er

13/09/21

1.1 MONOMERS AND POLYMERS Structural Isomers

Monomer → smaller units that make •
CHZOH

larg molecules is -0

¥+1
MY H "

polymer → made from

monomers joined
a
large number

together
of
4
←a
"
°"
HO
-01 OH

I
'
on
monomer e. g.

monosaccharide , amino acid a- Glucose

↳ •

442011
H ' "

-010
1 I ↳ -0
µ
/
↳
.

, OH
polymer e.
g. carbohydrate protein
,

H0 H
no
/ \
,
I. 2 CARBOHYDRATES ←a

f
'
on

B- Glucose

Both molecules are

glucose
-

-
Both have a molecular formula 01-16111206

"
-
But they are
structurally different
go.io
fructose and
galactose
Monosaccharides : sweet and soluble -

Both hexose monosaccharides

Disaccharide : sweet + soluble soluble and is the main
generally Fructose /
svery
•

Polysaccharides : not
sugars sugar in fruits Its sweeter than glucose
.
.

Galactose is not as soluble as glucose and

General formula → 1×11-120)y helps produce glycolipids and glycoproteins .

Monosaccharides Pentosesugar
General formula -slnHznOn -

Contain 5 carbon atoms

Ifn :3 those /
glyceraldehyde) two
pentose molecules are the isomers
-

it n=5 , pentose ( ribose ) ribose and deoxyribose .

ifn-6.hn/Ose( glucose galactose) ,

-
Both important part Of RNA and DNA .

'
Glucose is an important monosaccharide fHz0Ho PH
%
.

" "" "

°
P
ltcontainsbcarbon.0.it/sahexosesugar
'
no
, ,H [f
.

Formula → CbHn0b
"
IF HE H c-
fat
H
{ TF2H 6II It
OH OH

ribose deoxyribose
serial dilution :
finding minimum
sensitivity
of Benedict's and LHMSHX tests

Method :
it"o°
""
"
•

Add 9.AM?ofdistHkdwatertoeaihOfthefNe o H .

it
labelled test tubes .

Add 1.0cm Of the / Of glucose solution to the

•
>

first test tube .

put a clean
bung into the neck of the test
•

tube Hold HIM

.

tightly and shake' am

Use a pipette to transfer 11M of diluted
•

glucose solution to the next test-tube that

contains
only 901m Of
>
distilled water .

Repeat
this for the
remaining test tubes .

Munn
, a 4m$ man
.
mm now COMPARING the MINIMUM sensitivity
pppMMmm1MMMMÑMMMµMM-g-s.at Each test tube
contains 101M> Of
Thellinistixdetectedgluioseatlower concentrations
than the Benedict's reagent The results above
µm!i,
.gg?qFqi;mIpi-Gjo:_f°j-q'←Ig;:
*
.

solution the
except show the climax had
higher sensitivity to
• • • • first .

glucose .

>
Transfer 2cm Of the solution into another Tests for non
reducing sugars
•
-

test tube Method :

•
Add 10 drops of Benedict reagent •
Use a Pasteur pipette to dispense 2cm
'

•
Heat to above 701in water bath for up of sample / intrusive sucrose) into a test
to two minutes .
tube .

Observe the colour change against a white dropper pipette to add 10 drops of dilute
Use a
-
•

the hydrochloric acid IH11) to the sample .

Transfer the test solution to the water bath

•

Results : Heat to boiling point fortwo minutes The

stage
•

if reducing present then this adds when and hydrolysis

'

sugar is
may occur .

an electron to the copper 2"t"" 10h This now .

