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Sports Fields
Sports Fields
Design, Construction,
and Maintenance
Third Edition
James C. Puhalla
Sports Field Consultant Boardman, OH, US
Jeffrey V. Krans
Mississippi State University – Retired Meridian, MS, US
J. Michael Goatley, Jr.

Virginia Tech Blacksburg, VA, US
This edition first published 2020
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Names: Puhalla, Jim, author. | Krans, Jeff, author. | Goatley, Mike,
author.
Title: Sports fields : design, construction, and maintenance / James C.
Puhalla, Jeffrey V. Krans, J. Michael Goatley.
Description: Third edition. | Hoboken, NJ : Wiley, 2020. | Includes index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2019057871 (print) | LCCN 2019057872 (ebook) | ISBN
9781119534754 (hardback) | ISBN 9781119534723 (adobe pdf) | ISBN
9781119534747 (epub)
Subjects: LCSH: Athletic fields—United States—Design and construction. |
Athletic fields—United States—Maintenance and repair. | Sports
facilities—United States—Design and construction. | Sports
facilities—United States—Maintenance and repair. | Turf
management—United States.
Classification: LCC GV413 .P85 2020 (print) | LCC GV413 (ebook) | DDC
796.4206/8—dc23
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2019057871
LC ebook record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2019057872
Cover Design: Wiley
Cover Images: Courtesy of James C. Puhalla,
background © magann/Getty Images
Set in 10/12pt and GalliardStd by SPi Global, Chennai, India
10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
Contents
About the Authors xi

About the STMA xiii
Preface xv
Part 1 Principles of Sports Turf Culture 1
1 Turfgrasses 3
1.1 Introduction 3
1.2 Biology and Identification 4
1.3 Turfgrass Types 11
1.4 Turfgrass Selection 18
1.5 Using the Two-Map System to Select Turfgrass 20
1.6 Planting Times and Rates 24
1.7 Soil Preparation 27
1.8 Planting Techniques 28
1.9 Establishment 35
1.10 Overseeding Warm-Season Fields 38
1.11 Sustaining a Mixed Warm and Cool Season Turfgrass
Canopy in the Transition Zone 45
2 Soils and Soil Science 53

2.1 Introduction 53
2.2 Soil as a Medium for Turfgrass 53
v
vi Contents
3 Fertility and Fertilizers 67

3.1 Introduction 67
3.2 Nutrient Requirements 67
3.3 Nutrient Uptake 70
3.4 Soil Reaction 71
3.5 Fertilizer Analysis 73
3.6 Fertilizer Sources 74
3.7 Application Rates and Frequencies 78
3.8 Micronutrients 82
3.9 Biostimulants 84
4 Mowing 87
4.1 Introduction 87
4.2 Types of Mowers 90
4.3 Turf Response 92
4.4 Height and Frequency 93
4.5 Pattern 94
4.6 Clipping Removal 95
4.7 Equipment and Safety 96
4.8 Chemical Growth Regulators 97
5 Irrigation 103
5.1 Introduction 103
5.2 Irrigation and Turfgrass Culture 103
5.3 General Principles of Turfgrass Irrigation 104
5.4 Portable Irrigation Systems 105
5.5 Installed Irrigation Systems 106
5.6 Wireless Sensor Technology 121
5.7 Subsurface Drip Irrigation (SDI) 121
5.8 The Use of Nonpotable Water for Sports Field
Irrigation 122
5.9 Know Your Water Source 123
6 Drainage 125
6.2 Surface Drainage 125
6.3 Internal Drainage 129
6.4 Installed Drain Systems 136
6.5 Other Drain System Practices 147
7 Aeration and Topdressing 149

7.2 Aerating for Optimal Turf Responses 149
7.3 Aeration Equipment 153
7.4 Topdressing 163
Contents vii
8 Thatch 167
8.2 Definition of Thatch 167
8.3 Advantages and Disadvantages of Thatch in Sports
Turf 168
8.4 How Thatch Develops 170
8.5 Maintaining a Managed Thatch Layer 172
8.6 Reducing Excessive Thatch Buildup 173
9 Turfgrass Stresses and Remedies 179

9.2 Mechanical Stresses 179
9.3 Environmental Stresses 183
9.4 Weeds, Insects, and Diseases 187
10 Wise Use of Chemicals 271

10.2 The Label Is the Law 271
10.3 Planning and Performing Applications 275
10.4 Record Keeping 286
11 Organic Field Management 289

11.2 Definitions and Principles of Organic Field
Management 290
11.3 Principles and Concepts of Organic Field
Management 290
11.4 Making an Adjustment to Organic Field
Management 292
11.5 Timing and Site Conditions for Organic Field
Management 292
11.6 Organic Field Management Inputs 293
11.7 Compost and Composting 308
11.8 Compost Applications on Sports Fields 311
Part 2 Natural Turfgrass Sports Fields 313
12 Baseball and Softball Fields 317

12.2 Design 317
12.3 Construction 340
12.4 Renovation 349
12.5 Maintenance and Management Procedures 353
12.6 Rules and Regulations 357
viii Contents
13 Football Fields 371

13.2 Design 372
13.4 Renovation 383
14 Soccer, Lacrosse, and Field Hockey Fields 405

14.2 Design 406
14.4 Renovation 412
Part 3 Other Sports Surfaces 431
15 Tennis Courts 433

15.2 Design 434
15.4 Renovation 440
15.5 Maintenance 442
16 Track and Field Facilities 447

16.2 Design 448
16.3 Track Construction 455
16.4 Track Renovation 456
16.5 Track Maintenance 456
17 Synthetic Turf 461

17.2 History and Innovations 462
17.3 Choosing the Right Manufacturer and
Installer 464
17.4 Care and Maintenance 465
Contents ix
Part 4 Ancillary Information 475
18 Surveying the Grade 477

18.2 Surveying Equipment 478
18.3 Establishing Elevations 481
19 Sand-Based Rootzones 485

19.2 Considerations When Selecting a Sand-Based
Rootzone 487
19.3 Sand-Based Rootzone Requirements 490
19.4 Maintenance 499
20 Paints and Covers 507

20.2 Paints 508
20.3 Covers 515
21 Field Evaluation and Turfgrass Assessment 521

21.2 Components of Field Quality 521
21.3 Aesthetic Appeal and Quality 522
21.4 Ball and Player Response as Affected by Surface
Characteristics 523
21.5 Testing Equipment to Evaluate the Playing
Surface 524
22 Safety 531
22.2 Player Safety and Performance 531
22.3 Spectator Safety 532
22.4 Designing for Safety 534
22.5 Safety Concerns During Construction and
Renovation 535
22.6 Maintaining a Safe Facility 535
23 Environmental Stewardship, Resource Conservation, and

Sustainability 539
23.2 Environmental Stewardship 540
x Contents
23.3 Resource Conservation 541

23.4 Sustainability 549
24 Innovations Designed to Promote Natural Grass Fields 555

24.2 Lighting 555
24.3 Enhanced Turfgrass Performance 556
24.4 Instant Field Replacement 558
24.5 Wireless Technology, Remote Sensing, and Predictive
Models 562
25 Public Relations and Professionalism 565

25.2 Public Relations 565
25.3 Professionalism 570
Appendix 573
Glossary 585
Index 597
About the Authors
Jim Puhalla of Boardman, Ohio, is a Sports Field Consultant who provides design,
consulting, and construction supervision. His knowledge of sports field management
came through hands-on experiences as a landscape and sports field design/build con-
tractor. He owned and operated a company that specialized in sports field design,
construction, and maintenance from 1990 through 2012, and a landscape company
from 1977 through 2003. Although he retired from sports field construction and
maintenance in 2013, he still enjoys sharing his experiences with others who have
similar goals in creating safe, more useable sports facilities.
Jeff Krans is a former Professor of Agronomy at Mississippi State University in the
Golf and Sports Turf Management program. He received his PhD from Michigan
State University in 1975, an MS degree from the University of Arizona in 1973, and
his BS degree from the University of Wisconsin–Stevens Point in 1970. Jeff taught and
advised students in the Golf and Sports Turf Management program, and conducted
research in turfgrass breeding and physiology from 1975 to 2002. Jeff remains an avid
supporter of high-quality natural turf for safe sports for participants and spectators.
Mike Goatley is Professor and Extension Turfgrass Specialist in the School of Plant
and Environmental Sciences at Virginia Tech. Mike received his PhD from Virginia
Tech in 1988, his MS degree from the University of Kentucky in 1986, and his BS
degree from the University of Kentucky in 1983. He taught and advised students in the
Golf and Sports Turf Management program at Mississippi State from 1988 to 2003
before moving to Virginia Tech. Mike serves as the outreach coordinator for agro-
nomic turf sciences in Virginia, and his research interests focus on turf selection and
management strategies that promote environmental stewardship. He served as presi-
dent of STMA in 2012 and 2013 and received STMA’s William H. Daniel Founder’s
Award in 2008 and Harry C. Gill Founder’s Award in 2016.
xi
About the STMA
STMA is the not-for-profit professional association for the men and women who man-
age sports fields. Since 1981, the association and its 30-plus local chapters have been
providing education, information, and sharing practical knowledge in the art and sci-
ence of sports field management. Its more than 2,500 members oversee sports fields
and facilities at schools, colleges and universities, parks and recreational facilities, and
professional sports stadiums. The membership’s goal is to manage natural turf and syn-
thetic surfaces to produce safe and aesthetically pleasing playing surfaces for athletes
at all levels of playing abilities. STMA also has the support of commercial members
that furthers the industry through continuous advancements in technology.
The STMA Mission:
To be the recognized leader in strengthening the sports turf industry and enhancing
members’ competence and acknowledgement of their professionalism.
xiii
Preface
Like so many aspects of contemporary life, our athletic and leisure pursuits are
becoming increasingly influenced by economic and logistical factors. Construction
and maintenance budgets are squeezed ever more tightly. The explosion in athletic
opportunities for girls and women has doubled the use of some facilities, and sent
planners scurrying off to build thousands of new ones. The popularity of personal
injury lawsuits has forced insurance premiums higher and led insurers to insist on
greater uniformity in the design and construction of sports facilities.
All of these factors have their impact on the construction and maintenance of
sports fields. Tighter budgets mean less money for after-the-fact repairs and greater
insistence on building it right the first time. Increased pressure on the facilities means
that unplayable fields create twice as many rescheduling headaches as they used to.
The threat of lawsuits demands greater attention to the safety of the facility itself.
THE PURPOSE OF THIS BOOK

This book is designed to provide a comprehensive technical reference source for those
who are responsible for the design, construction, renovation, or maintenance of sports
fields. In order to address these issues, the chapters that follow will illustrate specific
design elements of all popular sports facilities and explain how those elements are
integrated in a successful project; explore commonly encountered sports field prob-
lems and suggest appropriate solutions; and provide practical guidance for continuing
maintenance programs.
While soil and climate variations will sometimes create unique local challenges for
those charged with building or maintaining sports facilities, the principles shared on
these pages should provide a basic plan of action and a set of practical design criteria
usable throughout North America and in similar geographies throughout the world.
xv
xvi Preface
How to Use This Book

