,-.'-n( d1&*;,;*i;g¿e¡É¡*a¡r¡ ¡4,É?

§
, r,.;i.Ar
 <tt
climatic .hlrrg"rl
even initiated
,¡,

Py
É
,*
t
 *s;::ü- * .iii{.;.
,

Moon otter Sahabi, LibYa.

Dese* s.tfi.7s rra7o cover eoidence
of ancient climatic chnnges.

.¿-
..+--.t

-. ----ii-*&*-::-

¡t '.:r c.t;litxt.)ncestors r¡,r,/ ¡1r rr'aik.

\-rf proceeded the rvar'¡t has.
\\'c k¡¡'.., f h;§ l!1. krrtrr.r' rlr.rttl.re CarlV a¡.cS I |.rr.e bccn \^..ondcring akrtrt iru:-lt¡lt rloiutlt,r't
irr¡ilr ',r'hrrllr i\'c ¡rr.i. ,.-'tnrl¡ri livcrl in trcts ¡tlti for ntpst t'i n.,.,' :ife anrl .tskinq tlur'stitl-rs such ¡s
hati littlt necd for ¡ birr'r1.ri. rrr trvi-r-it¡oter-l . gaii. "\'\'ht.n riiri i¡ur ilnf est()rs cori.rc r'l()\\'n lrttm ihe
!Vh.rt rve don't knor..'is eractlr-irr--r,r', rvhen, cr rr'hi' ire,t's?" or "lVho n'as li're 'missinq link '¡et'.r'een
i\'e as hlrm¡ns aCapted ¡o ¡i1-r-¡1rt-tt€sl l1-r¡¡r¡¡p{!¡n. .rpes and irl:mans?" Tire r.r'ent th.-ti lnte:¡:sts :ne
:'r.>t is that'r¡sic -.','1,:ci' le.i :o
These ¡ern.ri;1 nl\'st'l:'ir'i. e'. !':- i'.t ialcr-'l::tc -i1::ir'';¡¡ a', r'lutlrrn,rr','spiii
r.1rlv hurna11 evrllut'i(}r,. !" c sr:.lr:i tilc ,t:-,:',\'.: :1,.',llr':', i rr ir.i s i )ir rr :1 :r,r.i :t,-i,l.l.1 thr. A : :ic¡ il ¡ lrr'i r \ n
nr.rv hitrqt' on ch¡11.;:l1 i (l :rl',r i'.'s. thr: t'tller.
ín thtj past. t1'¡ p¡l¡o¡¡ri jr:-':¡i.i,'g¡5¡. .'l' -i .'t,'-' ilrt,:r'il¿r',- I .i,-rtl'.is ir .-\i::c¡ i''r ;- 'lr.'
spcct¡ 1¡ i()i-s 1.)il ilurll.l l l ::ii[: :' i a,':' -:r',ia : J--i'i"]' r.' e.t :'iie:t'r,-egi.',n q. . i ilt u ir'-r i't¡ n i'-'r-,- c\. .' ¡'i.r rr !\ i -
i tr r :

rfc¡'., b¡sttl .,¡¡ lr¡I1C.:t:'.ta:'.i:,' ';rqi rrllr¡'. '. -::'t. .!:- lll.tlt'i', i to iii i'ntil;i,:t '.'!..1r\ .).j. a,.". "".i. :-,'ii"i,.
l.ll, *,ri !ir*s:] s1r1'fi¡,s'.\'(...r1',t:t'tl. r.\t i,'r1 -,,;'l', :r' ¡ ¡1r!¡i 1r1-¡¡¡¡'-rl ir¡-l .,,,.':: ;.r'¡-.ii it' t- ' :', \ . \!'i:'
tIt ilrr'.lrt,ll,,ilri.';r] iir:.-',i{c ()i !}i]i.t"lar.q:\''- :.: ::r ':: th:s iinrc, ¡ ia:it llr,.: l¡llrl,rt,.'. .J-l .. :. - '- -. ':-
ilt.',..' il,,:: l,i r.ri r..lr rtil." tite r' .tc".i,.rL¡tLi 1l¡1' ',r-.t;. tllcl)i ('i irir¡:;,1i¡]q ,.)!ir '-r¡rii,-'.' l.':r:-i :-. t,l.- -'-'.:l
t]tC,,' .li.l. Trrri.tr.:- htr..t',.',.',-"', i¡U ¡ri nrlraf
;'ri.,'.-.r:-.-: ra--'.trr¡', l'.r'l:':f .t it'llll .li-r'LIi,ri Jir:. .. .:'., .: l.
jn ¡l,rcinq tlti ri n'itl-,it.i il-,:ir t-coiir{ic¡i ci):'.r\.. :. '-' rval<i:rg. llr,:, ,'tilti :i'ls :'¡¡.¡.'1.'.1 '- '. :'::
irrr,':tr:r'l itrnqi,-'s ¡nrl tlilt'r r:r,r-slr':.'i i1-ii'¡¡.".:s ,\ r r-ltt t'c t irtt r.
I
",.
.ris,,,rttenri.t to icl.l.iic ()I,¡i- F:aiiIiti:r(rt'\'<Lr1'aL:i¡:',(rt.i .\iirc'-i I{ilsst'i 1\ I ri,lr-t tlt'r '-ltrrtrj ,.' i 't i'' :
-...1:
',,.'i t jr r.',,' 1-.,-:
I
i.¡rrrtttl h',' ¡, : ¡ lr ¡'.¡s 1, i kc :::','.-":' t'.,,1i:ilt-.¡ 'i.l it¡tt::' :,..rtitt,':, :i ::.,' - t-'. :.:t'r
;t-rti-n,.Iists. 'f il colrstrl1.t i)ui :tt(tdrtrs ¡rt,.It:,i ::l'-' Cir.trles p¿¡"t'in i.litl i-{,-'.r!'t...:ati l:;: -:'--'' i' i'1 ''r'
i;,,-i,. :¡ i'1';¡, :¡,:r'¡r', .rn,J rIL\r') :r i-.., j.l¡nl.tlr i.''.,\;'-¡i:a,i: ,¡i tlle t-arlie'.a icef .r::rr(,'i ili::::.r: .". .- - : :.
rr,i¡t,,.1 illc Snl:: '¡r¡ii1,.¡, :: :1t,, :.:_: -.,:_

