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THERMODYNAMICS

AN ENGINEERING APPROACH

TENTH EDITION
THERMODYNAMICS

YUNUS A.
AN ENGINEERING APPROACH ÇENGEL
University of Nevada,
Reno
TENTH EDITION

MICHAEL A.
BOLES
North Carolina State
University

MEHMET
KANOĞLU
Alanya Alaaddin
Keykubat University
 Final PDF to printer

THERMODYNAMICS
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Quotes on Ethics

Without ethics, everything happens as if we were all five billion passengers

on a big machinery and nobody is driving the machinery. And it’s going faster
and faster, but we don’t know where.
—Jacques Cousteau

Because you’re able to do it and because you have the right to do it doesn’t
mean it’s right to do it.
—Laura Schlessinger

A man without ethics is a wild beast loosed upon this world.

—Manly Hall

The concern for man and his destiny must always be the chief interest of all
technical effort. Never forget it among your diagrams and equations.
—Albert Einstein

To educate a man in mind and not in morals is to educate a menace to

society.
—Theodore Roosevelt

Politics which revolves around benefit is savagery.

—Said Nursi

The true test of civilization is, not the census, nor the size of the cities, nor the
crops, but the kind of man that the country turns out.
—Ralph W. Emerson

The measure of a man’s character is what he would do if he knew he never

would be found out.
—Thomas B. Macaulay

v
 A BOUT THE A UTHORS

Yunus A. Çengel is Professor Emeritus of Mechanical Engineering at

the University of Nevada, Reno. He received his B.S. in mechanical engineering
from Istanbul Technical University and his M.S. and Ph.D. in mechanical engi-
neering from North Carolina State University. His areas of interest are renew-
able energy, energy efficiency, energy policies, heat transfer enhancement, and
­engineering ­education. He served as the director of the Industrial Assessment
Center (IAC) at the University of Nevada, Reno, from 1996 to 2000. He has led
teams of ­engineering students to numerous manufacturing facilities in North-
ern Nevada and California to perform industrial assessments, and has prepared
energy conservation, waste m ­ inimization, and productivity enhancement reports
for them. He has also served as an advisor for various government organizations
and corporations.
Dr. Çengel is also the author or coauthor of the widely adopted textbooks
Heat and Mass Transfer: Fundamentals and Applications (6th ed., 2020), Fluid
Mechanics: Fundamentals and Applications (4th ed., 2018), Fundamentals of
Thermal-Fluid Sciences (6th ed., 2022), Differential Equations for Engineers and
Scientists (1st ed., 2013), Fundamentals and Applications of Renewable Energy
(1st ed., 2020), and Energy Efficiency and Management for Engineers (1st ed.,
2020), all published by McGraw-Hill. Some of his textbooks have been translated
into Chinese (Long and Short Forms), Japanese, Korean, Spanish, French, Portu-
guese, Italian, Turkish, Greek, Tai, and Basq.
Dr. Çengel is the recipient of several outstanding teacher awards, and he has
received the ASEE Meriam/Wiley Distinguished Author Award for excellence
in authorship in 1992 and again in 2000. Dr. Çengel is a registered Professional
­Engineer in the State of Nevada, and is a member of the American Society of
Mechanical Engineers (ASME) and the American Society for Engineering Educa-
tion (ASEE).

Michael A. Boles is Professor Emeritus of Mechanical and Aerospace

­ ngineering at North Carolina State University, where he earned his Ph.D. in
E
mechanical engineering and is an Alumni Distinguished Professor. Dr. Boles has
received numerous awards and citations for excellence as an engineering educator.
He is a past recipient of the SAE Ralph R. Teetor Education Award and has been
twice elected to the NCSU Academy of Outstanding Teachers. The NCSU ASME
student section has consistently recognized him as the outstanding teacher of the
year and the faculty member having the most impact on mechanical engineering
students.
Dr. Boles specializes in heat transfer and has been involved in the analytical and
numerical solution of phase change and drying of porous media. He is a member
of the American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME), the American Society
for Engineering Education (ASEE), and Sigma Xi. Dr. Boles received the ASEE
Meriam/Wiley Distinguished Author Award in 1992 for excellence in authorship.