Part 1, Principles of Sports Turf Culture, offers information on which to base
sound decisions regarding the nurture and maintenance of sports turf. This portion of
the book deals with such matters as turfgrass and soil science, cultural practices, and
stresses placed on turf year-round and during sports competition. To achieve the fullest
possible value from this volume, it’s advisable to begin by reading these chapters.
Part 2, Natural Turfgrass Sports Fields, provides guidance on the design,
construction, renovation, and maintenance of particular types of sports fields. Each
chapter combines similar facilities, based on the design and construction strategies
and performance expectations of the turf. For example, Chapter 14 covers soccer,
lacrosse, and field hockey fields. Field dimensions are provided at the end of each
chapter.
Part 3, Other Sports Surfaces, provides guidance on other types of sports facil-
ities for which a designer, contractor, or facilities manager might be responsible, like
tennis courts, track and field, and synthetic turf. Proper design and construction
techniques can be particularly important for these facilities, which must be easily main-
tained in a wide range of usage and weather circumstances.
Part 4, Ancillary Information, covers miscellaneous related topics, including
surveying, sand-based fields, turf paints and covers, field evaluation and turfgrass
assessment, environmental stewardship, safety, innovations to promote natural grass
fields, and public relations and professionalism.
The appendix at the end of the book consists of two parts. The first part considers
calculations that are most commonly used by designers, contractors, and maintenance
personnel. The second part looks at examples of how the STMA helps sports field
managers keep up with the latest trends.
Throughout the text, we have worked to make this book as useful as possible to
those who are charged with keeping sports fields safe, playable, and beautiful, and
to those students who are preparing for a career in this rewarding field. These pages
share much of the latest in academic research and development of the science of sports
turf, but present these latest findings in the form of practical advice for the real world.
It is our fondest hope that the result of this book will be a new generation of safe,
competitive, and easy-to-maintain sports facilities for people of all ages.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The authors gratefully acknowledge the contributions of many academic and pro-
fessional leaders whose advice and counsel have contributed to the completion of
this book.
We are appreciative for the detailed advice of the following academic colleagues:
Dr. Donald Waddington of Pennsylvania State University, Andrew McNitt of Penn-
sylvania State University, and Dr. Coleman Ward (deceased, Professor Emeritus) of
Auburn University. In particular we acknowledge Dr. McNitt for the development of
Chapter 19, “Sand-Based Rootzones.”
Preface xvii
Thanks to Dr. Victor Maddox, Wayne Philley, and Dr. Maria Tomaso-Peterson,
all of Mississippi State University, for providing photographs, information, and
manuscript reviews. Thanks to Virginia Tech faculty Dr. Shawn Askew, Dr. David
McCall, and Dr. Tom Kuhar for manuscript review specific to the latest in pest
management strategies and tools, and thanks to many university and industry
colleagues for providing multiple photographs cited throughout this book. Thanks
to Bart Prather of Mississippi State University, Tra Dubois of World Class Athletic
Surfaces for advice on painting athletic fields, and to the team at Carolina Green Inc.
for their assistance with Chapter 17, “Synthetic Turf.”
Thanks also to the many sports organizations and sanctioning bodies for sharing
their specifications and field construction information, which have helped to make this
volume comprehensive. These organizations are listed individually at the ends of their
respective chapters.
P A R T 1
PRINCIPLES OF SPORTS TURF CULTURE
Sports turf fields and related facilities are designed to meet two basic requirements:
they must be large enough and/or the necessary shape to allow the particular sport
to be played according to its recognized rules and regulations, and they must have a
surface that allows the players to compete safely and at a reasonable level of competi-
tion. Because many sports turf surfaces are also used for nonsports activities (like band
practice), the surface must be durable enough to withstand the stresses associated with
those nonsports functions.
As any sports fan will agree, player performance depends in large part on the qual-
ity of the turf surface. But a fields manager must also keep in mind that safety, as well
as performance, is dependent on turf quality. Each of these important considerations
is dependent on three turf characteristics: traction, hardness, and evenness.
Traction is obviously critical to generating and controlling speed, making sharp
changes in direction, and stopping. In addition to reducing a player’s ability to avoid
or (in the case of contact sports) to control collisions, poor traction can lead to muscle
pulls and a variety of other common injuries.
Hardness can allow players to perform at maximum speed, but can also affect
players’ ability to cut sharply and increase injury from falls and tackles.
Evenness, along with hardness, is a major factor affecting ball response, which
includes the height and direction of bounce, as well as the trueness and speed of roll.
In many turf sports—and perhaps in most—predictable ball response is necessary to
support the desired level of competition.
Just as good teams are created by careful attention to detail, good turf comes
from practicing effective turfgrass cultural and management strategies. In the follow-
ing chapters we will consider the underlying principles of turfgrass biology, selection,
and establishment; soil science, including fertility and fertilizers; cultivation and thatch
management; organic field management; irrigation and drainage; pesticide use and
safety; turfgrass stresses; and even proper mowing techniques.
1
2 Part 1 Principles of Sports Turf Culture
Whether reading sections of the text as a class assignment or flipping it open to

address a particular sports turf concern, the reader will find that our advice is first
to seek the health of the turf and its enfolding culture, and all the rest (playability,
economy, aesthetics) will be added onto it. Manage the culture correctly, and pest
problems will be minimized.
C h a p t e r 1
Turfgrasses
1.1 INTRODUCTION
Turfgrass is a designation given to a very small group of grasses that have a unique
combination of plant morphology (form) and adaptation to a defined set of cultural
practices. The morphology requisites of a turfgrass are prostrate or compressed stems
at, near, and/or below the soil surface (tillers, stolons, and/or rhizomes), compressed
leaf sheaths and blades (diminutive growth habit), tolerance to high plant compat-
ibility (high stand density), and robust production and growth of branching stems
(a knitted growth habit). In combination with these requirements, all turfgrasses must
tolerate low and frequent shoot defoliation (withstand close and frequent mowing),
have high vegetative plasticity (a plant’s ability to contract or enlarge its shoot struc-
ture depending on mowing pressure), and control their vegetative to reproductive
transformation (seedhead formation) regardless of mowing pressure, nitrogen level,
irrigation, and chemicals that regulate plant growth, and the like.
Botanists have catalogued over 10,000 species of grasses worldwide. Within that
classification, there are primarily 12 grass species that fall under the turfgrass label.
Out of that number, only 6 grass species are recognized for sports turf application.
This elite group of sports turf must possess the preceding turfgrass criteria plus three
other important features. The sports turf species must have excellent traffic toler-
ance, rapid recovery from divoting and injury, and high tensile or sod strength. In
some instances, a combination of turfgrass species are used to obtain all or most of
these features.
To become better sports turf managers, we first need to familiarize ourselves with
turfgrass biology, selection, and planting. In this chapter, we will begin by looking at
turfgrass growth and development. Then we will turn our attention to the procedures
of choosing, planting, and establishing the best sports turf possible. Finally, we will
3
4 Chapter 1 Turfgrasses
discuss the overseeding of warm-season sports fields that are used during the fall and
winter months. This information will set a foundation that will help the field manager
to understand how maintenance practices, pest controls, and environmental stresses
affect the quality of sports turf.
1.2 BIOLOGY AND IDENTIFICATION

Turfgrass biology is the study of the vital plant processes necessary for turfgrass
growth and development. These processes are divided into the categories of mor-
phology, anatomy, and physiology. Turfgrass morphology is the outward form or
structure of the turfgrass plant. Turfgrass anatomy consists of the inner cell, tissue,
and organ structures that combine to form the whole plant. Turfgrass physiology
refers to the metabolic events and pathways that formulate the life processes of the
plant. The underlying ability of grasses to survive and persist as turf is due to their
specialized morphology, anatomy, and physiology.
Turfgrass cultural practices determine the grasses’ ability to adapt as a turf. These
practices include mowing and seasonal renovations practices, such as aeration, vertical
mowing, and so on. An understanding of turfgrass biology and turf cultural practices
allows us to predict a turfgrass response to these cultural practices, and to have a better
understanding of how turf can be managed to help it tolerate injury by pests or by
mechanical or environmental stresses.
Out of the 12 grasses commonly used as turfgrasses, the 6 species used in
sports turf situations are cool-season species Kentucky bluegrass (Poa pratensis L.),
tall fescue (Schedonorus arundinaceus (Schreb.) Dumort., nom. cons. syn. Festuca
arundinacea Schreb.), perennial ryegrass (Lolium perenne L.), and creeping bentgrass
(Agrostis stolonifera L. syn. A. palustris Huds.); and warm-season species bermuda-
grass (Cynodon spp.) and seashore paspalum (Paspalum vaginatum Sw.), as shown
in Table 1.1. Two others warm-season species, buffalograss [Bouteloua dactyloides
(Nutt.) J. T. Columbus, syn. Buchloe dactyloides L.] and zoysiagrass (Zoysia spp.), are
sometimes used for sports turf, but infrequently.
The warm-season species bermudagrass and seashore paspalum are usually
planted and maintained alone (or as a “monostand”) except when overseeded with
perennial, annual ryegrass (Lolium perenne L. ssp. multiflorum (Lam.) Husnot)
or intermediate ryegrass (Lolium × hybridum Hausskn.) for winter play. However,
success is being achieved in some transition zone locations with a perennial two-grass
turf where Kentucky bluegrass is established with bermudagrass (commonly referred
to as “bluemuda”). The cool season species Kentucky bluegrass, tall fescue, and
perennial ryegrass are planted and maintained as either monostands or in combina-
tion with one another (as “polystands”). Creeping bentgrass is usually planted as
a monostand.
The limited use of buffalograss (Buchloe dactyloides results from some of its special
characteristics. Buffalograss is a warm-season grass used primarily in arid warm-season,
transition, and cool-season regions in the United States. Its limitation is poor wear
Table 1.1 Characteristics of turfgrasses commonly used for sports turf.
Turfgrass Species Strength as Sports Turf Limitation as Sports Turf
Bermudagrass Strong indeterminate rhizomes Primarily warm climatic regions of

(Cynodon spp.) and stolons (excellent sod United States, but cultivars with
knitting), robust vegetative improved cold tolerance are rapidly
growth and recuperative ability, expanding it into the transition
excellent wear resistance, and zone, vegetative propagation only
good surface resiliency. of most improved types, improved
seeded cultivars now available
touting enhanced density and
superior cold tolerance for some
cultivars.
Kentucky bluegrass Strong determinate rhizomes Cool climatic regions (including
(Poa pratensis L.) (excellent sod knitting), northern transition zone) of United
robust vegetative growth and States, with exception of new
recuperative ability, moderate hybrid bluegrasses (P. pratensis x P.
wear resistance, good surface arachnifera) that show promise as
resiliency. monostands or when mixed with
tall fescues and perennial
ryegrasses in the southern
transition zone; traditionally
considered to have relatively slow
establishment from seed but
breeding efforts are now provided
faster germinating cultivars, thus
enhancing this grass’s use on
heavily trafficked sports fields.
Tall fescue (Schedonorus Excellent wear resistance, robust Limited to transition or warmer
arundinaceus (Schreb.) primary and vegetative growth, regions of United States, weak
Dumort., nom. cons. good surface resiliency, determinate rhizomes (poor sod
syn. Festuca adapted to transition zone of knitting).
arundinacea Schreb.) United States either alone or in
combination with bluegrass.
Perennial ryegrass Excellent wear resistance, robust Limited to cool regions of United
(Lolium perenne L.) primary and vegetative growth, States (including northern
prolific tillering, rapid seedling transition zone), lacks rhizomes
growth, superior mowing and stolons (very poor sod
aesthetics and good choice for knitting), subject to damage from
winter overseeding of environmental and pest extremes.
bermudagrass.
Creeping bentgrass Tolerates regular mowing at Limited to cool regions of United
(Agrostis stolonifera L.) 1/ inch, robust vegetative States, drought tolerance is poor,
4
growth, strong stoloniferous slow seedling growth, lacks shear
growth habit provides strength and resistance to divoting,
recuperative potential. primary use for low cut surfaces
including tennis, croquet, etc.
Seashore paspalum Strong indeterminate rhizomes, Limited to the warmest regions of
(Paspalum vaginatum good surface resiliency, United States, more sensitivity to
Sw.) exceptionally salt tolerant, good many pesticides than most
visual mowing quality, better bermudagrasses, somewhat slow
low-light performance than recuperative potential.
bermudagrass.
tolerance, obviously a problem for sports turf. The authors recommend the grasses
listed in Table 1.1 as superior choices to buffalograss for sports turf use unless there
is not sufficient water for irrigation to support these other choices.
Zoysiagrass (Zoysia sp.) is a warm-season grass in the transition zone of the United
States. It has excellent cold and wear tolerances and good adaptation to low-light situa-
tions like moderate shade. The most important limiting factor of zoysiagrass as a sports
turf is its very slow recuperation from injury or wear. Zoysiagrass cultivars selected
for faster lateral growth rates and shade tolerance were promoted for sports turf use
for the first time in the late 1990s. However, the poor recuperative potential contin-
ues to limit widescale acceptance of zoysiagrass for sports field uses. Efforts continue
in the development of new cultivars and management strategies that might broaden
the use of zoysiagrass for sports turfs. As research and development in zoysiagrasses
continues, it is anticipated that some cultivars will serve as sports turfs, especially for
soccer, baseball, and softball. Where adapted for use, keep in mind that both zoysia-
grass and buffalograss offer the potential as high-quality, low-maintenance turfgrasses
that require minimal inputs (water, mowing, fertility, etc.). While these grasses might
not always serve a sports turf use, sports facilities quite often have turf areas particularly
suited for low-maintenance grasses.
1.2.1 Turfgrass Morphology