e¿\-.
-.-fu- ---
Á
{
f'----§F_-
a .L

ei
-- -_::--
t6t
l¡rra,r,-,('rir¡.q lticacs {tf lt l:ít!((rlru:
t¡ ¡ii:¡¡ .rtr-c flttit'rt{ ¡J¡v¡r¡¡,¡l¡ :¡ ¡l¡41t
- rqr' rr I i,;,1; ¿¡li irl ilr¡' t ¡. r ¡,: ¡,' t' rr¡ tt {' tt t.
t
.;rr
 T
}J
l.j
B
k1
,.

ilerrq4 €o-r, \en H

H
F
9
partially right, to most paleobiologists
and anthropologists today. No serious
B
f -l
(.-.
question remains that Africa was the ɧ
birthplace of the human liueage.
Anatomical, fossii, and rnolecular
/
/
evidence overwhelminglv support this i
conclusion. But we believe today that
both climate and geographv played a
i
kev role. The spread of grasslands and (
í
the decline of tbrests were critical \
because they isolated earlv homini¿ \,
populations and allowetl humans to \
develop as a separate species. \\
Exactly arl¡en this split occurred is
-'----r "';:^:^:;',:.^ \
difficult to determine. Most specialists w-é::
consider that hominids diverged from
their ape relatives between about 5 and Alricaa tectonics and
l0.million years ago. tsut whether this Meditettenean dntine
split occurred early or tate within this _ SÁ¡;;;"á
ir still open to quetion. F*:ii. S:íiii;
1119" aWü to be cracial test
evidence for this time in Africa is difficult
to find so thecontroversy continues. ::ny;Z')iÍ::.'"
-\evertheless, lack oi J.-rr.¡ never stopped
anthropologists from developing modeis
and h_vpotheses {s,¡me sav speculations anC
guesses). We work to fit together the data rve
\
i

l
1f
har.e. Since 1978. the simuháneous occurrence .ri
global climatic changes and events in homln:c
tvolutir¡n h.is beconre a crntr.ti lixl¡s of n-¡.r.
\ ',

\/\,,
tl
,/
t )¡
j' f/)/
:'esc¡rcil team's investi{¡¡ierns. Although rr.e
h¡r'en'i t.et found ahe e¡:ire.r Ceilnlrlr-eJ.¡.-i
./x
hr;mi¡iri or a common atre. hunran .i:tcesra,: i\..
.(,s' t
\-
\?

ira'. : ci;liected rnuch .l¡ü on ihe geologlcai. -{frican or Amazonian iorests. Bv the mi,.ltlle
.in.:ent ecoktgical, ¡nd bi,,ir.tgical factors :ha¡ \{iocene some 5 millio¡r years Lríer, apes had in
.rcccrrpaniecl this split. t.
general become larger and iess diverje in specic=. i

-io :ar, we have explored ttvo sites in .{inra

.i01rli1no The rapici eyolution of tire monkeys had begun. a

ic¡r evidence to test t.,vo major hr

¡t:lc=:
rega:'ding human evolution. The first hr:p.rii..es:s ..
that jt rr,¿s aft'ected by a period oi climatic ci.r¿: -e
that preceded an'l .rciomi:anied the dri.rng ;¡ -;
the -\Iediterranean Basin ¡'r.-,ut 5 million ,.,ia.,.,:-..
The seeond is thai it rvas.¡¡i.cted br':.ct..ir;
u\'€rr:. n.tmeiv the open:r.: ¿t rh., Ríir \'.riir,. i:
A nlirropologists associ.rte these evolu tioña rr
thanges ll,ith changes in veeetation antl clirr,ate.
Rc.corded in middle to late §liocene fossils is a
sprea¡,i of grasses and rvoodiand habitats .1t siies
not onlv in Africa, but also in Eurasia, South =
I
-{merita, arrd North Americ¡. These simulianeou5
;hanges prornptecl the se.trcir tor a com¡nern a