Mehmet Kanoğlu is Professor of Mechanical Engineering at Alanya Alaad-

din Keykubat University. He received his B.S. in mechanical engineering from
Istanbul Technical University and his M.S. and Ph.D. in mechanical engineering
from the University of Nevada, Reno. His research areas include energy efficiency,

vi
 vii
ABOUT THE AUTHORS

energy storage, refrigeration systems, gas liquefaction, hydrogen production and

liquefaction, renewable energy systems, geothermal energy, and cogeneration.
He is the author or coauthor of numerous journal and conference papers.
Dr. Kanoğlu has taught at the University of Nevada, Reno; Ontario Tech Univer-
sity; American University of Sharjah; and the University of Gaziantep. He is the
coauthor of the books Fundamentals and Applications of Renewable Energy (1st
ed., 2020) and Energy Efficiency and Management for Engineers (1st ed., 2020),
both published by McGraw-Hill.
Dr. Kanoğlu has served as an instructor in certified energy manager training
programs and as an expert for European Union and United Nations Develop-
ment Programme (UNDP) for energy efficiency and renewable energy projects.
He has instructed numerous training courses and given lectures and presentations
on energy ­efficiency and renewable energy systems. He has also served as advisor
for state research funding organizations and industrial companies.
 B RIEF C ONTENTS

CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION AND BASIC CONCEPTS 1
CHAPTER TWO
ENERGY, ENERGY TRANSFER, AND GENERAL ENERGY ANALYSIS 47
CHAPTER THREE
PROPERTIES OF PURE SUBSTANCES 101
CHAPTER FOUR
ENERGY ANALYSIS OF CLOSED SYSTEMS 149
CHAPTER FIVE
MASS AND ENERGY ANALYSIS OF CONTROL VOLUMES 197
CHAPTER SIX
THE SECOND LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS 251
CHAPTER SEVEN
ENTROPY 301
CHAPTER EIGHT
ENTROPY ANALYSIS 343
CHAPTER NINE
EXERGY 391
CHAPTER TEN
GAS POWER CYCLES 449
CHAPTER ELEVEN
VAPOR AND COMBINED POWER CYCLES 515
CHAPTER TWELVE
REFRIGERATION CYCLES 565
CHAPTER THIRTEEN
THERMODYNAMIC PROPERTY RELATIONS 615
CHAPTER FOURTEEN
GAS MIXTURES 645
CHAPTER FIFTEEN
GAS–VAPOR MIXTURES AND AIR-CONDITIONING 677
CHAPTER SIXTEEN
CHEMICAL REACTIONS 711
CHAPTER SEVENTEEN
CHEMICAL AND PHASE EQUILIBRIUM 753
CHAPTER EIGHTEEN
COMPRESSIBLE FLOW 785

viii
 ix
BRIEF CONTENTS

APPENDIX 1
PROPERTY TABLES AND CHARTS (SI UNITS) 839
APPENDIX 2
PROPERTY TABLES AND CHARTS (ENGLISH UNITS) 891

Preface xvii
CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION AND BASIC
CONCEPTS 1
1–1 Thermodynamics and Energy 2
Application Areas of Thermodynamics
1–2 Importance of Dimensions and Units 4
Some SI and English Units 6
Dimensional Homogeneity 8
Unity Conversion Ratios 9
1–3 Systems and Control Volumes 10
1–4 Properties of a System 12
Continuum 13
1–5 Density and Specific Gravity 13
1–6 State and Equilibrium 15
The State Postulate 15
1–7 Processes and Cycles 16
The Steady-Flow Process 17
1–8 T
 emperature and the Zeroth Law of
Thermodynamics 17
Temperature Scales 18
1–9 Pressure 21
Variation of Pressure with Depth 23
1–10 Pressure Measurement Devices 25
The Barometer 25
The Manometer 28
Other Pressure Measurement Devices
1–11 Problem-Solving Technique 32
Step 1: Problem Statement 32
Step 2: Schematic 32
Step 3: Assumptions and Approximations 33
Step 4: Physical Laws 33
Step 5: Properties 33
Step 6: Calculations 33
Step 7: Reasoning, Verification, and Discussion
Engineering Software Packages 34
Equation Solvers 35
A Remark on Significant Digits 36
Summary 37
References and Suggested Readings 37
Problems 38
x
C ONTENTS
CHAPTER TWO
ENERGY, ENERGY TRANSFER, AND
­GENERAL ENERGY ANALYSIS 47
2–1 Introduction 48
2–2 Forms of Energy 49
3 Some Physical Insight to Internal Energy 51
More on Nuclear Energy 52
Mechanical Energy 53
2–3 Energy Transfer by Heat 55
Historical Background on Heat 57
2–4 Energy Transfer by Work 58
Electrical Work 60
2–5 Mechanical Forms of Work 61
Shaft Work 62
Spring Work 63
Work Done on Elastic Solid Bars 63
Work Associated with the Stretching of a Liquid Film 63
Work Done to Raise or to Accelerate a Body 64
Nonmechanical Forms of Work 65
2–6 The First Law of Thermodynamics 66
Energy Balance 67
Energy Change of a System, ΔEsystem 67
Mechanisms of Energy Transfer, Ein and Eout 68
2–7 Energy Conversion Efficiencies 73
Efficiencies of Mechanical and Electrical Devices 76
2–8 Energy and Environment 80
Ozone and Smog 81
Acid Rain 82
31 The Greenhouse Effect: Global Warming and Climate
Change 82
Topic of Special Interest: Mechanisms of
Heat Transfer 85
Summary 90
References and Suggested Readings 90
Problems 91
33
CHAPTER THREE
PROPERTIES OF PURE SUBSTANCES 101
3–1 Pure Substance 102
 xi
CONTENTS