Turfgrass morphology is an important characteristic that allows these grass plants to
form a dense, compact community when they are cultivated properly. The morphology
of turfgrasses can be categorized into four types: (1) bunch-type, (2) stoloniferous,
(3) determinate rhizomatous, or (4) indeterminate rhizomatous (see Figure 1.1).
All morphological types are designed to keep the plant’s growing points at or below
the soil surface.
1.2.2 Turfgrass Anatomy
A critical aspect of turfgrass anatomy is the location of growing points or “meristem-

atic” zones (i.e., zones of cell division). Localized growing points of turfgrass occur
at the stem apexes or buds, leaf blade and sheath meristems, nodes, root apexes, and
root pericycle (see Figure 1.2).
Buds are the origin of all leaf (including blade and sheath meristems) and stem
tissue. Apical buds are located at the apex or tip of a turfgrass stem and axillary buds are
located in the axil or internal fold of a leaf sheath. Blade and sheath meristems generate
leaf blade and sheath structures, respectively, and the blade and sheath combine to
make up the whole leaf. Turfgrasses tolerate close cutting because they are able to
maintain their blade meristems close to the soil surface. Cutting too close damages
the turf canopy by removing leaf tissue at or below their meristems.
Leaf shape is determined by differences in leaf anatomy among turfgrasses. Turf-
grass leaves are either rolled, folded, or filiform (see Figure 1.3).
Figure 1.1 The four morphological types of turfgrasses: (a) bunch-type, (b) stoloniferous,
(c) determinate rhizomatous, and (d) indeterminate rhizomatous.
Figure 1.2 The location of turfgrass growing points: (a) bunch-type turfgrasses,
(b) stoloniferous-type turfgrasses, (c) determinate rhizomatous-type turfgrasses, and
(d) indeterminate rhizomatous-type turfgrasses.
Figure 1.3 The variation in turfgrass leaf anatomy: (a) rolled leaf, (b) folded leaf, and (c) filiform
leaf.
Rolled leaves have an anatomy of equally distributed and sized vascular bundles,
and equally distributed zones of cells with thickened secondary cell walls transecting
the turfgrass blade. Folded leaves have equally distributed but different-sized vascular
bundles and different-sized zones of cells with thickened secondary cell walls tran-
secting the turfgrass blade. Filiform leaves have equally distributed and sized vascular
bundles, but scattered zones of cells with thickened secondary cell walls distributed
throughout the leaf.
Nodes are the points of attachment of the axillary stem apexes or buds, leaf blade
and sheath structures (including meristems), and adventitious roots. Turfgrass nodes
are part of the stem apex in turfgrasses having compressed stems and/or separated by
internodes in turfgrasses with elongated stems (see Figure 1.4).
Compressed stems are found on bunch-type and aboveground stems of deter-
minate rhizomatous type turfgrasses. Elongated stems are characteristic of stolonif-
erous, indeterminate rhizomatous, or belowground stems (rhizomes) of determinate
rhizomatous-type turfgrasses. Compressed stems are usually less than 1/8 inch long
and are found on perennial ryegrass, Kentucky bluegrass, and tall fescue. Elongated
stems (multiple nodes with internodes) can range in size from 1/8 inch to 4 to 6 inches
long and are found in Kentucky bluegrass (rhizomes only), bermudagrass (stolons and
Figure 1.4 Nodes on turfgrasses with (a) compressed stems or (b) elongated stems.
rhizomes) seashore paspalum (stolons and rhizomes), and zoysiagrass (stolons and
rhizomes). A collection of compressed stems located in a central core is called a node
cluster or crown. Therefore, crowns are found only in bunch-type and aboveground
stems of determinate rhizomatous species only.
1.2.3 Turfgrass Physiology
Turfgrasses are divided into two groups based on their temperature requirements
for optimum growth. Turfgrasses are grouped as warm-season (80–95∘ F optimal
growth) or cool-season (60–75∘ F optimal growth) plant types. Of the six common
sports turf species, bermudagrass and seashore paspalum are classified as warm-season
types, and tall fescue, perennial ryegrass, Kentucky bluegrass, and creeping bent-
grass are cool-season types. These two groups of grasses differ in their physiology
and anatomy.
Turfgrass physiology is a complex series of metabolic events. These events can be
summarized as energy capture, energy conversion, and energy utilization.
Energy capture is the absorption by the turf of solar radiation through its canopy
or leaves. To capture sufficient energy, the turf must have a minimum canopy density.
Mowing defoliates the turf’s canopy, and if the mowing height is too low, the turf
can’t capture enough energy. In some situations, the canopy of the turf is sufficient
to capture adequate energy, but the level of solar radiation is insufficient (e.g., shaded
environments). Sunlight-deprived turf may be due to stadium design or the presence
of nearby trees that shade the field. In sports turf, canopy density may become limited
on baseball infields, grass tennis courts, lacrosse, and other areas where close mowing
heights are used (see Figure 1.5).
Energy conversion includes the processes of photosynthesis and respiration. In
both of these processes, the high-energy compound adenosine triphosphate (ATP)
is formed. If canopy density and level of sunlight are adequate, the turf can form
ATP – provided all the metabolic pathways are stocked with the key substrates. These
key substrates include chlorophyll, nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate
(NADP), and electron transport pathway metabolites. For sports turf, adequate levels
of these key substrates are maintained by supplying a proper balance of nitrogen,
phosphorus, magnesium, manganese, and iron.
The conversion of carbohydrates to ATP is the respiration process. In this process,
key substrates include nitrogen, phosphorus, copper, and zinc. Failing to maintain
the proper balance or levels of these nutrients can restrict this portion of the energy
conversion process (see Figure 1.6).
Energy utilization consists of the metabolic events that comprise the growth and
development of the turfgrass plants. This component of turfgrass physiology is com-
plex and interdependent on many diverse processes. Key substrates include nitrogen,
sulfur, calcium, phosphorus, and potassium.
Figure 1.5 A schematic representation of turfgrass physiology.
Figure 1.6 Key substrates and nutrients that support their formation and metabolism.
1.3 TURFGRASS TYPES

In warm-season areas, sports turf is generally dominated by bermudagrass cultivars.
These cultivars flourish in the hot summers and mild winters, and can withstand occa-
sional summer dryness without damage. A grass that is increasing in popularity in the
gulf South, particularly where water quality is poor, is seashore paspalum. Both seeded
and vegetative cultivars of seashore paspalum are available, with the primary limiting
factor for widespread paspalum use being its poor cold tolerance.
In the transition zone, many fields include tall fescues and cold-resistant cultivars
of bermudagrass developed specifically for these areas.
In cool-season areas, Kentucky bluegrass and perennial ryegrass predominate, and
mixtures of those species are the most popular sports turfs. Both types tolerate the
cold northern winters adequately, and the mixture of these allows for the aggressive
spreading and recovery characteristic of Kentucky bluegrass, along with the stability
and wear resistance of perennial ryegrass.
1.3.1 Warm Season

Bermudagrass is the grass of choice for nearly all warm-season sports turf surfaces.
While the choices in cultivars of bermudagrasses are quite limited compared to those
available for cool-season turfgrasses, the growth characteristics, overall appearance,
and adaptation of bermudagrass to southern climates gives southern turf managers a
quality turf that will respond well to all levels of maintenance – from the high-profile
game field to the often neglected practice field.
There are a number of bermudagrass cultivars on the market that can be success-
fully used for sports turf. In the past, the standard bermudagrass used for seeding
was sold as “Arizona Common” or “Common Bermudagrass.” This name does not
represent a true cultivar compared to the many new bermudagrass cultivars avail-
able today. The common name was given to naturalized populations of bermudagrass
found growing in Arizona having an unknown origin. Today, the Common Bermuda-
grass name is still used, but its use is limited due to the commercialization of many
other seeded bermudagrass cultivars. There are a significant number of improved cul-
tivars now available for seeding, but they do carry a higher price per pound of seed
than Arizona Common. These new types are well worth the money and offer sub-
stantially higher turf density and finer leaf texture; some selected cultivars have shown
exceptional cold tolerance. Because new and improved bermudagrass cultivars appear
on the market each year, it is wise to contact a university turfgrass extension specialist
before specifying a cultivar for sports turf application.
Although there are many high-quality bermudagrass cultivars for seeding, the
highest-quality cultivars overall are those that must be established vegetatively by sod-
ding, sprigging, or plugging. (These grasses must be planted vegetatively because they
do not produce viable seeds or have true-to-type seeds.) These premium cultivars offer
superior density, finer leaf textures, fewer seed heads, and a tolerance for closer cutting.
The vegetatively established bermudagrasses are commonly referred to in the
industry as “hybrid bermudagrasses.” This designation may lead to some confusion
when specifying grasses for athletic field establishment. By definition, a hybrid is a