¿.: .: .ctiir¡l .\frrc¡, ia hir:;- ,--r::scti ¡i:r¡;::.

irrc¡l ;lirn¡t:r c.tuse, perh.rps ihr. result oi ion¡ine¡r:.:l
:ir.ri:rs. These changes
=nc::r,:getl th.!: inrr.iJ
grassi.¡nd, or sar¡anna, ¡nii ¡aused the ¡cresrs ,:;
-,: r:'l ov e r^., e lt ts 11 ri ve n b v p ia tt, i ccio u i cs. F.
Coniirlent.rl drift Lrrought Áiistraii¿ ancl Souij:
,-rur Ape ancestors to decltne. thus pro'.'i.lirq
li-.= .i me rica, respecti veiv. r,vel I n.¡ rth rr.a rci írom
c,-rni:tions for at le¡st s(-)t-:-ie .ipcs to ie.¡., e :hr, rr :-._,:i .r.nt.-¡rciie'¡ bv the be¡;rnning i-ri ¡ire lvliticene Epocn.
lr.lLi enle!'iite s.trttnn.-i, ün i()r)t. .ls l:omirit.:. .f-: thcse i.rnti rnasscs pirlirri .r,r¡v irom tlie poiar
:ugl()11. I strotrq cold ()ceaii a'¡rrerlt bt'r¡in to i1.:.,r' :
.tALntarctic
¡rountj Antarctica, isolating ihr, contirieni ¡rr.im
ice and Nleüilerr¡nean salt ia.irmer curreltts frt¡m tire nor:ir. During the
Bei:-'re moving to the si¡es, iei's t.xamine ¡he :.,r.-. \ ic;eene, ;\n ta rctica becarne cttl.i er .rnJ -col.ier;
1

ciin::i:c changes. The ston. begins .,vhen Ainc¡
n'as ¡ tlace of forests earlr' ,n rite \liocelru. ¡buru¡
l5 nilii¡,.n years ago. Sites on iire etlge rrf Lare
Yic:i¡ria, in eastern Uganr.ia, and in Jastern Z::;.
isee map on this page) contain abundant iossils ..:
plants .rnd arrimals that lit,ecj in forests ¡u,l Jer..¡
r^'otre'lia¡td. O¡re is a small ape knort,n 11: A
¡r¡,,. ., -
sll¡,i. as diverse and pleniifui as mLrnkevs torl¡i ::
iis rce sireets built tr¡r, btconting larger .rnd l.rrger_
At rouchlv the >anre tin.¡e. tectonic nlovemenri
¡t the Srrait of Cibraitar m¡cie ihe strait sh.rllo*,er.
Duriirg several millir'rn ye;rrs, the iVlediterranean
became .r basi¡r that held up to six percent of the
s.ilt fronr the slobal oceans. bec,rming prosres-
s:..'rl-¡' ¡'¡11¡¡1-' s.rline itself in thr'process. This
..lr,crc¡se iu ocea¡r salinitv also affecttd .{ntarctica.