3–2 Phases of a Pure Substance 102 Internal Energy Changes 170

Enthalpy Changes 171
3–3 Phase-Change Processes of Topic of Special Interest: Thermodynamic Aspects of ­Biological
Pure Substances 103 Systems 174
Compressed Liquid and Saturated Liquid 103 Summary 180
Saturated Vapor and Superheated Vapor 104 References and Suggested Readings 181
Saturation Temperature and Saturation Pressure 104 Problems 182
Some Consequences of Tsat and Psat Dependence 106

3–4 P
 roperty Diagrams for Phase-Change
Processes 107 CHAPTER FIVE
1 The T-v Diagram 108 MASS AND ENERGY ANALYSIS OF­
2 The P-v Diagram 109
Extending the Diagrams to Include the Solid Phase 110 ­CONTROL VOLUMES 197
3 The P-T Diagram 111
The P-v-T Surface 112 5–1 Conservation of Mass 198
3–5 Property Tables 113 Mass and Volume Flow Rates 198
Enthalpy—A Combination Property 113 Conservation of Mass Principle 199
1a Saturated Liquid and Saturated Vapor States 114 Mass Balance for Steady-Flow Processes 201
1b Saturated Liquid–Vapor Mixture 115 Special Case: Incompressible Flow 202
2 Superheated Vapor 118 5–2 F
 low Work and the Energy of a Flowing
3 Compressed Liquid 120
Reference State and Reference Values 121
Fluid 204
Total Energy of a Flowing Fluid 205
3–6 The Ideal-Gas Equation of State 124 Energy Transport by Mass 206
Is Water Vapor an Ideal Gas? 126
5–3 E nergy Analysis of Steady-Flow Systems 208
3–7 C
 ompressibility Factor—A ­Measure of ­Deviation
5–4 Some Steady-Flow Engineering Devices 211
from ­Ideal-Gas Behavior 127
1 Nozzles and Diffusers 212
3–8 Other Equations of State 131 2 Turbines and Compressors 215
van der Waals Equation of State 131 3 Throttling Valves 217
Beattie-Bridgeman Equation of State 132 4a Mixing Chambers 218
Benedict-Webb-Rubin Equation of State 132 4b Heat Exchangers 220
Virial Equation of State 133 5 Pipe and Duct Flow 222
Topic of Special Interest: Vapor Pressure and Phase
Equilibrium 135 5–5 E
 nergy Analysis of ­Unsteady-Flow
Summary 139 Processes 224
References and Suggested Readings 139 Summary 230
Problems 140 References and Suggested Readings 231
Problems 231