cross of individuals with dissimilar genetic constitution. Some seeded bermudagrasses
are described as hybrids, but these seeded cultivars are narrow crosses within the
same species (e.g., Cynodon dactylon × C. dactylon or “an intraspecific” hybrid).
The cultivars that are only established vegetatively and given the generic name
“hybrid bermudagrass” have originated from a wide cross between two species
(e.g. C. dactylon × C. transvaalensis or “interspecific” hybrid).
It is important to understand the distinction in the hybrid bermudagrasses when
developing specifications for sports turf. If a specification states only that “the field is to
be planted with a hybrid bermudagrass,” it can be planted with a low-quality seeded
hybrid and will meet the specifications of the bid. On the other hand, if the intent
of the specification is for the field to be established with a superior vegetative or a
“hybrid bermudagrass” cultivar, be careful to specify a particular cultivar (or cultivars)
of that type. For example, Tifway™, Celebration™, Northbridge™, Latitude 36™,
TifTuf™ and Tahoma 31™ are vegetatively established cultivars that provide superior
bermudagrass turf.
A new generation of vegetatively established bermudagrasses referred to as “ultra-
dwarfs” is now available for use on tennis courts. The cultivars that have received the
most widespread use on golf putting greens are Champion, Tifeagle, and MiniVerde,
but breeding and selection efforts for dwarf characteristics from both private and pub-
lic sources are expanding this market. These bermudagrasses are fine textured and
form extremely dense turfs because they have very short internode spacing. They
tolerate regular mowing at heights of 1/8 inch or less, and can provide a very fast
and smooth playing surface. However, the ultradwarf bermudagrasses require a very
intensive management program to perform as desired.
A species gaining in popularity, particularly in the gulf South, is seashore pas-
palum. This rhizomatous grass is noted for its tolerance to saline conditions and
offers an alternative to bermudagrass where poor irrigation water quality is a con-
cern. However, it is important to understand that while the grass is tolerant to high
salt concentrations, physical and chemical conditions of the soil are affected by the
high saline and/or sodic water irrigation and can create a detrimental soil condi-
tion. While generally not as traffic, disease, or drought tolerant as bermudagrass,
seashore paspalum offers similar characteristics to bermudagrass fields in terms of cut-
ting heights and playability. The dense mat of stems it forms requires a similar cultural
program of regular verticutting and topdressing comparable to bermudagrass (see
Chapter 8 for detailed information on thatch and cultural management programs).
For winter color, paspalum can be overseeded with perennial or annual ryegrass similar
to bermudagrass.
Seashore paspalum has lower fertility requirements than bermudagrass and it
has a “striping” ability from mowing comparable to the cool season grasses (see
Figure 1.7). Depending on cultivar, seashore paspalum can tolerate clipping to
1/8 inch with both vegetative and seeded cultivars available. Paspalum has better
performance under low light intensities than bermudagrass, a factor that plays heavily
in its selection in warm climates for fields with retractable roofs or climates with
Figure 1.7 Seashore paspalum has a “striping” ability from mowing comparable to the
cool-season grasses. (Photo courtesy of Dan Bergstrom.)
a lot of cloud cover. However, its use extends far beyond professional fields to all
levels of sports turf maintenance given its low input needs for fertility and water
quality. Cultivars that have been successfully used on athletic fields to date include
SeaSpray, SeaIsle 1, Salam, SeaIsle 2000, and Platinum TE. The availability and/or
use of potable (i.e., drinking) water for sports turf management is becoming a
hot-button issue in many parts of the country, especially in climates where seasonal
water restrictions are becoming more common. Research indicates that while potable
water is required for grow-in of seed or sprigs of paspalum, this grass can tolerate
very saline water.
Zoysiagrasses are very slowly expanding into sports field use, primarily on sports
surfaces with less intensive foot traffic. These grasses offer exceptional density and very
high tolerance, but as a genus they do not have the recuperative potential required for
most surfaces. Japanese lawngrass (Z. japonica Steud.) is wider bladed and generally
considered to be the most cold-hardy of the common zoysia species, while manilagrass
(Z. matrella (L.) Merr.) is finer bladed and tolerates closer cutting heights. Manilagrass
is now being used on golf putting greens and has been used with varying degrees of
success on soccer fields around the world. Expect zoysiagrasses to continue to expand
in use as breeding programs continue to select for qualities that meet sports surface
playing and management criteria.
1.3.2 Transition Zone
For managers in the transition zone who want to plant bermudagrass, cold toler-
ance must be considered. Older cultivars like Quickstand, Midiron, and Midfield, are
noted for their cold hardiness, but they do have slightly lower turf density and coarser
leaf blades than the previously mentioned improved hybrids. Cultivars like Patriot,
Latitude 36, Northbridge, Tahoma 31 (all vegetative), Rio, and Monaco (these three
are usually seeded) have excellent turf quality characteristics and cold hardiness.
Bermudagrass has some limitations as a transition zone turfgrass. One of the
primary ones is its dormancy period from first frost until complete greening in
midspring. In an early spring season with heavy traffic, bermudagrass can be over-
seeded with perennial ryegrass to support that competition and reduce injury to the
dormant turf.
Bermudagrass is generally planted as a monostand of a single cultivar due to uni-
formity concerns. However, research conducted at Virginia Tech indicates that in
transition zone climates, an improved seeded bermudagrass cultivar with exceptional
quality and cold tolerance could be blended at 50% by weight with a cheaper, less
persistent seeded bermudagrass variety, and that after two to three years’ time, the
end result is an aesthetically pleasing bermudagrass stand that is dominated by the
superior cultivar. This approach, which takes advantage of the relatively poor cold tol-
erance of the unimproved bermudagrass cultivar, results in significant savings in cost
for the more expensive improved types without sacrificing ultimate appearance and
playability.
In all cases, don’t hesitate to consult a local turfgrass extension specialist or
reference NTEP results for more information on the performance of different
bermudagrasses in a specific area. Most of the land-grant universities in areas where
bermudagrass can be grown will have test plots of the various bermudagrasses
available for people to see before making a grass selection.
Tall fescue can also be used for transition zone athletic fields, particularly the
newer cultivars of “turf-type” tall fescues. Tall fescue is a predominantly bunch-type
(tillering) cool-season grass capable of producing short determinate rhizomes.
The turf-type cultivars are much finer textured and form denser turfs than the old
forage-type tall fescues (e.g., KY-31, Alta, and others). New fescue cultivars have
been released touting greater rhizome production. The recuperative potential from
rhizome regrowth of these cultivars appears to have minimal importance for sports
turf uses at this time, which should not detract from their use, as many cultivars have
other desirable characteristics (density, drought tolerance, color, etc.) for sports turf
uses. Tall fescue is a very drought-tolerant cool-season turfgrass and will provide
an acceptable playing surface in transition zone climates. Its drought tolerance is a
primary reason it is often used on lower-maintenance, nonirrigated fields.
The recommended cutting height for most turf-type tall fescues is 2 to 3 inches – a
point that must be considered before selecting this grass for sports fields that require
shorter turf, like baseball and soccer. Cutting tall fescue at heights lower than this will
result in a bunchy, nonuniform turf that will not provide good footing or a smooth
ball roll, and it will be subject to heavy weed pressure. The grass will also have less
tolerance to temperature and moisture extremes and be more readily damaged by
intense foot traffic. It is important to note that tall fescue fields need frequent reseeding
to promote turf recovery after heavy use during competitive seasons; reseeding in both
spring and fall may be necessary on some fields. Turfgrass breeders continue to develop
tall fescues cultivars with lower water use requirements, as well as tolerance to lower
cutting heights. It is expected these characteristics will continue to expand the use of
tall fescues on athletic fields.
Cool season mixtures of tall fescue or perennial ryegrass with Kentucky bluegrass
remain popular on transition zone sports fields, with the expansion in use of tall fes-
cue with Kentucky bluegrass being one of the most important changes in grassing
options in recent years. Kentucky bluegrass offers good recuperative potential with its
aggressive rhizomatous growth habit and perennial ryegrass has long been a mixture
component because of its rapid germination from seed and similarity in appearance
with bluegrass. However, ryegrasses typically do not have the drought tolerance of
tall fescues and are often more prone to diseases. With improvements in turf quality
and better drought and disease tolerance, tall fescues have gained acceptance as a mix
component with bluegrass. Typical seed composition percentages for mixtures with
Kentucky bluegrass are 85–95% by weight ryegrass or tall fescue. Due to the large dif-
ference in seed size, a 95%/5% seed mixture is approximately 50/50 on seed number
between the species, so keep this in mind since bluegrass percentages of 10% or greater
will essentially be bluegrass fields to manage.
Hybrid bluegrass (a cross between Kentucky and Texas bluegrass) has character-
istics in heat and drought tolerance that particularly fit the transition zone, but to
date these cultivars have not clearly demonstrated performance advantages to elite
Kentucky bluegrass cultivars.
1.3.3 Cool Season
For sports turf in the cool-season regions of North America, the primary choices are
Kentucky bluegrass and perennial ryegrass. The previously mentioned hybrid blue-
grasses also have application, but these varieties distinguish themselves from traditional
Kentucky bluegrass varieties in transition zone climates more than in cool-season
regions. Creeping bentgrass also finds applications for sports surfaces where very close
mowing heights are required.
Kentucky bluegrass forms a dense, dark green turf with medium leaf texture and
a rhizome system that spreads laterally, allowing the turf to recuperate strongly from
the stresses of competition. The optimal mowing height for Kentucky bluegrass is 1 1/2
inches to 3 inches, with lower heights possible only for short periods, and this limita-
tion is a concern for some sports turf applications. New releases of Kentucky bluegrass
that tolerate regular mowing at heights as low as 1/2 inch are now under evaluation.
Consult with a state or regional turfgrass extension specialist or check the National
Turfgrass Evaluation Program (NTEP; www.ntep.org) reports for the latest results.
A wide variety of Kentucky bluegrass cultivars are available and their selection(s)
depend largely on location, expectations in turf performance (i.e., aggressiveness,
recuperation from rhizomes, spring greening, disease resistance, etc.), and field man-
agement capabilities and/or strategies. Rutgers University Cooperative Extension
fact sheet FS 545, “Kentucky Bluegrass Varieties for New Jersey Sports Fields,”
is an excellent resource that defines the major categories and types of Kentucky
bluegrasses. It goes on to recommend varieties that performed best in their simulated
traffic tolerance trials. It is ideal to work with a knowledgeable local seed distributor
who understands the variability in Kentucky bluegrass choices and how to best put
together a seed blend of two or more Kentucky bluegrasses for a particular situation.
New cultivars are being developed and released regularly, so be sure to seek help in
making selections.
Perennial ryegrass is a bunch-type grass with fine to medium leaf texture and a
dark green color. The waxy leaf surface reflects light in a dramatic way, allowing for
the striping patterns that can be achieved by mowing in specific directions. While
perennial ryegrass has the same 1 1/2 inch to 3 inches recommended mowing height
as Kentucky bluegrass, perennial ryegrass will tolerate longer periods of close cutting,
and will withstand heights as close as 1/2 to 3/4 inch on a high-profile field. Perennial
ryegrass has excellent wear tolerance, minimal thatch accumulation, and recovers more
slowly than Kentucky bluegrass due to their lack of lateral stems. Some perennial rye-
grass cultivars are also suitable hosts for endophytes giving these grass types enhanced
insect resistance. Perennial ryegrass germinates rapidly (in four to seven days) and has
excellent seeding vigor, adding to its popularity for sports fields.
A noted limitation of perennial ryegrass is its poor cold tolerance. Because peren-
nial ryegrass is often reseeded into existing stands, this limitation may not be as crit-
ical for sports turf as compared to home lawn turf. Another issue associated with
perennial ryegrass has been its susceptibility to gray leaf spot (GLS) disease. This dis-
ease devastated perennial ryegrass turf in the mid-Atlantic states in the early 2000s.
Commercial plant breeders quickly tackled this issue, and today there are a number of
perennial ryegrass cultivars with GLS resistance. These resistant cultivars usually can
be recognized in that their cultivar name often includes the GLS acronym.
Many northern fields are planted with a mixture of Kentucky bluegrass and peren-
nial ryegrass. Their similar appearance allows uniform-looking turf, and their comple-
mentary performance characteristics combine to form an excellent field. Kentucky
bluegrass offers a dark green color, aggressive growth rates, and good recuperative
potential. Perennial ryegrass offers exceptional wear resistance and tolerance for close
cutting, as well as rapid seed germination and attractive striping effects.
Selecting a high percentage of Kentucky bluegrass and a more aggressive cultivar
of Kentucky bluegrass in mixtures will contribute to a thicker thatch layer that cushions
falls better and keeps players out of the mud in wet weather (see Chapter 8). However,
on many heavily trafficked fields, it is unlikely that a pure Kentucky bluegrass stand can
be sustained so perennial ryegrass is commonly mixed with the Kentucky bluegrass to
take advantage of its rapid establishment rate when planting a new field or reseeded
into established fields to increase stand density.
Creeping bentgrass is used for playing surfaces that require a close cut, including
tennis and croquet courts and lawn bowling greens, where smooth, fast playing sur-
faces are required. Creeping bentgrass is the primary species used on putting greens in
the cool-season regions and northern transition zone. A sports turf manager faced with
growing creeping bentgrass for tennis, croquet, lawn bowling, and so on should con-
sult with local golf course superintendents on the culture of this unique grass species.
In general, creeping bentgrass is regularly cut at heights of 1/10 to 1/4 inch, and turf
quality will decrease if cut higher than 3/4 inch. Creeping bentgrass must be mowed
daily or every other day and does best where the clippings are collected. It has an
attractive blue-green color and aggressive stoloniferous growth characteristics. High
N fertilization (greater than 1 pound of nitrogen per 1000 sq ft per month) con-
tributes to excessive thatch and pest susceptibility. Such low cutting heights also lead
to a very shallow root system. Frequent topdressing of bentgrass is usually required
to control thatch and maintain a smooth playing surface.
Numerous cultivars of creeping bentgrass are available, with many new releases
appearing each year. For many years, the Penncross cultivar was the industry standard,
and it continues to be very popular for sports turf where cutting heights of 1/4 inch
are desired. Many new cultivars offer exceptional density, improved heat and drought
tolerance, and enhanced pest resistance and require cutting heights of 1/8 inch or less
to perform at their peak. Once again, consult with state or regional turfgrass person-
nel or research NTEP findings for more information on what cultivars of creeping
bentgrass perform best in a particular area.
A grass that has received some recognition for use as a northern sports turf is Poa
supina L. This grass, popular on sports fields in Europe, is stoloniferous, very wear
tolerant, and more shade tolerant than Kentucky bluegrass. It is very cold hardy and
tolerates regular mowing at 1/2 inch to 1 1/2 inches. Supina bluegrass has been used
sparingly to date on athletic fields with minimal acceptance. Research is continuing in
the cultural management and suitability of supina bluegrass for sports turf.
NTEP-coordinated traffic trials on cool-season turfgrass mixtures for sports fields

are anticipated in the near future. The research protocol is under development, and
financial support is pending. The trials will be initiated at various locations across the
country. The results promise to be invaluable to sports turf managers striving to keep
their fields grassed under heavy traffic conditions.
1.4 TURFGRASS SELECTION

Several criteria are useful in the selection of turfgrass for a sports field. The first and
most important is climatic adaptation – the biological adaptation of a turfgrass to sur-
vive as a perennial or year-round planting. A strong perennial turf avoids the expense
of yearly reestablishment and forms a mature and self-sustaining community of plants.
Zones of turfgrass adaptation in the United States have been widely published in
various books and publications. In this text, we are suggesting an alternative approach
to turfgrass selection and have included maps that divide North America somewhat
differently than those used in other books. The maps used are based on regional aver-
age temperatures measured over long time periods (typically decades). Unlike older
maps that simply divide North America into three distinct zones, we decided to use
separate maps that show where cool-season turfgrasses (Figure 1.8) and warm-season
turfgrasses (Figure 1.9) can be successfully grown. On each map, the “Primary Zone”
(dark gray) shows where the particular species can be established and survive as a
Figure 1.8 Cool-season turfgrass zones, based on high temperature exposure.