•

cool the test tube mold water

forms the copper / tion which forms a •

Add sodium hydrogen carbonate INAHIO })

red precipitate .

powder withaspaitvala because Itis needed to

If there only a small amount Of
reducing make the solution alkaline
•

is

sugar then only a small amount of red •

You can confirm the PH01-1NE solution

by
precipitate forms causing the Benedict solution adding
'

it to universal indicator
paper
to turn Addio drops of Benedict
green reagent to the test
•

It more
reducing present then sugar is solution
•

the solution will turn

yellow .
•

Heat the test solution to boiling point Inawater

A
higher level of
reducing sugar produces bath for two minutes
•

an
orange colour Observe colour
change
•

.
.
 Results : 1.3 DISACCHARIDE AND POLYSACCHARIDES
Disaccharide
> sucrose
glucose +
glucose
→ maltose

glucose fructose sucrose

→
+

glucose galactose lactose

→
+

glucose
'

condensation reactions join

monosaccharides

H o_O H H o_O tt

Blue honor reducing sugars present

\ \
→

Green Traces of non

→
reducing sugars present "° OH HO
Yellow low amount of
→
reducing sugars present OH

Orange Moderate
→
amount of reducing sugars present
-

disaccharide
Brick-red →
High amount of reducing sugars present
HE01-1IT
All monosaccharides reducing sugars %
"
•
are ,

and some disaccharide are too

,
µ, 0 -32
.
on

•
That means Maltose ( glucose +
glucose) tri -

4
glycosidic bond
and lactose (
galactose +
glucose ) have a H20

free aldehyde group .

•
sucrose is anon
reducing sugar because two a-
glucose molecules Joined to
there are no free
aldehyde or ketone group form maltose .

reaction breaks the chemical

Hydrolysis
bond between monomers using avatar
molecule .

carbohydrate / polysaccharide/ to monosaccharides

-

protein to amino duds

-

polynvcleotide to nucleotides

Polysaccharides cellulose
Examples : starch , ,
glycogen

Polysaccharides are
polymers containing many
•

monosaccharides joined by glycosidic bonds .

•
formed by condensation reactions .

Mainly used as an energy store and as

structural components of cells .
Food tests

sample starch ( iodine ) protein / Duvet ) lipids / ethanol )

potato positive -
colour
change Negative Negative
to black / blue

RKQCAKR Positive -

colour change Negative Negative

to black / blue

Biscuit Positive -

colour
change Negative Positive -

Milky
to black / blue white emulsion

Butter positive
Negative Negative Milky
-

white emulsion

pasta Positive -
colour
change Negative positive -

Milky
to black / blue white emulsion

cheese
Negative Negative positive milky
-

white emulsion

positive , from Positive

Egg whites Negative Milky
-

blue to purple white emulsion

 I. 4 STARCH GLYCOGEN AND CELLULOSE ,

starch
✗
glucose
•

insoluble store of glucose In plants formed &

•

is is

from two glucose polymers :

Amylose → I -4 glycosidic bonds unbranched ,

chains helical (spiral ) structure ,

p • , •

Function : spiral structure makes storing more

efficient in
storing because it is more compact
•

can store more SUMMARY

• •
energy .
:

1-4 and I -6
Amylopectin → glycosidic bonds ,

highly branched chains

Function: Branches increase the surface area for

more efficient enzyme activity .

alyiogen
•
Insoluble compact store of glucose in animals
✗
glucose
•

I -4 and I b bonds
glycosidic
-
•

Branched structure
Animals store carbohydrate as
glycogen
•

Similar structure to contains 1.5 LIPIDS

amylopectin
•

at -6
glycosidic bonds that produce an lipids fatty acids +
glycerol
even more branched structure .

Insoluble in water but soluble in

organic
Function : branches creates more SA solvents such as ethanol
many .

broken down Other important lipids include waxes ,

to be
rapidly This
•

more .

Indicates the higher metabolic requirements steroids and cholesterol .

contains carbon and

Of compared hydrogen oxygen
•

animals with plants .

, ,

but they have a

higher
proportion of
cellulose hydrogen and a lower proportion of
oxygen .

Insoluble
•

consists of long chains of beta glucose structure of triglycerides

molecules joined by beta 1-4 glycosidic •
Made from a glycerol backbone joined to
bonds .
three fatty acid chains .

chains of B glucose monomers are then

held together by hydrogen bonds to form
strands called microfilms .