CHAPTER FOUR
ENERGY ANALYSIS OF CLOSED CHAPTER SIX
SYSTEMS 149 THE SECOND LAW OF
THERMODYNAMICS 251
4–1 Moving Boundary Work 150
Polytropic Process 153 6–1 Introduction to the Second Law 252
4–2 Energy Balance for Closed Systems 155 6–2 Thermal Energy Reservoirs 253
Constant-Pressure Processes of Closed Systems 157 6–3 Heat Engines 254
4–3 Specific Heats 160 Thermal Efficiency 256
Can We Save Qout? 257
4–4 Internal Energy, Enthalpy, and Specific Heats of The Second Law of Thermodynamics: Kelvin–Planck
Ideal Gases 162 Statement 259
Specific Heat Relations of Ideal Gases 165
6–4 Refrigerators and Heat Pumps 260
4–5 I nternal Energy, Enthalpy, and Specific Heats of Coefficient of Performance 261
Solids and Liquids 170 Heat Pumps 262
 xii
CONTENTS
Performance of Refrigerators, Air Conditioners, and Heat
Pumps 262
The Second Law of Thermodynamics: Clausius
Statement 264
Equivalence of the Two Statements 264
6–5 Perpetual-Motion Machines 266
6–6 Reversible and Irreversible Processes 268
Irreversibilities 269
Internally and Externally Reversible Processes
6–7 The Carnot Cycle 271
The Reversed Carnot Cycle 273
6–8 The Carnot Principles 273
6–9 The Thermodynamic Temperature Scale 275
6–10 The Carnot Heat Engine 277
The Quality of Energy 278
Quantity versus Quality in Daily Life 279
6–11 The Carnot Refrigerator and Heat Pump 280
Topic of Special Interest: Household Refrigerators
Summary 287
References and Suggested Readings 288
Problems 288
CHAPTER SEVEN
ENTROPY 301
7–1 Clausius Inequalıty and Entropy 302
A Special Case: Internally Reversible Isothermal Heat T
Processes 304
7–2 Entropy Generation and the Increase of Entropy
Principle 305
Some Remarks About Entropy 307
7–3 Entropy Change of Pure Substances 309
7–4 Isentropic Processes 312
7–5 Property Diagrams Involving Entropy 314
7–6 What Is Entropy? 316
The Concept of Entropy in Daily Life 318
7–7 Differential Entropy Change Relations 319
7–8 Entropy Change of Liquids and Solids 321
7–9 The Entropy Change of Ideal Gases 324
Constant Specific Heats (Approximate Analysis) 324
Variable Specific Heats (Exact Analysis) 325
Isentropic Processes of Ideal Gases 327
Summary 331
References and Suggested Readings 332
Problems 332
CHAPTER EIGHT
ENTROPY ANALYSIS 343
8–1 Reversible Steady-Flow Work 344
Proof that Steady-Flow Devices Deliver the Most and
Consume the Least Work When the Process Is
Reversible 346
270 8–2 Minimizing the Compressor Work 348
Multistage Compression with Intercooling 349
8–3 I sentropic Efficiencies of Steady-Flow
Devices 351
Isentropic Efficiency of Turbines 352
Isentropic Efficiencies of Compressors and Pumps 353
Isentropic Efficiency of Nozzles 355
8–4 Entropy Balance 357
Entropy Change of a System, ΔSsystem 358
Mechanisms of Entropy Transfer, Sin and Sout 358
284 Entropy Generation, Sgen 360
8–5 Entropy Balance for Closed Systems 361
Entropy Generation Associated with a Heat
Transfer Process 365
8–6 Entropy Balance for Control Volumes 366
Topic of Special Interest: Reducing the Cost of
Compressed Air 369
Summary 377
References and Suggested Readings 378
Problems 378
­ ransfer
CHAPTER NINE
EXERGY 391
9–1 Exergy: Work Potential of Energy 392
Exergy (Work Potential) Associated with Kinetic and Potential
Energy 393
9–2 Reversible Work and Irreversibility 395
9–3 Second-Law Efficiency 399
9–4 Exergy Change of a System 403
Exergy of a Fixed Mass: Nonflow (or Closed System)
Exergy 403
Exergy of a Flow Stream: Flow (or Stream) Exergy 405
9–5 Exergy Transfer by Heat, Work, and Mass 409
Exergy Transfer by Heat, Q 409
Exergy Transfer by Work, W 410
Exergy Transfer by Mass, m 410
9–6 T
 he Decrease of Exergy Principle and Exergy
Destruction 411