1.4 Turfgrass Selection 19
Figure 1.9 Warm-season turfgrass (bermudagrass) zones, based on low temperature exposure.
perennial; the “Secondary Zone” (light gray), indicates areas where these species can
be established, but their perennial survival is more difficult; the unshaded area shows
parts of the country in which the species group (cool- or warm-season species) should
not be grown as a perennial.
The two-map approach is used to reflect the different biology of cool and
warm-season turfgrasses that form their perennial nature. Cool-season turfgrasses
tolerate heat poorly but have excellent cold tolerance. Cool-season turfgrasses can
tolerate several days of extremely hot weather, but three or four weeks prolonged hot
weather can result in the thinning or localized death of these grasses. In the case of
warm-season turfgrasses, their ability to tolerate cold temperatures depends primarily
on how cold it gets. For example, two or three weeks of mildly cold weather can be
survived by most warm-season turf, but a single night of extreme cold can kill the
same turf (an occurrence known as “low temperature winterkill”).
On the cool-season map, the divisions are in three areas based on a temperature
threshold of 86∘ F (30∘ C), and the number of days each year that the daily high reaches
or exceeds that temperature. In the Primary Zone, there are fewer than 90 days each
year above this threshold; in the Secondary Zone, between 90 and 120 days; in the
unshaded area, more than 120 days.
Primary Zone (dark gray). Regions with 90 days or fewer per year of air tem-
perature above 86∘ F. Suitable for Kentucky bluegrass, perennial ryegrass, or
mixtures of the two.
Secondary Zone (light gray). Regions with 90 to 120 days per year of air tem-
perature above 86∘ F. Suitable for tall fescue, Kentucky bluegrass, or mixtures
of the two.
Remainder of the country (white). Regions with greater than 120 days per year
of air temperature above 86∘ F. Not suited to any cool-season turfgrass species.1
The primary sports turfs best adapted to the cool-season Primary Zone are
Kentucky bluegrass and perennial ryegrass. In the Secondary Zone, the best-adapted
grasses are tall fescue and Kentucky bluegrass. No cool-season sports turfgrasses are
adapted to the unshaded area; turfgrass selection for this area should be based on the
warm-season map.
Unlike the cool-season map, the warm-season map is based only on the average
minimum low temperature (the lowest single reading taken during the year). The Pri-
mary Zone has an average minimum low temperature greater than 0∘ F; the Secondary
Zone has an average minimum low temperature of −10∘ F to 0∘ F; and the unshaded
area has an average minimum low temperature below −10∘ F.
Primary Zone (dark gray). Regions with average minimum low temperature
values greater than 0∘ F. Suitable for all seeded or vegetative bermudagrass cul-
tivars.
Secondary Zone (light gray). Regions with average minimum low temperature
values ranging from −10∘ to 0∘ F. Suitable only for cold-hardy bermudagrass
cultivars.
Remainder of the country (white). Regions with average minimum low tem-
perature values less than −10∘ F. Not suited for any bermudagrass cultivars.2
In the warm-season Primary Zone, most seeded and vegetatively propagated
bermudagrass cultivars are suitable for use. In the Secondary Zone, only the
cold-hardy seeded or vegetative cultivars are recommended. The warm-season map
shows areas for bermudagrass. Bermudagrass is the dominant species of choice
because of its unique morphology and cosmopolitan nature of adaptation. In the
unshaded area, bermudagrass cultivars are not recommended, and the cool-season
selection map should be used.
1.5 USING THE TWO-MAP SYSTEM TO SELECT TURFGRASS

To determine the turfgrass best suited for a particular location, look at each of the
two maps. If a particular location falls within the cool-season adapted zones, choose
from the cool-season choices. If a location is within the warm-season zone, choose
from the warm-season choices. Some locations show that both warm- and cool-season
grasses can be grown as perennials. If this is the case, then choose between cool- and
warm-season turfgrass for the fields.
An area in which both cool- and warm-season turfgrass can be grown is said
to be an “overlap zone” or a “transition zone.” In these areas, the climate is
unpredictable and transitions from cool to warm, or vice versa, from one year to the
next. These overlap zones are the most difficult areas in which to manage turfgrass
because of the wide shifts in weather from season to season. (Note that there are some
small areas, like East Central Utah, Eastern Colorado, and West Central Kansas, that
do not fall within the perennial growing areas for either cool-season or warm-season
turfgrass. Obviously, it’s possible to establish turfgrass in these areas, but as in an
overlap zone, either cool-season or warm-season turfgrass would be an option.)
1.5.1 Warm-Season Turfgrass Selection

In the warm-season zones, bermudagrass is the top choice for sports fields, and the
manager’s decision will be limited to picking the best cultivar. In the warm-season
Primary Zone (the zone in which bermudagrass can be most easily grown as a peren-
nial), the manager’s first decision is whether to use a vegetatively propagated or seed
propagated type. As previously stated, the vegetative types lack seed for propagation
and thereby require the field manager to contact a sod farm to find the cultivar desired.
Vegetative cultivars typically have high shoot, stolon, and rhizome density, robust
growth, and a deep fibrous root system. However, seeded cultivars, although they
have similar morphology, lack the vigor and density of the vegetative cultivars. If the
decision were based only on the quality and vigor of the established turfgrass, the
first choice would be the vegetative cultivars. However, these cultivars cost more, so
budget constraints may justify the use of seeded cultivars.
Once the choice of seeded or vegetative type is made, the next step is the selection
of a particular cultivar. Consult with local turfgrass extension specialist and NTEP data
in identifying varieties that will best. As previously stated, the highest quality, densest
bermudagrasses might not be the best cultivar for a particular budget and overall
management capabilities. In the Primary Zone, our recommended vegetative choices
are cultivars such as Tifway, TifTuf, Tifgrand, TifSport, Celebration, Patriot, North-
bridge, Latitude 36, Tahoma 31. Among the group of vegetative types, MS-Choice
(Bull’s-eye) was developed specifically for athletic field use. This cultivar has highly
lignified leaf tissue, durable stolon and rhizome structures, minimal seedheads, dark
green color, and a uniquely compact and prostrate growth habit. In the warm-season
Primary Zone, there are many seeded bermudagrasses that are adapted with one
of the highest quality cultivars available in Princess-77. This seeded cultivar is visu-
ally comparable in density and cutting quality to many of the recommended seeded
cultivars. However, it also is often one of the most expensive cultivars from seed
and/or seed availability is sometimes a concern. One possibility with seeded cultivars
is to develop a mixture with 2–3 cultivars. This likely will not provide the high-
est quality turf from a visual standpoint, but the genetic variability enhances overall
performance criteria. (If a seeded type is chosen, we suggest looking into the commer-
cial availability of seed before putting its name into the specifications. Some seeded
types are low seed producers, so their seed supply can quickly run out. Specifying a
seeded cultivar that is not available can disrupt the construction schedule and cause an
unnecessary delay.)
In the Secondary Zone for warm-season turfgrass, our recommended vegeta-

tive choices based on demonstrated cold tolerance are Midiron, Midlawn, Vamont,
Patriot, Quickstand, Latitude 36, Northbridge, and Tahoma 31. All of these vegetative
cultivars have excellent cold hardiness. Among seeded cultivars, only Rio, Transconti-
nental, and Monaco provide the desirable level of cold hardiness. The cold hardiness
may not be needed every year, but when the climate does become unseasonably cold,
a cold-hardy bermudagrass cultivar will be worth any extra cost or time spent.
1.5.2 Cool-Season Turfgrass Selection
Managers in the cool-season zones will choose primarily among three species, mix-
tures of these species, and a selection of cultivars within each species. In the Primary
Zone, a monostand of Kentucky bluegrass, or a mixture of Kentucky bluegrass and
perennial ryegrass (known in the trade as a blue/rye mix) are the options. Compo-
sition of a seed mix by weight may vary from 50% to 80% Kentucky bluegrass, with
the balance perennial ryegrass. The proportion of Kentucky bluegrass and perennial
ryegrass in a mix will be determined by a relative location, field use, and management
strategies within the cool-season Primary Zone. As an example of the effect of loca-
tion on composition of the mixture, Kentucky bluegrass has excellent cold tolerance;
perennial ryegrass has moderate cold tolerance. For this reason, a lower proportion of
perennial ryegrass should be used in the northern regions of the cool-season Primary
Zone. Consult with an experienced field manager or a university extension specialist
to help determine the appropriate blue/rye mixture.
A monostand of perennial ryegrass is seldom recommended. Although this species
can perform very well for baseball, softball, soccer, lacrosse, or hockey fields, peren-
nial ryegrass lacks the recuperative potential, cold tolerance, and resistance to specific
diseases compared to Kentucky bluegrass. Monostands of perennial ryegrass or other
species can be quickly wiped out by any number of pest invasions or extreme environ-
mental conditions.
In the cool-season Secondary Zone, the best options are tall fescue, Kentucky
bluegrass, or a mixture of these species. In this zone, long periods of high tempera-
tures are common, and tall fescue is a heat- and drought-tolerant species. A monostand
of Kentucky bluegrass or tall fescue, or a mix of Kentucky bluegrass and tall fescue,
are options. However, Kentucky bluegrass and tall fescue mixes are not widely used
because these species can segregate out over time, resulting in localized patches of
Kentucky bluegrass and tall fescue. These segregated colonies cause poor field unifor-
mity and reduced player performance and safety. The manager should keep in mind
that new and improved turf-type tall fescue cultivars are being developed, and these
cultivars may perform better when mixed with Kentucky bluegrass. Consult with an
experienced field manager or a university extension specialist to help determine the
suitability of a Kentucky bluegrass and tall fescue mix.
In the rest of the country, cool-season species are not recommended.
Once the field manager has decided on a species or mix of species, the next step
is cultivar selection. The list of cultivars for each cool-season turfgrass is lengthy;
there are 150+ tall fescue cultivars, 250+ Kentucky bluegrass cultivars, and 150+
perennial ryegrass cultivars. For information on the attributes of these cultivars,
consult NTEP data or visit a university extension service web site. As with seeded
bermudagrasses, determine the commercial seed availability of any cultivars before
making a selection. It is also wise to use blends of two or more of the top choices,
rather than planting a single cultivar, to take advantage of the benefits of enhanced
genetic diversity.
1.5.3 Transition or Overlap Zone Turfgrass Selection