Function : structural due to

strength hydrogen
bonding between its chains .
Properties of triglycerides µ
yester group
0
•
contain
large amounts of chemical energy I
HY1 4YY
d
'

H C O I c- c- c- c- c- H
which released when the
can be
tatty
- - -
- - -
- -

HHH HHH
dads are broken down
OH ,HY Hit it
.

"
l O l l C C -

C -

C -

C -

H
µ
- - -
- -
- -
- -

doesn't affect the water HHH HHH

•
Insoluble so

PYM ? MY Y
potential , making them suitable as c- c- c- H
f
H o c- c- c- c- - - -
-
-

enemy storage molecules

-

HHH HHH

•
Inside cells they form Insoluble droplet
H f
, , ester bond
with the hydrophobic fatty acids on the Another bond is formed in condensation
inside and the molecule outside
glycerol .

reaction between one of the OH

groups of glycerol ,

and the IO0H group of the fatty and This .

produces one molecule of water .

•
The three fatty acids in a triglyceride can
be the same or different .

The
type of fatty acids affects its properties ,

such as
melting point .

saturated tatty acids

saturated fatty adds only contain single bonds
between carbon atoms .
This makes the molecules

straight .

Glycerol Is alcohol with the formula

an H H H H H H H H H H

↳ H80 } .
It contains three
hydroxyl I0H) I 1 I 1 I 1 1 I 1 I 0

groups .

Fatty acids are acids to contain H -

C -
l -
l -

l -
l -
l -

l -
l -
l -

(
the -10011 i t l t t OH
group l l l I 1
.

H H H H H H H H H H
alcohol
>
group

,H ( 0

'
YY1
c- c- c- c-
- - -
4YY
c- c- c- H
HHH
Unsaturated
Unsaturated fatty acids
fatty acids
contain double bonds
HHH a' kink
'

H C OH HO between carbon atoms

creating to the
- -

0 it 1,11 MY ti chain Monosaturated fatty acids contain one

.

c- c- c- H double bond ; polyunsaturated

c- c- c- c-
fatty acids contain
- - -

'
l OH HO H H H H H H
µ - -

two or more .

0 YY11 4YY "

it Y
" "
t
'
c- c- c- d-
" H
c- c- c- It H µ
µ
I µ
-

I
- -

I
'
HHH HHH
i. i.
i c- c-
ii.
-

H -
l -

OH no -
-

c- '
" t o

)
'
t
µ
-
I
'
y ,
,
y " " '
H to H
" H
H
'
OH
µ µ
µ +,
carboxyl group 3h20
 as -

and trans -

unsaturated tatty acids Properties of phospholipids

•

The polar of the phosphate group means

nature
CH2 ith "" "
-
-

' '

, -

, c- , the head end of the phospholipid is attracted

H H H ith to water His
hydrophilic ( attracted to water)
. .

as trans •

The non -

polar nature of the fatty acids means

This
llslonflguratlon produces the greatest phospholipid
'

the tall end of the repelled

'
is
kink in
fatty acids producing chains that are ,
by water .lt/shydrophobklrepelswateH .

unable to pain closely together This results In '

hydrophilic head
.
'

weak attractive forces between chains .

Role of lipids

hydrophobic
Anenergy source
•

↳
provides twice the amount
Ottentergyas ' '

tail
carbohydrates -
about 38k51g .

A molecule that has both hydrophilic and

hydrophobic
lssaldtobdamphipathk.hu
Lipids adipose tissue which
are stored in sections
•

several important roles including :

The amphipathic
↳ heat insulation -
in mammals , adipose tissue $0 M nature of
underneath the skin helps reduce heat loss .
phospholipids is
es
vital to their
↳
protection -

adipose tissue around delicate roll Into

organs such as the kidneys altsasaluthlon membranes .

against impacts .

watefff-g.pl asm
The structure of phospholipids
phosphate PO4
-

→
phosphate
→

Phosphate is charged which means it

•

H
if i is soluble in water
✗ -

O -
P -

OH0H -

l -

H
0
① I

H -
l -

o -
I - - - - - - -

at } Emulsion test for lipids

I F CH }
stage / :

H o
Ethanol added to the sample O1-1IP'd and
- - - - - - -
- - -

•
is ,
I

acids the test tube is shaken so the sample dissolves

H
fatty
.