\lAliaH t!q: l9
 -,-.a.irai:.-.e : Jl-á-1tL.#.-*;
\
aa

ihat for more than half a million

! vears, the Mediterranean Basin
,
I *a, arid, sun-scorcheá s.rlt
"n saline lakes. Then 5
flat r¡'ith
,
I million,'ears ago, perhaps the
result again of tectonic move-
ments at Gibraltar, the flood-
gates opened and refilled the
Mediterranean in a waterfall of
stupendous proportions.
Climatic changes that accom-
panied the Messinian Event mav
have affected hominid emer-
gence. lVith the drving up of the
Ilediterranean, rainfall in areas
surrounding the basin would
have significantly d ecreased
because of the lack of humiditv.
Lacking mitigating coastal
iniluences, temperatures wou ld
have been cooler. These changes
in turn rvould have encouraged
the expansion of dn land
savannas ar,d grassia:rcis in
Arrica, hat'itats to rvhich or:r
eariv hurminid ancestors became
aCapted.
The \fessini.-rn E.,'ent ,tnd its
:iirnatic ch.rlges n-t¡l.. i.ri r nt,t
onlv afie,:ie,j br-¡t actualiv r,?¡,Sr',i
the eme:gence of our earliest
ancestor:. The timi:rq ,-rf ihe
.ilversen.-e hetrr'een .A irrcar. .ale
and hlir,rnid iir.,eages ¡n,,i th.'
\f essrn:¡:'l Event see:':ts l'ltr¡e
than coinciiiental. l\'e .-ouir-i
arzue that ihe \lessl;:i.rn Erent
:r'as :lssociated ir'' th n tcr:. ui ,':
sic'cai cccling irt..-:r 5 :, n i
::'llllit.n'!'ea:'s ¡gtl anrl ihat
':ecause r-i ih(. aSS{--t:.r::ti Sc¡nit
:o!'ests in Ai;lca q'..rr'
:¡irfall.
'become ¡¡tciitr'r- Th:s :":.i'-l¡-
{s ..ii:rltv decreaseC, tire íree'zing ierperature ¡i have brokel u: lr,i
-se¡ '.r'.,lrr illare,rsed because fresii"r'ater freezes ¡t iion in forest ¡¡r't: lilorvt'ti ,h" *-o.i*r,ca .',
slishti'. i:iqirer iemFeraiures tir.rn salt'*ater. .1.s ti',e bipedal iron,iri,ls, ,-'ui ancest\)rs, <1S :trl ;',1apLl','e
irter:i:,g iemperaiure increased, more ice L.'uril ',rp move to gr¡ssi.'ur.-i l:abii.rt.
.r:".i e,. e:-l more .\ntarctic ice accumulaied.
3..' :he iate \liocene. about 6. i miiiion vears igirr
Ar,ta¡¡iic ice ha.i ic-cl<ed up so n.uch rv.rier thai Dahabi: a site ¡i ilimaticlhangeT
gl,:b,rl -qe: ier-eis cropeed 40 to 7Ll ¡:',et'.'rs (i30 to In northern Li'bva, t,lunci a i,'erit'ct icst sl:e
"r-e
lii: :et:r. Bv about 5 5 mrilion './ears ago, the for the hvpcil:esls ii:at thr' \ledite¡ranean's tln'tng
\ledi:e¡:anean Sea, cut off at the shallon'Strait oi affected anti poss:biv caused ciimatic anci evoiu-
Cii¡ra.:.'rr írom inñr:rring Atlantic Ocean waters, tionary change. Th;s siie {narnetl Saha'ni after ¡
:egrr. :.r drv utr quicklv. nearby fori in :he tt-ithern Sahar.r Desert) is tt-dav
fh.. ,Jrvinq ur oí ti:e llediterranean (knorvn as about 125 kiicn",ete¡s i75 miles) inl"-rnd irom the
tire "\Íessinian Event" .rfter a localitv in ltal,v) rvas lfediterranean Sea. During the drving oi the
iiscoi ered bv deer..-sea drilling that uncovereci I'[eciiterranean. ihe site ''r-as on the co.rst. lviih rnv
erte¡.sile deposits of evaporite salis. These salts, Libyan colleasue. Abdul 14ahid Gazir.', I iormeC
ra¡tic:iarlv gvpsurn and halite, rvere depositecl in the [nterna tionaLcahabi Research Proiect.
h,.'er':¡.r1ine pocris that occrrpied derressions in the lVe worked.rt S.rhebi untii i98l rr'lren politic¡l
.l cs : ¡; :i i..:,-l \leri i terra nean Basirr. Dr-i1 ilng sircir-s cond i tions n-:,:.:1 e :urihe r rut-'r\ i m pr¡¡sl il e'
 At Sahabi, we discovered abundant fossils
both animals and plants in the Sahabi Formation.
These beds, dating from the early Pliocene, about 5
mÍllion years ago, were deposited in shallow tidal
channels and ailuvial deposits related to a large
river. A massive laver of gypsum that underlay
the fossil-bearing horizons was interpreted by
geologists Jean de Heinzelin and AIi El-Arnauti to
represent the Messinian Event. A deep channel
near Sahabi, detected by gravity exploration
methods, extended to adépth under the desert of
some 100 meters (3ffi feet). This river cut dov/n
through overlying sediments as the Mediterranean
evaporated and flowed year-round through a
gorge the equal of the Nile. The river,s sot¡rce was
a mystery to us.
Sahabi provides the best view that we now have
of the North African environment in the early
Pliocene so it is a good tesi case for our modél.
Fellor+, evolutionists Elisabeth Vrba and Steven
Stanley have both argued ihat rapid evolutionary
lurnovers in species should be expected follorving
maior clim.rtic clrange. We would expect that fossil
an;rrrals irom Salr.rbi would differ appreciablv
íi-orn earlier Miocene fossils ii the climaiic cl.lairges
tir.-,r.icctrrnpnnietl the Mt,ssilrian Evcnt signiti-
¡.1;rti-r' ¿ffectetl evoiution. Nerv species lvould
r)aaur auLl older ttnes rvoultl rlis.-rppe¿1r as animals
,rrrrl ¡r1.1¡1¡5 acla¡:tr:d to thc changinll co¡tL.litions.
S¡h¡bi, horvet'cr, sr-rrprisccl t¡s. The fauna ciid
it¡i sholv a qreat degree of change. In íact, changes
,.', e¡e rluiie conserlative.
Carnivores we fouud,
such .rs hyenas, lr,oked verv simriar to those from
:.-.e \1 rocene,ri Tr¡ rkcr',
.¡uri ..,..rs, tite \ted iter-
r.1nean. One of the most colnmon l.rrge animals, .r
h.iopo-like hooterl mammal klrorr'n ai an anihra-
cotirere, ltas a hoiiiover frc.m the Miocene and had
{}s
,h --¿ § -\" \
\lodent science ncats an ilrrcie,tt rift floor h ScniliLi.
of
l. .;
L
r*
[=t
We jguney into Alican Rift. Our destinations
the F,
are fossil sites on the Rift flooi. With a twist of
archaeological irony, TDe are also on foot.
it.'
'[I:'
ll- :
time. The elephants and rnost other animals found *:-..
at Sahabi resembled in many respects pre-
Gi'
Messinian faunas from northern Africá.
We found no evidence that the drying up of the 'F*'l
Ft-
Mediterranean significan tly affected the"livbs of
ihese animals. And we found no evidence of the
fl.
sr-rdden chan¡;es predicted b-v- some theorists. Nor $-
did- rve find ade.lu.rte tbssil hominids or apes. VVe F.
still need to determine u h;lt primates actüally
iit,ed ¡t Sahabi. lVe discuvered a íelt fragmentary
prirrraie specimens, but tlreir identities cinnot be
esi¡biished uniii we havc' more cttmplete remains.
Do our results inr.licate that ihe \icssini.rn
r¡tüel for honriuid diver¡;ence is w.rong? \ioi nec-
essarilv. Years ago, Vrb¡ introduced thé concept or
'.'il¡..':¡/ drr,¿? to the fossil record. Sahabi could h.rve
been one of these: a locality insulated from climatic
chanqe by its large perennial river. lf Sahabi lv.rs
indeed a relr-rge ecost.stem, ',t'e rr,ouid erpect to
:rntr the effects of climaiic change retlectéd onlv in
preserved along the peripherv of the aiea.
¡qt=cies
llirich is, in ract, rvhat we iound. The tvpes of
shr.rli mammals found at Sahabi did indicate that
there rv.rs subsiantial aridity away from ihe rivr,r,
and the fossil wood rve ibund shárved fire-
sc.rrring. lVe iinci this fire-sc.rrring toei.-tv in trees i
sitr., iving s(rvanna bush fires uncler d11, clrnditiorr-
!\ c necd further in',,estis¡tion of S.rÍlai.i t.r
il
rÉSu-ri.,'r' a numbr.r of impi:ánt questions th.rt .rt !:
present ca¡r be ansu.ered onlv there. If lve found
§a
Intire ¿fid better animal fossrls at Sahabi, irould it :-
'-*a
be Fo-<sible io upholtl Vrt
"r's rr,fugr. model? Did
tltr, ,,rrue river ¡t S¡ir¡b,i ¡nrclir,r.1le :hr cli¡n¡te
cl:¡;:ir's and, if SL), i\:i1cre uv¡s tire river': sourct'?
t
So:-:re rntiications we rr,u¡.rri poilli io headrr'.rters tti
rhe \iger in iar rvesiern A.jric¡, but rr,e neeri
ttt(-rre,lyirlL,nCe.
iVe- intt,ncl tt¡ resurne work at S¡h¡bi ils s()cn (ls
ptrl i tic¡ I co¡lc'l itions pcrnrii.
It he Semliki Valley
Our seconci hvpothesis is that the formatiiln oi
the Airica¡r Ilif t V.lllrv systcm, particularlv tlre
Western Rift, split thJ ran¡;.,s of ancestral irominiri.
\1.\l(cH ieql { I
 :
I
[ ",.l
Í
At Sahabi, rve discoverEd .ibundant fossils of .ri
both animals and plants in the Sahabi Formation. '<4
:t-Y
These beds, dating frorn the earl¡u Pliocene, about 5
million years ago, ivere tlepositcd in shallow tid¿rl 1
channels and ailuvral deposits related to a large q.