As we discussed earlier, the overlap or transition zones are the areas of the United
States where the zones of adaptation for cool-season and warm-season turfgrasses
overlap. In these locations, the manager may choose either a cool-season species or
bermudagrass for sports field applications.
It should be noted, however, that there is a good deal of variation in what
turfgrasses are best suited to the various overlap zones. For example, in the North-
west overlap zones (in Oregon and Washington), the cold-hardy bermudagrass
cultivars will survive as perennials, but their response to cold weather (slowed growth
and loss of color when temperatures drop below 50∘ F) makes them unacceptable
for fields that will be used during the fall, winter, and spring seasons. In this part
of the country, most bermudagrass cultivars only provide acceptable turf during the
summer. For these reasons, the predominate turfgrasses in the overlap zones of this
region are the cool-season grasses.
However, the overlap zones found in sections of the Upper South (Missouri,
Illinois, Kentucky, Tennessee, North and South Carolina, Virginia, and Georgia) pro-
vide a different set of climatic circumstances. In these areas, the climate is more variable
from year to year, making the choice of turfgrass more difficult than in the previous
example from the Northwest. In the Upper South, both cool-season and bermuda-
grass species are commonly found on sports fields. Bermudagrass would be favorable
on unirrigated fields with high summertime use and low budgets; cool-season species
would be justified for irrigated fields with higher maintenance budgets.
In any of the overlap zones, the criteria for choosing between cool- and
warm-season turfgrasses include (in addition to climate) the level of field activity,
the time of year when use is greatest, the level of aesthetic appeal desired, and the
available maintenance budget. All of these criteria are useful, but a decision must be
made on the appropriate balance among them.
The variability in climate in overlap zones results in a corresponding variability
in turfgrass performance. It is these factors that make managing a sports field in an
overlap zone so difficult. Because of the complexity of the task, it is especially useful to
seek help from an experienced field manager or a university extension specialist before
making a final choice.
1.6 PLANTING TIMES AND RATES

In calculating seeding rates, pay particular attention to the information on the seed
tag. Choose seed that was tested for germination no more than one year before the
calendar date (and preferably much more recently than one year). Compare germina-
tion and purity percentages among choices and select those that are the highest on
both accounts. All seeding rates should be based on pure live seed (PLS) in order to
ensure the turf density the field needs. Calculations for figuring PLS and application
rates per 1000 square feet are included in Part 1 of the appendix, “Calculations.”
1.6.1 Warm Season

On warm-season fields, the ideal time to plant bermudagrass is from midspring to
midsummer. Ideal planting conditions are when soil temperatures reach 65∘ F. Plant-
ing can also be performed in mid- to late summer if good irrigation is available, but
remember: the later the grass is planted, the lower the chances of achieving the desired
coverage and turf density, and the greater the risk of turf loss due to cold tempera-
ture injury. For test results on dormant seeding and sprigging, see the Field Study
“Expanding the Boundaries of Bermudagrass” at the end of the chapter.
The typical seeding rate is 1/2 to 1 1/2 pounds of hulled (i.e., hulls removed)
bermudagrass seed to 1000 square feet (or about 40 pounds of seed per acre).
That rate should be doubled when planting unhulled bermudagrass seed. Lower
seeding rates will likely take two to three weeks longer to cover, but there are advan-
tages to lower seeding rates in that less competition between seedling plants results in
more robust, larger plants. While higher seeding rates lead to more rapid coverage,
ground cover in the first season does not necessarily equate to wear tolerance. Seeded
bermudagrasses produce very few lateral stems (stolons and/or rhizomes) in the first
year of development, especially with higher seeding rates. Be careful not to ruin a
successful establishment by trafficking turf excessively in the establishment year.
Sprigging and plugging can likewise be performed when soil temperatures are at
least 65∘ F. In the southern United States, this will typically be between April 15 and
August 15, but the best results will be obtained between May 15 and July 15. Planting
later in the summer will increase the risk of winterkill.
When offering guidance on sprigging, most sources of information suggest a rec-
ommended rate of planting in terms of “bushels of sprigs per acre.” Unfortunately,
there is no established guideline to define a “bushel” of sprigs, which can vary accord-
ing to how the material is handled. Some sod producers in the South define a bushel
as about 2,500 sprigs, and recommend planting 400 to 500 bushels of bermudagrass
sprigs per acre, sometimes as little as 200 bushels per acre, and sometimes as much as
1000 bushels. When developing sprigging specifications, one alternative is to specify
the number of sprigs per square foot for planting. If a value of 2,500 sprigs is equated
to a bushel, a standard recommendation of 500 bushels per acre would equal approxi-
mately 25 sprigs per square foot. As one might expect, lower rates cost less but require
longer to achieve full field coverage. At extremely high levels, competition between
sprigs can actually reduce field traffic tolerance in the establishment season.
1.6 Planting Times and Rates 25
When plugging, use 2- to 4-inch plugs spaced at 12 inches on center to achieve

full coverage in two months.
Sodding in warm-season areas can take place almost any time of year, as long as
temperatures aren’t expected to dip substantially below freezing for the first few days
after the sod is laid and adequate rainfall or irrigation is available. One consideration if
planning a dormant bermudagrass installation, rooting potential of the bermudagrass
will be very low until soil temperatures of 60∘ F or greater are received. Therefore,
if dormant sodding is being planned and the field is scheduled for early season use
at a time when bermudagrass perhaps might not root satisfactorily for play, consider
having the sod overseeded with ryegrass at the farm prior to harvest and/or overseed
it yourself and use an appropriate turf growth blanket to promote ryegrass growth.
The rooting of the ryegrass will tack the bermudagrass sod to the soil and remove
potential issues with footing and sod stability.
1.6.2 Transition Zone

In the transition zone, use the same general planting times and rates as in the South for
planting bermudagrass, both when seeding and when planting vegetatively. However,
it should be noted that the optimal window for planting is somewhat smaller than for
the southern United States.
Tall fescues and tall fescue/Kentucky bluegrass mixes are best seeded in late sum-
mer, from mid-August to mid-September. Spring plantings can be performed, but are
generally less successful due to cool soil temperatures. If spring planting is necessary,
the ideal time would be March or April, to allow the turf to mature as much as possible
before facing the challenges of transition zone summers.
Use 7 to 10 pounds of tall fescue seed per 1000 square feet to maintain a uniform
turf and reduce the bunching effect characteristic of tall fescues. Mixtures contain-
ing 85–95% tall fescue with 5–15% Kentucky bluegrass by weight are planted at 4 to
6 pounds of mixture by weight depending on the mix composition. As a rule of
thumb, the higher recommended seeding levels should be planted during suboptimal
planting periods.
1.6.3 Cool Season

The optimal time for seeding cool season grasses is from mid-August to
mid-September. During this time soil temperatures are near optimum for seed
germination, fall weed competition is usually minimal, and soil water deficiencies
are usually compared to mid-summer planting times. Although October planting is
sometimes performed, it’s a risky practice – and the later in October, the riskier due to
cool soil temperatures and low light intensity. In order to achieve good establishment
before the onset of freezing temperatures, it is important that the plants progress
to the three-leaf stage of development. If October and November are unusually
warm, this development can take place. If not, the plants will still be in a seedling
stage in cold weather, and the winterkill (often due to desiccation) will be especially
destructive.
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The Project Gutenberg eBook of Du rôle des
coups de bâton dans les relations sociales et, en
particulier, dans l'histoire littéraire
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Title: Du rôle des coups de bâton dans les relations sociales et,
en particulier, dans l'histoire littéraire
Author: Victor Fournel
Release date: November 10, 2023 [eBook #72091]
Language: French
Original publication: Paris: A. Delahays, 1858
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*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK DU RÔLE

DES COUPS DE BÂTON DANS LES RELATIONS SOCIALES ET,
EN PARTICULIER, DANS L'HISTOIRE LITTÉRAIRE ***
DU ROLE
DES
COUPS DE BATON
DANS LES RELATIONS
SOCIALES
ET, EN PARTICULIER,
DANS L’HISTOIRE LITTÉRAIRE
PAR
VICTOR FOURNEL
PARIS
A. DELAHAYS, LIBRAIRE-ÉDITEUR
RUE VOLTAIRE, 4-6
1858
PARIS. — TYP. SIMON RAÇON ET Cie, RUE D’ERFURTH, 1.
DU ROLE
DES
COUPS DE BATON
DANS LES RELATIONS SOCIALES
ET, EN PARTICULIER,
DANS L’HISTOIRE LITTÉRAIRE
Le sujet que nous nous proposons de traiter ici pourrait fournir

aisément la matière d’un gros livre ; mais nous préférons, par égard
pour les gens de lettres du temps passé, et par ménagement pour le
lecteur, le renfermer dans des proportions plus restreintes. Même en
élaguant tout ce qui dépasserait les bornes d’un modeste in-32, il
nous restera assez de faits encore (trop peut-être) pour justifier
amplement notre titre.
Et qu’on ne croie pas que ce soit là un simple thème d’érudition,
un prétexte à recherches plus ou moins amusantes, sans utilité et
sans enseignement : ce n’est point ainsi que nous l’avons compris. A
nos yeux, il y a, dans la réponse à la question que nous nous
sommes posée, un des chapitres les plus instructifs de l’histoire
littéraire, ainsi l’un des plus glorieux, en somme, pour les écrivains
d’aujourd’hui, puisque, en les faisant rougir du passé, il leur permet
de s’enorgueillir du présent.
Ce petit livre eût pu s’intituler aussi bien, n’eût été la peur de
l’emphase : Histoire de la condition sociale des gens de lettres, de
leur abaissement, et de leur émancipation progressive. En même
temps qu’il montrera de quel point ils sont partis, il permettra de
mesurer nettement la route parcourue par eux ; il rappellera, à ceux
qui les oublient trop, les progrès de la littérature elle-même, en
rappelant ceux des littérateurs, — c’est-à-dire, à défaut de chefs-
d’œuvre comparables à ceux du passé, l’élévation générale du
niveau des intelligences, et le respect croissant des choses de
l’esprit, se traduisant par le respect de leurs interprètes.
Sans autre introduction, qu’on nous permette d’entrer tout de
suite en matière.
I
Nous ne remonterons pas plus haut que le dix-septième siècle :

c’est de cette époque seulement que date, à proprement parler,
l’homme de lettres en France, et que la lumière se fait, grâce aux
ana et aux biographies, dans les moindres recoins de l’histoire
littéraire. Auparavant, l’écrivain existe plutôt à l’état individuel qu’à
l’état collectif, et les vies ne se révèlent guère que par les œuvres. Il
est fort probable sans doute que des poëtes comme Gringore, Villon
surtout, peut-être même Clément Marot, que maint et maint
troubadour ou trouvère, maint enfant sans souci ou clerc de la
basoche, durent, en plus d’une circonstance, faire connaissance
avec le bâton, ou quelque chose d’approchant ; mais l’absence de
documents particuliers ne nous permet pas de recherches suivies
sur ce grave sujet, et nous en sommes réduits, dans la plupart des
cas, à de simples conjectures, qui ne suffisent point en pareille
matière.
Un des premiers noms qui ouvrent le siècle, et celui qui ouvrira
en même temps cette histoire, c’est Alexandre Hardy, — ce
Shakspeare, moins le génie, comme on l’a justement surnommé, —
l’homme qui mérita, avant Corneille, le titre de fondateur de notre
théâtre. On sait que Hardy s’était mis à la solde d’une troupe de
comédiens, qu’il suivait dans leurs pérégrinations vagabondes, pour
alimenter le répertoire, en fabricant les pièces dont ils avaient
besoin : le Roquebrune du Roman comique de Scarron n’est donc
point, comme on pourrait croire, une création de pure fantaisie, et ce
n’est pas seulement au Viage entretenido de Rojas, qui lui a servi
d’inspiration première, que notre cul-de-jatte a emprunté l’idée de ce
pauvre poëte traîné à la remorque par une troupe ambulante. Le rôle
de souffre-douleur qu’il fait jouer à cet Apollon grotesque, turlupiné
par la Rancune, et servant de plastron à tous ses camarades,
n’appartient pas moins, par malheur, à la réalité. Sur ce point même,
le roman n’a pas été si loin que l’histoire : un seul trait, détaché de la
vie de Hardy, le prototype de Roquebrune, va le prouver
suffisamment.
« C’étoit un jour que les comédiens ne jouoient point, raconte
Tristan l’Hermite, dans son Page disgracié, mais ils ne pouvoient
toutefois l’appeler de repos : il y avoit un si grand tumulte entre tous
ces débauchés, qu’on ne s’y pouvoit entendre. Ils étoient huit ou dix
sous une treille, en leur jardin, qui portoient par la tête et par les
pieds un jeune homme enveloppé dans une robe de chambre : ses
pantoufles avoient été semées, avec son bonnet de nuit, dans tous
les carrés du jardin, et la huée étoit si grande que l’on faisoit autour
de lui, que j’en fus tout épouvanté. Le patient n’étoit pas sans
impatience, comme il témoignoit par les injures qu’il leur disoit d’un
ton de voix fort plaisant, sur quoi ses persécuteurs faisoient de
grands éclats de rire. Enfin je demandai, à un de ceux qui étoient
des moins occupés, que vouloit dire ce spectacle et qu’avoit fait cet
homme qu’on traitoit ainsi. Il me répondit que c’étoit un poëte qui
étoit à leurs gages, et qui ne vouloit pas jouer à la boule, à cause
qu’il étoit en sa veine de faire des vers ; enfin, qu’ils avoient résolu
de l’y contraindre. Là-dessus, je m’entremis d’apaiser ce différend, et
priai ces messieurs de le laisser en paix pour l’amour de moi : ainsi
je le délivrai du supplice [1] . »
[1] Ch. IX. La clef de l’ouvrage nous apprend qu’il
s’agit ici de Hardy.
Il n’y a pas là de volée de bois vert, mais la chose revient à peu