glycerol
staged :

Phospholipids fatty adds contain two

lipids dissolve methanol because ethanol 's
and one polar phosphate
group joined to ethyl group is non-polar .

the third hydroxyl group of the glycerol molecule

↳
Anakoholgrovplx.lu usually bound to the stage } :

phosphate group which affects ,

the properties of The dissolved hpidisaddedtopure water -

the phospholipid In which it insoluble where white

is a
milky
-
.

emulsion forms .
 1. 6 PROTIENS
R Side chain ( variable)
H I O
-
µ -

l -
l
/
I OH
H

H carboxyl group
amine
group

R R
H l O
" l o -

jN µ l l
-

C l
-

Tertiary structure bent and folded to

-

→
-

/
, ☐µ
' ☐µ µ
H
form a precise 3D shape .

H H
L bonds
.

hydrophobic interactions ,
hydrogen ,

H20 disulfide bridges and 10h11 bonds maintain the

3D structure : function .

condensation reaction forms a di peptide .

R O R
" ' I £ ¥f¥
'
1
+0
N C C •
-

N C C
-
- - -
-

É
/ ^ \

(
I I 1
µ OH
H H H

peptide bond llovalent)

Primary structure → the sequence ( order )

of amino acids .

•
A slight change in a proteins primary structure
can affect its shape and its function
ability to .

Quaternary structure → occurs in proteins

secondary structure →
determined by that have more than one polypeptide chain

hydrogen bonding working together as a functional macromolecule .

can bend into an ✗ helix or fold into .

Sometimes they contain prosthetic groups .

B pleated sheets
↳ a -
helix → occurs when the
hydrogen
bonds form between
every 4th peptide bond
( between
oxygen of the carboxyl group and the
hydrogen of the anime group) .

↳ B- pleated sheet →
forms when the protein
folds so that two parts of the polypeptide
chain are parallel to each other enabling
hydrogen bonds to form between parallel peptide
bonds .
SUMMARY :

when a protein is denatured , these H -

bonds break and the protein unravels

which increases the
length Of the polypeptide .

Comparison of fibrous proteins and globular

proteins

Fibrous proteins Globular Proteins

Polypeptide
'

form long twisted Polypeptide

'
chains chains roll up into a spherical
strands linked together shape

stable structure Relatively unstable structure

Insoluble In water soluble

strength gives structural function Metabolic functions

e.
g. collagen in bone /Skin and keratin e. g. all
enzymes ,
antibodies , some
in hair hormones II. 9. Insulin) , haemoglobin
 I. 7 ENZYME ACTION 1.8 FACTORS AFFECTING ENZYME ACTION

Measuring rate of change

y

•
Y
rate of reaction = ¥
x

mean rate of reaction =

amount of product produced

time taker
OR
amountotroaitantsused
time taken

Effect of temperature on
enzyme action
\ Rise in temp increases
•
kinetic energy of
resumes
original MARINES .

""P '
.
Molecules move rapidly and collide M0H
more

lowering activation energy Often ÷

increasing successful 10111110ns
Enzymes increase the rate of reaction by / more E- s complexes ) SO Increase in rate of

lowering the activation energy . reaction .

assisting in the breaking or making of Temperature rise also causes hydrogen

•
•

bonds enables and Other bonds in the break

as it some metabolic
enzyme to .

processes to occur rapidly at the human ↳

causing active site to
change shape ,

body temperature Is> c) substrate is no

longer complimentary ,
less
•

Without enzymes these reactions E- S complexes .

would proceed slowly .

↳
higher tempt tertiary structure of
at

enzyme attire site is disrupted so much the

enzyme denatures ( permanent) .