river. A massive laver of g)"psum t}'rat uncieriay

the fossil-bearing horizons ;vas interpreted by
geoiogists Jean de Heinzelin and Ali El-Arnauti to
represent the \fessinian Er,ent. A deep channel
near Sahabi, detectecl b'¿ gravitv exploration
methods, extended to a dr,pth under the desert of ;,
*.:!
some 100 meters (300 feet). This ¡iver cut down $-
L
through overlving sedimenis ihe l,{edi¡erranean
.rs We jor$nev intc the African Rift. Our destins.fions f¡
evaporated and tlorveci 1,c.ir-rounJ ihrough a are Ígssil sites an the Ríft floor. With a twist of i
I
gorge the equal of the Nile. Tl're river's source was archaeological irany, iüé {i?e also ot foot. ?L.
a mystery to us.
!1..
Sah.rbi provides the best vier,,'that we nc¡w ha.o'e iime. The elephants a¡:; :n.t;,. ¡i,1.re ¡ ;ini¡:¡als íound
of the North African environmert in the eari'r at S¿rhabi reser¡rL;hu ii.i arar,y lespects pre-
i: "
§. _-i.
Pliocene so it is a good tesi.:ase for our model- )vlessinian faunas,'rcn. northern Africa" §¡Y¡
fl+i
F ello*' evolu tionisis Elisal,r: th Vrba and Steven We found no evidg'.rs ii¡at the drying up of the
f¡-r
Stanlel- har.e both argued thai rapid evolutionarv Mediterranean signifrcanily ;:ffected the lives oi ft
turnovers in species should Lre expet'ted ltriklt'ilg a.t -
ihese animais. And we í¡-¡,rnci ¡tr¡ evicience of the
ma jor clim.rtic ch.tnge. We u,ould expect that fossil su,jtlen changes predicted by some theorists. Nor F..
anir'¡r¡ls from S¿habi rvould differ appreciably did we tind acletluate fossil hominids or apes. lVe 8,.