Exergy Destruction 412
9–7 Exergy Balance: Closed Systems 413
9–8 Exergy Balance: Control Volumes 424
Exergy Balance for Steady-Flow Systems 425
Reversible Work 425
Second-Law Efficiency of Steady-Flow Devices 426
Topic of Special Interest: Implications of the Second-Law
Concepts in Daily Life 431
Summary 434
References and Suggested Readings 435
Problems 435
CHAPTER TEN
GAS POWER CYCLES 449
10–1 Basic Considerations in the ­Analysis
of Power Cycles 450
10–2 The Carnot Cycle and Its Value
in Engineering 452
10–3 Air-Standard Assumptions 454
10–4 An Overview of Reciprocating Engines 455
10–5 Otto Cycle: The Ideal Cycle for Spark-Ignition
Engines 457
10–6 Diesel Cycle: The Ideal Cycle for
­Compression-Ignition Engines 463
10–7 Stirling and Ericsson Cycles 467
10–8 Brayton Cycle: The Ideal Cycle for Gas-Turbine
Engines 470
Development of Gas Turbines 473
Deviation of Actual Gas-Turbine Cycles from Idealized
Ones 475
10–9 The Brayton Cycle with Regeneration 477
10–10 The Brayton Cycle with ­Intercooling, Reheating,
and Regeneration 479
10–11 Ideal Jet-Propulsion Cycles 483
Modifications to Turbojet Engines 487
10–12 Second-Law Analysis of Gas Power Cycles 489
Topic of Special Interest: Saving Fuel and Money by
Driving Sensibly 493
Summary 499
References and Suggested Readings 500
Problems 500
CHAPTER ELEVEN
VAPOR AND COMBINED POWER
CYCLES 515
xiii
CONTENTS
11–1 The Carnot Vapor Cycle 516
11–2 Rankine Cycle: The Ideal Cycle for Vapor Power
Cycles 516
Energy Analysis of the Ideal Rankine Cycle 517
11–3 Deviation of Actual Vapor Power Cycles from
Idealized Ones 520
11–4 How Can We Increase the ­Efficiency of the
­Rankine Cycle? 522
Lowering the Condenser Pressure (Lowers Tlow,avg) 523
Superheating the Steam to High Temperatures
(Increases Thigh,avg) 523
Increasing the Boiler Pressure (Increases Thigh,avg) 523
11–5 The Ideal Reheat Rankine Cycle 526
11–6 The Ideal Regenerative Rankine Cycle 530
Open Feedwater Heaters 531
Closed Feedwater Heaters 532
11–7 Second-Law Analysis of Vapor Power Cycles 538
11–8 Cogeneration 541
11–9 Combined Gas–Vapor Power Cycles 545
Topic of Special Interest: Binary Vapor Cycles 548
Summary 549
References and Suggested Readings 550
Problems 550
C H A P T E R T W E LV E
REFRIGERATION CYCLES 565
12–1 Refrigerators and Heat Pumps 566
12–2 The Reversed Carnot Cycle 567
12–3 The Ideal Vapor-Compression Refrigeration
Cycle 568
12–4 Actual Vapor-Compression Refrigeration
Cycle 571
12–5 Second-Law Analysis of Vapor-Compression
­Refrigeration Cycle 573
12–6 Selecting the Right Refrigerant 578
12–7 Heat Pump Systems 580
12–8 Innovative Vapor-Compression Refrigeration
Systems 582
Cascade Refrigeration Systems 582
Multistage Compression Refrigeration Systems 584
Multipurpose Refrigeration Systems with a ­Single
Compressor 586
Liquefaction of Gases 587
12–9 Gas Refrigeration Cycles 591
 xiv
CONTENTS

12–10 Absorption Refrigeration Systems 594 CHAPTER FIFTEEN

Topic of Special Interest: Thermoelectric Power ­Generation
and Refrigeration Systems 598 GAS–VAPOR MIXTURES AND
Summary 600
References and Suggested Readings 600 AIR-CONDITIONING 677
Problems 601
15–1 Dry and Atmospheric Air 678
CHAPTER THIRTEEN 15–2 Specific and Relative Humidity of air 679
15–3 Dew-Point Temperature 682
THERMODYNAMIC ­PROPERTY
RELATIONS 615 15–4 Adiabatic Saturation and Wet-Bulb
Temperatures 684
13–1 A Little Math—Partial Derivatives and ­Associated 15–5 The Psychrometric Chart 686
Relations 616 15–6 Human Comfort and Air-Conditioning 688
Partial Differentials 617
Partial Differential Relations 618 15–7 Air-Conditioning Processes 690
Simple Heating and Cooling (ω = constant) 691
13–2 The Maxwell Relations 620 Heating with Humidification 692
13–3 The Clapeyron Equation 622 Cooling with Dehumidification 693
Evaporative Cooling 695
13–4 General Relations for du, dh, ds, cv, and cp 625 Adiabatic Mixing of Airstreams 696
Internal Energy Changes 625 Wet Cooling Towers 698
Enthalpy Changes 626 Summary 700
Entropy Changes 627 References and Suggested Readings 701
Specific Heats cv and cp 627 Problems 702