EÉ agog
↳
Effect of pH on
enzyme action Effect of enigma concentration on the
•

Each
enzyme has an optimum pH rate of reaction
"
A LH7 concentration of 1×10
Enzymes being catalysts
-

has a •

,
are not used up
PH Of 9 .
In the reaction and : . work effluenty at

If the change in
pH is extreme the onlyme very low concentrations
•

becomes denatured .
•
As long as there is an excess of substrate ,
an increase inthe amount of enzyme leads
The pH affects how an works in to a
proportionate Increase
enzyme .

the following ways :

•
Alters the
charges ( 10h11 bonds) In the •••
enough enzyme and substrate to form an E s

qq.am/GGYNttf ThgpsM
-

"""" " M "" " " " reaction stays constant many
amino acids that make up the enzyme's
.

www.iomnex.MSK.RU#A.y!i:i :i
"

:;;:÷:: 9hAM
°

Alt've Ate .
• . the substrate cannot - ••o
There is not
enough substrates to react
and man .name -

the amount of
enzyme substrate complexes
".

IAVSR Me bonds maintain g Me

-

•
It May are limited , plateauing the rate of reaction .

only met tertiary structure to break .

The active site i. changes shape .

The active site structure is determined

by
•

the hydrogen and ionic bonds between

the amino and carboxyl groups of the
polypeptides that make up the only me .

The in Ht 10N Affects this bonding

change
causing the active site to
change shape .

Effect of substrate concentration on the

rate of any mention
•

It the concentration of enzyme is third

and substrate concentration is slowly
increased , the rate of reaction increases
in
proportion to the concentration of
SUMMARY : substrate .
 1. 9 ENZYME INHIBITION Non competitive inhibitors
-

what are enzyme inhibitors ?

•
Attain themselves to the enigma allosteric
•

Enzyme inhibitors work to stop site .

E- s complexes from forming i.

decreasing
•
Inhibitor alters the shape of enzyme •
:
the rate of reaction Its active site so the substrate is no
.

longer
↳ There are two types of Inhibitors ; complementary so the onlyme can't function .

I. competitive •
As the substrate and the inhibitor are not
2. non competitive for the same attachment site an
competing
-

increase in substrate concentration doesn't

competitive inhibitors decrease the effect of the inhibitor .

A competitive With the

Inhibitor complete 1
substrate to attain to an enigma's active
site .

•
The concentration of the inhibitor and
the concentration of the substrate
determines the effect on enzyme activity .

'
↳ It substrate concentration is
increased ,

the effect Of the inhibitor is reduced .

The inhibitor is not

permanently bound to
•

the attire site so when it leaves a substrate

or another inhibitor can take Its place .

Eventually all the substrate molecules

•

will occupy an active site but the

,
greater
the concentration of Inhibitor , the longer
this will take .

Comparison of competitive and

non competitive inhibition on the rate of
-

an only me controlled reaction at different

-

substrate concentrations .
Tempted meantime Is) rate ,
10001T
20 176 5.7

30 72 13.9
40 62 16.1
50 24 41.6
60 545 1.8
2. I ITRUCTURE OF RNA AND DNA
DNA structure

Formation of poly nucleotides The nucleic acid IDNAI contains a

Nucleotides can payment forming second , anti parallel chain that runs
,

polymers called Poly nucleotides in the opposite direction 13 and 51 to

'
.

↳ These form the basis of the nucleic to the first one .

acids DNA and RNA .

Adenine thymine
is
complementary to .

Guanine is cytosine
complementary to .

Adenine Is complementary to Uracil .

condensation
←
The two Polynucleotide chains 1011
reaction around each other to form a double

H20
]
L
helix .

Purines and Pyrimidines

The base molecules that
nitrogenous
•

found In nucleotides of DNA

'

s end are
1AM ,
I, G) and RNA IA1V , Cia)
occur in two structural forms : purines
0
c. and pyrimidines .

:
and
'

3
A
T V

'

End chain has and and

'
•

a 5 a 3 end .

and , carbon
'
At the 5 5 Of the pentose is
"
nearest the end At 3 end
'

.
, carbon 3 of the C

pentose is nearest the end .

 RNAstructure.me
presence of the 2
makes RNA more susceptible
'

hydroxyl group
to
hydrolysis

Function of DNA
very stable structure which normally
-

passes from generation to generation

without significant change most mutations,

are repaired
•

Two separate strands joined

by weak hydrogen
bonds which allow separation during DNA

replication and protein synthesis .

