Biology Paper - 4 - Essays - MS

2004 – June
1a Explain how a synapse functions. [9]
1. depolarisation/action potential ;
2. of presynaptic membrane,/synaptic knob ;
3. opening calcium ion channels ;
4. calcium ions in ;
5. vesicles containing transmitter / acetylcholine ;
6. fuse with membrane ;
7. contents emptied into synaptic cleft / exocytosis ;
8. transmitter / acetylcholine diffuses across synaptic cleft ;
9. transmitter / acetylcholine binds to receptor ; Reject protein channel
10. on post synaptic membrane ;
11. Na+ channels open / Na+ enters ;
12. depolarises post synaptic membrane ;
13. action potential set up / impulse transmitted ;
14. breakdown / hydrolysis of transmitter / acetylcholine by enzyme cholinesterase ;
1b Describe the role of glucagon in regulating blood glucose. [6]
1. when blood glucose levels low ;

2. glucagon released from alpha cells (in pancreas) ;
3. (acts on) liver (cells) ;
4. breakdown of glycogen to glucose ;
5. use of fatty acids in respiration ; Reject fats
6. production of glucose from other compounds / fats / amino acids / gluconeogenesis ;
7. liver releases glucose into blood ;
8. glucose levels rise / return to normal ;
9. switching off glucagon secretion ;
10. antagonistic to insulin ;
1
2a Outline the main features of the Calvin Cycle. [9]
1. RuBP 5C ;
2. combines with carbon dioxide ;
3. rubisco ;
4. to form an unstable 6C compound ;
5. which forms 2x GP (PGA) ;
6. ATP and reduced NADP ;
7. forms TP (GALP) ;
8. TP used to form glucose / carbohydrates / lipids / amino acids ;
9. TP used in regeneration of RuBP ;
10. requires ATP ;
11. as source of phosphate ;
12. light independent ;
2b Explain the role of NADP in photosynthesis. [6]
1. coenzyme ;
2. reduced ;
3. carries protons ;
4. and (high energy) electrons ;
5. from photosystem I light stage ; Reject photosystem II
6. on thylakoid membrane grana ;
7. to stroma / Calvin cycle ;
8. ref. regeneration of NADP ;
2
2004 - November
3a Describe the main features of the Krebs Cycle. [9]
1. matrix of mitochondrion ;
2. acetyl CoA combines with oxaloacetate ;
3. to form citrate ;
4. 4C to 6C ;
5. Decarboxylation to produce CO2 ;
6. dehydrogenation/oxidation ;
7. 2CO2 released ;
8. reduced NAD produced ; Accept reduced coenzyme for one mark
9. reduced FAD produced ;
10. ATP produced ;
11. series of steps/intermediates ;
12. enzyme catalysed reactions ;
13. oxaloacetate regenerated ;
3b Explain the role of NAD in aerobic respiration. [6]
1. coenzyme ;
2. for dehydrogenase ;
3. reduced ;
4. carries electrons ;
5. and protons/H+/H/hydrogen ; Reject H2/hydrogen molecules
6. from Krebs cycle and glycolysis ;
7. to cytochromes/electron transfer chain ;
8. reoxidised/regenerated ;
9. ATP produced ;
10. 3/2.5 (molecules of ATP) per reduced NAD ;
3
4a Describe the use of recombinant DNA technology in the synthesis of human
insulin by bacteria. [9]
1. mRNA coding for insulin/isolate gene for human insulin ;

2. from beta cells of islets of Langerhans/pancreas ;
3. reverse transcriptase to form cDNA ;
4. reference PCR/DNA polymerase/double strand ;
5. reference sticky ends ;
6. use of vector/virus/plasmid ;
7. endonuclease/restriction enzymes ;
8. to cut plasmid ;
9. DNA ligase to join DNA ;
10. inserted into suitable host cell/E.coli/bacteria ;
11. reference method of insertion ;
12. identification of modified bacteria ;
13. reference growth/culture of engineered bacteria in fermenters ;
4b Explain the advantages of treating diabetics with human insulin produced by

genetic engineering. [6]
1. constant/reliable supply all year round/unlimited supply ;

2. less risk of contamination/infection ;
3. identical to insulin produced in the body ;
4. less/no risk of allergic reaction ;
5. does not stimulate the immune system ;
6. fewer side effects ;
7. can be produced without the killing of animals/ethical reason ;
8. cheaper/easier to extract and purify ;
9. more available/large amount ;
10. more rapid response ;
4
2005 - June
5a Describe the role of auxins in apical dominance. [6]
Note: not on current syllabus
auxin = IAA
1. auxin produced in apical bud ;
2. diffuses down stem ;
3. active transport (cell to cell) ;
4. role of plasmodesmata ;
5. also in phloem ;
6. (auxin) inhibits growth of lateral buds ;
7. plant grows up instead of branching out ;
8. removal of apical bud allows lateral buds to grow ;
9. AVP ; e.g. auxin concentrated in lateral bud / auxin in low amounts in lateral bud
10. AVP ; e.g. correct ref to effect of ABA / cytokinins
5b Explain the role of gibberellins in the germination of wheat or barley. [9]
1. seed absorbs water ;

2. by osmosis ;
3. gibberellin produced by embryo plant ;
4. passes to aleurone layer ;
5. switches on / activation, transcription enzyme genes ;
6. storage proteins broken down to amino acids ;
7. stimulates synthesis / release of amylase ;
8. amylase diffuses / moves into endosperm ;
9. breaks down / hydrolyses starch to maltose ;
10. maltose to glucose ;
11. glucose diffuses / moves into embryo plant ;
12. provides source of energy for growth of embryo plant ;
5
6a Describe why variation is important in natural selection. [6]
1. ref. continuous / discontinuous variation ;

2. genetic / inherited variation ;
3. variation in phenotype / characteristics / AW ;
4. (can be due to) interaction of genotype and environment ;
5. e.g. of characteristic that influences survival ;
6. ref. intraspecific competition / struggle for existence ;
7. those with favourable characteristics survive / AW ;
8. pass on favourable characteristics to offspring ;
9. those with disadvantageous characteristics die ;
6b Explain the role of isolating mechanisms in the evolution of new species. [9]
1. definition of species ;
2. allopatric speciation ;
3. geographical isolation ;
4. examples e.g. islands / lakes / mountain chains / idea of barrier ;
5. example organism ;
6. populations prevented from interbreeding ;
7. isolated populations subjected to different selection pressures / conditions ;
8. over time sufficient differences to prevent interbreeding ;
9. sympatric speciation ;
10. reproductive isolation ;
11. behavioural barriers (within a population) ; e.g. day active / night active
12. correct ref. to gene pool ;
13. change in allele frequencies ;
6
2005 - November
7a Describe how the structure of a dicotyledonous leaf is related to its functions in
photosynthesis. [7]
1. thin / flat to give large surface area to volume ratio ;

2. held at right angles to sun to allow max. light absorption ;
3. ref. to arrangement of cells in palisade mesophyll ;
4. spongy mesophyll large surface area for CO2 uptake / gaseous exchange ;
5. stomata / guard cells and entry of CO2 ;
6. moist surfaces ;
7. xylem and supply of water / mineral ions ;
8. phloem and translocation of products of photosynthesis ;
9. cuticle on upper surface ;
7b Discuss the effects that variations in carbon dioxide concentration and light
intensity have on the rate of photosynthesis. [8]
1. carbon dioxide 0.03% ;

2. most likely limits / major limiting / implied low in atmosphere ;
3. increase in carbon dioxide concentration and increase in rate ;
4. ref. to variations in conc. e.g., within canopy / at soil surface ;
5. ref. to wavelengths of light ;
6. light saturated below full sun ;
7. idea of limiting and saturation, with other key factor limiting ;
8. light and stomatal aperture ;
9. day length and season / morning and evening ;
10. high light and damage to pigments ;
11. ref. to light exciting electrons in chlorophyll ;
7
8a Describe how nitrogenous waste products are formed and explain why they
need to be removed from the body. [6]
1. deamination ;
2. ref. to ornithine cycle ;
3. ref. to not all urea / produced each day / always some present ;
4. ref. to urea ;
5. ref. to creatinine and uric acid ;
6. and ammonium ions ;
7. produced in liver ;
8. continuously / from excess amino acids ;
9. toxic if allowed to accumulate ;
10. ref. to potential damage to tissues ;
11. ref. to not all urea / that produced each day ;
8b Describe how the kidney removes metabolic wastes from the body. [9]
1. ultrafiltration ;
2. of blood in glomerulus ;
3. forming filtrate in bowman’s capsule ;
4. of kidney tubule ;
5. soluble molecules ;
6. including urea ;
7. and ammonium ions pass into filtrate ;
8. concentrated by removal of water (in collecting ducts) ;
9. ref. to formation of ammonium ions in distal convoluted tubule ;
10. from ammonia and protons ;
11. ref. to removal of metabolic water (as a waste product) ;
12. and osmoregulation ;
13. by collecting ducts ;
14. ref. to formation of urine ;
15. ref. to distal convoluted tubule excrete excess acid ;
8
2006 - June
9a Explain the meaning of the term homeostasis with specific reference to the
control of raised blood glucose concentration in mammals. [8]
1. maintenance of constant / stable, internal environment ;

2. despite changes in external environment ;
3. negative feedback ;
4. receptor and effector ;
5. beta cells ;
6. in islets of Langerhans / pancreas ;
7. release insulin (into blood) ;
8. alpha cells stop releasing glucagon ;
9. affects liver / muscle cells ;
10. increased permeability to glucose / absorption from blood ;
11. increased use of glucose in respiration ;
12. increase in conversion of glucose to glycogen ;
13. stored in liver and muscles ;
14. fall in blood glucose concentration / return to normal ;
9b Describe the role played by ADH in osmoregulation in mammals. [7]
1. low blood water content / water potential ;

2. detected by osmoreceptors ;
3. in hypothalamus ;
4. ADH produced / released ;
5. from posterior pituitary gland ;
6. target kidney ;
7. cells of collecting duct ;
8. binds to receptors ;
9. vesicles with water permeable channels ;
10. fuse with cell membrane ;
11. cells more permeable to water / water passes into cells ;
12. urine lower volume ;
13. higher concentration ;
9
10a Describe the role of natural selection in evolution. [8]
1. individuals in population have great reproductive potential / AW ;

2. numbers in population remain roughly constant ;
3. many fail to survive / die ;
4. do not reproduce ;
5. due to environmental factors / named factor ;
6. variation in members of population ;
7. those best adapted survive ;
8. reproduce / pass on alleles ; Reject genes
9. genetic variation leads to change in phenotype ;
10. ref: changes in gene pool ;
11. over time produces evolutionary change ;
12. new species arise from existing ones
10b Explain, using named examples, how mutation can affect phenotype. [7]
1. gene / example ; (sickle cell / PKU )

2. change in gene / DNA / base change ;
3. different amino acid ;
4. different polypeptide / different protein / non-functional protein ;
5. named example ;
6. (chromosome) named example ; (Down’s, Turner’s syndromes)
7. structural changes in chromosomes ;
8. change in number of chromosomes ;
9. change in sets of chromosomes / ref. polyploidy ;
10
2006 - November
11a Describe how the structure of neurones speeds up the transmission of action
potentials. [6]
1. myelin sheath / Schwann cell ;

2. insulates, axon / dendron ;
3. impermeable to Na+ / K+ ;
4. depolarisation only at nodes of Ranvier ;
5. ref. local circuits ;
6. action potentials ‘jump’ from node to node ;
7. saltatory conduction ;
8. speed increased by 50 times / 0.5 ms-1 to 100 ms-1 ;
9. axons with large diameter / giant axon ;
10. reduce resistance ;
11. elongated, axon / dendron / neurone ;
11b Explain, using a named example, how sensory receptors in mammals convert
energy into action potentials. [9]
1. ref. specific example ; e.g. Pacinian corpuscle / rod / cone / hair cell
2. correct stimulus ; e.g. touch / pressure light / sound
3. detail of receptor response ; e.g. deformation of Pacinian corpuscle membrane
4. stimulus causes Na+ channels to open ;
5. Na+ enters cell ;
6. K+ channels open ;
7. K+ leaves cell ;
8. depolarisation ;
9. receptor / generator potential ;
10. greater than threshold leads to, action potential / impulses ;
11. less than threshold only localised depolarisation ;
12. increased stimulus leads to increased frequency of action potentials ;
11
12a Describe the transfer of light energy to chemical energy in ATP during
photosynthesis. [6]
1. light absorbed by chlorophyll / AW ;

2. ref. photosystems ;
3. ref. harvesting clusters / accessory pigments ;
4. reaction centre / P680 / P700 ;
5. excitation of electrons / AW ;
6. ETC ;
7. idea of different energy levels ;
8. ADP + Pi → ATP ;
9. cyclic / non-cyclic, photophosphorylation ;
10. chemiosmosis / ATP synthase / description ;
12b Describe the process of oxidative phosphorylation. [9]
1. reduced NAD / FAD ;

2. passed to ETC ;
3. hydrogens removed ; Reject H2
4. split into H+ and e- ;
5. e- passed to carriers ;
6. H+ stays in mitochondrial matrix ;
7. oxygen final e- carrier ;
8. joins with H+ / reduced ; Reject H2 / hydrogen
9. forms water ;
10. ref. energy levels of carriers ;
11. energy available to convert ADP and Pi to ATP ;
12. occurs three times ( for each reduced NAD ) /ref. total yield ;
13. chemiosmosis / ATP synthase / description ;
12
2007 - June
13a Describe how a nerve impulse crosses a cholinergic synapse. [9]
1. action potential / depolarisation, reaches presynaptic membrane ;

2. calcium (ion) channels open / presynaptic membrane becomes more permeable to Ca2+ ;
3. Ca2+ flood into presynaptic neurone ; Reject membrane
4. this causes vesicles of (neuro)transmitter to move towards presynaptic membrane ;
5. ref. acetylcholine / ACh ;
6. vesicle fuses with presynaptic membrane / exocytosis ;
7. ACh released into synaptic cleft ;
8. ACh diffuses across (cleft) ;
9. ACh binds to receptor (proteins) / AW ;
10. on postsynaptic membrane ; Reject neurone
11. proteins change shape / channels open ;
12. sodium ions rush into postsynaptic neurone ; Reject membrane
13. postsynaptic membrane depolarised ;
14. action potential / nerve impulse ;
15. AVP ; e.g. action of acetylcholinesterase
13b Explain the roles of synapses in the nervous system.
1. ensure one-way transmission ;

2. receptor (proteins) only in postsynaptic, membrane / neurone ; ora
3. vesicles only in presynaptic neurone ; ora
4. ref. adaptation ;
5. increased range of actions ;
6. due to interconnection of many nerve pathways ;
7. ref. inhibitory synapses ;
8. involved in memory / learning ;
9. due to new synapses being formed ;
10. AVP ; e.g. summation / discrimination
13
14a Describe the structure of a chloroplast. [9]
accept on labelled diagram

1. biconvex disc ;
2. 3-10 μm diameter ;
3. double, membrane / envelope ;
4. internal membrane system ;
5. flattened or fluid-filled sacs / thylakoids ;
6. arranged in stacks / grana ;
7. hold pigments / named pigment ;
8. ref. clusters of pigments / AW ;
9. (membrane of grana) hold ATP synthase ;
10. intergranal lamellae ;
11. stroma / ground substance ;
12. lipids / starch grains ;
13. contains enzymes of Calvin cycle ;
14. stroma contains ribosomes / DNA etc. ;
15. AVP ; e.g. variation in shape between species
14b Explain how the palisade mesophyll cells of a leaf are adapted for
photosynthesis. [6]
1. closely packed -- to absorb more incident light / AW ;

2. palisade mesophyll near upper surface of leaf -- to maximize light interception ;
3. arranged at right angles to leaf surface -- to reduce number of light absorbing walls ;
4. cylindrical cells -- producing air spaces between cells ;
5. air spaces -- act as reservoir of carbon dioxide ;
6. large surface area -- for gas exchange ;
7. cell walls thin -- so short diffusion pathway ;
8. large vacuole -- pushes chloroplasts to edge of cell ;
9. chloroplasts on periphery -- to absorb light more efficiently ;
10. large number of chloroplasts -- to maximise light absorption ;
11. chloroplasts can move within cells -- towards light ;
12. chloroplasts can move away from high light intensity -- to avoid damage ;
14
2007 - November
15a Describe the structure of photosystems and explain how a photosystem
functions in cyclic photophosphorylation. [9]
1. arranged in light harvesting clusters ; Accept system

2. primary pigments / chlorophyll a ;
3. at reaction centre ;
4. P700 / P1, absorbs at 700(nm) ;
5. P680 / P11, absorbs at 680(nm) ;
6. accessory pigments / chlorophyll b / carotenoids ; Ignore ref to chlorophyll a
7. surround, primary pigment / reaction centre / chlorophyll a ;
8. absorb light ; linked to MP6
9. pass energy to, primary pigment / reaction centre / ; chlorophyll a ;
10. P700 / PI, involved in cyclic photophosphorylation ;
11. (light absorbed results in) electron excited / AW ;
12. emitted from chlorophyll ;
13. chain of electron carriers / ETC ;
14. ATP synthesis ;
15. electron returns to, P700 / P1 ;
15b Explain briefly how reduced NADP is formed in the light-dependent stage of
photosynthesis and is used in the light-independent stage. [6]
1. photolysis of water ;
2. releases H+; Reject H2 / hydrogen / hydrogen atoms
3. by, P680 / PII ;
4. e- released ;
5. by, P700 / PI ;
6. both combine with NADP ;
7. reduced NADP reduces, GP / PGA to TP ;
8. ATP used ;
9. NADP, regenerated / oxidised ;
15
16a Explain how meiosis and fertilisation can result in genetic variation amongst
offspring. [7]
1. chiasma / crossing over ;

2. between non-sister chromatids ;
3. of, homologous chromosomes / bivalent ;
4. in prophase 1 ; linked to MP1
5. exchange of genetic material / AW ; Reject genes unqualified
6. linkage groups broken ;
7. new combination of alleles ;
8. independent assortment ; Reject random assortment
9. metaphase 1 ; linked to MP8
10. detail of independent assortment ;
11. possible mutation ;
12. random mating ;
13. random fusion of gametes ;
16b Explain, using examples, how the environment may affect the phenotype of an
organism. [8]
1. phenotypic variation results from interaction of genotype and environment / VP = VG + VE ;

2. environment may limit expression of gene(s) / AW ;
3. e.g. for size / mass / height ;
4. because, food / nutrients / ion, missing / malnutrition ;
5. named, nutrient / ion / mineral, missing ;
6. environment may, trigger / switch on, gene ;
7. ref. low temperature and change in animal colour ;
8. ref. high temperature and, curled wing in Drosophila / gender in crocodiles ;
9. ref. UV light and melanin production ;
10. ref. wavelength of light and, flowering / germination / fruit colour ;
11. other named trigger plus example ;
12. environment effect usually greater on polygenes / ora ;
13. environment may induce mutation affecting phenotype ;
16
2008 - June
17a Describe the process of oxidative phosphorylation in the mitochondrion. [9]
1. reduced, NAD / FAD ;

2. passed to ETC ;
3. inner membrane / cristae ;
4. hydrogen released (from reduced, NAD / FAD) ; Reject H2
5. split into electrons and protons ;
6. protons in matrix ;
7. electrons pass along, carriers / cytochromes ;
8. ref. redox reactions ;
9. ref. energy gradient ;
10. energy released ; Reject produced
11. protons (pumped) into intermembrane space ;
12. proton gradient ;
13. protons pass through (protein) channels ;
14. ATP synthase / stalked particles ;
15. ATP produced ;
16. chemiosmosis ;
17. electron transferred to oxygen ;
18. addition of proton (to oxygen) to form water / (oxygen) reduced to water ;
if candidate mistakenly writes about photosynthesis only allow marking points 7, 8, 9, 10 and 15 to 5 max
17b Explain the roles of NAD in anaerobic respiration in both plants and animals. [6]
in cytoplasm
1. NAD, becomes reduced / accepts H ;
2. during glycolysis ;
in plants
3. pyruvate converted to ethanal ;
4. ethanal reduced ;
5. by reduced NAD ;
6. ethanol formed ;
in animals
7. pyruvate converted to lactate ;
8. by reduced NAD ;
9. in, liver / muscles ;
10. allows glycolysis to continue ;
17
18a Compare the roles of the endocrine and nervous systems in control and
coordination in animals. [8]
endocrine
1. hormones ;
2. chemical messengers ; Accept chemicals that transfer information
3. ductless glands / (released) into blood ;
4. target, organs / cells ;
5. ref. receptors on cell membranes ;
6. example of named hormone and effect ;
nervous
7. impulses / action potentials ; Reject electrical, signals / current
8. along, neurones / nerve fibres ; Reject nerves
9. synapse (with target) / neuromuscular junction ;
10. ref. receptor / effector / sensory / motor, neurones ;
differences – endocrine
11. slow effect / ora ;
12. long lasting effect / ora ;
13. widespread effect / ora ;
18b Describe the part played by auxins in apical dominance in a plant shoot. [7]
1. IAA / plant growth regulator ;

2. synthesised in, growing tips / apical buds / meristems ;
3. moves by diffusion ;
4. from cell to cell ;
5. also, mass flow / in phloem ;
6. stimulates cell elongation ; Reject cell enlargement
7. inhibits, side / lateral, buds / growth ; Accept inhibits branching
8. plant grows, upwards / taller ; Accept stem elongates
9. IAA / auxin, not solely responsible ;
10. interaction between IAA and other plant growth regulators ;
11. AVP ; e.g. role of ABA and lateral bud inhibition
12. AVP ; e.g. cytokinins antagonistic to IAA / gibberellins enhance IAA
18
2008 - November
19a Describe the structure of a motor neurone. [7]
most of these points can be taken from an annotated diagram

1. nucleus in cell body ;
2. (short), dendrites / dendrons ;
3. axon ;
4. (axon) much longer than, dendrite / dendrons ; must be stated / not on diagram
5. cell body contains, mitochondria / RER / Golgi / groups of ribosomes ;
6. many mitochondria at, synaptic knob / terminal branch ;
7. synaptic vesicles ;
8. neurotransmitter / named neurotransmitter ; linked to 7
9. Schwann cells / myelin sheath ;
10. nucleus in Schwann cell ; Reject nucleus in myelin sheath
11. node of Ranvier ;
12. AVP ; e.g. motor end plate / (dendrites) have receptors (for neurotransmitters)
19b Explain how an action potential is transmitted along a motor neurone. [8]
1. Na+ channels open ; Accept sodium channels

2. Na+ enter cell ; Reject enter membrane
3. inside becomes, less negative / positive / +40mV / depolarised ;
4. Na+ channels close ; Accept sodium channels
5. K+ channels open ; Accept potassium channels
6. K+ move out (of cell) ; Reject of membrane
7. inside becomes, negative / repolarised ; Accept negative figure
8. local circuits / description ;
9. (myelin sheath / Schwann cells) insulate axon / does not allow movement of ions ;
10. action potential / depolarisation, only at nodes (of Ranvier) / gaps ;
11. saltatory conduction / AW ;
12. one-way transmission ;
13. AVP ; e.g. hyperpolarisation / refractory period related to MP12
19
20a Explain the role of isolating mechanisms in the evolution of new species. [8]
1. allopatric speciation ;
2. geographical isolation / spatial separation ;
3. e.g. of barrier ;
4. e.g. of organism ; must relate to MP3
5. sympatric speciation ;
6. named example ;
7. meiosis problems ;
8. polyploidy ;
9. behavioural / temporal / ecological / structural, isolation ;
10. (isolated) populations, prevented from interbreeding / can only breed amongst themselves ;
11. no, gene flow / gene mixing, (between populations) ;
12. different selection pressures operate ;
13. natural selection ;
14. change in allele frequencies ;
15. different gene pool ;
16. over time (differences prevent interbreeding) ;
17. reproductively isolated ;
20b Describe and explain, using an example, the process of artificial selection. [7]
1. humans ; must be linked to, choosing / selecting / mating etc.