13–5 The Joule-Thomson Coefficient 631

13–6 The Δh, Δu, and Δs of Real Gases 633 CHAPTER SIXTEEN
Enthalpy Changes of Real Gases 633
Internal Energy Changes of Real Gases 635 CHEMICAL REACTIONS 711
Entropy Changes of Real Gases 635
Summary 638 16–1 Fuels and Combustion 712
References and Suggested Readings 639
Problems 639 16–2 Theoretical and Actual ­Combustion
Processes 715
16–3 Enthalpy of Formation and Enthalpy of
CHAPTER FOURTEEN Combustion 721
GAS MIXTURES 645 16–4 First-Law Analysis of Reacting Systems 725
Steady-Flow Systems 725
14–1 Composition of a Gas Mixture: Mass and Mole Closed Systems 727
Fractions 646 16–5 Adiabatic Flame Temperature 730
14–2 P-v-T Behavior of Gas Mixtures: Ideal and Real 16–6 Entropy Change of Reacting Systems 733
Gases 647
Ideal-Gas Mixtures 648 16–7 Second-Law Analysis of Reacting Systems 735
Real-Gas Mixtures 649 Topic of Special Interest: Fuel Cells 740
Summary 741
14–3 Properties of Gas Mixtures: Ideal and Real References and Suggested Readings 742
Gases 652 Problems 743
Ideal-Gas Mixtures 653
Real-Gas Mixtures 656
Topic of Special Interest: Chemical Potential and
CHAPTER SEVENTEEN
the ­Separation Work of Mixtures 660 CHEMICAL AND PHASE EQUILIBRIUM 753
Summary 669
References and Suggested Readings 669
Problems 670 17–1 Criterion for Chemical Equilibrium   754
 xv
CONTENTS

17–2 The Equilibrium Constant for Ideal-Gas Table A–4 Saturated water—Temperature
Mixtures  756 table 846
17–3 Some Remarks About the KP of Ideal-Gas Table A–5 Saturated water—Pressure
Mixtures  760 table 848
17–4 Chemical Equilibrium for Simultaneous Table A–6 Superheated water 850
Reactions  764 Table A–7 Compressed liquid water 854
17–5 Variation of KP with Temperature   766 Table A–8 Saturated ice–water vapor 855
17–6 Phase Equilibrium  768 Figure A–9 T-s diagram for water 856
Phase Equilibrium for a Single-Component System 768
Figure A–10 Mollier diagram for water 857
The Phase Rule 769
Phase Equilibrium for a Multicomponent System 769 Table A–11 Saturated refrigerant-134a—­Temperature
Summary 775 table 858
References and Suggested Readings 776 Table A–12 Saturated refrigerant-134a—Pressure
Problems 776
table 860
Table A–13 Superheated refrigerant-134a 861
Figure A–14 P-h diagram for refrigerant-134a 863
CHAPTER EIGHTEEN Figure A–15 Nelson–Obert generalized
COMPRESSIBLE FLOW 785 ­compressibility chart 864
Table A–16 Properties of the atmosphere at high
18–1 Stagnation Properties  786 altitude 866
18–2 Speed of Sound and Mach Number   789 Table A–17 Ideal-gas properties of air 867
18–3 One-Dimensional Isentropic Flow   792 Table A–18 Ideal-gas properties of nitrogen,
Variation of Fluid Velocity with Flow Area 793 N2 869
Property Relations for Isentropic Flow of Ideal Gases 795 Table A–19 Ideal-gas properties of oxygen, O2 871
18–4 Isentropic Flow Through Nozzles   798 Table A–20 Ideal-gas properties of carbon dioxide,
Converging Nozzles 798 CO2 873
Converging–Diverging Nozzles 802
Table A–21 Ideal-gas properties of carbon ­monoxide,
18–5 Shock Waves and Expansion Waves   806 CO 875
Normal Shocks 806
Oblique Shocks 811 Table A–22 Ideal-gas properties of hydrogen,
Prandtl–Meyer Expansion Waves 815 H2 877
18–6 Duct Flow with Heat Transfer and Negligible Table A–23 Ideal-gas properties of water vapor,
Friction (Rayleigh Flow)   819 H2O 878
Property Relations for Rayleigh Flow 824 Table A–24 Ideal-gas properties of monatomic
Choked Rayleigh Flow 825
oxygen, O 880
18–7 Steam Nozzles  828 Table A–25 Ideal-gas properties of hydroxyl,
Summary 831
References and Suggested Readings 832 OH 880
Problems 832 Table A–26 Enthalpy of formation, Gibbs function of
formation, and absolute entropy at 25°C,
1 atm 881
APPENDIX ONE Table A–27 Properties of some common fuels and
PROPERTY TABLES AND CHARTS hydrocarbons 882
Table A–28 Natural logarithms of the equilibrium
(SI UNITS) 839 constant Kp 883
Figure A–29 Generalized enthalpy departure
Table A–1 
Molar mass, gas constant, and critical-
chart 884
point properties 840
Figure A–30 Generalized entropy departure
Table A–2 Ideal-gas specific heats of various
chart 885
common gases 841
Figure A–31 Psychrometric chart at 1 atm total
Table A–3 Properties of common liquids, solids,
pressure 886
and foods 844
 xvi
CONTENTS