près au même, et nous n’avons pas besoin de dire que cette étude,
pour s’attacher spécialement aux coups de bâton, n’exclut
néanmoins ni les soufflets, ni les coups de poing, ni les coups de
pied, ni les autres gentillesses de même nature qu’on n’administrait
guère aux écrivains que lorsque l’instrument ordinaire de ces
corrections à l’amiable venait à faire défaut.
Un poëte aux gages des comédiens, c’était quelque chose de
triste ; mais un poëte aux gages des grands seigneurs, ce n’était pas
beaucoup plus gai : on le verra bientôt. Or telle était, surtout dans la
première moitié du dix-septième siècle, la condition sociale de la
plupart des écrivains. Tous, ou presque tous, appartenaient à
quelque comte, duc ou marquis ; étaient les domestiques (suivant le
terme reçu) de quelque grande maison. Ils payaient la protection en
bons mots et en dédicaces où ils élevaient le protecteur aux nues,
tantôt le mettant au-dessus de Mécène et d’Auguste, et tantôt
prouvant, à grand renfort de textes, que son avénement avait été
prédit par Moïse et par les prophètes. Quelques-uns, comme
Neufgermain, le poëte hétéroclite de Monsieur, ou le bonhomme
Rangouze, ou le comte de Permission, faisaient un commerce
spécial et exclusif d’épîtres dédicatoires. La mendicité littéraire était
largement et savamment organisée du haut en bas de l’échelle.
Corneille même tâchait de prendre à la glu les écus complaisants du
financier Montauron. La Fontaine allait jusqu’à payer en vers chaque
quartier de pension ; il donnait ses quittances en ballades ou
rondeaux qu’on peut lire dans ses œuvres. Tous, en un mot,
méritaient la cruelle épigramme dont les fustigeait Scarron, — qui
pourtant abusa plus que pas un de cette quémanderie effrontée, —
en dédiant une partie de ses œuvres burlesques « à très-honnête et
très-divertissante chienne dame Guillemette, levrette de ma sœur »,
et Furetière, en traçant, dans son Roman bourgeois, le modèle d’une
épître dédicatoire au bourreau, sans parler de Sorel, de
mademoiselle de Scudéry, et de vingt autres qui tous ont vertement
daubé sur la honteuse spéculation des épîtres liminaires.
Cette domesticité, sur laquelle nous sommes forcé d’appuyer
quelque peu, parce qu’on y trouve la source et l’explication des faits
bizarres dont nous nous constituons l’historien, était non-seulement
acceptée, mais revendiquée avec un soin jaloux par les écrivains,
jusque dans ses avantages et profits les plus humiliants. Ménage,
par économie, mène deux laquais dîner avec lui chez le cardinal de
Retz, les y établit pendant cinq mois, malgré les représentations de
l’argentier, et y prend sa chandelle. Chapelain, le roi des poëtes
d’alors, passe du service de monseigneur de Noailles aux gages du
duc de Longueville, qui lui offrait un traitement plus considérable,
comme un valet de bonne maison qu’on enlève à un rival en
enchérissant sur ses prix. A l’exemple de Chapelain, Esprit, de
l’Académie, qui était d’abord à madame de Longueville, passe au
chancelier Séguier. Boisrobert appartenait au cardinal, et faisait
partie de sa ménagerie comme ses chats ; Sarrazin était à la
princesse de Conti ; Costar, à l’abbé de Lavardin ; la Mesnardière, à
madame de Sablé. Pas un qui n’eût son patron, dont il portait le
collier, avec le nom gravé dessus. Théophile et Mairet recevaient
des gages de monseigneur de Montmorency pour faire des vers en
son nom, lui fabriquer ses mots et lui apprendre les jugements qu’il
devait porter sur les choses courantes. Et ces gens de lettres
domestiques avaient à leur tour d’autres gens de lettres
domestiques en sous-ordre, comme Pauquet, qui appartenait à
Costar, et Girault à Ménage.
Il faut avouer tout d’abord, et même proclamer bien haut, que, si
les écrivains n’étaient pas plus respectés, c’est qu’ils ne savaient
pas se faire respecter eux-mêmes. Élevés dans la servitude, ils en
avaient contracté tous les vices. Sous Richelieu et Mazarin, les trois
quarts des gens de lettres étaient plus ou moins débauchés, joueurs,
parasites, coureurs de cabarets et de lieux équivoques. Ils
s’intitulaient fièrement libertins et poëtes rouges-trognes. La Croix-
de-Fer et le Cormier étaient leurs académies ; la bouteille, leur muse
inspiratrice, et, au dessert, gorgés de cervelas, de petit salé, de
melon, de tous ces mets excitant à bien boire qu’a chantés Saint-
Amant avec un enthousiasme puisé aux entrailles du sujet, chauds
de vin et de luxure, ils écrivaient sur la nappe salie les honteuses
priapées du Cabinet satirique.
Du côté de la morale, comme du côté de l’indépendance, la
dignité littéraire était donc alors chose à peu près inconnue chez les
écrivains de profession, surtout avant Racine et Boileau. Ce dernier
en était si frappé, que, dans son Art poétique, en particulier dans le
quatrième chant, il s’est appliqué à relever le caractère de l’homme
de lettres autant qu’à perfectionner son talent : au milieu des erreurs
de critique de Boileau, et de ses jugements souvent contestés
aujourd’hui, il est juste de lui tenir compte de ce noble effort. Au
temps de ces deux poëtes, la dignité du corps littéraire est loin d’être
complète sans doute, mais elle a du moins fait un grand pas :
l’écrivain n’est plus aux gages des seigneurs qui le payent en
l’attachant à leur maison, mais du roi qui le pensionne, en lui laissant
son indépendance matérielle. La sphère où il vit, le rang qu’il
occupe, sa considération, la nature de ses travaux, tout s’est élevé à
la fois, — premier acheminement, bien insuffisant encore, à l’époque
d’émancipation où il ne relèvera plus que du public, dont il peut
même devenir le souverain à son tour.
Les courtisans voulaient bien, sans doute, frayer jusqu’à un
certain point avec les beaux esprits en titre, mais dans les limites
fixées par la mode et leur vanité personnelle. Ils daignaient les
admettre à leurs parties fines chez Crenet ou la Coiffier, mais
comme des amuseurs chargés d’égayer la débauche, et non en
qualité de compagnons et d’égaux. A défaut d’un sens moral
suffisant, il n’eût fallu d’ailleurs aux écrivains qu’un peu de réflexion
pour comprendre à quel point ces associations dans l’orgie étaient
avilissantes et dangereuses pour eux : c’était le plus sûr moyen de
se dépouiller eux-mêmes du peu de respect qu’on eût pu conserver
encore à leur égard.
Que restait-il donc pour retenir et enchaîner, au besoin, le
courroux de MM. les gentilshommes ? La considération littéraire ?
Mais, à supposer même que les œuvres légères de ces poëtes
d’alcôve et de cabaret fussent dignes d’inspirer un pareil sentiment,
la considération littéraire n’a guère de puissance, si elle n’est
soutenue par la considération morale. Et puis ces hauts et puissants
seigneurs se souciaient bien de la littérature ! Non-seulement la
plupart ne cachaient pas leur ignorance, mais ils s’en targuaient
comme d’une qualité de race, qui sentait son homme du monde et
son parfait courtisan. M. de Montbazon, qui, selon Bautru [2] , n’avait
« rien à mespris comme un homme sçavant », n’était nullement une
exception dans la première moitié du siècle. Plus tard, le
commandeur de Jars s’indignait de voir ses confrères dégénérer de
leurs ancêtres, en se pliant à l’étude : « Du latin ! s’écriait-il avec une
indignation burlesque. De mon temps, d’homme d’honneur, le latin
eût déshonoré un gentilhomme [3] . » Ces messieurs n’en
prétendaient pas moins juger les œuvres d’esprit ; parfois même ils
s’essayaient, tout en s’excusant de déroger ainsi, à composer de
petits vers galants, mais des vers qui eussent l’air de cour, et Guéret
nous apprend [4] que cette manie s’était étendue jusqu’aux gens de
lettres, dont la plus grande préoccupation était de faire croire qu’ils
écrivaient par pur délassement, sans vouloir, à aucun prix, passer
pour auteurs de profession.
[2] L’Onosandre ou le Grossier, satire.
[3] Saint-Évremont, Lettre à M. D***.
[4] Parnasse réformé, p. 65.
Voyez Mascarille, dans les Précieuses ridicules [5] : « Je travaille

à mettre en madrigaux toute l’histoire romaine. Cela est au-dessous
de ma condition, mais je le fais seulement pour donner à gagner aux
libraires qui me persécutent. » Et remarquez que les gentilshommes
dont Molière a voulu présenter la satire dans ce plaisant personnage
étaient justement les plus lettrés, les hôtes habituels de la petite
chambre bleue et les courtisans des précieuses. Écoutez maintenant
le marquis de Villennes, dans la préface de sa traduction des
Amours d’Ovide, en 1668, c’est-à-dire au cœur du grand siècle :
« On s’étonnera peut-être qu’un homme de ma naissance et de ma
profession se soit donné le loisir de s’attacher à cet ouvrage. »
Mascarille n’avait pas mieux dit, et M. de Scudéry lui-même eût été
satisfait.
[5] Sc. 10.
On peut comprendre maintenant ce passage du Roman
comique [6] , que nous avons réservé comme la conclusion naturelle
des observations précédentes : « Il étoit bel esprit, dit Scarron en
parlant d’un hobereau campagnard, par la raison que tout le monde
presque se pique d’être sensible aux divertissements de l’esprit, tant
ceux qui les connoissent que les ignorants présomptueux ou brutaux
qui jugent témérairement des vers et de la prose, encore qu’ils
croient qu’il y a du déshonneur à bien écrire, et qu’ils reprocheroient,
en cas de besoin, à un homme qu’il fait des livres, comme ils lui
reprocheroient qu’il fait de la fausse monnoie. »
[6] II, ch. VIII.
II
Tout gentilhomme était donc rempli de dédain pour les auteurs en