írorrr earlicr l{ie:iene iossils if tire ciimatic changes
thiit ar{:cr}r11pilnicri il:e it'f essiniair. Everrt sigriiíi*
c¡ntly affecter.i evoiutir.rn. \ew species '"vouid
r,(cur ¡nrl rllder r,.nes ',r-oulei riisappear .ts animals
¡ ntl pi,r ¡r ts .rtl.t pted to ¡itr, ch¡l¡qt¡¡ g co¡tel itÍons.
S¿h¡bi, irorvrver, ,urpri:et: irs. Thc faur.,¿.jid
not shLrlv a qre.-tr rlegree r¡f ch,.inJe. In f.rct, clianges
rli-rite cl)nser,.'ative. Carnivores ive founci.
"\'cre
such .rs i.rvt'nas, iockeii ver.¡ simllar to tl-.ose írom
tire -\liocene .;i Turxcr'. just across tlie lvlecliter-
ranean. One of iile l-rllst colnmon i;rrge animais, .t
hippc-iike irerc.feci manlmal knt¡rvn as an anthra-
cothere, t,as a ho}rior"er from the Vliocene and haci
,-¡
-i\
I pL,i
t
-*.,]F
\ I
\Iodcru scicnce mcets at ontient riit floar it Sunliki,
still nec.d to determine what primates actually
li,,'ctl at Sahabi. l&e discuvered a felv fragrnentary
pnm.lte'specimens, bui rireir identities cannot be
c'srabi;shed until vue have mcre complete remarns.
[)o <lur rcsults indic¿ltc th.it thc lv{cssi¡ri¿in
i:lodt'l ior irr¡minid diver¡1*ri:6c is w'rong? \iot nec-
essarilv. Years ago, Vrb¿r introdureil lhe concept of
rtittsial cr¿,ir to tl,e ft¡ssil reccrd. Sahabi could haye
been one of these: a locality insulated írom climatic
change, bv its large perenr:ial river. If Sahabi was
intJeed a reiuge ecosvsi¿¡n .¡,e ,,vould expect to
iincl the effects of climatic rl:ange reflected onlv in
species preserved alorrg the peripherv of the area.
!\ hlch is, in iact. w'hat we iound. The tvpes oi
small mammals founcl at Sairabi clid indicate tirat
there tr,as :ribstantial aridity away from the rrvcr,
and the fossii lvood '"r'e iound showed fire-
scarring. rr,\'e finel this íire-scarring tociav in t¡ees
silrviving savanna busir ii¡r,s unr.'ler drt, ct¡nditii¡r:s.
!\c ueed iurther inve:tiqat:irn ,i S;,ir.rbi t,'
resol','r, a number of imp,-:it¡nt cluesiions th.lt ni
preserlt c¿n be ansllered oniv there, [f we found
mor+-'anC better animal fossils at Sah.tbi, would it
be possibit, to upholti VrL-¡.r's refuge mr--rtiel? Did
tile large nver .ti S¿h¿Lri ¡nlr:liorate tlie clinr.rte
;li;rnges lltd, if so, r",ircrc iv¿rs tire rivcr's sourr€?
j¡r¡r.g 1..¡' g:Itol1i r\-c iou¡rri pc¡int to ire¡dn,.rtcrs ,.;f
ri-ie \igr.¡ in i.lr ,,vestern Airic¡, but ',r'e neeel
il'i(,.fe tvirltÍrCe.
!{t intcnti tL, rc5Ltnle rvork ¡t S.rh.rL.i ()s s(x}¡l (ls
it ic.i I rrrutj itirru: ¡-.t'rnr t.
i
FF
ne Semtiti Vatlev
Our se,conci h¡,potiresis is th¡t tlie ilrrnratiou trf
iire Airican ltift Vailcv s_ystcm, pi,rtleuiarlv the
!\'csttrn Rift, split thc r.inges of ¡r:cestr¡l ilo¡rrini.is