Table A–32 One-dimensional isentropic compressible- Table A–12E Saturated refrigerant-134a—Pressure

flow functions for an ideal gas with
k = 1.4 887
Table A–33 One-dimensional normal-shock functions
for an ideal gas with k = 1.4 888
Table A–34 Rayleigh flow functions for an ideal gas
with k = 1.4 889
APPENDIX TWO
PROPERTY TABLES AND CHARTS
(ENGLISH UNITS) 891
Table A–1E  olar mass, gas constant, and critical-
M CO 924
point properties 892
Table A–2E Ideal-gas specific heats of various com-
mon gases 893
Table A–3E Properties of common liquids, solids,
and foods 896
Table A–4E Saturated water—Temperature
table 898
Table A–5E Saturated water—Pressure table 900
Table A–6E Superheated water 902
Table A–7E Compressed liquid water 906
Table A–8E Saturated ice–water vapor 907
Figure A–9E T-s diagram for water 908
Figure A–10E Mollier diagram for water 909
Table A–11E Saturated refrigerant-134a—­Temperature
table 910
table 911
Table A–13E Superheated refrigerant-134a 912
Figure A–14E P-h diagram for refrigerant-134a 914
Table A–16E Properties of the atmosphere at high
altitude 915
Table A–17E Ideal-gas properties of air 916
Table A–18E Ideal-gas properties of nitrogen,
N2 918
Table A–19E Ideal-gas properties of oxygen, O2 920
Table A–20E Ideal-gas properties of carbon dioxide,
CO2 922
Table A–21E Ideal-gas properties of carbon ­monoxide,
Table A–22E Ideal-gas properties of hydrogen,
H2 926
Table A–23E Ideal-gas properties of water vapor,
H2O 928
Table A–26E Enthalpy of formation, Gibbs function of
formation, and absolute entropy at 77°F,
1 atm 929
Table A–27E Properties of some common fuels and
hydrocarbons 930
Figure A–31E Psychrometric chart at 1 atm total
pressure 931
INDEX 933
NOMENCLATURE 945
CONVERSION FACTORS 947
 P REFACE

BACKGROUND
Thermodynamics is an exciting and fascinating subject that deals with energy,
and thermodynamics has long been an essential part of engineering curricula all
over the world. It has a broad application area ranging from microscopic organ-
isms to common household appliances, transportation vehicles, power generation
systems, and even philosophy. This introductory book contains sufficient material
for two sequential courses in thermodynamics. Students are assumed to have an
adequate background in calculus and physics.

OBJECTIVES
This book is intended for use as a textbook by undergraduate ­engineering ­students
in their sophomore or junior year, and as a reference book for p­ racticing engi-
neers. The objectives of this text are
⬤
To cover the basic principles of thermodynamics.
⬤
To present a wealth of real-world engineering examples to give ­students a
feel for how thermodynamics is applied in engineering practice.
⬤
To develop an intuitive understanding of thermodynamics by emphasizing
the physics and physical arguments that underpin the theory.
It is our hope that this book, through its careful explanations of concepts and its
use of numerous practical examples and figures, helps students develop the neces-
sary skills to bridge the gap between knowledge and the confidence to properly
apply knowledge.