2. parents with desirable feature ;
3. named example of organism and feature ;
4. bred / crossed ;
5. select offspring with desirable feature ;
6. repeat over many generations ;
7. increase in frequency of desired allele(s) / decrease in frequency of undesired allele(s) ;
8. background genes ;
9. loss of hybrid vigour / increase in homozygosity / ref. inbreeding depression ;
10. AVP ; e.g. detail of breeding techniques
20
2009 - June
21a Explain how changes in the nucleotide sequence of DNA may affect the amino
acid sequence in a protein. [7]
1. code is three, bases / nucleotides ; Accept triplet code

2. (gene) mutation ; Reject chromosome mutation
3. base, substitution / addition / deletion ;
4. addition / deletion, large effect (on amino acid sequence) ;
5. frame shift ;
6. completely new code after mutation / alters every 3 base sequence which follows ;
7. (substitution) often has no effect / silent mutation ;
8. different triplet but same amino acid / new amino acid in non-functional part of protein ;
9. (substitution) may have big effect (on amino acid sequence) ;
10. could produce ‘stop’ codon ;
11. sickle cell anaemia / PKU / cystic fibrosis ;
12. reference to transcription or translation in correct context ; Accept description
13. AVP ; e.g. protein produced, is non-functional / not produced / incomplete
21b Explain how natural selection may bring about evolution. [8]
1. individuals in population have great reproductive potential / AW ;

2. numbers in population remain roughly constant ;
3. variation in members of population ;
4. environmental factors / named factor (biotic or abiotic) ; linked to MP5 and MP6
5. (cause) many, fail to survive / die / do not reproduce ;
6. those best adapted survive / survival of the fittest ;
7. (reproduce to) pass on alleles ; Reject genes
8. genetic variation leads to change in phenotype ;
9. ref: changes in, gene pool / allele frequency ;
10. over time produces evolutionary change ;
11. new species arise from existing ones / speciation ;
12. directional / stabilising, selection ;
21
22a Describe the part played by the proximal convoluted tubules in the functioning
of the kidneys. [8]
1. selective reabsorption ;
2. (PCT cells have) villi / microvilli / large surface area ;
3. (PCT cells have) many mitochondria ;
4. Na+ leave PCT cells ;
5. by active transport ;
6. Na+ concentration falls in (PCT) cells / Na+ concentration gradient ;
7. Na+ (diffuse) from lumen into (PCT) cells ;
8. through, transporter / carrier, proteins ; ignore channel proteins
9. cotransport ;
10. of, glucose / amino acids / vitamins / chloride ions ;
11. (from PCT cells) into intercellular fluid ; linked to MP10
12. (then) diffusion into blood ; linked to MP10
13. (normally) all glucose reabsorbed ;
14. some water reabsorbed ;
15. some urea reabsorbed ;
16. AVP ; e.g. creatinine secreted into lumen
accept sodium ions but reject sodium or Na penalise once only
22b Explain how the collecting ducts in the kidneys may reduce the loss of water
from the body. [7]
1. ADH affects collecting duct ;

2. binds to receptor on membrane ;
3. increase membrane permeability (to water) / more water channels ;
4. ref. enzyme controlled reactions ;
5. produces (active) phosphorylase ;
6. (which causes) vesicles with, water channels / aquaporins ; must be linked to MP7
7. to, move to / fuse with, (plasma) membrane ;
8. more water flows out of collecting duct ;
9. down / along, water potential gradient ;
10. (then) into blood ;
11. urine (more) concentrated / small volume of urine ;
12. ref. negative feedback ;
13. AVP ; e.g. role of loop of Henle in creating water potential gradient
14. movement of urea increases water potential gradient
22
2009 - November
23a Describe the process of glycolysis. [7]
accept flow diagram

1. (glucose) phosphorylated by ATP ;
2. raises energy level / overcomes activation energy ;
3. hexose bisphosphate ;
4. lysis / splitting, of, glucose / hexose ; Reject sugar splitting
5. breaks down to two TP ; Accept GALP / GADP / G3P / PGAL
6. 6C → 2x 3C ;
7. dehydrogenation / description ;
8. 2 NAD reduced formed (from each TP to pyruvate formed) ;
9. 4 ATP produced / net gain of 2 ATP ;
10. pyruvate produced ;
11. reduced NAD → oxidative phosphorylation / redox ;
23b Describe the structure and synthesis of ATP and its universal role as the energy
currency in all living organisms. [8]
1. nucleotide ;
2. adenine + ribose / pentose + three phosphates ;
3. loss of phosphate leads to energy release / hydrolysis releases 30.5 kJ ;
4. ADP + Pi ↔ ATP (reversible reaction) ;
5. synthesised during, glycolysis / Krebs cycle / substrate level phosphorylation ;
6. synthesised, using electron carriers / oxidative phosphorylation / photophosphorylation ;
7. in, mitochondria / chloroplasts ;
8. ATP synthase / ATP synthetase ;
9. chemiosmosis / description;
10. used by cells as immediate energy donor ;
11. link between energy yielding and energy requiring reactions / AW ;
12. active transport / muscle contraction / Calvin cycle / protein synthesis ;
23
24a Describe a reflex arc and explain why such reflex arcs are important. [7]
1. strong stimulus in receptor / AW ;

2. action potential / impulses, along sensory neurone ;
3. dorsal root of spinal nerve ;
4. into spinal cord ;
5. synapse with intermediate neurone ;
6. (then) motor neurone ;
7. action potential / impulses, to effector ;
8. action potential / impulses, to brain ;
9. response ; e.g. knee jerk
10. fast / immediate ;
11. stops / limits, damage / danger ;
12. automatic / no conscious thought ;
13. innate / stereotyped / instinctive ;
24b Describe the structure of a myelin sheath and explain its role in the speed of
transmission of a nerve impulse. [8]
1. Schwann cells ;
2. wrap around axon ;
3. sheath mainly lipid ;
4. (sheath) insulates axon (membrane) ;
5. Na+ / K+, cannot pass through sheath / can only pass through membrane at nodes ;
6. depolarisation (of axon membrane) cannot occur where there is sheath / only at nodes of Ranvier ;
7. local circuits between nodes ;
8. action potentials ‘jump’ between nodes ;
10. increases speed / reduces time, of impulse transmission ;
11. up to 100 ms-1 ;
12. speed in non-myelinated neurones about 0.5 ms-1 ;
24
25a Outline the main features of the Krebs cycle. [9]
1. acetyl CoA combines with oxaloacetate ;

2. to form citrate ;
3. 4C to 6C ;
4. decarboxylation / CO2 released ;
5. dehydrogenation / oxidation / release of hydrogen ;
6. reduced NAD produced / NAD accepts hydrogen ;
7. reduced FAD produced / FAD accepts hydrogen ;
8. ATP produced ;
9. substrate level phosphorylation ;
10. series of, steps / intermediates ; Accept many named steps off a diagram
11. enzyme catalysed reactions ;
12. oxaloacetate regenerated ;
13. occurs in mitochondrial matrix ;
25b Explain the role of NAD in aerobic respiration. [6]
1. coenzyme ;
2. for dehydrogenase ;
3. reduced ;
4. carries, electrons and protons / hydrogen / NAD from Krebs cycle ;
5. and glycolysis ;
6. to ETC / electron carrier chain / oxidation ;
7. reoxidised / regenerated hydrogen removed ;
8. ATP produced ;
25
26a Describe how a nerve impulse crosses a cholinergic synapse. [9]
1. action potential / depolarisation, reaches presynaptic membrane ;

2. (Ca2+ ) channels open in presynaptic membrane / presynaptic membrane becomes more permeable
to (Ca2+ ) ; Reject calcium / Ca / Ca+
3. Ca2+ (flood) into presynaptic, neurone / knob ; Reject membrane
4. (this causes) vesicles of, acetylcholine / ACh ;
5. (to) move towards presynaptic membrane / (to) fuse with presynaptic membrane ;
6. ACh released into synaptic cleft / exocytosis of ACh ;
7. ACh diffuses across (cleft) ;
8. ACh binds to receptor (proteins) / AW ;
9. on postsynaptic membrane ;
10. proteins change shape / channels open ;
11. sodium ions (rush) into postsynaptic neurone ; Reject membrane
12. postsynaptic membrane depolarised ;
13. action potential / nerve impulse ;
14. action of acetylcholinesterase ;
26b Explain the roles of synapses in the nervous system. [6]
1. ensure one-way transmission ;

2. receptor (proteins) only in postsynaptic, membrane / neurone ; ora
3. vesicles only in presynaptic neurone ; ora
4. adaptation / ACh amount reduces due to overuse of synapse ;
5. wide range of responses ;
6. due to interconnection of many nerve pathways ;
7. inhibitory synapses affect other synapses ;
8. involved in memory / learning ;
9. due to new synapses being formed ;
10. summation / discrimination ;
26
2010 - June
27a Explain how the palisade mesophyll cells of a leaf are adapted for
photosynthesis. [8]
1. closely packed to absorb maximum light ;

2. vertical/at right angles to surface of leaf to reduce number of cross walls ;
3. large vacuole pushes chloroplasts to edge of cell ;
4. chloroplasts at edge short diffusion path for carbon dioxide ;
5. chloroplasts at edge to absorb maximum light ;
6. large number of chloroplasts to absorb maximum light ;
7. cylindrical cells or air spaces to circulate gases/provide a reservoir of CO2 ;
8. large surface area for diffusion of gases ;
9. moist cell surfaces for diffusion of gases ;
10. cell walls thin for maximum light penetration/diffusion of gases ;
11. chloroplasts can move towards light ;
12. chloroplasts can move away from high light intensity to avoid damage ;
27b Outline the light-independent stage of photosynthesis. [7]
1. Calvin cycle/stroma ;
2. carbon dioxide fixed by RuBP ;
3. Rubisco ;
4. 2 molecules of GP formed ; Accept PGA
5. (GP) forms TP ; Accept GALP/PGAL
6. use of ATP ;
7. use of, reduced NADP/NADPH ;
8. from light dependent stage ;
9. some TP forms, hexose/sucrose/starch/cellulose/glycerol ;
10. some TP converted to acetyl CoA ;
11. some TP used to regenerate RuBP ;
12. using ATP ;
27
28a Describe the structure of a kidney nephron and its associated blood vessels. [7]
1. renal/Bowman’s, capsule ;
2. ref. podocytes ;
3. (proximal convoluted tubule/distal convoluted tubule/capsule) in cortex ;
4. proximal convoluted tubule ;
5. loop of Henle ;
6. (loop) in medulla ;
7. distal convoluted tubule ;
8. afferent arteriole ;
9. glomerulus ;
10. efferent arteriole ;
11. capillary network around/proximal convoluted tubule/loop/distal convoluted tubule ;
12. collecting duct ;
accept points on a labelled diagram
28b Explain how glomerular filtrate is formed. [8]
1. endothelium of, blood capillaries/glomerulus ;

2. more/large, gaps between endothelial cells ;
3. podocytes ;
4. large gaps between podocytes/filtration slits ;
5. basement membrane, selective barrier/acts as a filter ;
6. prevents, large protein/RMM > 68 000, passing through ;
7. no cells pass through ;
8. named molecule which is filtered ; e.g. urea/water/glucose/uric acid/creatinine/ Na+ /K+ /Cl- ;
9. high, blood/hydrostatic, pressure in glomerulus ;
10. afferent arteriole wider than efferent arteriole ;
11. lower pressure in, renal/Bowman’s, capsule ;
12. fluid forced into capsule/ultrafiltration ;
28
29a Describe the structure of photosystems and explain how a photosystem
1. arranged in light harvesting, clusters/system ;

2. primary pigments/chlorophyll a ;
4. P700/PI, absorbs at 700(nm) ;
5. P680/PII, absorbs at 680(nm) ;
6. accessory pigments/chlorophyll b/carotenoids, surround, primary pigment/reaction centre/
chlorophyll a ;
7. pass energy to, primary pigment/reaction centre/chlorophyll a ;
8. P700 / PI, involved in cyclic photophosphorylation ;
9. (light absorbed results in) electron excited/AW ;
10. emitted from, chlorophyll/photosystem ;
11. flows along, chain of electron carriers/ETC ;
12. ATP synthesis ;
13. electron returns to, P700/P1 ;
29b Explain briefly how reduced NADP is formed in the light-dependent stage and
how it is used in the light-independent stage. [7]
1. photolysis (of water) ;

2. releases H+ ; Reject H/hydrogen atoms
3. by, P680/PII ;
4. e- released ;
5. by, P700/PI ;
6. both combine with NADP ;
7. (reduced NADP)
8. reduces, GP ; Accept PGA
9. to TP ; A PGAL / GALP
10. ATP used ;
11. NADP, regenerated/oxidised ;
29
30a Describe the structure of a myelinated sensory neurone. [7]
accept points on labelled diagram

1. nucleus in cell body ;
2. (long) dendron ; Reject plural
3. (shorter) axon ;
4. many mitochondria (in cell body) ;
5. many RER/Nissl’s granules, (in cell body) ;
6. synaptic knobs ;
7. detail of synaptic knob ;
8. (terminal) dendrites ;
9. Schwann cells ;
10. detail of myelin sheath ;
11. nodes of Ranvier ;
30b Explain how an action potential is transmitted along a sensory neurone. [8]
1. Na+ channels open ; Accept sodium channels

2. Na+ enter cell ; Reject enter membrane
3. inside becomes, less negative/positive/+40mV or membrane depolarised ;
4. Na+ channels close ; Accept sodium channels
5. K+ channels open ; Accept potassium channels
6. K+ move out (of cell) ; Reject of membrane
7. inside becomes negative or membrane repolarised ; Accept negative figure
8. local circuits/description ;
9. (myelin sheath/Schwann cells) insulate axon/does not allow movement of ions ;
10. action potential/depolarisation, only at nodes (of Ranvier)/gaps ;
11. saltatory conduction/AW ;
12. one-way transmission ;
13. AVP ; e.g. hyperpolarisation/refractory period
30
2010 - November
31a Outline the behaviour of chromosomes during meiosis. [9]
do not credit marking points out of sequence

prophase 1
1. idea of condensation of chromosomes ;
2. homologous chromosomes pair up / bivalent formed ;
metaphase 1
3. homologous chromosomes / bivalents, line up on equator ;
4. of spindle ;
5. by centromeres ;
6. independent assortment / described ;
7. chiasmata / described ;
8. crossing over / described ;
anaphase 1
9. chromosomes move to poles ;
10. homologous chromosomes / bivalents, separate ;
11. pulled by microtubules ;
12. reduction division ;
metaphase 2
13. chromosomes line up on equator ;
14. of spindle ;
anaphase 2
15. centromeres divide ;
16. chromatids move to poles ;
17. pulled by microtubules ;
18. ref. haploid number ;
31b Describe the ways by which gene mutations can occur. [6]
1. change in, base / nucleotide, sequence (in DNA) ;

2. during DNA replication ;
3. detail of change ; e.g. base, substitution / addition / deletion
4. frame shifts / AW ;
5. different / new, allele ;
6. random / spontaneous ;
7. mutagens ;
8. ionising radiation ;
9. UV radiation / mustard gas ;
31
32a Outline the need for energy in living organisms using named examples. [9]
1. ATP as universal energy currency ;

2. light energy needed for photosynthesis ;
3. ATP used conversion of GP to TP ;
4. ATP used to regenerate RuBP ;
5. (energy needed for) anabolic reactions ;
6. protein synthesis / starch formation / triglyceride formation ;
7. activation energy ;
8. (activate) glucose in glycolysis ;
9. active transport ;
10. example ; e.g. sodium / potassium pump
11. movement / locomotion ;
12. example ; e.g. muscle contraction / cilia beating
13. endocytosis / exocytosis / pinocytosis / bulk transport ;
14. temperature regulation ;
32b Explain the different energy values of carbohydrate, lipid and protein as
respiratory substrates. [6]
1. idea of lipid > protein > carbohydrate / AW ; Accept lipid has more energy than either protein or
carbohydrate
2. comparative figures ; e.g. 39.4, 17.0 and 15.8 accept any two
3. kJ g-1/ per unit mass ;
4. more hydrogen atoms in molecule, more energy ;
5. lipid have more, hydrogen atoms / C-H bonds ;
6. (most) energy comes from oxidation of hydrogen to water ;
7. using reduced, NAD / FAD ;
8. in ETC ;
9. detail of ETC ;
10. ATP production ;
32
33a Explain how meiosis and fertilisation may result in genetic variation in offspring.
[7]

4. in prophase 1 ;
8. independent assortment (of homologous chromosomes) ; Reject random assortment
9. at equator ;
10. (during) metaphase 1 ;
11. possible mutation ;
12. random mating ;
13. random fusion / fertilisation of gametes ;
33b Explain, using examples, how the environment may affect the phenotype of an
organism. [8]
1. phenotypic variation results from interaction of genotype and environment / VP = VG + VE ;

2. environment may modify expression of gene(s) ; must be stated
3. e.g. for size / mass / height ;
4. because, food / nutrient / ion, missing or in short supply ; A malnutrition
5. named, food / nutrient / ion, (missing or in short supply) ;
6. environment may, trigger / switch on, gene ; must be stated
7. ref. low temperature and change in animal colour ;
8. ref. high temperature and, curled wing in Drosophila / gender in crocodiles ;
9. ref. UV light and melanin production ;
10. ref. wavelength of light and, flowering / germination / fruit colour ;
11. other named trigger plus example ;
12. environment effect usually greater on polygenes / ora ;
13. environment may induce mutation affecting phenotype ;
33
34a Describe the structure of ATP and the role of ATP as the energy currency in all
living organisms. [8]
1. nucleotide ;
2. adenine + ribose / pentose + three phosphates ;
3. loss of phosphate leads to energy release / hydrolysis releases 30.5 kJ ;
4. ADP + Pi ATP (reversible reaction) ;
5. small packets of energy ;
6. small / water soluble, so can move around cell ;
7. used by cells as immediate energy donor ;
8. link between energy yielding and energy requiring reactions / AW ;
9. high turnover ;
10. two examples of use ; ; e.g. active transport / muscle contraction / Calvin cycle / protein synthesis
34b Outline anaerobic respiration in mammalian cells and describe how it differs
from anaerobic respiration in yeast cells. [7]
1. pyruvate, cannot enter mitochondrion / remains in the cytoplasm ;

2. becomes, hydrogen acceptor / reduced ;
3. by reduced NAD ;
4. from glycolysis ;
5. converted to lactate ;
6. lactate dehydrogenase ;
8. no, decarboxylation / CO2 removed ;
9. single step ;
10. reversible reaction / converted back to pyruvate ;
11. by oxidation ;
12. ref. oxygen debt ;
13. ethanol produced ;
34
2011 - June
35a Outline the ways in which the endocrine and nervous systems carry out their
roles in control and coordination in animals. [8]
endocrine
1. hormones ;
2. chemical messengers ; Accept chemicals that transfer information
3. ductless glands / (released) into blood ;
4. target, organs / cells ;
5. ref. receptors on cell membranes ;
6. example of named hormone and effect ;
nervous
7. impulses/ action potentials ; Reject electrical, signals / current
8. along, axon / neurones / nerve fibres ; Reject nerves Reject across
9. synapse (with target) / neuromuscular junction ;
10. ref. receptor / sensory neurones ;
11. ref. effector / motor neurones ;
differences – endocrine
12. slow effect / ora ;
13. long lasting effect / ora ;
14. widespread effect / ora ;
15. AVP ; e.g. extra detail of synapse / hormone changes triggered within cells
1. IAA / plant growth regulator ; Reject plant hormone

2. synthesised in, growing tips / apical buds / meristems ; Reject root tip
3. moves by diffusion ;
4. moves by active transport ;
9. plant grows, upwards / taller ; Accept stem elongates
10. auxin not solely responsible or interaction between auxin and other plant growth regulators ;
11. AVP ; e.g. role of ABA and lateral bud inhibition
12. AVP ; e.g. cytokinins antagonistic to IAA / gibberellins enhance IAA
35
36a Describe how non-cyclic photophosphorylation produces ATP and reduced
NADP. [9]
1. photosystem I (PI) and photosystem II (PII) involved ;

2. light harvesting clusters ;
3. light absorbed by accessory pigments ;
4. primary pigment is chlorophyll a ;
5. energy passed to, primary pigment / chlorophyll a ;
6. electrons, excited / raised to higher energy level ;
7. (electrons) taken up by electron acceptor ;
8. (electrons) pass down electron carrier chain (to produce ATP) ;
9. PII has (water splitting) enzyme ;
10. water split into protons, electrons and oxygen ; A equation
11. photolysis ;
12. electrons from PII pass to PI / electrons from water pass to PII ;
13. to replace those lost ; give either in relation to PI or PII
14. protons and electrons combine with NADP (to produce reduced NADP) ;
can award these marking points from a diagram
36b Outline the steps of the Calvin cycle. [6]
1. RuBP combines with carbon dioxide ;

2. Rubisco ;
3. forms unstable 6C compound ;
4. produces two molecules of, GP / PGA ;
5. GP / PGA, converted to TP ;
6. by reduced NADP and ATP ;
7. from light dependent stage ;
8. TP used to regenerate RuBP ;
9. using ATP ;
10. TP can form, hexose / fatty acids / acetyl CoA ;
36
37a Describe the photoactivation of chlorophyll and its role in cyclic
photophosphorylation. [8]
1. (photosynthetic pigments) arranged in light harvesting clusters ;

4. P700 / PI, absorbs light at 700nm ;
5. accessory pigments / chlorophyll b / carotenoids ;
6. surround, primary pigment / reaction centre / chlorophyll a ;
7. absorb light ;
8. pass energy to, primary pigment / reaction centre / chlorophyll a ;
10. emitted from, chlorophyll / primary pigment / reaction centre ;
11. passes to electron, acceptor / carrier ;
12. (electron) passes along, chain of electron carriers / ETC ;
13. ATP (synthesis) ;
14. electron returns to, P700 / PI ;
37b Explain briefly how reduced NADP is formed in the light-dependent stage and
how it is used in the light-independent stage. [7]
2. releases H+ ; Reject H / hydrogen atoms
3. by, P680 / PII ;
4. e– released from, P700 / PI ;
5. e– (from PI) and H+ combine with NADP ;
6. used in Calvin cycle ;
7. reduces, GP / PGA ;
8. to TP ;
9. ATP used (during reduction of GP) ;
10. NADP, regenerated / oxidised ;
37
38a Describe the role of abscisic acid (ABA) in the closure of a stoma. [8]
accept ABA for abscisic acid

1. stress hormone ;
2. plant secretes ABA in, high temperatures / dry conditions ;
3. ABA binds to receptors ;
4. on plasma membranes of guard cells ;
5. inhibits proton pump / H+ not pumped out of cell ;
6. high H+ conc. / positive charge, inside cell ;
7. K+ diffuses out of cell ;
8. water potential of cell increases ; Accept increase in solute potential
9. water moves out of cell by osmosis ;
10. volume of guard cells decreases ;
11. guard cells become flaccid ;
12. response very fast ;
38b Describe the role of gibberellins in the germination of barley seeds. [7]
1. (barley) seed is, dormant / metabolically inactive ;

2. seed absorbs water ;
3. embryo produces gibberellin ;
4. gibberellin stimulates aleurone layer ;
5. to produce amylase ;
6. amylase hydrolyses starch ;
7. in endosperm ;
8. to maltose / glucose ;
9. embryo uses sugars for respiration ;
10. energy used for growth ;
11. gibberellins affect, gene / transcription of mRNA, coding for amylase ;
38
2011 - November
39a Describe how the structure of a chloroplast is related to its functions. [9]
1. ground substance / stroma ;

2. for, light independent stage / Calvin cycle ;
3. contains enzymes / named enzyme e.g. rubisco ;
4. also, sugars / lipids / starch / ribosomes / DNA ;
6. for, light dependent stage ;
7. fluid-filled sacs / thylakoids ;
8. grana are stacks of thylakoids ;
9. (grana) hold (photosynthetic) pigments ;
10. (grana) have large surface area for (maximum) light absorption ;
11. (pigments are arranged in), light harvesting clusters / photosystems ;
12. primary pigment / reaction centre / chlorophyll a, surrounded by accessory pigments ;
13. (accessory pigments) pass energy to, primary pigment / reaction centre / chlorophyll a ;
14. different photosystems absorb light at different wavelengths ;
15. membranes hold, ATP synthase / electron carriers ;
16. for, photophosphorylation / chemiosmosis ;
39b Describe how you would separate chloroplast pigments using chromatography.
[6]
1. grind leaf with solvent ;