*!!!gEiF!t' -:!a
 The Western Rift Wall, oieuted from the oalley ftoor:
Now a geologic toonder, once a possible demsrcation
line between ancient apes and hominids.
and apes. Uplift of the rift valley shoulders pre-
vented rain-bearing clouds f¡om reaching the rifted
region frorn both the Indian Ocean to the east and
the Zaire River basin to the west. Formation of this
"rain shadow" produced an arid rift floor that
sharply divided the West African forests over
much of the western Rift Vallev. This change in
vegetation could have severelv disrupted r+'here
forest-dwelling apes lived in the region .rnd sened
as a potentialiy important evolutionary force.
To continue working on the problem o§ ithen,
where, andwhtt our ancestors adapted to rvalking, I
organized the Semliki Research Expedition to east-
ern Zaire in 1982. Testing our hvpothesis about the
African Rift Valley system is a driving force behinci
this ongoing international research project. The
Semliki River runs between Lake Rutanzige
(formerly known as Lake Edward or Lake Amin)
and Lake Mobutu (formerly Lake Albert) along ihe
floor of the Westem Rift Vailev. Because the river
actively erodes fossil-bearir'.g iediments as it florvs,
we believed this to be an exceilent choice for an
initial excavation.
=lI
Techniques oi biogeographv, the stud','of the
i distribution ,:f species within iheir environmeni,
-l give us one of our strongest arguments in favor of
_tl
q our second hvpothesis. In our model.. we recon-
i:l struct the ape population's being split in fr,r'o bv
-§ the Rift Valley. African apes todav live west (or on
H
.1
the margins) of the West African Rift. AII the
.{ known Plio-Pleistocene, early hominid sites occur
I east of or in the \¡/est African Rift. No iossil apes
i
are found at any of these fossil hominid sites. This
I
't I fact alone argues that apes in the past, as today,
I u'ere limited to the lowland or montane forests of
I
I central and r+,estern Africa. They did not appear to
't venture into the savannas and grasslands of
1
t eastern Africa.
1 lVe need to determine how this split occurred.
i Some xholars suggest that uplift of the rift rvali
i
shoulders',r'as enough to cause a rain sh¿'rdow from
both west and east, thus block-
ing rain from reaching the rift
floor. Without rain. forests in
the rain shadow area would
' have shrunk and been replaced
by grasslands. Ancestral
hominid populations mi ght
have been forced to cross open
patches of land to get to other
patches of forest. Through natu-
ral selection, the fi¡st hominids
would have become a seParate
species when they adapted
entirely to the open patches.
They would have moved east-
ward, into the expanding
savannas. A bipedat gait and
an erect stance *ight have Pro'
üded an advantage amid the
tall savanna grass€s. Ancestors
of the chimpanzees and gorillas, on the other hand,
would have had to retreat more deepiv i¡to the
forests west of ihe Western Rift.
One of the goals of our expedition rvas to iind
out when the Western Rift restricted iorests and
became an ecologicai barrier. Thus rve couid begin
to unrierstand whether this phenomenon affected
the ape,/human split, and if so, horr'. !\,'e st.rrtcd
excavating in the southern or Upper Stmliki \'¡liev
where we found Plio-Pleistocene aged sedirr,ents,
aboui 2 miilion years old. Verv felv fcssil verte-
brate animals *'ere knorvn from this area our
"vhen
expedition began rrorking in 19E2. Toda.,', r'e
knorv of some 51 r,ertebrate species frorn the cldest
leveis. Cating to about 2.0 to 2.3 millicn years ago.
lVe base our oates on faunal cc.nrparisons rvith
eastern AJ¡ican fossils analvzed usinE radicmeiric
dating meth.ods based on the decav s¡n'es of
radieactive isotopes. Up to norv rr'e h.-lve iound
no vclcanic levels in the lVestern Rift th.it rr'e can
date bv such nethods, like pctasstum-argor. cr
ar8on-argon.
After an.rlvzing the Serniiki tau¡la, ',\-e iound a
prepond era :lce of sar'.1 nna r,¡r rvoc,i l.-i n d -aci.t pted
species, '"'r'rv simiiar io those tir eastern Africa ai
this time. 1Ve have iound no ape or hominid
fossils, but rr.e knorv that hominids rvere present
because thev left abundant stone tool:. Studies of
the icssil ;vcod shcw that manv cf the trees n'ere
also sa'u'anna-adapted species such as acacia.
Nonetheless. we determined that the forests n'ere
not fa¡ awav from the Semliki fossil sites on the
Rift Vallev i'loor because rare pieces of fossii rvood
showed up that belonged to large forest species
characteristic of central and '.vestern Africa.
Studies of invertebrate fauna r.ve found coniirmed
that a major period of drying did occur in the
Western Rift at this time.
Wiih the research in the Upner Semliki, rve
succeeded in demonstrating th.tt the lVeste'rn Rift
had alread','become a maior ecological barrier
 to forests and fr-¡rest-adapted species by
the late Pliocene, about 2 million years omo
ago. But it became clear to us that to '-p
find forests i¡ the Western Rift from
rt'hich the earliest human ancestors
emerged, we would have to look in
still older sediments.
Deposits from the Lower Semliki,
:
y,ffiv:
4!&,.é,(u*s

near Lake Mobutu, may hold our ln¡hg^1',fafr'ri'.ü

answers. Miocene and Plio-Pleistocene
in age, possibly ranging from 18 to 1 \\ '. *§5

