑇𝑜 , 𝑇𝑠 = absolute temperature of outside air and smoke (K)

25
 Exercise
• A large warehouse of size 100 m x 50 m x 8 m (high).
• Calculate the smoke vent areas based on the Code
of Practice and the equation of Smoke Flow by
Natural Venting if static smoke extraction system is
adopted.
• 𝜌𝑜 = 1.2 kg/m3
• Av : Ai = 1:1
• 𝑇𝑜 = 297 K, 𝑇𝑠 = 429 K
• C = 0.6
• Smoke Clear Height = 3 m
• 𝑚𝑣 = 8.47 kg/s
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 Number of Exhaust
• If smoke layer depth below the exhaust is too shallow,
high exhaust rate can lead to entrainment of cold air from
the clear layer, this is called plugholing

• To prevent plugholing, more than one exhaust points may

be required
27
• The maximum mass flow rate that can be efficiently exhausted
using a single exhaust
1/2 𝑇 1/2
• 𝑚𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 3.13𝛽𝑑 5/2 𝑇𝑠 −𝑇𝑜
𝑇𝑠
𝑜
𝑇𝑠
• Where
• 𝑚𝑚𝑎𝑥 = maximum mass flow rate of exhaust without plugholing (kg/s)
• 𝑇𝑠 = absolute temperature of smoke layer (K)
• 𝑇𝑜 = absolute ambient temperature (K)
• 𝑑 = depth of smoke layer below bottom of
exhaust inlet (m) (see diagram)
• 𝛽 = exhaust location factor (see diagram)

• 𝑑
it is recommended that 𝐷 > 2 where 𝐷 is the diameter of the exhaust
inlet
• 2𝑎𝑏
𝐷 = (𝑎+𝑏) for rectangular opening 𝑎 × 𝑏

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• The mass flow can be presented in volumetric flow as
• ሶ
𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 0.00887𝛽𝑑 5/2 𝑇𝑜 (𝑇𝑠 − 𝑇𝑜 )
• Where
• ሶ
𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑥 = maximum volumetric flow rate (m3/s)

• In reverse of the estimation of maximum mass flow rate for a

single exhaust, the calculation can be reversed for the minimum
smoke layer depth to prevent plugholing
ሶ
𝑉𝑒 2/5
• 𝑑𝑚 =
0.15𝛽2/5 𝑇0 𝑇𝑠 −𝑇𝑜 1/5

• Where
• 𝑑𝑚 = minimum smoke layer depth to prevent plugholing (m)
• 𝑉𝑒ሶ = exhaust rate (m3/s)

29
Atrium Smoke Control

30
 Atrium Smoke Control
Topics to include:
• Approaches to atrium smoke control
• Smoke filling
• Mechanical exhaust
• Natural venting
• Tenability systems
• Stratification and Detection

31
 Approaches to
Atrium Smoke Control

32
• When handling atrium smoke control, different
scenarios have to be considered
• Steady fire size versus non-steady fire size
(a growing t2-fire)
• Axisymmetric plume versus a balcony spill plume
• These will result in different equations to be applied

33
• The different approaches for smoke control can be
categories by two main features:
• Occupancies are NOT exposed to smoke during evacuation
• Smoke filling
• Mechanical exhaust
• Natural venting
• In these applications, a recommended smoke layer depth
should be at least 20% of the distance from the base of the
fire to the ceiling, i.e.,
(H − 𝑧) ≥ 0.2𝐻 or 𝑧Τ𝐻 ≤ 0.8
• Occupancies are exposed to smoke but NOT into an
untenable condition
• Tenability system

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 Smoke Filling
• The method applies when occupancies evacuate
FROM the atrium or THROUGH the atrium
• Smoke fills up the upper volume while giving sufficient time
for the people to escape

35
 Smoke Filling
• The evaluation can either be using empirical equations or using
computer fire models like ASET, CFAST or FDS
• In realistic situations, there is a transition zone between the
empirical approach versus the zone fire model approach
• When adapting empirical equations, the ‘first indication of smoke’
is considered as the
bottom of the
transition zone
between the smoke
layer and the ambient

36
• Smoke filling by steady fire is approximated by
ሶ 𝐻 −4/3
• 𝑧
𝐻
= 1.11 − 0.28𝑙𝑛
𝑡 𝑄1/3
𝐴
𝐻2

• Where
• 𝑧 = height of first indication of smoke (m)
• 𝐻 = ceiling height above the fire (m)
• 𝑡 = time (s)
• 𝑄ሶ = heat release rate of steady fire (kW)
• 𝐴 = cross sectional area of atrium (m2)
• The equation is appropriate for the following conditions:
• 𝐴 = constant

• 0.2 ≤
𝑧
𝐻
≤ 1.0

• 0.9 ≤
𝐴
𝐻2
≤ 14

37
• To find the time to fill the atrium to a certain 𝑧Τ𝐻, the
equation can be adjusted to find the time
1 𝑧
𝐴 𝐻 4/3
• 𝑡= 𝐻 2 𝑄ሶ 1/3
𝑒 0.28
(1.11− )
𝐻

ሶ 𝐻 −4/3
• This equation
𝑧
𝐻
= 1.11 − 0.28𝑙𝑛
𝑡𝑄1/3
𝐴 when solved
𝐻2
may exceed the appropriate range, and is suitable for atrium
only
• The dotted line on the diagram indicates the limiting atrium
area to height combination