2. example of solvent ; e.g. propanone
3. leaf extract contains mixture of pigments ;
4. ref. concentrate extract ;
5. further detail ; e.g. pencil line drawn / extract placed on chromatography paper / repetitive spotting
/ drying between spots
6. paper placed (vertically) in jar of (different) solvent ;
7. solvent rises up paper ;
8. each pigment travels at different speed ;
9. pigments separated as they ascend ;
10. distance moved by each pigment is unique ;
11. Rf value ;
12. two dimensional chromatography ;
13. better separation of pigments ;
39
40a Describe how a resting potential is maintained in an axon. [9]
1. axon phospholipid bilayer impermeable to K+ / Na+ ;

2. sodium – potassium pump ;
3. detail of sodium-potassium pump ; e.g. transmembrane / globular / ATP binding site
4. active process / ATP used / energy needed ;
5. 3 Na+ (pumped) out / 2 K+ (pumped) in ;
6. K+ diffuse out / Na+ diffuse in ;
7. through, protein channels transport proteins ;
8. more K+ channels open than Na+ channels ;
9. therefore, membrane more permeable to K+ or more K+ leave than Na+ enter (axon) ;
10. inside relatively more negative than outside ;
11. –65mV ; A –70mV
12. idea of leaking K+ responsible for resting potential / AW ;
13. electrochemical gradient ;
14. voltage-gated channels closed ;
40b Describe, using named examples, how sensory receptors in mammals generate
action potentials. [6]
1. respond to stimuli / AW ;
2. (some) receptors are the ends of sensory neurones ;
3. (some) receptors are cells ;
4. they are energy transducers ;
5. stimulus causes sodium ion channels to open ;
6. sodium ions enter cell ;
7. depolarisation ;
8. receptor / generator, potential ;
9. if (receptor potential) greater than threshold then action potential generated / all or nothing
principle described ;
10. increased stimulus strength leads to increased frequency of action potentials ;
allow any two below. Receptor == form of energy detected
11. rods / cones == light ;
12. taste buds / olfactory cells == chemical ;
13. Pacinian or Meissner’s, corpuscle == pressure / touch ;
14. Ruffinis endings == heat ;
15. proprioceptors == mechanical displacement ;
16. hair cells in semi-circular canals == movement ;
17. hairs cells in cochlea == sound ;
40
41a Explain how the palisade mesophyll cells of a leaf are adapted for
photosynthesis. [7]
1. closely packed to absorb (maximum) light ;

2. vertical / at right angles to surface of leaf to reduce number of cross walls ;
3. large vacuole pushes chloroplasts to edge of cell ;
4. chloroplasts at edge short diffusion path for carbon dioxide ;
5. chloroplasts at edge to absorb (maximum) light ;
6. large number of chloroplasts to absorb (maximum) light ;
7. cylindrical cells or air spaces to circulate gases / provide a reservoir of CO2 ;
8. moist cell surfaces for diffusion of gases ;
9. cell walls thin for (maximum) light penetration / diffusion (of gases) ;
10. chloroplasts can move towards light to absorb (maximum) light ;
11. chloroplasts can move away from high light intensity to avoid damage ;
41b Describe the structure of photosystems and explain how a photosystem

accept annotated diagram

1. arranged in light harvesting, clusters / system ;
4. P700 / PI, absorbs at 700(nm) ;
5. P680 / PII, absorbs at 680(nm) ;
6. accessory pigments / chlorophyll b / carotenoids, surround, primary pigment / reaction centre /
chlorophyll a ;
7. pass energy to, primary pigment / reaction centre / chlorophyll a ;
8. P700 / PI, involved (in cyclic photophosphorylation) ;
10. emitted from, chlorophyll / photosystem ;
11. flows along, chain of electron carriers / ETC ;
12. ATP synthesis ;
13. electron returns to, P700 / PI ;
41
42a Explain how changes in the nucleotide sequence of DNA may affect the amino
acid sequence in a protein. [8]
1. (amino acid) code is three, bases / nucleotides ; Accept triplet code

2. (gene) mutation ; Reject chromosome mutation
3. base / nucleotide, substitution / addition / deletion
4. addition / deletion, has large effect (on amino acid sequence) ;
5. frame shift ;
6. completely new code after mutation / alters every 3 base sequence which follows ;
7. substitution may have little or no effect / silent mutation ;
8. different triplet but same amino acid / new amino acid in non-functional part of protein ;
9. substitution may have big effect (on amino acid sequence) ;
10. could produce ‘stop’ codon ;
11. sickle cell anaemia / PKU / cystic fibrosis ;
12. reference to transcription or translation in correct context ; Accept description
42b Explain how the allele for haemophilia may be passed from a man to his
grandchildren. You may use genetic diagrams to support your answer. [7]
1. (haemophilia) allele on X chromosome ; Accept gene

2. sex-linked ;
3. (haemophilia) allele recessive ;
4. man, homogametic / has one X chromosome ;
5. Y chromosome does not have blood clotting gene ;
6. only daughter(s) get his X chromosome ;
7. daughter(s) carrier(s) of (haemophilia) allele ;
8. grandson(s) 50% chance of having, (haemophilia) allele / haemophilia ;
9. granddaughter(s) 50% chance of carrying, (haemophilia) allele ;
allow following marks from diagram
10. correct symbols ; e.g. XH and Xh explained
11. man’s genotype ; e.g. XhY Ignore partner’s genotype
12. F1 (daughter’s) genotype ; e.g. XHXh Ignore her partner’s genotype
13. F2 (grandson’s) genotypes ; e.g. XhY XHY both required
14. F2 (granddaughter’s) genotypes ; e.g. XHXH XHXh both required or XhXh XHXh
42
2012 - June
43a Describe how ATP is synthesised by oxidative phosphorylation. [8]

2. passed to ETC ;
6. electrons pass along, carriers / cytochromes ;
7. ref. energy gradient ;
8. energy released pumps protons into intermembrane space ;
9. proton gradient ;
10. protons pass through (protein) channels ;
11. ATP synthase / stalked particles ;
12. (ATP produced from) ADP and inorganic phosphate ;
13. electron transferred to oxygen ;
43b Using examples, outline the need for energy in living organisms. [7]
1. organisms need energy, to stay alive / for metabolism / AW ;

2. ATP as, (universal) energy currency / described ;
3. light energy for photosynthesis ; Accept light dependent stage
4. light-dependent stage detail ;
5. light-independent stage detail ;
6. chemical energy ;
7. for anabolic reactions ;
8. named reaction; e.g. protein synthesis / starch formation
9. activation of glucose in glycolysis / described ;
10. active transport ;
11. detail; e.g. sodium - potassium pump /movement against a concentration gradient
12. mechanical energy / movement ;
13. detail ; e.g. muscle contraction / spindle
14. temperature regulation ;
15. AVP ; e.g. bioluminescence / electrical discharge
43
44a Describe the structure of a kidney, including its associated blood vessels. [6]
many of these mps can be given from a labelled diagram

1. (outer) cortex ;
2. medulla ;
3. pelvis ;
4. renal artery ;
5. renal vein ;
6. nephron / (kidney) tubule ;
7. renal capsule / proximal convoluted tubule (PCT) / distal convoluted tubule (DCT), in cortex ;
8. loop of Henle / collecting duct (CD), in medulla ;
9. glomerulus ;
10. afferent & efferent arterioles;
11. capillary network, surrounds tubule / in medulla ;
44b Describe the mechanisms involved in reabsorption in the proximal convoluted

tubule and describe how the epithelial cells of the proximal convoluted tubule
are adapted to carry out this process. [9]
mechanisms
1. active transport ; Accept actively pumped / uses ATP
2. Na+, out of pct cells / into blood ;
3. (sets up) Na+ ion gradient ;
4. facilitated diffusion ;
5. using protein carrier ; Accept transport protein
6. cotransport (from lumen to pct cell) ;
7. of, glucose / amino acids / ions ;
8. osmosis ;
9. down water potential gradient ;
10. diffusion (in correct context) ;
11. down a concentration gradient ; max 7
adaptations
12. microvilli ; Accept brush border
13. many mitochondria ;
14. tight junctions ;
15. folded, basal membrane / described ;
16. many, transport proteins / cotransporters / pumps;
17. AVP ; e.g. many aquaporins
44
45a Explain the role of ATP in active transport of ions and in named anabolic
reactions. [7]
Active transport or anabolic reactions

1. ATP provides energy (linked to either) ; ignore ref. to energy currency alone
Active transport
2. movement against concentration gradient ;
3. carrier / transport, protein (in membrane) ; ignore pump
4. binds to (specific) ion ;
5. protein changes shape ;
Anabolic reactions
6. synthesis of complex substances from simpler ones ;
7. starch / cellulose / glycogen, from, monosaccharides / named monosaccharides / named sugar ;
8. glycosidic bonds ;
9. lipid / triglyceride, from fatty acids and glycerol ;
10. ester bonds ;
11. polypeptides / proteins, from amino acids ;
12. peptide bonds ;
13. other named polymer from suitable monomer ;
14. appropriate named bond ;
45b Outline the process of anaerobic respiration in both mammal and yeast cells. [8]
general
1. reduced NAD produced in glycolysis ; Accept glycolysis described
2. small amount of ATP produced in glycolysis ;
in yeast cells
3. pyruvate converted to ethanal ;
4. carbon dioxide released / decarboxylation ;
5. ethanal, reduced / accepts H ;
6. by reduced NAD ;
7. ethanol formed ;
in mammalian cells
8. pyruvate converted to lactate ;
9. by reduced NAD ;
10. in, liver / muscle, cells ;
11. reversible in mammal / irreversible in yeast
12. single step in mammal / more than 1 in yeas
13. reoxidised NAD allows glycolysis to continue
45
2012 - November
46a Describe the first division of meiosis (meiosis I) in animal cells. [6]
1. reduction division / (to) halve number of chromosomes / diploid to haploid / AW ;

2. homologous chromosomes pair up / bivalents form ;
3. ref. chiasmata / ref. crossing over ;
4. homologous chromosome pairs / bivalents, line up on equator ;
5. independent assortment ;
6. spindle / microtubules, attached to centromeres ;
7. chromosomes of each pair pulled to opposite poles ;
8. by shortening of, spindle / microtubules ;
9. nuclear envelopes re-form ;
10. cytokinesis / AW ;
46b Discuss the link between the frequency of sickle cell anaemia and the number of
cases of malaria. [9]
accept alternative symbols for alleles throughout

1. frequency of sickle cell anaemia is highest in areas where malaria is common ;
2. sickle cell anaemia red blood cells cannot carry oxygen very well / AW ; Accept sickling blocks
capillaries
3. homozygous HS / HSHS, have sickle cell anaemia / may die ;
4. homozygous HN / HNHN, have normal, Hb / red blood cells ;
5. heterozygotes, have sickle cell trait or (sickle cell trait) red blood cells not (severely) affected ;
6. malaria parasite / Plasmodium, affects red blood cells ;
7. malaria lethal ;
8. sickle cell trait people / heterozygotes, less likely to suffer from (severe effects of) malaria ;
9. have selective advantage ;
10. pass on both HN and HS ;
11. malaria selects against, homozygous HN / HNHN ;
12. sickle cell anaemia selects against, homozygous HS / HSHS ;
13. idea that sickle cell allele is maintained within population because of sickle cell trait individuals ;
46
47a Describe the arrangement and location of chloroplast pigments and discuss
their effect on absorption spectra. [8]
1. chlorophyll a is primary pigment ;

2. carotenoids / chlorophyll b, is accessory pigment ;
3. arranged in, light harvesting clusters / photosystems ; Accept antenna complex on, grana /
thylakoids ;
4. ref. PI and PII ; Accept P700 and P680
5. primary pigment / chlorophyll a, in reaction centre ;
6. accessory pigments / carotenoids / chlorophyll b, surround primary pigment ;
7. light energy absorbed by, accessory pigments / carotenoids / chlorophyll b ;
8. (energy) passed on to, primary pigment / chlorophyll a / reaction centre ;
9. chlorophyll a and b absorb light in red and blue/violet region ;
10. carotenoids absorb light in blue/violet region ;
11. ref. absorption spectrum peaks ;
12. diagram of absorption spectrum ;
13. different combinations of pigments (in different plants) give different spectra ;
1. IAA / plant growth regulator / plant growth substance / plant hormone ;

2. synthesised in, growing tips / apical buds / meristems ;
3. moves by, diffusion / active transport ;
8. plant grows, upwards / taller or allows stem to grow up to light (instead of sprouting ) ; Accept stem
elongates
9. auxin not solely responsible for apical dominance or there is interaction between auxin and other
plant growth regulators ;
10. ref. idea of concentration gradient down shoot so effect of dominance decreases ;
11. AVP ; e.g. role of ABA and lateral bud inhibition / cytokinins antagonistic to IAA / gibberellins
enhance IAA
47
48a Describe how crossing over and independent assortment can lead to genetic
variation. [9]
1. occur during meiosis I ;

crossing over
3. of, (a pair of) homologous chromosomes / a bivalent ;
4. in prophase 1 ;
5. at chiasma(ta) ;
7. linkage groups broken / AW ;
8. new combination of alleles (within each chromosome) ;
independent assortment
9. of homologous chromosomes pairs / bivalents ;
10. each pair lines up independently of others ;
11. line up on equator ;
13. results in gametes that are genetically unique / AW ;
48b Outline how artificial selection differs from natural selection. [6]
artificial selection natural selection
selection (pressure by) humans environmental selection pressure
genetic diversity lowered genetic diversity remains high
inbreeding common outbreeding common
loss of vigour / inbreeding depression increased vigour / less chance of inbreeding

depression
increased homozygosity / decreased decreased homozygosity / increased

heterozygosity heterozygosity
no isolation mechanisms operating isolation mechanisms do operate
(usually) faster (usually) slower
selected feature for human benefit selected feature for organism’s benefit
not for, survival / evolution promotes, survival / evolution
48
49a Outline the process of the photolysis of water and describe what happens to the
products of photolysis. [10]
1. PII absorbs light ;

2. enzyme (in PII) involved ;
3. to break down water / AW ;
4. 2H2O 4H+ + 4e– + O2 ;
5. oxygen is produced ;
6. used by cells for (aerobic) respiration ;
7. or released (out of plant) through stomata ;
8. protons used to reduce NADP ;
9. with electrons from PI ;
10. reduced NADP used in, light independent stage / Calvin cycle ;
11. to convert GP to TP ;
12. electrons also used in ETC ;
13. to release energy for photophosphorylation ;
14. to produce ATP ;
15. electrons (from PII) go to PI ;
16. ref. re-stabilise PI ;
49b Describe the roles of gibberellins in stem elongation. [5]
1. gibberellin is a, plant growth regulator / plant hormone / plant growth substance ;

2. stimulates cell division ;
3. stimulates cell elongation ;
4. detail of cell elongation ; e.g. changes plasticity of cell wall
5. plant grows tall ;
6. apply gibberellin to dwarf plants and they grow taller / gibberellin promotes bolting of some rosette
plants ;
7. ref. inactive and active forms ;
8. dwarf plants, lack active form / have inactive form, of gibberellin ;
9. (dominant) allele causes synthesis of enzyme ;
10. (enzyme) catalyses the production of the active form of gibberellin ;
11. recessive allele only inactive form of gibberellin formed / dominant allele results in active form of
gibberellins ;
12. AVP ; e.g. ref. to different forms of gibberellins / there is interaction between / gibberellin and other
plant growth regulators
49
2013 - June
50a Explain the need to maintain biodiversity in an ecosystem such as a tropical
rainforest. [7]
1. cultural/aesthetic / leisure, reasons ;

2. moral/ethical, reasons ; e.g. right to exist/prevent extinction;
3. resource material ; e.g. wood (for building)/fibres for clothes/food for humans/(herbal) medicine
4. (eco)tourism ;
5. economic benefits ;
6. ref. resource / species, may have use in future/AW ; e.g. medical use
7. maintains, food webs / food chains ; Accept description
8. nutrient cycling ;
9. protection against erosion ;
10. climate stability ;
11. maintains, (large) gene pool/genetic variation ;
12. scientific research ;
50b Discuss the advantages and the disadvantages of captive breeding programmes
for mammals. [8]
advantages (max 5)
1. can monitor health of mother ;
2. can monitor development of foetus ;
3. storage of, sperm/eggs/gametes ;
4. artificial insemination ;
5. IVF ;
6. ref. surrogate mothers ;
7. international cooperation ;
8. genetic records kept ;
9. can prevent extinction/extend range of a species/used in restoring ecosystem ;
disadvantages (max 5)
1. unnatural environment ;
2. stress in captivity ;
3. behavioural changes ;
4. reproductive cycles disrupted ;
5. may reject selected mate ;
6. examples of problems with release ;; difficulty in finding food / may not integrate into groups / more
susceptible to disease / very little natural habitat left to release animals into
50
51a Explain how the physiology of the leaves of a C4 plant, such as maize, is
adapted for efficient carbon fixation at high temperatures. [7]
in C3 plants at high temperature

1. rubisco combines with oxygen ;
2. less rubisco to combine with CO2 ;
in C4 plant such as maize
3. idea of spatial separation of light-dependent stage from carbon fixation;
4. rubisco/RuBP, in bundle sheath cells ;
5. kept away from, oxygen/air ;
6. mesophyll cells, absorb CO2 ;
7. CO2 released to combine with RuBP ;
8. avoid/reduce, photorespiration ;
9. high optimum temperatures of enzymes involved ;
10. Calvin cycle can continue ;
11. AVP ; e.g. CO2 reacts with PEP
12. PEP carboxylase ;
51b Describe how, in photosynthesis, light energy is converted into chemical

energy, in the form of ATP. [8]
1. light energy absorbed by chlorophyll ; Accept photosystems/pigments

2. electron, excited/raised to higher energy level ;
3. (electron) emitted by chlorophyll ; Accept photosystems/pigments
4. passes to electron, acceptor/carrier ;
5. passes along, chain of electron carriers/ETC/Electron Transfer Chain ;
6. energy released used to pump protons ; Ignore ATP production here
7. into thylakoid space ;
8. thylakoid membrane impermeable to protons ;
9. proton gradient forms ;
10. protons move down gradient ;
11. through/using, ATP synthase/ATP synthetase ; Reject ATPase
12. enzyme rotates ;
13. ATP produced from ADP and Pi ;
51
52a Bacteria are members of the kingdom Prokaryota. Describe the main features of
a bacterial cell. [8]
1. DNA not surrounded by nuclear membrane / no nucleus ;

2. (prokaryote) DNA is circular ;
3. DNA not associated with histones ; Accept naked DNA
4. plasmids (may) be present ;
5. no (double) membrane-bound organelles ; Accept no, mitochondria / chloroplasts
6. no, ER / Golgi ; Accept ribosomes not attached to membranes
7. ribosomes,70S / 18 nm / smaller (than eukaryotic cells) ;
8. cell wall made of, peptidoglycan / murein / amino sugars / AW ;
9. (usually) unicellular ;
10. 0.5 to 5.0 µm diameter ; Accept any value between 0.5 and 5.0 as long as µm is used
11. AVP ; (may) have, flagella / pili / capsule / slime layer
52b Outline the use of bacteria in the extraction of metals from ores. [7]
1. ores (may) contain metal sulfides ;

2. example ; e.g. iron / copper / zinc / cobalt / lead
3. insoluble in water so difficult to extract ;
4. bacteria oxidise metal sulfide ;
5. to soluble sulfate ;
6. bioleaching ;
7. example of bacteria ; e.g. A. ferrooxidans
8. bacteria need to survive in acidic conditions ;
9. mixture of bacteria required (in bioheap) ;
10. (in order to) survive a wide range of temperatures / range of bacteria with different temperature
optima ;
11. Advantage ; e.g. low grade ores / spoil heaps, can be exploited / can get metal from industrial waste
/ does not produce sulfur dioxide / can be done in situ / low energy demand / less (heavy)
machinery / not labour intensive/ relatively cheaper (than other mining methods)
52
53a Describe the structure of a chloroplast. [7]
Ignore references to function. Accept from diagram

1. 3 – 10 μm (diameter) ;
2. double membrane ;
4. contains enzymes / named enzyme, e.g. rubisco ;
5. also, sugars / lipids / starch ;
6. 70S / AW, ribosomes ;
7. circular DNA ;
8. internal membrane system / fluid-filled sacs / thylakoids ; Accept flattened sacs
10. (grana) membranes hold, photosynthetic pigments / ATP synthase / ETC ;
53b Explain how rice is adapted to growing in flooded fields. [8]
1. ethene (in plant) ;

2. stimulates production of gibberellin ;
3. gibberellin stimulates, cell division / cell elongation / increase in stem length ;
4. leaves / flowers, above water ;
5. (so) photosynthesis can occur ;
6. (so) sexual reproduction / pollination, can occur ;
7. aerenchyma / description ;
8. assists gas diffusion (within plant) ;
9. air can be trapped by specialised underwater leaves ;
10. (submerged parts of plant) carry out anaerobic respiration ;
11. produce ethanol ;
12. can tolerate high concentrations of ethanol ;
13. produce a lot of ethanol dehydrogenase ;
53
2013 - November
54a Explain what is meant by a gene mutation and outline the possible
consequences of a gene mutation for an organism. [9]
1. chance / random / spontaneous ;

2. change in, base / nucleotide, sequence (in DNA) ;
3. during DNA replication ;
4. base substitution ;
5. often no effect / silent mutation / may code for same amino acid ;
6. base addition / base deletion ;
7. have great effect on phenotype ;
8. frame shifts ;
9. alters whole sequence of bases after mutation ;
10. may lead to stop codon ;
11. different / new, allele ;
12. protein, different shape / different function / not made ;
54b Explain how faulty CFTR proteins in cell surface membranes can lead to the
symptoms of cystic fibrosis. [6]
1. no / no functional, channels for Cl- ions ;

2. Cl - ions do not move out ;
3. less water leaves cell ;
4. mucus (on cell surface membrane) stays, thick / sticky ;
symptoms – any 4 from:
5. mucus not moved effectively by cilia / mucus accumulates ;
6. reduced gaseous exchange / longer diffusion pathway ;
7. difficulty in breathing ;
8. more infections / (mucus) traps bacteria ;
9. lungs are scarred ;
10. blocked sperm ducts ;
11. blocked pancreatic duct ;
54
55a Describe the main features of an organism belonging to the plant kingdom. [8]
1. multicellular ;
2. differentiated cells ;
3. (most) have, vascular tissue / xylem and phloem ;
4. eukaryotic (cells) ;
5. ref. meristems ;
6. (most) are not motile ;
7. motile gametes only in mosses and ferns ;
8. autotrophic nutrition / photosynthesis ;
cells have:
9. chloroplasts ;
10. large / central, vacuole ;
11. walls made of cellulose ;
55b Describe the structure of a mitochondrion and outline its function in a plant cell.
[8]
1. 0.5–1.0 μm, diameter / width ;

3. inner membrane folded / cristae ;
4. hold, stalked particles / ATP synthase / ATP synthetase ;
5. site of ETC ;
6. ref. H+ and intermembrane space ;
7. ATP production ;
8. oxidative phosphorylation / chemiosmosis ;
9. matrix is site of, link reaction / Krebs cycle ;
10. enzymes in matrix ;
11. 70S ribosomes ;
12. (mitochondrial) DNA ;
55
56a Cystic fibrosis (CF) is a genetic disease caused by an autosomal recessive
allele. Gene therapy has been attempted to treat CF since 1993. Outline the basic
principles of gene therapy for the treatment of CF. [8]
1. (CF caused by) mutation ;

2. of CFTR gene ;
3. (CFTR) protein defective ;
4. (so) insert, normal / dominant, (CFTR) allele ;
5. into DNA ; Accept chromosome
6. in cells of respiratory system ; Accept named part of airway Ignore alveoli
7. ref. to vector ;
8. taken as spray / inhaled ;
9. use liposomes ;
10. use harmless virus ;
11. not all cells take up virus ;
12. may have unpleasant side-effects ;
13. effects are short-lived / treatment needs repeating ;
56b Describe the role of a genetic counsellor in dealing with genetic diseases in
humans and discuss the circumstances in which a couple might be referred to a
genetic counsellor. [7]
counsellor:
1. ref. to pedigree analysis ;
2. ref. to genetic screening / DNA analysis ;
3. detail of genetic screening ; e.g. tissue samples from adults / IVF and test embryos/ amniocentesis
4. explains results of tests / estimates chances of having affected child ;
5. (may discuss) termination ;
6. (may discuss) alternative, therapies / treatments ;
7. (may discuss) financial implications (of having affected child) ;
8. (may discuss) the effect of having affected child on existing siblings ;
9. (may discuss) ethical issues ; max 6
couple referred if:
10. either has genetic disease (in family) or are carriers ;
11. history of recurrent miscarriages ;
12. older woman ;
56
57a Describe the role of the hormone insulin in maintaining a constant blood
glucose concentration. [6]
1. rise in blood glucose concentration detected by β cells ;