/d #:w:;i*T:,
million years old, these deposits have
yielded some fossils. Unfortunately,
these fossils are not diagnostic enough
to determine the paleoecology of the §,. '5ro
.J^
'i:^ illuminatereasons
region or to definitely date the deposits. lnlt
But r.r.e now know where to sta¡t.ln our next field
season, anticipated for the summer of 199Z,we will
focus attention on these sediments.
\
g/ for the mtcial split
betaneen ancest¡al
apes andhominids.
/ / tlias1yn-alayted
\/| i from Noel T. Boaz.
lb and Ar represent
Wnur" orwhen f¡om here? ,C /0-16
Which way of looking at the paleoecology of the
apelhuman split is most likely correct? Was global ;' iliitií' .,
Jrtyr)
,
Y:,::::;:n,,,
Áustralopithecus./
climatic cooling and increased aridity at the
\4e,ssinian Ev.ent the primary factor responsible for
In ¡;ear;
isolating our e, rliest hominid ancestors? Or were
A¡ce #rql honno¡d;
there much n:*r.: l¡,'calized events taking place
along th., lVcstern liiit in central Africa that set the io nerv habi'.as. Thr'piains and lli arnas'arame
í¿ctors resultrng in this crucial ape,rhominid split home to emcrymg hc'minids. The ag= rer¡eated to
inr.r plav? thei¡ ancstral nabitat, the tbrest. Fu'ture rsearch mav
Resuits front r:"ry tlvo expeditions are far from shors ti¿¡ ¡het' undenvent changes as rvell,
adequate io answer these questions. We still need The qu*tions around this e"r.oiuticnarv split
so much: a more accurate dating of the various .between h.umans and ape, remain ,cr.e óf t'he
deposits, especiaily in the Westérn Rift; a broader oidest in science. But bv emplovlnq a nrujtidisci-
viert of ihe ic'¡ssil site ecoiogies, both in terms of pIinar"'apprt--ach that incluties eari, lit logical.
space and time; and ot course, much more tbssil and ar':rh;opoloeical sciences. i\': :lre
data, especiallv of apes, hominids, and their
naking real
neaú'.\'a.i it-. linci:ng ansh.ers. V\'e a:e :aiiering
ancesturs
- the central players in our models.
!tr'e do knotv that any simple answier is unlikelv.
cnticallv imponant data nec"rs.r.. :o ictermine
- iranrérr.ork of our
the chronologv and geological
The truth, as usual, must lie someu'here in the on'n e'.'cluilon. Nou.rve understand some of
middle. Otir best guess ¿i this point is that a the ¿eietic changes and populatic.n shifts that
combination of giob,al and regionai factors occure.i as our ancestors became ihe earliest
affeciing climaiic and tectonii íorces initiated the bipeJ,al horninids. We w,ill finci the rest. ir's onlv
geographic and genetic isolation ot both ape and a matter cf :¿'l:¿¡1.
hominid ancestors.
Aithough in rr,.odern parlance tfus geographical
or phvsical splitting of an anceskai populatión to Nbei f Baaz is Director oi the In:crnattcnal Insti-
torm trvo new species is known as a.¿icttriant ¿uent,
in iact it may have been a s¿ries of e."'ents. A fluctu-
tuteior :-Iuúttut Euolutionary Researct. ti !.jtburn,
Vírguia, L1t1d Reselrch Professor oi .1t:itrctpalogV at
ating cun,e cÍ environmental change resulted in
successiveiv different rainfall and iemperature
t]gorg: i\ttsiiittgtott Liniuersitu i¡ i,r,.;,.11r¡-{¡L;r¡. b C.
Sir¡ce l9ii li¿ has untltrtttk¿n a ntun:¿r ¡i-t¡tiititlisct-
patterns piaving out over a changing iandscape in plitutrg rescarch projccts in At'rictt,lil;¡./ .¿¡ :i¡t,ierstdtttl-
cent¡ai Africa. The shifting mosaii oiforest an'd ing etriu honinid cuolution ar¡d rrr¡Lr,rl.,io-q;r.
savarlna moved and re-moved the animal and Cytrre':!!t1, he ircads the Se»tliki Rcse,¡'ilr E.l:¡,¡¿¡¡¡,,,
ql;1nj Ropulaiions like chess pieces over a giant ztltich tnuestii,ntcs fossilifaro¡¡s sc¿/ir¡¡lls i¡i tJt¿ Africatt
Riit Vallev piaying board. Western Rift Volltl1 of Z'airc.
From ou¡ t-ossil data, we know that those popula-
hons skanded in a shrinking island of forest órá¿er apening artwork by Bruce Bontl. R¿nt,tittder ol llc
i1\'anna became extinct. We álso knolv there was nrtwork is bv Tom Hunt aiter photos rekn uy Mrr/
evolulionary change as surviving populations adapted Bosz ott his African rescarch expcditittns,

\Í.{RCH 1992 43