titre, et, s’il semblait oublier quelquefois la distance qui le séparait de
ces petits grimauds, barbouilleurs de papier, c’était à condition que
ceux-ci ne l’oublieraient point trop eux-mêmes. Et puis, après avoir
tremblé tout le jour devant le moindre froncement de sourcil de son
Jupiter Olympien, il était bien aise de se consoler de son
abaissement en tranchant du souverain à son tour, et de se venger
d’une infériorité intellectuelle dont il avait conscience, par la
supériorité brutale de la force.
Les lettres de Malherbe nous apprennent que Louis XIII fit
appliquer une douzaine de coups de bâton à un valet de pied qui se
disputait avec ses pages sur une question de préséance, ni plus ni
moins qu’un duc et pair. Le roi, dit Tallemant, ne voulait pas que ses
premiers valets de chambre fussent gentilshommes, afin de pouvoir
les battre à son envie. Le frère de Louis XIII, Gaston d’Orléans, fit
jeter dans le canal, à Fontainebleau, un gentilhomme qui ne lui avait
pas témoigné suffisamment de respect. Louis XIV s’oublia une fois
jusqu’à lever sa canne sur un valet de chambre ; une autre fois, il la
lança par la fenêtre pour se dérober à la tentation d’en châtier
Lauzun ; et, dans une autre circonstance encore, il eût, sans
madame de Maintenon, frappé Louvois avec les pincettes de son
appartement. Ces procédés autocratiques étaient fort en usage
aussi parmi les gentilshommes, ne fût-ce que par imitation, et pour
se régler sur les manières royales.
Comme Louis XIII et Louis XIV, c’était surtout le bâton que les
courtisans considéraient comme l’ultima ratio dans leurs rapports
avec les gens de rien, en particulier avec les auteurs. A leurs yeux,
ceux-ci étaient gent bâtonnable à merci toutes les fois qu’ils avaient
besoin d’être redressés ; et il paraît qu’ils en avaient souvent besoin,
car on les bâtonna souvent.
Il était tout simple, du reste, que ducs et marquis, après avoir
humé longuement l’encens des dédicaces enivrantes, prissent au
mot les hyperboles répétées de leurs faméliques adorateurs, et
crussent à leur suprématie absolue sur ces pauvres poëtes, leurs
parasites et leurs domestiques, qu’ils payaient en beaux écus
sonnants, non contents de les approvisionner de vivres, de bois et
de chandelle. Comment ne les auraient-ils pas regardés dès lors
comme de piètres personnages dont on pouvait s’égayer sans
conséquence, de même qu’on s’égaye, pour peu qu’on en ait envie,
d’un bouffon ou d’un laquais ?
Aussi voyez : Saint-Amant, malgré sa fierté, se représente
amusant son duc à ses dépens, et sortant de ce jeu en sueur.
Voiture est berné par ses protecteurs, et en plaisante avec une
joyeuse effronterie d’humilité. Or, pour donner au lecteur une idée de
ce qu’était la berne [7] , dans le sens propre du mot, nous ne pouvons
mieux faire que de renvoyer à la pièce dans laquelle le chantre de la
Crevaille a décrit ce supplice avec sa verve ordinaire, ou de citer
notre auteur, lorsqu’il écrit à mademoiselle de Bourbon, en 1630 :
[7] Un neveu de Mazarin en mourut, au collége de
Clermont.
« Mademoiselle, je fus berné, vendredi, après dîner, pour ce que

je ne vous avois pas fait rire dans le temps que l’on m’avoit donné
pour cela, et madame de Rambouillet en donna l’arrêt, à la requête
de mademoiselle sa fille et de mademoiselle Paulet… J’eus beau
crier et me défendre ; la couverture fut apportée, et quatre des plus
forts hommes du monde furent choisis pour cela. Ce que je puis
vous dire, Mademoiselle, c’est que jamais personne ne fut si haut
que moi, et que je ne croyois pas que la fortune me dût jamais tant
élever. A tout coup ils me perdoient de vue, et m’envoyoient plus
haut que les aigles ne peuvent monter. Je vis les montagnes
abaissées au-dessous de moi ; je vis les vents et les nuées
cheminer dessous mes pieds ; je découvris des pays que je n’avois
jamais vus, et des mers que je n’avois point imaginées. Mais je vous
assure, Mademoiselle, que l’on ne voit tout cela qu’avec inquiétude,
lorsque l’on est en l’air et que l’on est assuré d’aller retomber. Une
des choses qui m’effrayoient le plus étoit que, lorsque j’étois bien
haut et que je regardois en bas, la couverture me paroissoit si petite,
qu’il me sembloit impossible que je retombasse dedans, et je vous
avoue que cela me donnoit quelque émotion. Mais, parmi tant
d’objets différents qui en même temps frappèrent mes yeux, il y en
eut un qui, pour quelques moments, m’ôta de crainte et me toucha
d’un véritable plaisir : c’est, Mademoiselle, qu’ayant voulu regarder
vers le Piémont pour voir ce que l’on y faisoit, je vous vis dans Lyon,
que vous passiez la Saône : au moins, je vis sur l’eau une grande
lumière et beaucoup de rayons à l’entour du plus beau visage du
monde… Dès que je fus en bas, je leur voulus dire de vos nouvelles
et les assurai que je vous avois vue, mais ils se prirent à rire, comme
si j’avois dit une chose impossible, et recommencèrent à me faire
sauter mieux que devant… Le dernier coup qu’ils me jetèrent en l’air,
je me trouvai dans une troupe de grues, lesquelles, d’abord, furent
étonnées de me voir si haut ; mais, quand elles m’eurent approché,
elles me prirent pour un des pygmées avec lesquels vous savez
bien, Mademoiselle, qu’elles ont guerre de tout temps. Aussitôt elles
vinrent fondre sur moi à grands coups de bec, et d’une telle violence,
que je crus être percé de cent coups de poignards ; et une d’elles,
qui m’avait pris par la jambe, me poursuivit si opiniâtrément, qu’elle
ne me laissa point que je ne fusse dans la couverture. Cela fit
appréhender à ceux qui me tourmentoient de me remettre encore à
la merci de mes ennemis : on me rapporta donc à mon logis dans la
même couverture, si abattu qu’il n’est pas possible de l’être plus.
Aussi, à dire le vrai, cet exercice est un peu violent pour un homme
aussi foible que je suis. »
On n’a jamais fait meilleur marché de sa personne, ni débité de
plus agréables sornettes sur un plus humiliant badinage. Il n’est
guère possible de ne voir ici qu’un conte en l’air, une simple
réminiscence du chapitre de Don Quichotte où l’on berne Sancho
Pança, surtout avec la note très-précise que Tallemant des Réaux,
fort bien informé sur le compte de Voiture, dont il s’est fait le
commentateur, a mise à cette lettre. Que ce ne fût là qu’une
plaisanterie, comme on s’en permettait assez souvent à l’hôtel
Rambouillet, il n’y a pas à en douter, et je ne prétends nullement qu’il
faille y voir une punition sérieuse. Seulement cette plaisanterie,
qu’on ne se fût certes pas permise envers tout autre qu’un petit
poëte, chargé d’amuser quand même, marque bien d’une part le peu
de respect qu’on avait pour ce supplicié d’une nouvelle sorte, de
l’autre le peu de dignité de celui qui trouvait cela tout simple et n’y
voyait qu’un joli thème à d’ingénieux concetti.
Et pourtant il ne faut pas l’oublier, l’hôtel de Rambouillet, sorte
d’académie qui devança l’autre et qui la surpassa toujours dans
l’opinion publique, était le sanctuaire vénéré des beaux esprits ; nulle
part ils n’auraient pu trouver autant d’admiration et d’égards. De son
côté, Voiture, un des premiers bourgeois reçus dans la haute
société, suivant la remarque de M. de Chateaubriand, était le roi de
l’hôtel, et pour aucun autre on n’avait plus de considération que pour
ce sémillant petit homme. Cette observation ajoute encore à la
portée de l’exemple que nous venons de citer.
Régnier a dit [8] :
Encore quelques grands afin de faire voir,

De Mœcène rivaux, qu’ils ayment le sçavoir,
Nous voyent de bon œil, et tenant une gaule,
Ainsi qu’à leurs chevaux nous en flattent l’épaule,
Avecques bonne mine, et d’un langage doux
Nous disent souriant : « Eh bien, que faictes-vous ? »
[8] Satire 4e.

Il ne s’agit pas ici, sans doute, de coups de canne, comme l’a cru
le commentateur Lenglet-Dufresnoy ; mais on conviendra du moins
que ces singulières familiarités, dont les poëtes partageaient le
bénéfice avec les chevaux, étaient compromettantes et pouvaient
conduire facilement plus loin. Il suffisait d’un mouvement de colère
pour que la caresse amicale de la houssine, plus fortement appuyée,
se changeât en un coup de cravache, et, je l’ai dit, les grands se
mettaient aisément en colère.
Un peu plus tard, en 1621, Courval-Sonnet s’écriait, dans sa
première satire :
Qui donc voudroit escrire en temps si perilleux,

Sans s’exposer en butte aux esprits orgueilleux
Qui feront de nos vers une capilotade,
Ou bien leur donneront la gesne ou l’estrapade ?
Et ce n’était pas là une fiction poétique : nous ne le verrons que

trop.
Cet usage était si bien admis par les mœurs comme une chose
parfaitement naturelle, que mademoiselle de Ségur parlait ainsi à
Benserade qui l’avait chansonnée : « Dans notre race, il n’y a point
de poëte pour vous rendre la pareille, mais il y a bien des gens qui
vous traiteront en poëte si vous y retournez. » Traiter en poëte,
c’était un terme reçu ; et, sans qu’il fût besoin de s’expliquer
davantage, tout le monde savait ce que cela voulait dire. Il y avait
encore d’autres expressions toutes faites, comme en créent les
besoins et les usages de chaque époque. Arlequin disait, au
Théâtre-Italien, d’un auteur vertement fustigé pour quelques mots
trop libres contre un grand personnage : « Sa pièce lui a valu mille
écus, sans compter le tour du bâton. » Et l’auditoire de rire à cette
fine plaisanterie tout à fait de circonstance, et comprise à demi-mot.
Un autre Arlequin, cette fois au théâtre de la Foire [9] , rencontrant
Apollon sur le Parnasse : « Je vais, lui disait-il, vous payer en
monnaie courante du pays. » Et il s’escrimait de sa batte sur le dos
du dieu.

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Sports Fields: Design, Construction,

and Maintenance 3rd Edition James C.

J. Michael Goatley, Jr.

About the Authors xi

Part 1 Principles of Sports Turf Culture 1

2 Soils and Soil Science 53

3 Fertility and Fertilizers 67

7 Aeration and Topdressing 149

9 Turfgrass Stresses and Remedies 179

10 Wise Use of Chemicals 271

11 Organic Field Management 289

Part 2 Natural Turfgrass Sports Fields 313

12 Baseball and Softball Fields 317

13 Football Fields 371

14 Soccer, Lacrosse, and Field Hockey Fields 405

Part 3 Other Sports Surfaces 431

15 Tennis Courts 433

16 Track and Field Facilities 447

17 Synthetic Turf 461

Part 4 Ancillary Information 475

18 Surveying the Grade 477

19 Sand-Based Rootzones 485

20 Paints and Covers 507

21 Field Evaluation and Turfgrass Assessment 521

23 Environmental Stewardship, Resource Conservation, and

23.3 Resource Conservation 541

24 Innovations Designed to Promote Natural Grass Fields 555

25 Public Relations and Professionalism 565

THE PURPOSE OF THIS BOOK

How to Use This Book

Whether reading sections of the text as a class assignment or ﬂipping it open to

1.2 BIOLOGY AND IDENTIFICATION

Table 1.1 Characteristics of turfgrasses commonly used for sports turf.

Turfgrass Species Strength as Sports Turf Limitation as Sports Turf

Bermudagrass Strong indeterminate rhizomes Primarily warm climatic regions of

1.2.1 Turfgrass Morphology

1.2.2 Turfgrass Anatomy

A critical aspect of turfgrass anatomy is the location of growing points or “meristem-

1.2.3 Turfgrass Physiology

Figure 1.5 A schematic representation of turfgrass physiology.

1.3 TURFGRASS TYPES

1.3.1 Warm Season

when specifying grasses for athletic ﬁeld establishment. By deﬁnition, a hybrid is a

1.3.2 Transition Zone

1.3.3 Cool Season

NTEP-coordinated trafﬁc trials on cool-season turfgrass mixtures for sports ﬁelds

1.4 TURFGRASS SELECTION

Figure 1.8 Cool-season turfgrass zones, based on high temperature exposure.

1.5 USING THE TWO-MAP SYSTEM TO SELECT TURFGRASS

1.5.1 Warm-Season Turfgrass Selection

In the Secondary Zone for warm-season turfgrass, our recommended vegeta-

1.5.2 Cool-Season Turfgrass Selection

1.5.3 Transition or Overlap Zone Turfgrass Selection

1.6 PLANTING TIMES AND RATES

1.6.1 Warm Season

When plugging, use 2- to 4-inch plugs spaced at 12 inches on center to achieve

1.6.2 Transition Zone

1.6.3 Cool Season

Author: Victor Fournel

Release date: November 10, 2023 [eBook #72091]

Original publication: Paris: A. Delahays, 1858

Credits: Laurent Vogel and the Online Distributed Proofreading

*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK DU RÔLE