2. (β cells) in, islets of Langerhans / pancreas ;
3. insulin released into blood ;
4. binds to receptors in cell surface membrane ;
5. ref. to liver / muscle, cells ;
6. increase in uptake of glucose (by cells) / (cell surface) membrane more permeable to glucose ;
7. increase in use of glucose in respiration ;
8. (increase in) conversion of glucose to glycogen ;
9. blood glucose concentration falls ;
10. inhibits, glycogen / lipid / amino acid, breakdown ;
57b The hormone human chorionic gonadotrophin (HCG) is produced by a woman in

the early stages of pregnancy. Describe how a pregnancy test kit can detect the
presence of HCG. [9]
1. (stick / kit) dipped in (early morning) urine sample ;

2. hCG / urine, moves up strip ;
3. idea that hCG acts as antigen ;
4. (mobile) antibody also bound to, indicator / gold ;
5. (mobile) antibody in stick binds to hCG ;
6. ref. to variable region (of antibody) ;
7. ref. to specificity (of antibody) ;
8. ref. to monoclonal (antibody) ;
first window or region
9. second antibody is, immobilised / fixed ;
10. first antibody and hCG complex binds to second antibody ;
11. coloured band indicates pregnancy ;
12. second window or region
13. immobile antibody binds to mobile antibody-gold complex ;
14. second coloured band shows strip is working ;
57
2014 - June
58a It has been stated that the kingdom Protoctista can be described as a very
diverse group of organisms that share only a few common features. Discuss the
ways in which members of the kingdom Protoctista are similar to each other and
ways in which they differ. [7]
similarities
2. detail of eukaryotic cell ;; e.g. nucleus / linear DNA / chromosomes associated with histones /
(named) membrane-bound organelles / 80S ribosomes
differences
3. single-celled or colonial / multicellular ;
4. autotrophic or heterotrophic ;
5. motile or unable to move ;
6. cell wall or no cell wall ;
7. vacuole or no vacuole ;
8. different life cycles ;
58b With reference to any named species of plant or animal, explain why this species is
considered to be endangered and outline the reasons that have caused it to
become endangered. [8]
1. fall in numbers ;
2. danger of becoming extinct ;
3. ref. (IUCN / International Union for Conservation of Nature) / red list ;
one mark for idea, additional mark if qualified with point specific to named example
4. e.g. habitat destruction ; detail ;
5. climate change ; detail ; e.g. rise in temperature
6. increase in disease ; detail ;
7. increase in, predators / grazers ; detail ;
8. decrease in food ; detail ;
9. named pollutant and habitat affected ; detail ;
10. hunting / killing / poaching / removal (plant) ; detail ; e.g. trade in animal parts, selling rare plants
11. increased competition ; detail ;
12. lack of human education ; detail ;
13. disturbance to breeding sites ; detail ;
58
59a Describe the action of penicillin on bacteria. [8]
1. bacteria walls made of peptidoglycans ;

2. bacteria secrete autolysins ;
3. make holes in cell wall / AW ;
4. to allow wall to stretch during growth / AW ;
5. (glycoprotein) peptidases form cross-links (between peptidoglycans) ;
6. (penicillin) inhibits (glycoprotein) peptidases ;
7. cross-links (between peptidoglycans) do not form ;
8. cell wall weakened ;
9. bacteria take in water by osmosis ;
10. increased turgor pressure causes cell to burst ; AW
11. AVP ; e.g. competitive inhibition
59b Outline the use of microorganisms in the extraction of heavy metals from their
ores. [7]
1. ref. bioleaching ;
2. Acidithiobacillus / A. ferrooxidans ;
3. low grade ores / (mine) waste ;
4. two metals ; e.g. copper, zinc, cobalt, uranium, lead, nickel, gold, silver iron
5. insoluble ore turned into soluble products ;
6. ore piled up ;
7. acidic conditions created / pH low(ered) / pH 1.5 – 3 ;
8. different bacteria at different temperatures ;
9. chemoautotrophic ; Accept description
10. oxidation (reactions) ;
11. sulfide / S2– to sulfate / SO42– ; (direct oxidation of ore)
12. Fe2+/ ferrous / Fe3+/ ferric ;
13. Fe3+ oxidise other ores ;
14. product, drains / leaches / is washed, into pool ;
15. metal displaced by adding scrap iron ;
59
60a Describe the main features of an organism belonging to the plant kingdom. [8]
1. multicellular ;
2. differentiated cells ;
3. (most) have, vascular tissue / xylem and phloem ;
5. ref. meristems ;
6. (most) are not motile ;
7. motile gametes only in mosses and ferns ;
8. autotrophic nutrition / photosynthesis ;
cells have:
9. chloroplasts ;
10. large / central, vacuole ;
11. walls made of cellulose ;
60b Describe the methods used to conserve endangered animal species. [7]
1. place in zoos ;
2. protected against, disease / predation ;
3. captive breeding programme ;
4. ref. assisted reproduction / cloning / sperm banks ;
5. released into wild ;
6. ref. national parks / reserves ;
7. rangers patrol parks ;
8. human access restricted ;
9. controlled agriculture ;
10. controlled industry ;
11. visitor centres / education ;
12. habitat / breeding sites, protected ;
13. banning sale of protected animals or their products ;
14. banning hunting ;
60
61a Describe the production of penicillin using the batch culture method. [8]
1. use Penicillium (in batch fermenter) ;

2. (main) nutrients added at start ;
3. penicillin only produced, after growth phase / when running out of nutrients ;
4. (penicillin) is a secondary metabolite ;
5. fermentation is stopped ;
6. penicillin is harvested ;
7. fermenter is cleaned out / ref. sterility ;
8. new culture of Penicillium is put in and started again ;
9. ref. fed batch culture ;
10. carbohydrate / named nutrient, added regularly ;
11. keeps fermentation going longer / produces more penicillin ;
12. detail of fermenter ;; e.g. paddle to mix nutrients / sterilising steam inlet / set at pH 6.5 / aeration /
kept at 27°C
61b Mycoprotein is produced using a continuous culture method. Describe the

advantages of the batch culture method and the continuous culture method. [7]
batch
1. easy to set up culture ;
2. can continue with minimal attention / AW ;
3. environmental conditions easy to control ;
4. fermenter can be used for different process afterwards ;
5. only waste one batch if contaminated ;
6. less chance of blockage in fermenter ;
continuous
7. no / less, down time / AW ;
8. small vessels can be used ;
9. productivity high ;
10. cost effective ;
11. downstream processing easier ;
12. good for using immobilised enzymes ;
61
2014 - November
62a Explain the significance of cereal crops in the human diet. [8]
1. high, carbohydrate / starch, content ; Accept 70–80%

2. source of, energy / ATP ;
3. protein provides amino acids ;
4. for growth ;
5. low in fat ; Accept 2–4%
6. contains essential fatty acids ;
7. source of, vitamin B / vitamin E ;
8. deficient in, vitamin A / vitamin D / vitamin C ;
9. ref. to Golden Rice and vitamin A ; Accept ref. to other valid examples
10. wide range / AW, of minerals ;
11. named mineral plus use in human body ; e.g. calcium for bone development
12. high in fibre ;
13. for peristalsis / prevents constipation ;
14. easily, dried / stored ;
15. AVP ; e.g. staple diet for much of the world / named staple crop and location
16. AVP ; e.g. different parts of grain have different nutrients / ref. to processing grain
62b Describe and explain how gibberellins are involved in the germination of wheat
or barley seeds. [7]
1. seed is, dormant / metabolically inactive ;

2. water enters seed ;
3. embryo, produces / releases, gibberellin ;
4. gibberellin stimulates aleurone layer ;
5. (by) affecting, gene coding / transcription of mRNA, for amylase ;
6. to produce amylase ;
7. amylase hydrolyses starch ;
8. in endosperm ;
9. to, maltose / glucose ;
10. embryo uses sugars for respiration ;
11. energy / ATP, used for growth ;
62
63a Describe the role of hormones in the maintenance of the human menstrual
cycle. [9]
1. FSH / LH, released by anterior pituitary ;

2. Graafian / ovarian, follicle develops / AW ;
3. oestrogen produced by follicle (cells) ;
4. oestrogen conc. rises for first 12 days ;
5. causes, endometrium to thicken ; Accept detail such as increase in blood vessels
6. (around day 14) surge in LH / AW ;
7. stimulates ovulation / AW ;
8. corpus luteum develops ;
9. produces progesterone ;
10. causes, further development of endometrium ;
11. if no fertilisation, secretion of FSH / LH inhibited ;
12. corpus luteum, degenerates / AW ;
13. progesterone conc. falls ;
14. endometrium breaks down / menstruation occurs ;
15. negative feedback in correct context ;
63b Explain the principles of homeostasis in humans. [6]
1. (homeostasis is) maintenance of, constant / stable, internal environment ;

2. irrespective of changes in external environment ;
4. ref. to input / stimulus ;
5. receptor detects change in parameter ;
6. action taken by effector / response / AW ;
7. restoration of, norm / set point / AW ;
8. ref. to fluctuation around the norm ;
9. example of homeostasis ;
63
64a Describe how the vitamin A content of rice can be enhanced by genetic
modification. [8]
1. vitamin A found in aleurone layer of rice (seeds) ;

2. white rice does not contain, aleurone layer / vitamin A / carotenoids / β carotene ;
3. genes coding for vitamin A production extracted ;
4. from, bacteria / Erwinia uredovora / Pantoea ananatis ;
5. (and) daffodils / maize ;
6. inserted into plasmids / plasmid used as a vector ;
7. promoters added ;
8. plasmids put into Agrobacterium tumefaciens ;
9. Agrobacterium tumefaciens mixed with rice embryos ;
10. some embryos) take up bacteria and vitamin A gene ; Accept gene gun
11. grow into adult plants ;
12. produce seeds with, vitamin A / carotene in endosperm ;
13. ref. to Golden RiceTM ;
64b Outline the disadvantages of using plants that have been genetically modified.
[7]
1. GM seed could be difficult for farmers in developing countries to obtain ;

2. high cost of (buying) GM seed / cannot use own seed ;
3. too expensive for, people to buy / farmers to sell ;
4. might reduce efforts to relieve poverty ;
5. may not grow well in all conditions (as other traits not selected for) ;
6. ref. to possible, allergic reactions in humans / toxicity of more herbicide left after use / adverse
effects on the immune system ;
7. under-developed countries becoming more dependent on other countries ;
8. cross-pollination with, wild plants / organic crops ;
9. new more resistant weeds / “superweeds” ;
10. ref. to loss of traditional varieties ;
11. loss of genetic diversity ;
12. harm to other species ; e.g. effect on rest of food chain
64
65a Outline the technique of in-vitro fertilisation (IVF). [8]
1. ref. to hormone treatment ;

2. results in, superovulation or many oocytes / many follicles, maturing at same time ;
3. oocytes harvested ;
4. detail of harvesting ;
5. mixed with sample of, sperm / male gametes ;
6. in special growth medium ;
7. wait, for three days / until 4–8 cell stage ;
8. embryos placed in uterus ;
9. ref. to maintenance of endometrium ; e.g. progesterone treatment
10. if sperm count very low ICSI used ;
11. sperm / sperm nucleus / sperm DNA, may be injected into oocyte ;
65b Discuss the ethical implications of IVF. [7]
1. ‘not natural’ / technological process ;

2. ref. to multiple births ;
3. (possible) birth defects ;
4. cost to health service / only wealthy can access IVF ;
5. some embryos discarded ;
6. unknown effects of freezing embryos for storage ;
7. issues regarding use of stem cells ;
8. issues regarding selection of gender etc. ;
9. issues regarding, single people / gay people, having children by this method ;
10. extending age of conception of women past menopause ;
11. issues regarding, egg donation / surrogate mothers ;
12. ref. to psychological effects ;
65
2015 - June
66a Describe how the gene coding for human insulin can be obtained and inserted
into a plasmid vector. [8]
1. obtain mRNA from β cells (of islets of Langerhans of pancreas) ;

2. reverse transcriptase ;
3. make (single-stranded) cDNA ;
4. DNA polymerase used to make cDNA double stranded ;
5. sticky ends created ; Accept description
6. (obtain) plasmids ;
7. cut with restriction, endonuclease / enzyme ; Accept named e.g. EcoR1
8. ref. complementary sticky ends ;
9. cDNA / insulin gene, mixed with plasmid ;
10. DNA ligase ;
11. seals nicks in sugar-phosphate backbone ; Reject anneals
66b Explain how bacteria can be genetically modified and then identified using
antibiotic resistance genes. [7]
1. recombinant) plasmids mixed with bacteria ;

2. (some) bacteria, take up plasmids / transformed ;
3. heat shock / calcium chloride solution / Ca2+ ions / electroporation ;
to identify bacteria containing plasmids
4. grow on, agar / medium, containing antibiotic (A) ; Accept ampicillin
5. plasmid contains, antibiotic (A) / ampicillin, resistance gene(s) ;
6. bacteria with plasmid survive ; ora
to identify recombinant bacteria
7. replica plate ; Accept description e.g. sponge / velvet pad / absorbent paper
8. (onto) agar / medium, containing second antibiotic (B) ; Accept tetracycline
9. (tetR/ B / 2nd) resistance gene inactivated (by insertion of new, DNA / gene) / AW ;
10. (ID) colonies from, 1st/ ampicillin, plate that do not grow on, 2nd/ tetracycline, plate ;
66
67a Describe the advantages of using batch culture for penicillin production and
continuous culture for mycoprotein production. [8]
batch / penicillin
1. nutrients, decrease / run out ;
2. so, secondary metabolite / penicillin, made ;
3. fermenters can be used (after cleaning) for different process ;
4. if problem occurs only one batch affected ;
5. needs little, monitoring / attention (once set up) ;
continuous / mycoprotein
6. (fungus) kept in, exponential / log, phase (of growth) ;
7. (so) high, biomass / yield / production rate ;
8. little / no, downtime ;
9. small, vessels / space, required;
10. cost-effective ;
67b Outline the hybridoma method for the production of a monoclonal antibody. [7]
Note: not on current A2 syllabus but it is in the AS syllabus (Paper 2) so you should
learn this
1. mouse is injected with an antigen ;

2. wait for immune response to occur ;
3. clonal selection ; Accept description e.g. antigen binds to, specific / virgin, B cell
4. clonal expansion ; Accept description e.g. mitosis / division / cloning of B cells
5. B-lymphocytes / plasma cells, are extracted ;
6. from the mouse’s spleen ;
7. fused with, cancer / myeloma / tumour, cells ;
8. hybridoma cells formed ;
9. hybridoma cells producing antibodies are identified ;
10. cultured on a large scale (to secrete monoclonal antibodies) ;
67
68a Describe how electrophoresis is used in genetic fingerprinting. [9]
1. ref. to VNTR (sequences) ;

2. quantity of DNA increased by PCR ;
3. DNA fragmented by, restriction enzyme(s) / endonuclease(s) ;
4. loaded (into wells) in agarose gel ;
5. (at) negative end / cathode end ;
6. ref. to buffer / electrolyte ;
7. direct current applied ;
8. phosphate groups of DNA give negative charge ;
9. (negatively charged) DNA attracted to, anode / positive electrode ;
10. short pieces / smaller mass, move further / move faster ; ora
11. (pieces) transferred to, membrane / nylon / nitrocellulose / absorbent paper or Southern blotting ;
12. heated to separate strands ;
13. probes / fluorescent dye, added ;
14. X-ray film / UV light / lasers ;
15. pattern of stripes / ref. banding pattern ;
68b Explain the advantages of treating diabetic people with human insulin produced
by gene technology. [6]
1. it is identical to human insulin ; ora

2. (more) rapid response ; ora
3. no / fewer, immune response / side effects / allergic reactions ; ora
4. ref. to ethical / moral / religious, issues ; ora
5. cheaper to produce in large volume / unlimited availability ; ora Reject cheap to produce
6. less risk of, transmitting disease / infection ; ora
7. good for people who have developed tolerance to animal insulin ; ora
68
69a Describe how an enzyme can be immobilised in alginate and discuss the
advantages of using an immobilised enzyme. [9]
Note: not on current A2 syllabus but it is in the AS syllabus (Paper 2) so you should
learn this
description
1. enzyme mixed with sodium alginate (solution) ;
2. placed in syringe ;
3. added drop by drop ;
4. to (solution of) calcium chloride ;
5. beads (with enzyme) formed ;
6. beads separated from calcium chloride ;
7. wash with water ;
advantages
8. (enzyme) can be re-used ;
9. product, uncontaminated / enzyme-free ;
10. (so) purification not needed / less downstream processing ;
11. reduces cost ;
12. works at higher temperature / thermostable ;
13. works in changed pH ;
14. reaction, can be fast(er) / have high(er) yield ;
69b Explain how a dip stick can be used to measure glucose concentration. [6]
1. glucose oxidase immobilised ;

2. stuck onto, pad / (dip)stick ;
3. dip stick lowered into, body fluid / blood / urine ;
4. oxidises glucose (in body fluid) ;
5. (changes glucose to) gluconic acid ; Accept gluconolactone
6. hydrogen peroxide produced ;
7. (peroxide) reacts with chromogen (on pad) ;
8. produces, colour / named colour ;
9. darkness of colour / range of colours, is proportional to concentration of glucose ;
10. AVP ; e.g. peroxidases catalyse reaction / ref. to importance of fixed time to observe colour change
69
2015 - November
70a Outline how the oestrogen/progesterone contraceptive pill works to prevent
pregnancy. [6]
1. synthetic hormones used ;

2. as they do not get broken down quickly / act for longer ;
3. oestrogen / progesterone, concentrations remain high ;
4. inhibits secretion of, FSH / LH / GnRH ; Ignore stops
5. from anterior pituitary gland ;
6. ref. to negative feedback ;
7. inhibits ovulation / no ovulation ;
8. alters cervical mucus to stop sperm ;
9. prevents implantation / effect on endometrium ;
10. AVP ; e.g. taken daily for 21 days / stops for 7 days to allow menstruation (or) taken daily
throughout month.
70b Discuss the biological, ethical and social implications of using this
contraceptive pill. [9]
Your current syllabus states you should know the biological basis of the contraceptive
pill. However, I suggest you look over the ethical and social aspects too just in
case any questions come up on these.
biological – negative
1. rise in blood pressure / increased chance of blood clots ;
2. nausea / headaches ;
3. increased risk of breast cancer ;
4. increase in STDs ;
biological – positive
5. regular / no menstruation ;
6. reduced risk of developing, ovarian cysts / ovarian cancer / uterine cancer ;
7. reduced risk of uterine infections ; Accept pelvic
social / ethical – negative
8. (sexual freedom has led to) more marriage breakdowns ;
9. (so more) single parent families ;
10. increase in promiscuity ;
11. religious / cultural, objection ;
social / ethical – positive
12. reduction in, unwanted pregnancies / abortions ;
13. women have control over their fertility ; Accept ‘bodies’
14. ref. to population control ;
70
71a Describe and explain the structural features of a wind-pollinated plant. [9]
1. lots of pollen grains made ;

2. pollen grains, small / light ;
3. pollen grains, smooth / aerodynamic ;
4. (so), easily carried by the wind / more chance of pollination ;
5. anthers are, versatile / loosely attached / attached at one point (to filaments) ;
6. anthers / stamens / androecium, on long filaments / hang out (of flower) / exposed ;
7. to release pollen (into, wind / air) ;
8. stigmas hang out (of flower) / exposed ;
9. stigmas, large surface area / hairy / feathery / branched ;
10. to catch pollen ;
11. no / small, petals / corolla / calyx / perianth / sepals ;
12. no, nectar / scent, produced ;
13. so no energy wasted ;
71b Discuss the benefits of cross-pollination. [6]
Note: not directly on the current syllabus but I suggest you look over these marking
points.
1. ref. to outbreeding ;
2. increased genetic variation / increased genetic diversity / larger gene pool ;
3. increased heterozygosity / decreased homozygosity ;
4. less likely that harmful recessive alleles will, come together / be expressed ;
5. (increased) hybrid vigour ;
6. decreased / no, inbreeding depression ;
7. ability to, adapt to / survive in, changing (environmental) conditions ;
8. reduced susceptibility to, disease / pests ;
9. AVP ; e.g. positive effect on insects
71
72a Outline oogenesis in a human female. [9]
1. germinal epithelial cells form oogonia ; Accept primordial germ cells form oogonia
2. by mitosis ; Accept mitosis increases number of oogonia
3. ref. to germinal epithelial cells / oogonia, are, diploid / 2n ;
4. oogonia , grow / mature ;
5. (oogonia) start meiosis to form primary oocytes ;
6. meiosis stops at prophase 1 ;
7. stage, 1 / 2 / 3 / 4 / 5 / 6, occurs in, embryo / foetus ;
8. many primary oocytes in baby girl at birth ;
9. primary oocyte completes meiosis I ;
10. at / after, puberty ; Accept correct ref. to each menstrual cycle / before ovulation
11. produces secondary oocyte and (first) polar body ;
12. products (of meiosis I) are two haploid cells ;
13. secondary oocyte undergoes meiosis II at fertilisation ;
14. produces ovum and (second) polar body ;
15. AVP ; e.g. ref. to events occur in follicles
correct names required for all mp except mp6, mp7, mp10, mp12 and mp15
72b Describe and explain the changes to the uterus during the menstrual cycle. [6]
1. fall in concentration of progesterone ;

2. endometrium (uterine lining) breaks down ; Ignore ‘thins’
3. menstruation / period, occurs ;
4. follicular / granulose, cells secrete oestrogen ; I oestrogen produced
5. oestrogen concentration rises ;
6. (oestrogen) stimulates, proliferation / thickening / increase in blood vessels, of endometrium ;
7. corpus luteum secretes progesterone ; Ignore progesterone produced
8. progesterone concentration increases ;
9. (progesterone) maintains endometrium ; Ignore ‘thickens’
72
73a Outline how hybridisation leads to polyploidy in wheat and how this benefits
farmers. [8]
1. hybrids / offspring from cross between two species, infertile / sterile ;

AA × BB gives, sterile / infertile, AB
2. (normal) meiosis cannot occur ;
3. chromosomes do not pair up ;
set A chromosomes, not homologous to / do not pair with, set B
4. (spontaneous) doubling of chromosome number / formation of, tetraploid / AABB (emmer wheat)
; Accept chromosome doubling Ignore doubling idea for mp 4 if context not chance occurrence but
ecf for mp 6
5. non-disjunction (in mitosis) ; Accept in meiosis (unreduced gametes)
6. restores fertility / (AB) gametes can now form ; must be linked to mp 4
7. second hybridisation and polyploidy gives, hexaploid ;
Accept 4n (emmer wheat) × 2n (wild goat grass) and chromosome number doubling → 6n
Accept AABB × CC → ABC and doubling to AABBCC
benefits
8. hybrid vigour ;
9. large grains ;
10. high yield ;
11. beneficial characteristic / named example, introduced by parent of hybrid ; Accept example e.g.
shorter stems plus benefit / grain remains attached to ear more strongly plus benefit
73b Discuss the detrimental environmental and economic effects of growing

genetically modified herbicide-resistant oil seed rape. [7]
environmental
1. GM / genetically modified, rape may itself be, a weed / invasive ;
2. pollen transfer to / hybridisation with, wild relatives ;
3. resistant gene transfer to, non-GM crops / wild relatives ; Ignore other plants
4. (resulting) hybrid offspring invasive ;
5. (intensive) use of herbicide selects for herbicide-resistant weeds ;
6. (intensive use of herbicide) reduces biodiversity ;
economic
7. problem with competition between crops and herbicide-resistant weeds ;
8. idea of, contamination of organic farming / accidental mixing of GM crops with non-GM, financial
consequences ;
9. high cost of / poor farmers cannot afford, GM, seeds / plants ;
10. cost of herbicide ;
11. cost of problems with pollution ;
12. cost of human health problems ;
73
2016 - March
74a Explain the use of genes for fluorescent or easily stained substances as
markers in gene technology. [6]
1. emits bright light ;