Extremely large molecule and ÷ carries an

•

immense amount of genetic information .

Deoxyribose phosphate backbone in helical

'

cylinder protects the genetic information from

being corrupted by outside chemical and physical
forces .

Base pairing leads to DNA being able to

replicate and to transfer information as mRNA .

lifespan °o° it shorter !

longer is a it is a

storage molecule transport molecule

• •

and and
• •

•
it has more •
It has less

protection from the protection from

2 phosphate backbone phosphate backbone .
 2. 2 DNA REPLICATION
Nuclear division the process by which
→

the nucleus divides There are 2 types of

.

nuclear division , mitosis and meiosis .

Cytokinesis →
follows nuclear division and
is the process by which the whole cell

divides .

Before a nucleus divides its DNA must be

replicated .

'

This is to ensure that all the daughter cells

have the information to produce the
genetic
enigmas and other proteins that
they need .

All the new cells are identical

genetically
•

to the
original one .

DNA replication occurs during the 1 phase

•

Of the 1111 IY1H 1WH11h 01Wh during

Inter phrase , when a cell is not dividing) .

The semi -
conservative model is universally This method of replicating DNA is known

allotted of how DNA replication occurs .

as semi -

conservative replication because half

Of the Onglnal DNA molecule is conserved

semi -

conservative replication in rain of the two new DNA molecules .

'

A source of chemical energy is required to

drive the process SUMMARY :

I. The enzyme helicase unwinds the DNA

double helix
by breaking the hydrogen
bonds between the base pairs on the two
antiparallel Polynucleotide DNA strands
to form two single petty nucleotide DNA strand .

2. Each of these single poly nucleotide DNA

strands acts as a template for
the formation
of a new strand made from free nucleotides
which bind by specific base pairing .

3. The new nucleotides are then joined

together by DNA polymerase which catalyses
condensation reactions to form phosphodiester
the semi 10h11Native reputation of DNA
bonds to form the new strands Hydrogen
-

bonding between complementary base pairs to ensures genetic continuity between

form the new DNA molecule .

generations of 19111 .
Evidence for semi conservative replication
-
SUMMARY :

Watson and Crick's

theory
of semi conservative -

DNA replication was later proved to be correct by

the work Of two scientists Messel Sohn and Stahl ,

I. Bacteria
grown in a solution containing
are

heavy ( Nt nitrogen isotope

' '

↳ As the bacteria
replicated they used ,

nitrogen from the solution to make new DNA .

↳ After time the culture of bacteria had DNA

"

containing only N .

"
2. A sample of DNA from the N culture of
bacteria extracted and spun in a centrifuge
was .

N settled at the bottom of

"
↳
DNA containing
the centrifuge tube .

3. The bacteria contain

g only
"
N DNA
was then taken out Of the
"
N solution
and added to the solution contain g only
lighter 1 N ) nitrogen
"
.

↳ The
bacteria was left long enough for one
round of DNA replication to occur before it
it is extracted and spun in a centrifuge .

↳
It conservative DNA replication had Masako hn and Stahl confirmed that the
owned , the original template DNA molecules bacterial DNA had undergone semi -

would only contain the heavier nitrogen conservative replication .

and : settle at the bottom of the tube ,

whilst the new DNA molecule would

only
contain the lighter nitrogen and would
settle at the top Of the tube .

↳ It semi conservative
-

replication had occurred ,

all the DNA would now contain both the

heavy
*
N and light "
N nitrogen and
would % settle in the middle Of the tube .

lone strand Of DNA would be from the

original DNA / N ) and the other strand
'

would be the new DNA / 4N ) strand '

.
Types of RNA
MRNA
" "

messenger
made using DNA
carries genetic info from nucleus to the ribosome
•

and
every 3 bases specifies an amino

rRNA
"

ribosomal
"
'

forms part of the structure of ribosomes

'

alongside proteins .

has
enzymatic properties that catalyse the
<

formation of peptide bonds between amino

ACIDS .

transcription translation
DNA > RNA >
polypeptide
gene message product