38
• Smoke filling by unsteady fire (t2-fire) is approximated by
−3/5 −1.45
• 𝑧
𝐻
= 0.91 𝑡 ×
𝐴
𝑡𝑔 −2/5 𝐻 −4/5 2
𝐻

• Where
• 𝑧 = height of first indication of smoke (m)
• 𝐻 = ceiling height above the fire (m)
• 𝑡 = time (s)
• 𝑡𝑔 = growth time (s) – time to grow to 1055kW in t-squared fire
• 600s for slow, 300s for medium, 150s for fast, 75s for ultra fast fire
• 𝑄ሶ = heat release rate of steady fire (kW)
• 𝐴 = cross sectional area of atrium (m2)

39
• The equation is appropriate for the following conditions:
• 𝐴 = constant
• 𝑧
0.2 ≤ 𝐻 ≤ 1.0

• 𝐴
0.9 ≤ 𝐻 2 ≤ 23

• the time to fill the atrium to a certain 𝑧Τ𝐻 is presented

𝐴 3/5 𝑧 −0.69
• 𝑡 = 0.937𝑡𝑔 2/5 𝐻 4/5
𝐻2 𝐻

40
 Mechanical Exhaust
• This is one of the commonest method in atrium smoke control.
When designing the system a constant smoke layer height is
expected.
• A few assumptions are also taken
• Only the fire plume gives mass flow into the smoke layer
• Only the smoke exhaust gives mass flow from the smoke layer
• No plugholing
• The flow into and out of the smoke layer are in equilibrium
• Heat transfer between smoke layer and the surroundings is in
equilibrium

41
• The equations adopted are applied
1 5
• 𝑚ሶ = 0.071𝑄𝑐ሶ 𝑧 + 0.0018𝑄𝑐ሶ for 𝑧 ≥ 𝑧1
3 3

3
• 𝑚ሶ = 0.032𝑄𝑐ሶ 𝑧 for 𝑧 < 𝑧1
5

2
• 𝑧1 = 0.166𝑄𝑐ሶ 5

• The temperature of the smoke layer height adapts

the heat loss to the structure inside the smoke layer
and thus adjusted to:
• 𝑇𝑝 = 𝑇𝑜 +
𝑄𝑐ሶ (1−𝜂)
𝑚𝐶ሶ 𝑝

• Where 𝜂 is the wall heat transfer coefficient in the range 0.3 to

0.7
42
• The volume rate of smoke production (V (m3/s)) is
equal to the smoke extraction rate of dynamic smoke
extraction systems.
𝑚𝑇ሶ 𝑝
• 𝑉=
𝜌𝑜 𝑇𝑜

• Where
• mሶ = Smoke production rate (kg/s)
• Tp = Temperature of smoke K
• To = Ambient Temperature K
• ρo = Density of ambient air (kg/m3)

43
• For unsteady conditions like t-squared fire or
transient states, a few considerations have to be
considered:
• Simulate the actual smoke filling and smoke exhaust rate
• The effects of unsteady fire in creating smoke plume
• The impact of mechanical system activation time on the
smoke layer accumulation

44
 Makeup Air
• In a mechanical exhaust system (steady state
conditions)
mass of smoke exhausted = mass of air entering
• This mass of air entering is the ‘makeup air’ that can
either be supplied naturally or by fan power
• Fan powered makeup air is often sized at 85-95% of
the exhaust air flow rate
• Velocity of makeup air should not destroy or disturb the
plume structure

45
 Natural Venting
• The equation developed for natural smoke vent is applied
𝐶𝐴𝑣 𝜌𝑜 2𝑔𝑑𝑏 𝑇𝑠 −𝑇𝑜 𝑇𝑜 Τ𝑇𝑠 1/2
• 𝑚ሶ 𝑣 =
𝑇𝑠 + 𝐴𝑣 Τ𝐴𝑖 2 𝑇𝑜 1/2

• The advantage of natural venting is that if the fire size

exceeds the design fire, the mass of smoke being vented
will increase accordingly, thus trying to compensate for the
increase in smoke entering the smoke layer
• 𝑄ሶ ↑ → 𝑇𝑠 ↑, 𝑑𝑏 ↑ → 𝑚ሶ 𝑣 ↑
• Such effect is not available in mechanical exhaust system
when the mass flow should be constant (at design
condition)

46
 Tenability Systems
• This type of systems are designed to maintain a
tenable condition with occupants exposed to smoke
• Hazards analysis on smoke transport, people
movement and tenability conditions has to be
conducted
• CFD simulation is more appropriate to evaluate the
condition of the space
• Visibility, gas exposure, heat exposure are to be evaluated.

47
Stratification and Detection

48
 Stratification of Smoke Layer
• The upper parts of the atrium are commonly
subjected to heating due to solar load at the rooftop
glazing
• Temperatures in the hot air layer in excess of 50oC may be
reached
• In a large atrium, the temperature of the smoke may not be
hotter than the hot air layer, thus smoke will stratified under
it

49
 Placement of Detectors
• If stratification exists, any smoke detector at the roof will
not be able to activate
• In tall atriums, beam detectors are applied to overcome
the difficulty to install point type detectors. A few
approaches are suggested (see diagrams)
• Upward-angled beam – the beam is aimed upwards to
intersect the smoke layer regardless of the level of the smoke
stratification
• Horizontal beams to detect smoke layer at various levels –
additional detectors are located at different levels at the lower
part of the atrium
• Horizontal beams to detect smoke plume – beams are placed
below the designed stratified layer and above the least
elevation above the point of possible fire

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