2. when exposed to UV light ;
3. visible colour change ;
4. add marker gene to the, vector / plasmid ;
5. easy to identify transformed bacteria ;
6. gene of interest inserted, into / close to, marker gene ;
7. easy to identify recombinant, DNA / plasmid ;
8. easy to identify transgenic organisms ;
9. examples ; e.g. GFP / β galactosidase / GUS
10. idea of no known risk ;
74b Discuss the potential advantages of growing genetically modified crops, using
examples to help your answer. [9]
1. increase, food production / crop yields ;

2. improve food, quality / taste / keeping properties ;
3. add nutrients to crop (to improve human health) ;
4. crops may be more tolerant to climate change ;
5. crops, can be grown in poor quality land / do not need as much fertiliser ;
6. pest / insect / fungal disease, resistance (increases crop growth) ;
7. less pesticide used ;
8. benefit to farmer ; e.g. cost effective / health benefit
9. benefit to environment ; e.g. less effect on food chains, pollinators
10. herbicide resistance reduces competition from weeds ;
11. could engineer nitrogen-fixing ability in non-leguminous crops ;
12. specific examples (crop variety and enhancement described) ; ;
e.g. Golden Rice™ for extra vitamin A
Bt maize / Bt cotton, kill (named) leaf-eating insects
Flavr Savr tomato, stores better / can ripen on vine
74
75a Explain how genetic diseases may be treated using gene therapy. [7]
1. normal, gene / allele ;

2. (insert into) vector ;
3. liposomes (as vectors) ;
4. liposomes in, aerosol / inhaler ;
5. liposome fuses with host cell ;
6. virus (as vector) ;
7. virus vector harmless ;
8. short term effect ;
9. repeat treatments needed ;
10. side effects ;
75b Discuss the advantages of screening for genetic conditions. [8]
1. information about the increased risk of person having genetic conditions ;

2. ref. breast cancer / named example ;
3. allows people to prepare for late onset genetic conditions ;
4. ref. Huntington’s disease / Alzheimer’s disease / named example ;
5. identify whether foetuses are going to develop a genetic condition ;
6. so can give early treatment when born ;
7. allows parents to prepare for the birth of a child who will need treatment for a considerable time or
even throughout life / AW ;
8. identifies carriers of genetic conditions ;
9. helps to provide early diagnosis ;
10. allows couples who are both carriers of a genetic condition to make decisions about starting a family
/ having more children / seeking IVF ;
11. AVP ; e.g. termination
75
2016 - June
76a Outline how ATP is synthesised by oxidative phosphorylation. [8]
accept proton / hydrogen ion / H+ / H ion as equivalent throughout

1. reduced, NAD / FAD ; Accept NADH / NADH2 / NADH + H+ for reduced NAD
2. passed to ETC ;
5. split into electrons and protons ; Accept released as electron and proton
6. electrons pass along, carriers / cytochromes ; Accept electrons pass along proteins of, ETC / carrier
chain
8. proton gradient is set up ; Accept concentration gradient of protons is created Accept full
description
9. protons diffuse, (back) through membrane / down gradient ; Accept protons diffuse into matrix
10. ATP synthase / stalked particles / protein channels ; Accept ATP synthetase Reject ATPase
11. (ATP produced from) ADP and (inorganic) phosphate ; Accept context for ‘final’
12. idea of oxygen as final electron acceptor ;
76b Describe respiration in yeast cells in anaerobic conditions. [7]
1. pyruvate formed by glycolysis ;

2. reduced NAD formed by glycolysis ;
3. pyruvate decarboxylated / AW ;
4. ethanal produced ;
5. pyruvate decarboxylase ;
6. ethanal is, hydrogen acceptor / reduced ; Accept gains H or gains H+ and e–
7. from / by, reduced NAD ;
8. ethanol formed ;
9. ethanol / alcohol, dehydrogenase ;
10. not reversible reaction ;
11. NAD, regenerated / can now accept hydrogen atoms ; Accept reduced NAD oxidised
12. so glycolysis can continue ;
76
77a Describe the behaviour of chromosomes during meiosis. [9]
Ignore ref. to nuclear envelope Ignore names of stages

meiosis I
1. chromosomes, condense / thicken ;
2. homologous chromosomes pair / bivalents form ;
3. crossing over / described ;
4. chiasma(ta) ;
5. spindle fibres / microtubules, attach to / pull, centromeres / kinetochores ; allow once in mp5 or in
meiosis II
6. bivalents line up on, equator / mid-line ; Accept pairs of homologous chromosomes
7. independent assortment (of homologous pairs) / described ; Accept random assortment
8. chromosomes move to, two ends of cell / poles ; A (pairs of) homologous chromosomes separate
meiosis II
9. (individual) chromosomes / pairs of chromatids, line up on, equator / mid-line ;
10. at right angles to first equator ;
12. chromatids separate ; Accept chromatids move to (opposite) poles
13. ref. to haploid / chromosome number halved / one set of chromosomes ; Accept n for haploid
77b Outline the differences between structural and regulatory genes. [6]
Ignore polypeptide throughout

structural gene
1. structural protein / enzyme / rRNA ; Accept any named protein other than a transcription factor
(e.g. transporter / receptor / named hormone / immunoglobulin / haemoglobin / etc.) Reject if any
of these are identified as product of regulatory gene
2. named, structural protein / other protein / enzyme, or tRNA ; Reject named protein if function
wrongly described
3. idea that needed for, structure / function, of cell ;
regulatory gene
4. (product) controls, gene expression / transcription ; Accept promote / prevent / start / stop, gene
expression or transcription
5. (codes for) transcription factor / DNA-binding protein ;
6. binds to, promoter / operator / DNA response element ;
7. stops / allows, binding of RNA polymerase ;
8. ref. to repressor / repressible ; Accept silencer
9. ref. to inducer / inducible ; Accept activator / enhancer
10. named example of regulatory gene ; Accept lac repressor / DELLA repressor / homeobox or
homeotic or Hox gene
77
78a Outline the process of glycolysis. [6]
Accept proton / hydrogen ion / H+ / H ion as equivalent throughout

1. reduced, NAD / FAD ; Accept NADH / NADH2 / NADH + H+ for reduced NAD
2. passed to ETC ;
5. split into electrons and protons ; Accept released as electron and proton
6. electrons pass along, carriers / cytochromes ; Accept electrons pass along proteins of, ETC / carrier
chain
8. proton gradient is set up ; Accept concentration gradient of protons is created Accept full
description
9. protons diffuse, (back) through membrane / down gradient ; Accept protons diffuse into matrix
10. ATP synthase / stalked particles / protein channels ; Accept ATP synthetase Reject ATPase
11. (ATP produced from) ADP and (inorganic) phosphate ; Accept context for ‘final’
78b Describe the series of reactions that make up the Krebs cycle. [9]
1. pyruvate formed by glycolysis ;

2. reduced NAD formed by glycolysis ;
3. pyruvate decarboxylated / AW ;
4. ethanal produced ;
5. pyruvate decarboxylase ;
6. ethanal is, hydrogen acceptor / reduced ; Accept gains H or gains H+ and e–
7. from / by, reduced NAD ;
8. ethanol formed ;
9. ethanol / alcohol, dehydrogenase ;
10. not reversible reaction ;
11. NAD, regenerated / can now accept hydrogen atoms ; Accept reduced NAD oxidised
12. so glycolysis can continue ;
78
offspring. [8]

4. in prophase 1 ;
5. exchange of, genetic material / DNA ; Reject genes unqualified
8. random / independent, assortment of, homologous chromosomes / bivalents (at equator) ;
10. random / independent, assortment (of, sister chromatids / chromosomes) at metaphase 2 ;
11. possible chromosome mutation ;
12. random mating ;
13. random, fusion / fertilisation, of gametes ;
79b Describe the genetic control of protein production in a prokaryote using the lac
operon. [7]
1. ref. to regulatory gene ;

2. codes for repressor protein ;
3. (repressor protein) binds to operator ;
In presence of lactose
4. lactose binds to repressor protein ; Accept allolactose
5. (repressor protein) changes shape ;
6. (repressor protein), moves away from / no longer binds to, operator ;
In absence of lactose
7. repressor protein blocks promoter or promoter region now unblocked ;
8. RNA polymerase cannot bind to promoter or RNA polymerase can now bind to promoter ;
9. (named) gene cannot be transcribed / mRNA not synthesised or (named) gene now, transcribed /
‘switched on’ ;
10. enzymes / named enzyme, cannot be synthesised or enzymes / named enzyme, can now be
synthesised ;
79
2016 - November
80a Using examples, outline the importance of homeostasis in a mammal. [7]
1. ref. to maintenance of constant internal environment ;

2. blood or tissue fluid as e.g. of internal environment ;
3. ref. to norm / optimum value / set point / within narrow limits ;
4. (low) temperature and consequence ; e.g. slowed metabolism / enzymes less active
5. (high) temperature and consequence ; e.g. enzymes denatured
6. (low) water potential and consequence ; e.g. water leaving cells / cells shrink
7. (high) water potential and consequence ; e.g. water enters cells / cells burst
8. (low) blood glucose and consequence ; e.g. effect on respiration
9. (high) blood glucose and consequence ; e.g. water leaving cells / cells shrink
10. AVP ; e.g. control of pH and consequence
81b Describe the main stages of cell signalling in the control of blood glucose
concentration by adrenaline. [8]
1. adrenaline binds to receptors ;

2. in, cell surface membrane / plasma membrane ;
3. receptor changes conformation ;
4. G proteins activated ;
5. adenylyl cyclase activated ; Accept adenyl cyclase
6. cyclic AMP / cAMP, made ;
7. second messenger ;
8. activates kinase (protein) ;
9. ref. to enzyme cascade / signal amplification ;
10. ref. to phosphorylase ;
11. glycogen broken to glucose / glycogenolysis ;
12. glucose diffuses, out of cells / into blood ;
13. increase in blood glucose concentration ;
80
81a Explain the role of auxin in cell elongation in plants. [7]
1. acid-growth (hypothesis) ;
2. auxin stimulates proton pumps ;
3. (in) cell surface membrane ;
4. H+ pumped into cell wall ;
5. using energy / by active transport ;
6. pH of cell wall decreases / cell wall becomes (more) acidic ;
7. pH-dependent enzymes activated ;
8. ref. to expansins ;
9. bonds between cellulose microfibrils broken ;
10. idea that cell wall, ‘loosens’ / becomes more elastic / able to stretch ;
11. (more) water enters cell / turgor pressure increases ;
12. (so) cell (wall) expands ;
81b Describe the role of abscisic acid in the closure of stomata. [8]
1. plant secretes abscisic acid, in very dry conditions / at times of water stress ; Accept abscisic acid is a
stress hormone
2. abscisic acid binds to receptors ;
3. on cell surface membranes of guard cells ;
4. inhibits proton pump / H+ not pumped out of cell ;
5. high H+ conc inside cell ; Accept ref. to change in charge
6. (abscisic acid) stimulates Ca2+ influx ;
7. Ca2+ acts as second messenger ;
8. encourages K+ efflux / inhibits K+ influx ; Accept K+ channels open
9. water potential of cell increases ; Accept increase in solute potential
10. water moves out of cell by osmosis ;
11. volume of guard cells decreases ;
12. guard cells become flaccid ;
13. response very fast ;
81
82a Explain how glucose is reabsorbed into the blood from a kidney nephron. [8]
Accept epithelial layer for cells of proximal convoluted tubule throughout but Reject endothelial layer /
tubule wall
1. (happens in) proximal convoluted tubule ;
2. all / 100%, glucose (reabsorbed / moves into blood) ; Accept interstitial fluid / blood / capillary
3. active transport / pumping, of Na+ out of cells into tissue fluid ; Ignore diffusion from tissue fluid to
blood
4. Na+ concentration decreases inside cells ;
5. therefore Na+ enters (epithelial / tubule) cells from, lumen / filtrate ;
6. by facilitated diffusion ;
7. this is secondary active transport ;
8. Na+ brings glucose with it ;
9. this is co-transport ;
10. (facilitated) diffusion of glucose out of cells into tissue fluid ;
11. GLUT proteins (on basolateral membranes) ;
12. ref. to microvilli (on lumen side / apical membrane) ;
13. to increase surface area for reabsorption ;
14. tight junctions separate proteins of front and basolateral membranes ;
82b Describe the role of ADH when the water potential of blood decreases. [7]
1. (low blood water potential) detected by osmoreceptors ;

2. in hypothalamus ;
3. neurosecretory cells (stimulated to) produce ADH ;
4. ADH released by posterior pituitary ; Ignore ADH secreted into blood
5. ADH transport in blood ;
6. (ADH) binds to receptors (on cell surface membranes) ;
7. (of) collecting duct / distal convoluted tubule ;
8. aquaporins / water transport proteins, added to membranes ; Accept description of vesicles with
aquaporins fusing with (cell surface) membranes
9. increases permeability to water (of collecting duct / distal convoluted tubule) ; Reject if in context of,
proximal convoluted tubule / loop of Henle
10. water moves out of, filtrate / tubule lumen ;
11. by osmosis ;
12. into, interstitial fluid / tissue fluid / blood / capillaries ;
13. small volume of / concentrated, urine produced ;
14. increases water potential of blood (back to norm) ;
82
83a Describe the response of the Venus fly trap to touch. [8]
1. mechanical energy converted to electrical ;

2. ref. to sensory hair cell (is receptor / detects touch) ; Accept sensory or trigger hairs
3. cell membrane depolarises ; Accept receptor / generator, potential
4. (if at least) two hairs touched (within 35 seconds) ; Accept if only one hair touched no closure
5. action potential occurs ;
6. action potential / depolarisation, spreads over, leaf / lobe ; Reject nerve impulses
7. ref. to hinge / midrib, cells ; Accept to midrib / to hinge
8. H+, pumped out of cells / pumped into cell walls ;
9. cell wall, loosens / cross-links broken ;
10. calcium pectate dissolves (in middle lamella) ;
11. Ca2+ (ions) enter cells ;
12. water, enters / follows, by osmosis ;
13. cells, expand / become turgid ;
14. change from convex to concave ;
15. trap shuts, quickly / in <1s / in 0.3s ;
16. AVP; acid growth hypothesis / expansins / elastic tension ;
83b Explain the control of gibberellin synthesis and outline how gibberellin
stimulates stem elongation. [7]
Control Ignore seed context throughout

1. gibberellin synthesis / dwarfism, controlled by gene Le / le ;
2. dominant allele / Le, gives, functional enzyme / active gibberellin ; ora Accept recessive allele / le,
gives, non- functional
3. enzyme / non-active gibberellin
4. enzyme converts inactive to active gibberellin ;
stem elongation
5. without GA, transcription factor / PIF, attached to DELLA protein ;
6. GA binds to receptor (complex) ;
7. causes DELLA (protein) destruction ;
8. transcription factor / PIF / RNA polymerase, binds to DNA ;
9. (growth) genes, switched on / expressed / transcribed ; Accept inhibition of transcription removed
10. causes cell division ;
11. causes cell elongation ;
12. increases internode length ;
13. loosens cell walls / acid growth ; Accept breaks cross-links in cell wall
14. so cells can expand when water enters ;AVP ; e.g. interaction with auxin, ref. to expansins
83
84a Explain what is meant by the terms ecosystem and niche. [7]
ecosystem:
1. self-sustaining unit ;
2. self-contained / defined, area ;
3. community of organisms ;
4. living and non-living / biotic and abiotic ;
5. reference to, interactions / interdependence ;
6. reference to, energy flow / food webs ;
niche:
7. role of organism / how it fits in, (in an ecosystem) ;
8. (including) where it lives ;
9. how it obtains its energy / reference trophic level ;
84b Describe the sampling techniques that could be used to measure the
distribution and abundance of organisms in a habitat. [8]
1. random (sampling) ;
2. (frame) quadrat ;
3. use cover scale ;
4. estimate % cover ;
5. species frequency ;
6. systematic sampling ;
7. line / belt, transect ;
8. sample at set distances ;
9. mark – release – recapture ;
10. method of, capture / marking ;
11. returned to habitat and left ;
12. population estimate = no of individuals in first sample x no of individuals in second sample / no of
individuals marked in second sample ;
13. appropriate mathematical / statistical technique ;
84
85a Describe the principles of the polymerase chain reaction (PCR). [9]
1. production of a large number of copies of a length of DNA / amplification of DNA ;

2. rapid ;
3. only small sample of DNA needed ;
4. DNA, denatured / separated into two strands, by heat / at 95 °C ;
5. primer (DNA) added ;
6. reference to annealing at, 60–65, °C ;
7. reference complementary base pairing ;
8. DNA / Taq, polymerase ;
9. replicates (template) strand at, 70–75, °C ;
10. heated again to separate strands / process repeated ;
11. Taq polymerase, is heat stable / has high optimum temperature ;
12. does not need replacing each cycle ;
13. efficient process ;
85b Explain why plasmids are frequently used in gene technology. [6]
1. small / circular, piece of (double-stranded) DNA ;

2. replicate independently / multiple origins of replication ;
3. high copy number ;
4. easy to extract from bacteria ;
5. can be cut using restriction, enzyme / endonuclease ;
6. gene / DNA, can be inserted ;
7. can be taken up by bacteria ;
8. may contain genes for antibiotic resistance / can carry marker genes ;
9. helps in identifying transformed bacteria ;
10. acts as a vector ;
11. may carry promoter ;
85
2017 - June
86a Explain how dip sticks function to test for glucose in a sample of urine. [8]
1. stick has, pad containing / immobilised, enzymes ;

2. glucose oxidase ;
3. peroxidase ;
4. stick dipped in urine ; Accept person, urinates / AW, on stick
5. glucose reacts to give hydrogen peroxide ;
6. (hydrogen peroxide reacts with) colourless substance / chromogen ; Reject dye / pigment
7. to give, colour change / coloured substance ; Accept change to any named colour
8. compare with colour chart ;
9. more glucose gives darker colour ;
10. specific / only detects glucose ;
11. AVP ; e.g. does not give current blood glucose concentration not numerical
86b Outline how a high blood glucose concentration returns to normal in a healthy
person. [7]
1. detected by β cells ; Ignore alpha cells Ignore receptors

2. in, islets of Langerhans / pancreas ;
3. (more) insulin secreted ; Ignore produced
4. into blood ;
5. increases glucose absorption in liver (by phosphorylating glucose) ;
6. increases permeability to glucose in, muscle / fat, cells or adds GLUT 4 proteins to cell surface
membranes of, muscle / fat, cells ;
7. increases (rate of) respiration of glucose ;
8. conversion of glucose to glycogen / glycogenesis ;
9. inhibits secretion of glucagon / decreases gluconeogenesis ;
86
87a Describe the structure of a motor neurone. [6]
Accept points on labelled diagram

1. dendrites (lead to cell body) ; Reject at both ends
2. nucleus in, cell body / soma ; Reject if cell body not at one end
4. much RER / Nissl’s granules (in cell body) ;
5. long / one, axon ; Accept an axon
6. synaptic, knobs / termini / boutons, at end furthest from cell body ;
7. Schwann cells / myelin ;
87b Describe and explain the transmission of an action potential in a myelinated

neurone. [9]
1. Na+ / sodium ion, channels open ; Ignore ligand or voltage gated

2. Na+ enters, cell / axon ; Accept Na ions / sodium ions
3. inside / p.d., becomes, less negative / positive / +40 mVor causes depolarisation (in correct context)
;
4. Na+ / sodium ion, channels close ; ecf from mp1 Ignore ligand or voltage-gated
5. K+ / potassium ion, channels open ; ecf from mp1 Ignore ligand or voltage-gated
6. K+ moves out (of cell) ; Accept K ions / potassium ions
7. inside / p.d., becomes negative / Accept negative figure or causes repolarisation (in correct context)
;
8. local circuits ;
9. myelin (sheath) / Schwann cells, insulate / prevent ion movement ;
10. action potential / depolarisation, only at, nodes (of Ranvier) ;
11. saltatory conduction / action potential jumps from node to node ; Accept impulse for AP
12. one-way / unidirectional, transmission ;
13. AVP ; e.g. hyperpolarisation / refractory period
87
88a Explain the mechanism by which guard cells open stomata. [9]
1. proton pumps in cell surface membranes (of guard cells) ;

2. pump H+ out (of cells) ;
3. low(er) H+ conc. inside (cell) ;
4. inside of cell more negative (than outside) ;
5. K+ channels open ;
6. K+ move into (cell) ;
7. by facilitated diffusion ;
8. Cl - ions enter ;
9. water potential of cell decreases ;
10. water moves into cell, by osmosis / down a water potential gradient ;
11. ref. to aquaporins ;
12. volume of (guard) cells increases ; Accept expands
13. (guard) cells become turgid / increase in turgor pressure of (guard) cells ;
14. ref. to unequal thickness of cell wall (of guard cell) ;
88b State the changes in the external environment that lead to stomatal opening and
closure. Explain why these stomatal responses are necessary. [6]
open
1. increase in light (intensity) / high light (intensity) ;
2. gains CO2 for photosynthesis ;
3. allows oxygen out ;
4. allows transpiration (stream) to occur ;
5. (which) brings water / mineral ions, in ;
6. (for) photosynthesis / turgidity ;
close
7. in darkness / decrease in light (intensity) / low light (intensity) ;
8. carbon dioxide not required as no photosynthesis ;
9. in, low humidity / high temperature / high wind speed / water stress ;
10. to maintain (cell) turgidity / to prevent wilting / to prevent water loss (by transpiration) ;
88
89a Compare the endocrine and nervous systems in control and co-ordination in
mammals. [8]
Differences
1. communication: action potential / impulse and hormone ;
2. nature of communication: electrical (and chemical) and chemical ;
3. mode of transmission: neurone / nerve cell and blood ;
4. response destination: muscle / gland and target, organs / tissue / cells ;
5. transmission speed: fast(er) and slow(er) ;
6. effects: specific / localised and (can be) widespread ;
7. response speed: fast(er) and slow(er) ;
8. duration: short-lived / temporary and can be long-lasting / permanent ;
9. receptor location: on cell surface membrane and either on cell surface membrane or within cell ;
Similarities
10. cell signalling: both involve cell signalling ;
11. both involve signal molecule binding to receptor ;
12. chemicals both involve chemicals ;
89b Outline the role of a chemoreceptor cell in the human taste bud in detecting
stimuli and in stimulating the transmission of nerve impulses in sensory
neurones. [7]
1. chemicals act as a stimulus ;

2. ref. to specificity of chemoreceptors ;
3. sodium ions diffuse into cell ;
4. via microvilli ;
5. membrane depolarised ;
6. receptor potential / generator potential ;
7. stimulates opening of calcium (ion) channels ;
8. calcium ions enter cell ;
9. causes movement of vesicles containing neurotransmitter ;
10. neurotransmitter released by exocytosis / described ;
11. neurotransmitter stimulates, action potential / impulses, in sensory neurone ;
12. ref. to (chemoreceptors are) transducers / description ;
13. AVP ; e.g. threshold / all or nothing law / papilla
89
2017 - November
90a Explain how rice is adapted to grow with its roots submerged in water. [6]
1. aerenchyma ;
2. in stem and roots ;
3. help oxygen to, move / diffuse, to roots ;
4. shallow roots ;
5. air (film) trapped on underwater leaves ;
6. fast internode growth ;
7. (modified) growth regulated by, gibberellin / ethene ;
8. anaerobic respiration, underwater / when submerged ;
9. tolerant to high ethanol concentration / high tolerance to ethanol ;
10. ethanol dehydrogenase (switched on in anaerobic conditions) ;
11. AVP ; e.g. growth stops / carbohydrates conserved / quiescence, in short-term (flash) floods
90b Explain how the leaves of maize or sorghum are able to maximise carbon
dioxide fixation at high temperatures. [9]
1. RuBP / rubisco, in bundle sheath (cells) ;

2. away from, oxygen / air ;
3. to avoid photorespiration ;
4. carbon dioxide combines with PEP ;
5. (catalysed by) PEP carboxylase ;
6. in mesophyll (cells) ;
7. forms oxaloacetate ;
8. converted to malate ;
9. malate passes to bundle sheath (cells) ;
10. (malate) releases (high concentration of) carbon dioxide ;
11. RuBP, carboxylated / reacts with carbon dioxide ;
12. PEP carboxylase / enzyme(s), has high optimum temperature / tolerate high temperatures ;
90
91a Describe the types of gene mutation that can occur and explain how some
mutations can lead to a shortened polypeptide. [6]
1. base / nucleotide, substitution ;

2. missense / silent, mutation ;
3. base / nucleotide, insertion / addition ;
4. base / nucleotide, deletion ;
5. may cause frameshift ;
6. alters triplets of following, base / nucleotide, sequence ;
7. (premature) stop codon gives shortened polypeptide ;
8. does not code for amino acid ;
9. nonsense mutation ;
91b Outline the effects of the mutant sickle cell allele on the phenotype of a person
with sickle cell anaemia. [9]
1. homozygous for, mutant allele / HbS ;

2. altered β polypeptide in haemoglobin ;
3. haemoglobin / β-globin, less soluble ;
4. in low(er) oxygen (concentration) ;
5. (Hb) forms long fibres ;
6. red blood cells, sickle / form crescent shape ;
7. (RBCs) carry less oxygen ;
8. (RBCs) get stuck in capillaries ;
9. blocks blood flow ;
10. causes pain ;
11. sickle cell crisis ;
12. RBCs break down faster / lack of RBCs ;
13. protection against, malaria / Plasmodium infection ;
91
92a Describe how the structure of a mitochondrion is related to its function. [8]
inner membrane
2. folded / cristae ;
3. increased / large, surface area ;
4. has, ATP synthase / stalked particles ;
5. has, carrier (proteins) / cytochromes ;
6. (site of) ETC / oxidative phosphorylation / chemiosmosis ;
intermembrane space
7. has low pH / high concentration of protons ;
8. accepts protons from ETC / AW ;
9. proton gradient between intermembrane space and matrix or protons move from intermembrane
space to matrix ;
10. ref. to ATP synthesis ;
matrix
11. contains enzymes ;
12. site of, link reaction / the Krebs cycle ;
outer membrane
13. presence of carriers for, pyruvate / reduced NAD ;
14. AVP ; e.g. ribosomes / DNA, plus function
92b Describe respiration in anaerobic conditions in mammalian liver cells and

describe how this differs in yeast cells. [7]
liver cells (max 6)

1. only glycolysis occurs ;
2. pyruvate, cannot enter mitochondrion / remains in the cytoplasm ;
3. (pyruvate) becomes, hydrogen acceptor / reduced ;
4. by reduced NAD (from glycolysis) ;
5. lactate produced ;
6. lactate dehydrogenase ;
7. production of, 4 ATP / 2 ATP / small amount of ATP ;
yeast cells
9. decarboxylation / CO2 removed ;
10. ethanal becomes, hydrogen acceptor / reduced ;
11. two steps (instead of one) ;
12. irreversible reaction (instead of reversible) ;
13. ethanol dehydrogenase ;
14. ethanol produced ;
92
93a Explain how meiosis can lead to genetic variation. [8]
1. chiasmata formation ;
2. crossing over ;
3. exchange of genetic material ;
4. between non-sister chromatids of homologous chromosomes ;
5. at prophase 1 ;
8. independent / random, assortment, of homologous pairs / bivalents / AW ;
9. in metaphase 1 ;
10. 2n combinations / very large number of combinations ;
11. independent / random, assortment of, chromatids / chromosomes (correct context) ;
12. in metaphase 2 ;
13. ref. to mutation ;
93b Explain how the presence of a mutant allele can result in albinism. [7]
1. ref. to TYR gene ;

2. normal gene product is tyrosinase ;
3. tyrosine converted to, DOPA / dopaquinone ; ora
4. melanin / pigment, made ; ora
5. in melanocytes ;
6. mutant allele is recessive ;
7. tyrosinase, not produced / inactive ;
8. affects, hair / skin / irises ;
9. only in homozygous recessive people ;
93
2018 - March
94a Describe the process of cyclic photophosphorylation and the structure of the
photosystem involved. [9]
cyclic photophosphorylation:
1. (only) PSI / P700, involved ;
2. light energy absorbed ;
3. (results in) electron excited / AW ;
4. (electron) emitted from chlorophyll ;
5. chain of electron carriers / ETC ;
6. ATP synthesis ;
7. electron returns to, PSI / P700 ;
photosystems:
8. pigments arranged in light-harvesting clusters ;
9. primary pigment / chlorophyll a / reaction centre ;
10. accessory pigments / chlorophyll b / carotenoids, surround, primary pigment / reaction centre /
chlorophyll a ;
11. photosystem located in thylakoid ;
94b Explain how non-cyclic photophosphorylation produces reduced NADP and how
reduced NADP is used in the light independent stage. [6]
formation:
1. both photosystems involved ;
3. H+ released from, PSII / P680 ;
4. e– released from, PSI / P700 ;
5. e– and H+ / both, combine with NADP (to form reduced NADP) ;
use:
6. reduces GP / AW ;
7. TP formed ;
8. (takes place in) stroma ;
94
95a Explain the role of auxin in cell elongation. [8]
1. auxin binds to receptor ;

2. in cell surface membrane ;
3. (auxin) increases proton pump activity / described ;
4. (more) protons enter cell wall ;
5. cell wall, becomes more acidic / has reduced pH ;
6. expansins activated ;
7. (expansins) loosen / break, bonds between (cellulose) microfibrils ;
8. K+ enters cell ;
9. water potential of cell decreases ;
10. more water can enter cell by osmosis / AW ;
11. turgor pressure / described ;
12. ref. to acid growth hypothesis ;
95b Explain, using examples, how the environment may affect the phenotype of
individual organisms. [7]
1. idea that phenotype results from interaction of genotype and environment ;

2. environment may, limit / modify, expression of gene(s) / AW ;
3. continuous variation example ; e.g. size / mass / height
4. qualified ; e.g. because, food / nutrients / ions, missing or malnutrition occurs
5. environment may, trigger / switch on, gene ;
6. two named examples ; ; e.g. temperature and change in animal colour / high temperature and
gender in crocodiles / UV light and melanin production / wavelength of light and, flowering / fruit
colour
7. environment effect usually greater on polygenes ;
8. environment may induce mutation (affecting phenotype) ;
95
2018 - June
96a Describe the features of ATP that make it suitable as the universal energy
currency. [6]
1. (short-term) store of energy ;

2. (energy derived) from, food / respiration / photophosphorylation / chemiosmosis ;
3. transfers energy (to) / (immediate) energy donor (to) ;
4. in all, cells / organisms ;
5. hydrolysis / phosphate loss, releases, energy / 30.5 kJ (per mole) ;
6. reversible reaction / (AMP and) ADP recycled to ATP ;
7. small (molecule) / water soluble, so can move within, cell / cytoplasm ;
8. links energy yielding and energy requiring reactions ;
9. high turnover (rate) ;
and any two uses up to question total of 6 from:
10. active transport / action potential / electrical discharge ;
11. muscle contraction ;
12. anabolic reactions / condensation reactions / transcription / translation / DNA replication / Calvin
cycle / phosphorylation
13. reactions ;
14. exocytosis / endocytosis / intracellular transport ;
15. bioluminescence ;
96b Outline respiration in anaerobic conditions in mammalian cells and describe

how it differs from respiration in anaerobic conditions in yeast cells. [9]
anaerobic respiration in, mammalian cells / lactic fermentation (M):

1. pyruvate, is reduced / accepts H / accepts H+ + electron ;
2. (process uses) reduced NAD ;
3. from glycolysis ;
4. converted to, lactate / lactic acid ;
5. ref. to lactate dehydrogenase ;
6. regeneration of NAD allows glycolysis to continue ;
7. small energy yield / 2 ATP, (from glycolysis) ;
difference to, yeast cells / alcoholic fermentation (Y): accept ora mps 8–11
8. M no, decarboxylation / CO2 removed (to form ethanal) ;
9. M single / one, step / enzyme or Y two, steps / enzymes ;
10. M pyruvate is H acceptor and in Y ethanal is H acceptor ;
11. M reversible / lactate is (later) converted back to pyruvate or Y irreversible or ethanal / ethanol,
cannot be converted back to pyruvate ;
12. M needs oxygen / by oxidation / ref. to oxygen debt ;
96
97a Describe the structure of a sensory neurone. [6]
1. nucleus in, cell body / soma ;

2. (long) dendron ;
3. (short) axon ;
5. many, RER / ribosomes or presence of Nissl’s granules (in cell body) ;
6. synaptic, knobs / terminals / boutons ;
7. Schwann cells / myelin sheath ;
97b Describe how a resting potential is set up and maintained in a myelinated

neurone. [9]
1. Na+ moves out of, cell and K+ moves into cell ;

2. 3 Na+ for every 2 K+ ;
3. by, active transport / use of ATP ;
4. sodium-potassium pump / Na+ K+ pump ;
5. against concentration gradient ;
6. K+ diffuses out of cell and Na+ diffuses into cell ;
7. by facilitated diffusion / diffusion through (ion) channels ;
8. membrane more permeable to K+ / more K+ goes out than Na+ in ;
9. inside of, cell / membrane, more negative than outside ; ora
10. membrane / cell, polarised / repolarised ;
11. (resting potential is), –60 mV / –65 mV / –70 mV ;
12. AVP ; e.g. ion movement only at nodes of Ranvier
97
98a Outline the characteristic features of organisms in the domain Archaea. [8]
1. no, nucleus / nuclear envelope ;

2. circular DNA / plasmid ; Accept circular chromosome
3. cell membrane composition different (from, bacteria / eukarya) ;
4. no membrane-bound organelles / named example ;
5. 70S ribosomes ;
6. cell wall present ;
7. cell wall does not contain peptidoglycans ;
8. cells divide by, binary / multiple, fission ;
9. (mostly) unicellular ;
10. (some) have histones associated with DNA ;
11. (some) are extremophiles / description ;
98b Describe the role of seed banks in the protection of endangered species. [7]
1. variety / collection, of seeds ;

2. long-term storage ;
3. (storage) to, prevent germination / maintain dormancy ;
4. detail of storage conditions ; e.g. frozen or stored at temperatures below –13 °C dried
5. seeds regularly tested for viability / description ;
6. seeds re-stocked regularly ;
7. maintain genetic diversity / genetic material preserved / acts as a gene bank ;
8. detail of future use ; e.g. can be used after environmental disaster / new diseases / used to increase
numbers / maintains biodiversity ;
9. research / education ;
10. AVP ; e.g. takes up less space than growing plants / ref. to cheaper to store than whole plants
98
99a Describe the process of selective reabsorption and explain how the cells of the
proximal convoluted tubule are adapted to carry out selective reabsorption. [9]
structure
1. microvilli ; Accept brush border
3. tight junctions ;
4. folded, basal membrane / described ;
5. many, transport proteins / cotransporters / pumps / carrier proteins ;
process
6. active transport of Na+, out of (pct) cells / into blood ;
7. Na+ ion concentration, gradient (produced) / reduced in cell ;
8. Na+ enters (pct) cells from, lumen / tubule / filtrate ;
9. by facilitated diffusion / using carrier protein ;
10. cotransport (from lumen to pct cell) ;
11. of, glucose / amino acids / ions ; only award if mp10 given
12. AVP ; e.g. water enters (pct) cells
99b Describe the role of the hypothalamus and the role of the posterior pituitary in
osmoregulation. [6]
1. hypothalamus detects water potential of blood ;

2. (using) osmoreceptors ;
3. (if) water potential, decreases / is low ;
4. ADH produced ;
5. ref. to neurosecretion / neurosecretory cells ;
6. which extend into posterior pituitary ;
7. ADH released from posterior pituitary ;
8. enters blood stream ;
9. water potential of blood, increases / returns to set point ;
99
100a Outline the characteristic features of organisms in the domain Eukarya. [8]
1. nucleus ;
2. (double) membrane-bound organelles ; Accept example
3. 80S ribosomes ;
4. chloroplasts / mitochondria, have 70S ribosomes ;
5. linear DNA ;
6. DNA associated with, histones / proteins ;
7. chloroplasts / mitochondria, DNA is circular ;
8. unicellular, colonial and multicellular ;
9. cells divide by mitosis ;
10. reproduction can be asexual and sexual ;
100b Discuss the use of assisted reproduction techniques in the conservation of

endangered mammal species. [7]
1. useful for species where reproduction is difficult / AW ;

2. example ; e.g. from habitat fragmentation / reproductive physiology
3. increases the rate of, reproduction / offspring production ;
4. IVF ;
5. hormone treatment / superovulation ;
6. (many) oocytes harvested ;
7. (oocytes) mixed with sperm ;
8. embryos placed in uterus ;
9. surrogacy ;
10. detail ; e.g. use a similar species / non-rare breed
11. ref. to portmanteau animal / embryo transfer ;
12. AVP ; e.g. embryo splitting, cryopreservation of sperm, artificial insemination
100
101a Describe the effect of a high blood concentration of ADH on the kidney. [8]
1. ADH reaches (cells of) collecting duct ;

2. binds to receptor on cell surface membrane ;
3. enzyme-controlled reactions / enzyme cascade ;
4. (active) phosphorylase ;
5. (which causes) vesicles with, aquaporins / water channels ;
6. to, move to / fuse with, (cell surface) membrane ;
7. increase (membrane) permeability (to water) ;
8. (more) water moves out of collecting duct ;
9. by osmosis / down water potential gradient ;
10. (then) into blood ;
11. urine (more) concentrated / small volume of urine ;
12. AVP ; e.g. role of loop of Henle in creating water potential gradient / movement of urea increases
water potential gradient
101b Explain how glucagon brings about a rise in blood glucose concentration. [7]
1. (glucagon) acts as cell signalling molecule ;

2. binds to receptor on cell surface membrane ;
3. liver cell ;
4. G-protein activated ;
5. adenylyl cyclase activated ;
6. formation of cAMP ;
7. (which is) second messenger ;
8. enzyme-controlled reactions / enzyme cascade ;
9. signal amplified ;
10. glycogen hydrolysed to glucose / glycogenolysis ;
11. (glucose released) into blood ;
12. AVP ; e.g. ref. to glucose exits via GLUT2 proteins / gluconeogenesis
101
November 2018
102a Outline the characteristic features of organisms in the domain Bacteria. [8]
1. no, nucleus / nuclear envelope ;

2. circular DNA ;
3. histone-like / HU / HN-S / INF, proteins associated with DNA ;
4. no membrane-bound organelles ;
5. named example of absent organelle ;
6. 70S / 18 nm, ribosomes ;
7. cell wall made of, peptidoglycan / murein ;
8. binary fission ;
9. unicellular ;
10. spherical / rod / spiral / comma / corkscrew, shape or may form, pairs / tetrads / strings / filaments /
clusters / palisades ;
11. size detail ;
12. Gram-negative have, extra / second / outer, membrane ;
13. AVP ; (other structural feature)
14. AVP ; (other non-structural feature)
102b Describe the role of botanic gardens in the protection of endangered species. [7]
1. collect / take, plants / seeds, from the wild ;

2. (from) many countries / international effort ;
3. (especially from) areas at risk from climate change ;
4. grow / cultivate / plant, seeds / plants (in botanic gardens) ;
5. increase, plant / seed, number ;
6. tissue culture / cloning ;
7. (store in) seed bank ;
8. maintain / measure, genetic diversity or ref. to gene bank ;
9. cooperate with, governments / charities / agencies / universities ;
10. for research ;
11. to conserve habitats ;
12. to restore habitats ;
13. to reintroduce species (to wild) ;
14. educate (public) / raise awareness ;
15. raise funds ;
16. AVP ; e.g. prepare suitable habitats / growing conditions
102
103a Describe how the structure of the nephron and its associated blood vessels are
adapted to the process of ultrafiltration. [8]
1. capillary / glomerulus, endothelium ;

2. has, many / large, gaps / pores / holes / fenestrations ;
3. afferent arteriole wider than efferent arteriole ;
4. high, blood / hydrostatic, pressure in glomerulus ;
5. fluid forced, out of glomerulus / into Bowman’s capsule ;
6. podocytes ;
7. have interdigitating, processes / extensions ;
8. that form, filtration slits / slit pores ;
9. basement membrane ;
10. (mesh of) collagen / glycoprotein (fibres) ;
11. acts as (main), selective barrier / filter ;
12. large / RMM > 68 000, proteins / molecules, do not pass through ;
13. (red / white blood) cells, do not pass through ;
14. water / solutes / ions, pass through ;
103b Describe the effects of insulin on its main target tissues and explain how this
leads to changes in blood glucose concentration. [7]
1. two examples from: liver / muscle / adipose ;

2. increases glucose uptake ;
3. increases permeability of cells to glucose ;
4. more, transport / GLUT (4), proteins (added to membrane) ;
5. by vesicles fusing with cell surface membrane ;
6. stimulates, glycogen synthesis / glycogenesis ;
7. glucokinase / hexokinase / glycogen synthase ;
8. lipid / triglyceride / fatty acid, synthesis stimulated ;
9. increase in respiration ;
10. (so) more (facilitated) diffusion of glucose into (liver) cells ;
11. decreases, glycogenolysis / lipolysis / gluconeogenesis ;
12. decreases blood glucose concentration ;
103
104a Explain why carbohydrates, lipids and proteins have different relative energy
values as substrates in respiration in aerobic conditions. [6]
1. different substrates have different numbers of, hydrogens / C-H bonds ;

2. lipids have (relatively) more, hydrogens / C-H bonds (than carbohydrates or proteins) ;
3. hydrogens / C-H bonds, located in fatty acid (tails of lipids) ;
4. breakdown / oxidation, of substrate provides hydrogen (atoms) ;
5. for reduction of, NAD / FAD ;
6. (reduced, NAD / FAD) provides / releases, hydrogen to ETC ;
7. hydrogen (dissociates) into protons and electrons ;
8. ref. energy used to set up proton gradient ;
9. chemiosmosis / oxidative phosphorylation / AW ;
10. (so) more, ATP / energy, from lipids per unit mass (than, carbohydrates / proteins) or lipids, more
energy dense / have higher (relative) energy value ;
104b Define the term respiratory quotient (RQ) and describe how you would carry out
an investigation to determine the RQ of germinating barley seeds. [9]
RQ
1. (ratio of) carbon dioxide given out divided by oxygen taken in ;
2. ref. volume / moles ; R amount
3. per unit time ;
any eight from investigation
4. use respirometer ;
5. seeds placed on, mesh / gauze ;
6. KOH / NaOH / sodalime, to absorb carbon dioxide ;
7. manometer / capillary tube / syringe ;
8. movement of fluid (in manometer / capillary tube / syringe) = uptake of oxygen ;
9. keep, temperature / air pressure, constant ;
10. measure oxygen uptake after certain time ;
11. repeat without KOH / NaOH / sodalime ;
12. difference in manometer readings due to carbon dioxide given out ;
104
105a Describe how a spinal reflex arc functions and explain why it is an advantage to
a mammal. [9]
1. sense organ / receptor, detects stimulus ;

2. e.g. light, sound, heat ;
3. idea of very strong stimulus ;
4. action potential generated in sensory neurone ;
5. sensory neurone connects to spinal cord ;
6. synapse with, relay / intermediate, neurone or action potential passes to, relay / intermediate,
neurone ;
7. (relay / intermediate / sensory, neurone) synapse with motor neurone or action potential passes to
motor neurone ;
8. effector / muscle ;
9. response / described ;
10. fast(er) ;
11. automatic / involuntary / AW ;
12. response always the same / stereotypic ;
13. protects from harm ;
105b Explain the importance of the myelin sheath in determining the speed of nerve
impulses. [6]
1. (sheath) insulates axon / stops passage of ions ;

2. gaps / nodes of Ranvier ;
3. 1–3 mm intervals ;
4. passage of ions can occur (at nodes) ;
5. depolarisation / action potentials, only occur at nodes ;
6. local circuits (between nodes) ;
7. saltatory conduction ; A description
8. faster (speed of nerve impulse) ;
9. AVP ; e.g. detail of structure of sheath
105
March 2019
106a Describe the sliding filament model of muscular contraction. [7]
1. calcium ions released from sarcoplasmic reticulum ;

2. calcium ions bind to troponin ;
3. troponin changes shape and moves tropomyosin ;
4. exposes binding site on actin ;
5. myosin head, binds to site / forms cross bridge ;
6. myosin head tilts ;
7. pulls actin / power stroke ;
8. myosin head, has ATPase / hydrolyses ATP ;
9. myosin head lets go of actin ;
10. myosin head goes back to previous orientation / myosin head re-cocks ;
11. process repeated ;
12. sarcomere shortens
106b Explain the roles of the hormones FSH, LH, oestrogen and progesterone in the
human menstrual cycle. [8]
1. FSH secreted by anterior pituitary ;

2. stimulates, development / growth, of follicle (cells in ovary) ;
3. dominant / Graafian, follicle, secretes oestrogen ;
4. oestrogen stimulates repair of endometrium ;
5. oestrogen inhibits further release of FSH ;
6. (large) increase oestrogen, day 14 / midpoint ;
7. stimulates secretion of LH from anterior pituitary ;
8. LH stimulates, ovulation / release of oocyte ;
9. LH stimulates development of corpus luteum ;
10. corpus luteum secretes progesterone ;
11. progesterone continues build-up of endometrium or maintains endometrium ;
12. progesterone, inhibits secretion of, LH / FSH ;
13. corpus luteum degenerates so concentration of progesterone falls ;
14. endometrium breaks down ;
106
107a State the general theory of evolution and explain the process of natural
selection in evolution. [7]
1. ref. to organisms change over time ; plus any six from:

2. organisms produce many offspring ;
3. more than is necessary to maintain population ;
4. (but) population size is constant (over time) ;
5. within a species there is variation (in phenotype) ;
6. due to genetic variation ;
7. caused by mutation ;
8. individuals compete for survival / survival of the fittest ;
9. ref. to selection pressure(s) ;
10. some individuals, are better adapted to survive / have advantageous alleles / have selective advantage
;
11. pass on (advantageous) alleles to offspring ;
12. changes allele frequency ;
13. ref. to speciation ;
107b Explain how meiosis and fertilisation can result in genetic variation amongst
offspring. [8]
meiosis (max seven):

4. in prophase 1 ;
5. exchange of, genetic material / DNA ;
11. possible (chromosome) mutation ;
fertilisation:
12. random mating ;
107
June 2019
108a Explain what is meant by the term limiting factor and explain how knowledge of
limiting factors is used to increase crop yields in glasshouses. [7]
1. reaction / photosynthesis, controlled / affected, by more than one / several, factors ;

2. factor / variable, nearest its minimum value / in shortest supply ;
3. which, prevents increase in rate / restricts rate / makes rate plateau ;
to increase crop yield in glass house:
4. light intensity + temperature + carbon dioxide concentration ;
5. artificial lights / lamps / provide lighting at night ;
6. heaters / open windows / control ventilation ;
7. CO2 from, cylinders / dry ice / combustion / (named) fuel heater ;
8. automation / computerised control / digital control ;
9. ref. to optimum, light intensity / temperature / CO2 concentration / conditions ;
10. AVP ; e.g. water / irrigation / sprinklers
11. control / optimum, humidity
12. (named) fertiliser / nitrate / manure
108b Describe the behaviour of chromosomes during meiosis. [8]
meiosis I
1. chromosomes, condense / thicken / spiralise ;
2. homologous chromosomes pair up / bivalents form ;
3. crossing over / chiasma(ta) ;
4. spindle fibres / microtubules, attach to / pull, centromeres / kinetochores ;
5. bivalents, line up / arranged, on equator ;
6. independent / random, assortment (of homologous pairs) ;
7. chromosomes, move / pulled, to poles ;
meiosis II
8. (single) chromosomes / pairs of chromatids, line up on, equator / mid-line ;
9. at right angles to first equator ;
11. chromatids separate ;
12. ref. to haploid / chromosome no. halved / one set of chromosomes ;
108
109a Explain how a cholinergic synapse functions. [7]
1. impulse / action potential / depolarisation, reaches, synaptic knob ;

2. (voltage-gated) Ca2+ channels open (in pre-synaptic membrane) ;
3. Ca2+ enters (synaptic knob / pre-synaptic neurone) ;
4. vesicles with acetylcholine, move towards / fuse with, pre-synaptic membrane ;
5. (ACh) released / secreted / exocytosis ;
6. ACh diffuses across synaptic cleft ;
7. binds to receptors on post-synaptic membrane ;
8. (ligand-gated) Na+ channels open and Na+ enters post-synaptic neurone ;
9. depolarisation / action potential / EPSP ;
10. acetylcholinesterase, breaks down ACh / recycles Ach ;
109b Describe how you would carry out an investigation into the effect of wavelength
of light on the rate of photosynthesis of a plant, using a redox indicator such as
DCPIP. [8]
1. Hill reaction ;
2. oxidised DCPIP is blue ;
3. (DCPIP) goes colourless when reduced ;
4. method for making chloroplast, extract / suspension ;
5. ref. to buffer solution / control osmosis / control pH ;
6. expose chloroplasts + DCPIP to wavelength of light ;
7. (method 1) measure time for, blue to disappear / blue-green → green / colour to match control
with no DCPIP or (method 2) leave for fixed time and measure with colorimeter ;
8. calculate rate as, (method 1) 1/t or (method 2) change in colour value divided by time ;
9. test five (or more), wavelengths / colours ;
10. do three repeats / calculate means ;
11. plot wavelength on x-axis against, dependent variable / calculated rate, on y-axis ;
109
110a Describe how you would carry out an investigation into the effect of temperature
on the rate of photosynthesis of an aquatic plant. [8]
1. microburette / (gas) syringe / photosynthometer ;

2. cut shoot (of aquatic plant) ;
3. place shoot in tube of hydrogen carbonate solution ;
4. to provide carbon dioxide ;
5. water bath / maintain temperature ;
6. choose 4 different temperatures ;
7. acclimatisation ;
8. lamp placed fixed distance away ;
9. measure length of bubble of, gas / oxygen, in set time or count number of bubbles produced in set
time ;
10. repeat experiment twice more ;
11. calculate mean values ;
12. method to calculate rate of photosynthesis ;
13. AVP ; e.g. dark room / heat shield / LED bulbs
110b Outline how degraded habitats may be restored, with reference to named
examples. [7]
1. reforesting / replanting ;
2. reintroduction of, named / native, animal (species) ;
3. bioremediation / described ;
4. bubbling oxygen through / oxygenation of, water ;
5. ref. to normalising pH of, water bodies / soil ;
6. dredging / clearing / purifying, rivers / lakes / water bodies ;
7. litter / waste, removal ;
8. removal of toxic layer of soil / soil cleaned and put back ;
9. idea of improving soil fertility ;
10. removal of alien (plant / animal) species ;
11. protection against grazing ;
12. named example ;
13. named example ;
110
111a Outline the biological basis of contraceptive pills containing oestrogen and
progesterone. [8]
1. synthetic hormones used ;

2. as they do not get broken down quickly / act for longer ;
3. oestrogen / progesterone, (blood) concentrations remain high ;
4. (act on) anterior pituitary (gland) ;
5. FSH not, produced / secreted ;
6. Graafian / dominant, follicle does not develop ;
7. LH not, produced / secreted ;
8. ovulation prevented / described ;
9. cervical mucus thickens (to stop sperm) ;
10. prevents implantation / endometrium less well developed ;
11. ref. to negative feedback ;
12. AVP ; e.g. taken daily for 21 days then stops (for 7 days) to allow menstruation / taken daily
throughout month
111b Explain how speciation may occur as a result of geographical separation. [7]
1. named geographical barrier ; e.g. river / mountain / sea

2. two populations (of same species) separated ;
3. no, breeding / allele flow / gene flow, between populations or reproductively isolated ;
4. different, selection pressures / (environmental) conditions ;
5. mutations occur ;
6. individuals with beneficial alleles, are selected for / survive / reproduce / have a selective advantage ;
7. beneficial alleles passed on ;
8. change in, allele frequency / gene pool ;
9. genetic drift ;
10. ref. to over a long time / many generations ;
11. (eventually) unable to interbreed to produce fertile offspring / reproductively isolated ;
12. allopatric (speciation) ;
111
112a Describe how the structure of a chloroplast is related to its functions. [8]

2. for, light independent stage / Calvin cycle ;
3. contains enzymes / named enzyme e.g. rubisco ;
4. also, sugars / lipids / starch / ribosomes / DNA ;
6. for, light dependent stage ;
7. fluid-filled sacs / thylakoids ;
9. (grana) hold (photosynthetic) pigments ;
10. (grana) have large surface area for (maximum) light absorption ;
11. (pigments are arranged in), light harvesting clusters / photosystems ;
12. primary pigment / reaction centre / chlorophyll a, surrounded by accessory pigments ;
13. (accessory pigments) pass energy to, primary pigment / reaction centre / chlorophyll a ;
14. different photosystems absorb light at different wavelengths ;
15. membranes hold, ATP synthase / electron carriers ;
16. for, photophosphorylation / chemiosmosis ;
112b Describe how you would separate chloroplast pigments using chromatography.
[7]
1. grind leaf ;
2. use, solvent / named solvent ;
3. leaf extract contains mixture of pigments ;
4. ref. to concentrate extract ;
5. further detail ; e.g. pencil line drawn / extract placed on chromatography paper / extract placed on
thin layer chromatography plate
6. paper placed (vertically) in jar of (different) solvent ;
7. solvent rises up paper ;
8. each pigment travels at different speed ;
9. pigments separated as they ascend ;
10. distance moved by each pigment is unique ;
11. Rf value ;
12. two dimensional chromatography ;
13. better separation of pigments ;
112
113a Describe how ATP is synthesised by oxidative phosphorylation. [8]

2. passed to ETC ;
4. hydrogen released (from reduced, NAD / FAD) ;
6. electrons pass along, ETC / carriers / cytochromes ;
8. proton gradient is set up ;
9. protons diffuse, (back) through membrane / down gradient ;
10. ATP synthase / stalked particles / protein channels ;
11. (ATP produced from) ADP and (inorganic) phosphate ;
113b Describe how you would carry out an investigation, using a simple respirometer,
to measure the effect of temperature on the respiration rate of insect larvae. [7]
1. detail of placing larvae in respirometer ; e.g. on gauze / use spoon

2. use and role of, KOH / AW;
3. water bath / maintain temperature ;
4. choose 4 different temperatures ;
5. mark initial position of liquid drop ;
6. leave for set time ;
7. measure distance moved by drop (in set time) ;
8. (use tap to) reset respirometer ;
9. (at least 3) replicates ;
11. calculate rate as distance ÷ time ;
12. plot graph of rate v temperature ;
113
November 2019
114a Compare the characteristic features of members of the kingdoms Fungi and
Animalia. [7]
Fungi and Animalia

1. eukaryotic cells ;
2. details of eukaryotic cells ;; e.g. nucleus / linear DNA / chromosomes / histones / 80s ribosomes /
(named) membrane-bound organelles
3. heterotrophic / described ;
4. ref. to glycogen ;
Fungi only
5. some unicellular ;
6. hyphae / mycelium ;
7. multinucleate parts ;
8. ref. to spores ;
9. cell walls of chitin ;
Animalia only
10. multicellular ;
11. specialised cells ;
12. differentiated into, tissues / organs ;
13. some motile ;
14. (some cells have) cilia / flagella ;
114b Discuss the methods used in breeding programmes for endangered mammal
species and outline the problems that may occur with these programmes. [8]
methods
1. provide as natural environment as possible / described ;
2. storage of, sperm / eggs / gametes ; Accept sperm banks
3. artificial insemination / IVF ;
4. embryo transfer / surrogate mothers ;
5. can monitor, health of mother / development of foetus ;
6. (international) cooperation between zoos ;
7. genetic records kept / ‘stud’ book ;
8. release into the wild ;
problems
9. may be stress in captivity ;
10. mate may be rejected ;
11. reproductive cycles may be disrupted (in captivity) ;
12. named problems with release ;; e.g. difficulty in finding food / may not integrate into groups / more
susceptible to disease / very little natural habitat left to release animals into
114
115a Describe the features of ATP that make it suitable for its role as the universal
energy currency of cells. [6]
1. small ;
2. water soluble so can move around cell ;
3. immediate source of energy ; Accept immediate energy donor
4. ref. to hydrolysed ;
5. phosphate removed releases energy ;
6. 30.5 kJ mol-1 ; Accept molecule of ATP releases 30.5 kJ
7. ATP splits to ADP and Pi ;
note ATP  ADP and Pi + 30.5 kJ gains mp6 and mp7
8. reversible ;
9. intermediate between, anabolic and catabolic reactions / energy yielding and energy requiring
reactions ;
10. high turnover ;
115b Describe how you would carry out an investigation on the effect of temperature
on the rate of respiration of yeast in anaerobic conditions using a redox
indicator, such as methylene blue. [9]
1. methylene blue / DCPIP, is a hydrogen acceptor (dye) ;

2. becomes colourless when reduced ;
3. use yeast suspension (in tube) ;
4. add named sugar (solution) and, methylene blue / DCPIP ;
5. put thin layer of oil on / put bung on, to prevent oxygen reaching yeast ;
6. ref. to water bath (at set temperature) ;
7. time how long it takes (for methylene blue / DCPIP) to go colourless ;
8. use colorimeter ;
9. ref. to 5 different temperatures ;
10. repeat (whole) experiment at least twice more ;
12. method to calculate rate of respiration ; e.g. graph or 1/T
13. plot graph of rate of respiration against temperature ;
115
116a Viruses are not included in the three domain classification system as they have
different features from most organisms. Describe the features of viruses. [8]
1. not cellular ;
2. contain, nucleic acid / genetic material / DNA / RNA (core) ;
3. DNA may be single-stranded or double-stranded ;
4. (core surrounded by) protein coat / capsid / capsomeres ;
5. may have, external / lipoprotein, envelope / membrane ;
6. 20–750 nm ;
7. obligate parasites ;
8. reproduced / replicated, in / by, host cells ;
9. disease-causing / pathogenic ;
10. no, metabolism / respiration / nutrition / excretion / growth ;
11. cannot move / immobile ;
12. have, proteins / enzymes, to help, infection / replication ;
13. (highly) specific to host (cells) ;
14. not (thought to be) living ;
15. AVP ; e.g. lytic / lysogenic, life cycles / antigenic, variability / drift / shift
116b Non-governmental organisations play a role in global conservation. Discuss

how two global non-governmental organisations contribute to conservation. [7]
1. name 1 + 2 ;; e.g. WWF / Greenpeace / Nature Conservancy / Wildlife Conservation Society /

Oceana / Sea Shepherd / Conservation International / CITES / IUCN / IFAW / WAZA / World
Seed Bank / IPBES
2. raise, funds / donations ;
3. influence, governments / businesses ;
4. ban / reduce, hunting / polluting / oil drilling / mining / deforestation ;
5. research / reports ;
6. conserve, species / populations / habitats / biodiversity OR prevent extinction ;
7. education / publicity campaigns / raise awareness ;
8. hold protests OR take direct action to prevent, development / exploitation ;
9. promote coexistence of wildlife and people ;
10. regulate / legislate for, trade in wild species ;
11. estimate / monitor / categorise, threatened / endangered, species ;
12. detail of CITES trade categories ;
116
117a Describe the roles of the neuromuscular junction, transverse system tubules (T-
tubules) and the sarcoplasmic reticulum in stimulating contraction in striated
muscle. [7]
1. action potential / depolarisation / impulse, at pre-synaptic membrane ;

2. (voltage-gated) calcium ion channels open / calcium ions enter (cell / cytoplasm / (motor) neurone /
pre-synaptic knob) ;
3. vesicles fuse with pre-synaptic membrane ;
4. acetylcholine / ACh, released, by exocytosis / into synaptic cleft ;
5. (ACh) binds to receptors on, muscle cell membrane / sarcolemma / motor end plate ;
6. sodium ion channels open / sodium ions enter (muscle cell / sarcoplasm) ;
7. depolarisation of, (muscle) cell surface membrane / sarcolemma ;
8. (depolarisation) spreads / transmitted, to / down / via, T-tubules ;
9. depolarisation of (adjacent) sarcoplasmic reticulum (membrane) ;
10. (voltage-gated) calcium ion channels open ;
11. calcium ions, move / diffuse, out of SR / out of cisterna(e) ;
12. calcium ions, move / diffuse, into, sarcoplasm / cytoplasm ;
13. calcium ions, start contraction / bind to troponin ;
117b Outline the effects of mutant alleles on the phenotype in Huntington’s disease.
[8]
1. mutation / allele / gene, on chromosome 4 / autosome ;

2. dominant ;
3. normal / recessive, allele has 10–35 repeats of CAG ;
4. HD / dominant / mutant, allele has, more / extra, repeats of CAG ;
5. larger number of repeats gives earlier onset ;
6. usual onset, after 28 / in middle age / before 65 ;
7. onset, in babies / from 1 year old, if very numerous repeats ;
8. ref. extra glutamine / polyglutamine ;
9. mis-folded, protein / huntingtin ;
10. neurological condition / brain problem OR (brain) neurones, die / destroyed ;
11. motor control uninhibited / involuntary movements / chorea ;
12. cognitive / mood, changes ;
13. AVP ; e.g. GABA producing neurones lost / ref. to basal ganglia / striatum, affected (first)
117
offspring. [8]
meiosis:
4. in prophase 1 ;
5. exchange of, genetic material / alleles / genes / DNA ;
11. possible chromosome mutation ;
fertilisation:
12. random mating ;
118b Outline the effects of mutant alleles on the phenotype in albinism and
haemophilia. [7]
albinism (max 4):

1. caused by recessive (allele) ;
2. (mutant allele) affects production of tyrosinase / causes production of faulty tyrosinase ;
3. results in, absence / reduced production of, melanin ;
4. pale / white, hair or skin ;
5. pink eyes ;
6. increases susceptibility to, sunburn / skin cancer ;
haemophilia (max 4):
7. caused by recessive (allele) ;
8. factor VIII / factor IX, not produced ;
9. gene / allele, is carried on X chromosome ;
10. sex-linked ;
11. prevents / reduces, clotting of blood ;
12. description of symptoms ; e.g. excessive bleeding / bleeding into joints / large bruises / internal
bleeding
119a Describe how random sampling can be used to assess the distribution and
abundance of plants in an area. [6]
1. area marked out as a grid ;

2. co-ordinates obtained using a random number generator ;
3. quadrats used ;
4. placed at random co-ordinates ;
5. ref. to size of quadrat ;
118
6. species identified within quadrat ;
7. % cover / count number within quadrat ;
8. Braun Blanquet / ACFOR / other named, scale ;
9. repeat sampling ;
10. AVP ; e.g. large sample size / means calculated / method of calculating abundance and richness
119b Describe named examples of threats to the biodiversity of aquatic ecosystems

and terrestrial ecosystems. [9]
1. habitat loss ;
2. deforestation ;
3. named cause ; e.g. clearing land for, housing / agriculture / transport / industry
4. habitat fragmentation / description ;
5. named example ; e.g. palm oil plantations in SE Asia
6. climate change / global warming / description ;
7. named cause ; e.g. greenhouse gases
8. pollution / description ;
9. named example ; e.g. fertilisers / toxins / plastic
10. over exploitation of resources / description ;
11. named example ; e.g. overfishing / hunting / animal trade
12. invasive alien species / description ;
13. named example ; e.g. grey squirrel in Europe
119
120a Describe how the polymerase chain reaction is used to clone and amplify DNA.
[8]
1. DNA denatured / ssDNA produced ;

2. by heating to, 94 / 95 °C ;
3. add primer (DNA) ;
4. complementary base pairing (with sample DNA) ;
5. at 55–65 °C ;
6. ref. to annealing ;
7. DNA polymerase builds new strands / AW ;
8. by adding free nucleotides ;
9. at 70–75 °C ;
10. ref. to Taq polymerase thermostable ;
11. does not need replacing ;
12. new strand denatured and process repeated ;
13. process is automated ;
120b Explain the advantages of using recombinant DNA techniques to produce

human proteins, such as factor VIII or adenosine deaminase. [7]
1. can produce large(r) quantities ;

2. use bacterial host / hamster cell host / insect larva cell ;
3. product exactly the same as human protein ;
4. (as) product has same amino acid sequence
5. no immune response ;
6. no side effects ;
7. no risk of transfer of disease ;
8. easier to obtain purified product ;
120
121a Describe the ultrastructure of a striated muscle fibre. [8]
1. fibres are multinucleate ;

2. cell surface membrane is sarcolemma ;
3. sarcoplasm has many mitochondria ;
4. sarcoplasmic reticulum membranes have protein pumps ;
5. transverse system tubules / T-system ;
6. ref. to myofibrils ;
7. thick filament / myosin, attached to M line ;
8. thin filament / actin, attached to Z line ;
9. interdigitation of filaments causes striated appearance ;
10. description of one of, A / H / I, bands ;
11. sarcomere is the distance between M lines ;
12. myosin is a fibrous protein with globular protein head ;
13. actin is a chain of globular protein molecules ;
14. tropomyosin / troponin, attached to actin ;
allow marks from an annotated diagram
121b Explain how auxin causes plant cells to elongate. [7]
1. acid-growth (hypothesis) ;
2. auxin stimulates proton pumps ;
3. (in) cell surface membrane ;
4. protons / H+, pumped into cell wall ;
5. using energy / by active transport ;
6. pH of cell wall decreases / cell wall becomes (more) acidic ;
7. pH-dependent enzymes activated ;
8. ref. to expansins ;
9. bonds between cellulose microfibrils broken ;
10. idea that cell wall, ‘loosens’ / becomes more elastic / able to stretch ;
11. (more) water enters cell / turgor pressure increases ;
12. (so) cell (wall) expands ;
121
122a Describe how gel electrophoresis is used to distinguish between two alleles of a
gene. [9]
1. DNA cut with restriction enzymes ;

2. (DNA) fragments placed in wells in gel ;
3. at cathode ;
4. current / electric field, applied ;
5. fragments negatively charged ;
6. move towards anode ;
7. gel acts as a molecular sieve ;
8. smaller fragments move, faster / further, than larger ones ;
9. current switched off ;
10. ref. to Southern blotting / AW ;
11. ref. to staining / (gene / DNA) probes, for visualisation ;
12. alleles have different positions on gel ;
13. AVP ; e.g. desired, DNA / allele, selected / increased, by PCR
122b Outline the advantages of screening for the presence of mutations of the genes
for breast cancer, BRCA1 and BRCA2. [6]
if present
1. enables early treatment ;
2. lifestyle changes ;
3. elective / preventative, mastectomy ;
4. regular check ups ;
5. prevents unnecessary prolonged suffering if discovered and treated early ;
6. prevents early death ;
7. AVP ; e.g. social or family advantage of preventing parent’s early death
if not present
8. removes worry ;
9. ref. to planning a family ;
10. AVP ; e.g. prevention / early diagnosis, cheaper than later treatment
122
123a Describe the role of chloroplast pigments in light absorption. [7]
1. pigments arranged in light-harvesting clusters ;

2. photosystems ;
3. accessory pigments surround primary pigment ;
4. accessory pigment example ; e.g. chlorophyll b / carotene
5. primary pigment is chlorophyll a ;
6. reaction centre ;
7. accessory pigments absorb light energy ;
8. ref. to different wavelengths to chlorophyll a ;
9. pass energy on to, chlorophyll a / primary pigment / reaction centre ;
10. pigments absorb light at different wavelengths / maximising light absorbed for photosynthesis ;
123b Outline how the Calvin cycle produces triose phosphate and outline the
conversion of triose phosphate into amino acids. [8]
1. carbon dioxide fixation / carbon dioxide combines with RuBP ;

2. using rubisco ;
3. 6C unstable compound formed ;
4. 2 x GP formed ;
5. GP reduced to TP ;
6. using ATP ;
7. and reduced NADP ;
8. from light-dependent stage ;
9. TP / GP, combines with, nitrate ions / ions containing nitrogen ;
10. ions enter via roots ;
11. ATP required ;
123
124a Using named examples, describe and explain the differences between
continuous variation and discontinuous variation. [8]
discontinuous
1. one / few, genes control a phenotype ;
2. qualitative ;
3. discrete categories / no intermediates ;
4. different alleles at single gene locus have large effect on phenotype ;
5. different genes have different effects ;
6. little / no, contribution by environment to phenotype
7. example ; e.g. albinism / sickle cell anaemia / haemophilia / Huntington’s disease
continuous
8. several genes control a phenotype ;
9. quantitative ;
10. range of categories / many intermediates ;
11. different alleles at single gene locus have small effects ;
12. environment has considerable influence on phenotype ;
13. example ; e.g. height / mass
124b Outline how selective breeding (artificial selection) has improved the yield of
crops, such as wheat and maize. [7]
1. choose parents with good features ;

2. breed these ;
3. repeat for many generations ;
4. introduction of disease resistance ;
5. named crop disease ;
6. dwarf varieties ;
7. (dwarf varieties) mutant alleles for gibberellin synthesis ;
8. (dwarf varieties) more energy put into grain than into height (of plant) ;
9. (dwarf varieties) less susceptible to being knocked over by weather ;
10. inbreeding leads to uniformity ;
11. named example ; e.g. standard height / cobs ready to harvest at same time
12. hybridisation leads to hybrid vigour ;
124
125a Describe and explain how the stimulation of sensory hair cells of a Venus fly
trap plant leads to an insect being trapped. [8]
1. mechanical energy converted to electrical ;

2. cell membrane depolarises ;
3. (if at least) two hairs touched (within 35 seconds);
4. action potential occurs ;
5. action potential / depolarisation, spreads over, leaf / lobe ;
6. ref. to hinge / midrib, cells ;
7. H+/ protons, pumped out of cells / pumped into cell walls ;
8. cell wall, loosens / cross-links broken ;
9. calcium pectate dissolves (in middle lamella) ;
10. Ca2+ (ions) enter cells ;
11. water enters by osmosis ;
12. cells, expand / become turgid ;
13. change from convex to concave ;
14. trap shuts, quickly / in <1s / in 0.3s ;
125b Explain what is meant by the term homeostasis and describe the principles of
homeostasis in mammals. [7]
1. maintain constant internal environment ;

2. despite changes in the, internal / external, environment ;
3. changes in, factor / stimulus, detected by receptor ;
4. named factor ; e.g. temperature / water potential / blood glucose concentration
5. impulses to CNS / input ;
6. ref. to central control / CNS, decision ;
7. impulses to effector / output ;
8. hormones to target cells
9. named effector ; e.g. muscle / gland
10. corrective action ;
11. factor returns to set point ;
13. AVP ; e.g. fluctuations around set point
125
126a (a) Describe and explain the properties of plasmids that allow them to be used in
gene cloning. [7]
1. have, restriction site / target sequence for restriction enzyme ;

2. allows gene (for cloning) to be inserted ;
3. small ;
4. plasmid can, enter / transform, (host) cell / bacterium ;
5. circular ;
6. stable ;
7. contain, (named) marker genes / (named) genes for antibiotic resistance ;
8. used to identify, GM / transformed / recombinant, (bacterial) cells ;
9. replicate, fast / independently (of host cell replication) ;
10. get many copies of cloned gene ;
11. AVP ; e.g. polylinker region
126b (b) Explain the roles of restriction endonucleases, ligases and reverse
transcriptase in genetic engineering. [8]
restriction endonucleases
1. cut DNA ;
2. at, restriction site / specific (base) sequence / target sequence ;
3. ref. to palindrome ;
4. give, sticky / blunt, ends ;
ligases
5. join gene to, plasmid / (named) vector ;
6. seal (sugar-phosphate) backbone ;
7. make, phospho(di)ester / covalent, bonds ;
8. make recombinant, DNA / plasmid / vector ;
reverse transcriptase
9. makes cDNA ;
10. from mRNA ;
11. ref. to DNA single-stranded initially ;
12. AVP ;
126
127a (a) Describe how adrenaline can stimulate liver cells to convert glycogen to
glucose. [7]
1. adrenaline, binds / joins, to receptor ;

2. on (cell surface) membrane of liver cells ;
3. activates / stimulates, G protein ;
4. activates / stimulates, adenyl(yl) cyclase ;
5. cyclic AMP made from ATP ;
6. (cAMP is) second(ary) messenger ;
7. (cAMP) activates / stimulates / binds to, kinase ;
8. enzyme cascade ;
9. amplifies signal ;
10. (activates) glycogen phosphorylase ;
127b (b) Describe the role of abscisic acid (ABA) in the closure of stomata during
times of drought. [8]
1. ABA is a stress hormone ;

2. ABA, released / produced / increases, during drought ;
in context of guard cell
3. ABA binds to its receptor on (cell surface) membrane ;
4. stops, H+ / H ions / protons, leaving (guard cell cytoplasm) ;
5. Ca2+ enters ;
6. Ca2+ is a second(ary) messenger ;
7. (Ca2+ / Cl– / K+) channel (proteins) open ;
8. Cl– / anions, leave ;
9. K+ leave ;
10. water potential (in cell) increases ;
11. water leaves by osmosis ;
12. volume of, cell / vacuole, decreases ;
13. cell becomes flaccid closing, stoma / pore ;
127
128a Using named examples, describe the differences between structural and
regulatory genes and the differences between repressible and inducible
enzymes. [9]
structural genes
1. code for, non-regulatory / structural, proteins / polypeptides ;
2. named example of structural gene ; e.g. lac Z / lac Y / lac A
3. (proteins associated with) rRNA / tRNA ;
4. (proteins such as) enzyme / named (structural) protein ;
regulatory genes
5. code for, regulatory / non-structural, proteins / polypeptides ;
6. named example ; e.g. gene coding for repressor protein / lac I / PIF / correct ref. DELLA protein /
gene for transcription factors
7. detail ; e.g. switches genes on or off / ref. gene expression / ref. transcription ;
repressible enzymes
8. (generally) produced continuously ;
9. synthesis can be prevented by binding of repressor protein to, specific site / promoter / operator ;
10. named example ; e.g. enzyme involved in tryptophan synthesis
inducible enzymes
11. synthesis only occurs when, substrate / inducer, is present ;
12. idea that transcription of the gene only occurs when, substrate / inducer, binds to, transcription factor
/ repressor protein;
13. named example ; e.g. β galactosidase / lactose permease / transacetylase
128b Explain the function of transcription factors in gene expression in eukaryotes.

[6]
1. (TF) can form part of protein complex ;

2. (TF) bind to, DNA / promoter / enhancer ;
3. (so) RNA polymerase binds to promoter ;
4. (so) transcription begins / mRNA synthesised / gene expressed / gene switched on ;
5. (or TF binds to DNA) no transcription / no mRNA synthesised / gene not expressed / gene switched
off ;
6. can activate genes in correct, order / time / cells / amount ;
7. ref. to correct (pattern of) development ;
8. described example ; e.g. homeobox genes / hox genes / determine sex
9. allow responses to environmental stimuli ;
10. described example ; e.g. correct genes expressed in response to, very high temperatures / light
exposure
11. ref. to regulate cell cycle ; e.g. role in cell cycle checkpoints / apoptosis
12. ref. to cell signalling ; e.g. response to hormones
128
129a Describe how a molecule of glucose is converted to pyruvate and then to acetyl
CoA. [9]
1. glycolysis ;
2. glucose phosphorylated by ATP ;
3. to fructose (1,6-)bisphosphate ;
4. lysis / splits, to form 2 × triose phosphate ;
5. (triose phosphate) has hydrogen removed / is dehydrogenated / is oxidised ;
6. reduced NAD formed ;
7. 4 × ATP / net 2ATP, produced ;
8. ref. to substrate-linked phosphorylation ;
pyruvate produced
9. enters mitochondrial matrix ;
10. link reaction ;
11. decarboxylated / carbon dioxide removed ;
12. (pyruvate) has hydrogen removed / is dehydrogenated / is oxidised ;
combines with coenzyme A
129b Explain how ATP is formed during oxidative phosphorylation. [6]
1. reduced NAD / reduced FAD, releases hydrogen ;

2. ref. to inner membrane / cristae ;
3. hydrogen splits into H+ and e– ;
4. e– passes along, chain of carriers / ETC ;
5. energy released used to pump H+ into intermembrane space ;
6. high concentration of H+ in intermembrane space / ref. proton gradient ;
7. H+ diffuse back into matrix ;
8. ref. to ATP synthase / stalked particle ;
9. ref. to chemiosmosis ;
129
130a Compare the characteristic features of the domains Eukarya and Bacteria. [8]
Eukarya v Bacteria
1. nucleus v no, nucleus / nuclear envelope ;
2. linear DNA v circular DNA / plasmid ;
3. histone proteins associated with DNA v no histone proteins ;
4. (double) membrane-bound organelles v no membrane-bound organelles ;
Ignore named organelles
5. 80S ribosomes v 70S ribosomes ;
6. cell wall sometimes present v cell wall always present ;
7. cell wall (if present) made of cellulose / chitin v cell wall made of peptidoglycans ;
8. cells divide by mitosis v cells divide by binary fission ;
Ignore ref. to meiosis
9. (can be) multicellular v unicellular ;
10. AVP ; e.g. differences in flagellum structure
130b Describe the methods used to conserve endangered plant species. [7]
1. botanic gardens ;
2. research ;
3. controlled named growing conditions ; e.g. light / water / nutrients / temperature
4. propagation / named method ; g. cuttings / tissue culture / controlled pollination
5. plant back to natural environment ;
6. seed banks / collect seeds ;
7. detail of seed storage ; .g. low oxygen / low moisture / low temperature
8. seeds regularly, tested for viability / re-stocked ; Accept description
9. maintain genetic diversity / genetic material preserved / acts as a gene bank ;
10. can be germinated prior to introduction back into natural habitat ;
11. ref. to CITES ;
12. ref. to (conservation) projects in situ / named example ; e.g. remove alien species / forestry project
130
131a Explain what is meant by bioinformatics and outline the role of bioinformatics
following the sequencing of genomes of humans and parasites. [6]
1. analysis of biological data using computer software / AW ;

2. databases of, gene / DNA / protein / amino acid, sequences ;
3. ref. to large databases ;
4. fast / accurate / efficient ;
5. ref. to allows data to be, shared / pooled ;
6. can predict, amino acid sequences / protein structure (from DNA sequence data) ;
7. ref. to analytical tool ; e.g. BLAST
8. ref. to comparisons ;
9. used to find methods to control parasites ;
10. named example of control ; e.g. vaccine
11. AVP ;
e.g. personalised medicine
identify new diseases
ref. common ancestor
phylogenetic analysis
biodiversity / new species
131b Explain how a microarray can be used to analyse gene expression in a tissue
sample. [9]
1. probes are, single-stranded DNA / ssDNA ;

2. each probe is unique to a particular gene ;
3. probes correspond to thousands of different genes ;
4. extract mRNA ;
5. mRNA used (as a template) to make cDNA ; Reject mRNA converted to cDNA
6. by reverse transcription / using reverse transcriptase ;
7. (c)DNA linked to fluorescent dye ;
8. (c)DNA added to microarray ;
9. (c)DNA, binds to / hybridises, to probes ;
10. by complementary base pairing ;
11. excess (c)DNA washed off ;
12. exposed to, UV light / laser ;
13. fluorescence shows the expressed genes / AW ;
14. intensity of fluorescence shows level of gene expression ;
131
132a (a) Describe how you would carry out an investigation to calculate the effect of
substrate concentration on the rate of respiration of yeast in anaerobic
conditions using a redox indicator, such as DCPIP or methylene blue. [8]
1. vary / different / range of, glucose / fructose, concentrations ;

2. control / same, volume of yeast (suspension) ;
3. control / same, volume of glucose (solution) ;
4. control / same, volume / concentration, of indicator (solution) ;
5. control temperature (between 20–45 °C) ;
6. oil layer to exclude, air / oxygen ;
7. indicator turns from blue (start / oxidised) to colourless (end / reduced) ;
8. due to, hydrogen atoms / H+ / electrons, from, glycolysis / dehydrogenation / respiration ;
9. time how long it takes for colour change OR fix time interval and measure with colorimeter ;
10. repeat experiment ;
11. calculate mean(s) ;
12. graph with glucose concentration (on x axis) and, time taken / % absorbance / % transmission / rate
(on y) ;
13. rate is 1/t ;
132b Compare respiration in anaerobic conditions in mammalian tissue and in yeast

cells. [7]
Similarities:
1. occur in cytoplasm ;
2. (only) involve glycolysis ;
3. make, 2 (net) / small amount of, ATP ;
4. regenerate NAD (from NADH) ;
Differences:
mammalian tissue vs yeast cells
5. H acceptor / reduction of: pyruvate / pyruvic acid vs ethanal ;
6. (end) product :lactate / lactic acid vs ethanol ;
7. no, CO2 / decarboxylation vs CO2 ;
8. (enzyme): lactate dehydrogenase vs ethanol dehydrogenase ;
9. steps / stages: one / 1 vs two / 2 ;
10. (process): reversible vs irreversible ;
132
133a Explain how speciation can occur due to geographical separation. [8]
1. named geographical barrier ; e.g. river / mountain / sea / lake

2. population, separated / divided (into two) ;
3. no, mating / breeding / gene flow, between, populations / groups ;
4. different (named), selection pressures / environments / conditions ;
5. different mutations ;
6. individuals with beneficial alleles, are selected for / survive / reproduce / have a selective advantage ;
7. genetic drift / founder effect ;
8. change in, allele frequency / gene pool ;
9. over a long time / many generations ;
10. can no longer (successfully), interbreed / reproduce / produce fertile offspring, with, old / original /
other, population / species ;
11. allopatric (speciation) ;
133b Using examples, explain why species may become extinct. [7]
1. environment changes ;
2. species cannot adapt (fast enough) ;
3. climate / temperature / sea level, change ;
4. extinct species / species at risk ;
5. competition / predation / disease, from, new / introduced / alien / invasive, species ;
7. (named) habitat, degradation / loss ;
9. hunting by humans / poaching / (over)fishing ;
133
134a Describe how the structure of a mitochondrion is related to its function. [9]
1. (function is) to make ATP ;

2. ref. to double membrane / outer and inner membrane / envelope ;
inner membrane
3. folded / cristae, to increase / for large, surface area ;
4. has, ATP synthase / stalked particles ;
5. has, ETC / carrier (proteins) / cytochromes ;
6. (site of) oxidative phosphorylation / chemiosmosis ;
7. impermeable to protons ;
intermembrane space
8. has low pH / high concentration of protons ;
9. protons pumped into intermembrane space ;
10. proton gradient between intermembrane space and matrix or protons diffuse from intermembrane
space to matrix ;
matrix
11. contains (co)enzymes for, link reaction / the Krebs cycle ;
outer membrane
12. permeable to, pyruvate / reduced NAD / oxygen ;
13. AVP ; e.g. ribosomes / DNA, involved in protein synthesis
134b Explain how rice is adapted to grow with its roots submerged in water. [6]
1. aerenchyma ;
2. in stem and roots ;
3. help oxygen to, move / diffuse, to, roots / submerged parts ;
4. shallow roots ;
5. air (film) trapped on underwater leaves / described ;
6. greater internode growth or leaves or flowers grow above water level ;
7. (growth regulated by) gibberellin / ethene ;
8. anaerobic respiration, in roots / underwater / when submerged ; Accept alcoholic fermentation
9. tolerant to high ethanol (concentration) ;
10. ref. to ethanol / alcohol, dehydrogenase ;
134
135a Explain how different types of gene mutation can affect the phenotype and
outline the effects of the mutant alleles that cause Huntington’s disease on the
phenotype of a person. [9]
gene mutation
1. base substitution ;
2. (often) does not have a significant effect on phenotype / silent mutation ;
3. base, insertion / deletion leads to, frame shift / described ;
4. (so) has significant effect on phenotype ;
5. change in, primary structure / amino acid sequence / polypeptide made ;
6. change in, tertiary structure / 3D shape / folding ;
7. loss of function in protein or enzyme / example described ;
8. (premature) stop codon ;
Huntinton’s disease
9. (mutant allele) is dominant ;
10. HD / dominant, allele has more repeats of base triplet CAG (than normal) ;
11. heterozygote will have disease ;
12. brain cells die more rapidly (than normal) / brain degeneration ;
13. involuntary movements / mental deterioration or described / mood changes ;
14. onset in middle age / idea that no change in phenotype in earlier life ;
15. AVP ; e.g. greater number of CAG repeats affects, earlier onset / severity of disease
135b Explain how gibberellin acts on DELLA proteins to stimulate the production of
amylase in a germinating seed. [6]
1. DELLA proteins inhibit, transcription factor / PIF;

2. gibberellin binds to receptor ;
3. in aleurone layer ;
4. ref. to enzyme involved ;
5. DELLA proteins broken down ;
6. TF / PIF, binds to promoter region (of DNA) ;
7. transcription of gene coding for amylase / AW ;
8. ref. to translation (leading to amylase production) ;
135
136a Explain the use of genes for fluorescence as markers in gene technology. [6]
1. add marker gene to the, vector / plasmid ;

2. gene of interest inserted close to marker gene ;
3. (marker) gene product / protein, emits light ;
4. visible colour change ;
5. ref. to exposing to UV light / laser scanner ;
6. easy to identify transformed, bacteria / organisms ;
7. examples ; e.g. GFP
8. idea of no known risk ;
9. AVP ; e.g. ref. to gene of interest inserted into marker gene / insertional inactivation
136b Discuss the social implications of using genetically modified organisms in food
production. [9]
advantages
1. increase in yield ;
2. improved quality / AW ;
3. improvement to health / Golden riceTM and vitamin A deficiency ;
4. longer shelf-life ;
5. some GM crops are adapted to unfavourable conditions ; Accept e.g. drought tolerance / nitrogen
fixing / salt tolerance
6. (insect / herbicide, resistant crops) so less money spent on, pesticide / herbicide ;
disadvantages
7. consumer resistance to GM crops ;
8. may be unsafe for humans / allergies / side effects / harm other animals ;
9. expensive ;
10. may have to buy seeds every season ;
11. seed and related herbicides sales monopolised by big companies ;
12. ref. to affects organic food ;
136
137a Describe the roles of sodium ions in selective reabsorption in the nephron and
calcium ions in the functioning of a cholinergic synapse. [7]
selective reabsorption – sodium ions

1. active transport of Na+, out of (pct) cells / into blood ;
2. Na+ ion concentration, gradient (produced) / reduced in cell ;
3. Na+ enters (pct) cells from, lumen / tubule / filtrate ;
4. by facilitated diffusion / using carrier protein ;
5. cotransport of, glucose / amino acids / ions ;
6. glucose diffuses into blood ;
synapse – calcium ions
7. (when) presynaptic membrane depolarised ;
8. calcium (ion) channels / voltage-gated channels, open ;
9. calcium ions enter presynaptic neurone ;
10. stimulate vesicles of ACh to, move towards / fuse with, presynaptic membrane ;
11. causing exocytosis of ACh ;
137b Compare the endocrine and nervous systems in control and co‑ordination in
mammals. [8]
Differences: nervous vs endocrine

1. communication: action potential / impulse and hormone ;
2. nature of communication: electrical (and chemical) and chemical ;
3. mode of transmission: neurone / nerve cell and blood ;
4. response destination: muscle / gland and target, organs / tissue / cells ;
5. transmission speed: fast(er) and slow(er) ;
6. effects: specific / localised and (can be) widespread ;
7. response speed: fast(er) and slow(er) ;
8. duration: short-lived / temporary and can be long-lasting / permanent ;
9. receptor location: on cell surface membrane and either on cell surface membrane or within cell ;
Similarities
10. cell signalling both involve cell signalling ;
11. detail both involve signal molecule binding to receptor ;
12. chemicals both involve chemicals ;
137
138a Describe and explain the mechanism by which guard cells open stomata. [7]
1. (H+) carrier / pump (protein), in cell surface membrane (of guard cell) ;
2. hydrogen ions / protons / H ions / H+, leave / exit (cell) ;
3. using, energy / ATP ;
4. low H+ (in cell) / more negative charge (than outside) ;
5. K+ channel (proteins) open ;
6. K+, move into / enter, cell (by facilitated diffusion) ;
7. Cl – ions, move into / enter (cell) ;
8. water / solute, potential of cell decreases ;
9. water moves in (to cell) by osmosis ;
10. cell / vacuole, volume increases ;
11. (cells) are / become, turgid ;
12. thick inner cell wall (of guard cell) ;
138b Explain how the anatomy and physiology of the leaves of maize or sorghum are
able to maximise carbon dioxide fixation at high temperatures. [8]
1. C4, plants / pathway ;

2. stop / decrease, photorespiration ;
3. mesophyll cells form (tightly packed) ring ;
4. around / surrounding, bundle sheath (cells) ;
5. (initial) CO2 / carbon, fixation in mesophyll and Calvin cycle in bundle sheath ;
6. RuBP / rubisco, in bundle sheath (cells) ;
7. oxygen / air, cannot reach, RuBP / rubisco / bundle sheath ;
8. CO2 combines with, PEP / PEP carboxylase (in mesophyll) ;
9. to form, oxaloacetate / malate ;
10. (malate) releases carbon dioxide in bundle sheath (cells) ;
11. RuBP, carboxylated / reacts with carbon dioxide ;
12. PEP carboxylase has high optimum temperature / tolerates high temperatures ;
138
139a Describe the roles of ADH and the collecting ducts in osmoregulation. [9]
1. 1 hypothalamus / osmoreceptors, detects changes in water potential of blood ;

2. 2 (causes) posterior pituitary gland ;
3. 3 (to) release ADH into blood ;
4. 4 ADH binds to receptors ;
5. 5 on cell surface membrane of collecting duct (cells) ;
6. 6 stimulates enzyme cascade / phosphorylase enzyme produced ;
7. 7 vesicles, move towards / fuse with, cell surface membrane ;
8. 8 (vesicles have) aquaporins ;
9. 9 collecting duct, membranes / cells / walls, more permeable to water ;
10. 10 water moves, down water potential gradient / by osmosis ;
11. 11 into, (collecting duct) cells / tissue fluid / blood ;
12. 12 water potential (of blood) returns to set point ;
139b Describe the structure of a motor neurone. [6]
1. dendrites attached to cell body ;

2. nucleus in, cell body / soma ;
4. much rough endoplasmic reticulum / Nissl’s granules (in cell body) ;
5. long axon ;
6. synaptic knobs / synaptic bulbs / terminal branches / axon terminals ;
7. Schwann cells / myelin sheath / myelinated ;
9. cell body in, CNS / brain and spinal cord ;
accept from labelled diagram
if sensory neurone described – max 5
139
140a Explain how dip sticks function to test for glucose in a sample of urine. [7]
1. (dip stick) has immobilised enzymes ;

2. (dip stick) dipped in urine ; Accept person, urinates / AW, on stick
3. glucose oxidase and peroxidase ;
4. glucose reacts to give hydrogen peroxide ;
5. (hydrogen peroxide reacts with) colourless substance / chromogen ;
6. to give, colour change / coloured substance ;
7. compare with colour chart ;
8. more glucose gives darker colour / colour intensity gives glucose quantity ;
9. AVP ; e.g. doesn’t give current blood glucose concentration / not numerical / semi-quantitative
140b Explain the control of gibberellin synthesis and outline how gibberellin
stimulates stem elongation. [8]
1. dominant allele / Le, codes for, functional enzyme ; ora

2. (enzyme) produces active gibberellin (GA) ;
3. DELLA (protein) inhibits, transcription factor / PIF or DELLA (protein) prevents transcription ;
4. gibberellin / GA, binds to receptor (complex) ; ignore cell surface membrane
5. ref. to enzyme involved ;
6. causes DELLA (protein) destruction ; Reject GA breaks DELLA (protein)
7. transcription factor / PIF / RNA polymerase, binds to, DNA / promoter ;
8. (growth) genes, switched on / expressed / transcribed or transcription occurs ;
9. cell walls loosen / acid growth (described) ;
10. (so) cells can expand when water enters ;
11. ref. to cell, elongation / division ;
12. increases internode length ;
13. AVP ; e.g. ref. to expansins / interaction with auxin / ref. to XET
140
141a Describe and explain the transmission of an action potential in a myelinated
neurone. [9]
1. Na+ / sodium ion, channels open ;

2. Na+ / sodium ions, enter, neurone / axon / (nerve) cell ;
3. membrane (potential) becomes, positive / +40 mV / depolarised ;
4. (repolarisation / after peak) Na+ / sodium ion, channels close ;
5. K+ / potassium ion, channels open ;
6. K+ / potassium ions, leave / move out (of cell) ;
7. membrane (potential) becomes, negative / –90 mV / repolarised ;
8. local circuits ;
9. myelin sheath / Schwann cells, insulates / stops ion movement ;
10. action potential / depolarisation, only occurs at nodes of Ranvier ;
12. fast transmission (of, action potential / impulse) ;
13. one-way transmission (of, action potential / impulse) ;
141b Explain what is meant by homeostasis in a mammal and explain why it is

important to maintain body temperature, blood glucose concentration and the
water potential of blood. [6]
1. maintain / keep / regulate, internal, environment / conditions ;

2. within, narrow / set, limits or around, optimum value / set point / norm ;
3. low (body) temperature and consequence ;
4. high (body) temperature and consequence ;
5. low blood glucose (concentration) and consequence ;
6. high blood glucose concentration and consequence ;
7. low, (blood) water potential / ψ, and consequence ;
8. high, (blood) water potential / ψ, and consequence ;
141

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2004 – June

1a Explain how a synapse functions. [9]

1b Describe the role of glucagon in regulating blood glucose. [6]

1. when blood glucose levels low ;

2b Explain the role of NADP in photosynthesis. [6]

3b Explain the role of NAD in aerobic respiration. [6]

1. mRNA coding for insulin/isolate gene for human insulin ;

4b Explain the advantages of treating diabetics with human insulin produced by

1. constant/reliable supply all year round/unlimited supply ;

Note: not on current syllabus

5b Explain the role of gibberellins in the germination of wheat or barley. [9]

1. seed absorbs water ;

1. ref. continuous / discontinuous variation ;

1. thin / flat to give large surface area to volume ratio ;

1. carbon dioxide 0.03% ;

1. maintenance of constant / stable, internal environment ;

9b Describe the role played by ADH in osmoregulation in mammals. [7]

1. low blood water content / water potential ;

1. individuals in population have great reproductive potential / AW ;

1. gene / example ; (sickle cell / PKU )

1. myelin sheath / Schwann cell ;

1. light absorbed by chlorophyll / AW ;

12b Describe the process of oxidative phosphorylation. [9]

1. reduced NAD / FAD ;

1. action potential / depolarisation, reaches presynaptic membrane ;

13b Explain the roles of synapses in the nervous system.

1. ensure one-way transmission ;

accept on labelled diagram

1. closely packed -- to absorb more incident light / AW ;

1. arranged in light harvesting clusters ; Accept system

1. chiasma / crossing over ;

1. phenotypic variation results from interaction of genotype and environment / VP = VG + VE ;

1. reduced, NAD / FAD ;

Note: not on current syllabus

1. IAA / plant growth regulator ;

most of these points can be taken from an annotated diagram

1. Na+ channels open ; Accept sodium channels

1. humans ; must be linked to, choosing / selecting / mating etc.

1. code is three, bases / nucleotides ; Accept triplet code

1. individuals in population have great reproductive potential / AW ;

1. ADH affects collecting duct ;

accept flow diagram

1. strong stimulus in receptor / AW ;

1. acetyl CoA combines with oxaloacetate ;

25b Explain the role of NAD in aerobic respiration. [6]

1. action potential / depolarisation, reaches presynaptic membrane ;

26b Explain the roles of synapses in the nervous system. [6]

1. ensure one-way transmission ;

1. closely packed to absorb maximum light ;

27b Outline the light-independent stage of photosynthesis. [7]

28b Explain how glomerular filtrate is formed. [8]

1. endothelium of, blood capillaries/glomerulus ;

1. arranged in light harvesting, clusters/system ;

1. photolysis (of water) ;

accept points on labelled diagram

1. Na+ channels open ; Accept sodium channels

do not credit marking points out of sequence

1. change in, base / nucleotide, sequence (in DNA) ;

1. ATP as universal energy currency ;

1. chiasma / crossing over ;

1. phenotypic variation results from interaction of genotype and environment / VP = VG + VE ;

1. pyruvate, cannot enter mitochondrion / remains in the cytoplasm ;

Note: not on current syllabus