PHILOSOPHY AND GOAL

The philosophy that contributed to the overwhelming popularity of the prior edi-
tions of this book has remained unchanged in this edition. Namely, our goal has
been to offer an engineering textbook that
⬤
Communicates directly to the minds of tomorrow’s engineers in a simple
yet precise manner.
⬤
Leads students toward a clear understanding and firm grasp of the basic
principles of thermodynamics.
⬤
Encourages creative thinking and development of a deeper ­understanding
and intuitive feel for thermodynamics.
⬤
Is read by students with interest and enthusiasm rather than being used as
an aid to solve problems.
Special effort has been made to appeal to students’ natural curiosity and to help
them explore the various facets of the exciting subject area of t­hermodynamics.
The enthusiastic responses we have received from users of prior e­ ditions—from
small colleges to large universities all over the world—and the continued transla-
tions into new languages indicate that our objectives have largely been achieved.
It is our philosophy that the best way to learn is by practice. Therefore, special
effort is made throughout the book to reinforce material that was presented earlier.
Yesterday’s engineer spent a major portion of his or her time substituting values
into the formulas and obtaining numerical results. However, formula manipula-
tions and number crunching are now being left mainly to c­ omputers. Tomorrow’s

xvii
 xviii
PREFACE

engineer will need a clear understanding and a firm grasp of the basic principles
so that he or she can understand even the most ­complex ­problems, formulate
them, and interpret the results. A conscious effort is made to emphasize these
basic principles while also providing students with a perspective of how computa-
tional tools are used in engineering practice.
The traditional classical, or macroscopic, approach is used throughout the text,
with microscopic arguments serving in a supporting role as appropriate. This
approach is more in line with students’ intuition and makes learning the subject
matter much easier.

NEW IN THIS EDITION

All the popular features of the previous editions have been retained. Updates and
changes for clarity and readability have been made throughout the text. Some
end-of-chapter problems in the text have been modified and some problems were
replaced by new ones. Also, some example problems have been replaced. Recent
new definitions of kilogram, mole, ampere, and kelvin in the 26th General Con-
ference on Weights and Measures in 2018 are incorporated in Chaps. 1 and 2.
The lengthy “Chapter 7 Entropy,” in the 9th edition is split into two chapters:
“Chapter 7 Entropy,” which covers the fundamentals of entropy, and “Chapter 8
Entropy Analysis,” which covers the engineering application of entropy as well as
the entropy balance. The new organization should provide instructors more flex-
ibility for selective coverage of the subject matter.
In the new Chapter 7, the coverage of Relative Pressure Pr and Relative Spe-
cific Volume vr used for isentropic processes of ideal gases, as well as their cor-
responding columns in the air tables in the Appendices (Tables A-17 and A-17E),
are removed. Instead, a more versatile new entropy function s+ is defined for the
first time and its values are listed in the air tables. The s+ function makes it pos-
sible to calculate the entropy change of ideal gases with variable specific heats
when specific volume information is given instead of the pressure information.
The existing so function together with the new s+ function allows us to do every-
thing we could do with the functions Pr and vr, plus more.
In the new Chapter 9 on exergy, we eliminated the use of the symbols ϕ and
ψ for the specific exergies of stationary masses and flowing fluids, and replaced
them with xnonflow and x. flow, respectively. This change ensures consistent use of
the symbols x, X, and X for the specific, total, and time rate. of exergy, in paral-
lel to their counterparts e, E, and Ė for energy and s, S, and S for entropy. Also,
we have enhanced the chapter with cryogenic applications to attract attention to
the tremendous work potential of substances at low temperatures, such as LNG
at about −160ºC. Further, we did away with the occasional use of the traditional
sign convention by replacing the expression Q – W for the net energy transfer
by the heat and work in the energy balance relations by Qnet, in + Wnet, in, with the
remark that a negative quantity for the net heat or work term represents output
instead of input.
A most noteworthy change in this edition is the addition of “Check Your Under-
standing CYU” questions at the end of most sections. About 400 multiple-choice
CYU questions are now included in the book. The CYU questions are intended for
the students to check their understanding of the main concepts right after studying
a section and to enhance the self-learning experience of the students. Most CYU
questions are based on fundamental concepts. The ones that involve numerical
values are formulated such that they can be answered without the use of a calcula-
tor. Instructors may just provide the answers of CYU questions to the students or
incorporate them into their teaching by posing some of the questions in class and
set the stage for interactive discussions. The instructors can also modify the ques-
tions easily for use in quizzes and exams.
 xix
PREFACE

LEARNING TOOLS
EARLY INTRODUCTION OF THE FIRST LAW OF
THERMODYNAMICS
The first law of thermodynamics is introduced early in Chapter 2, “Energy,
Energy Transfer, and General Energy Analysis.” This introductory chapter sets
the framework of establishing a general understanding of various forms of energy,
mechanisms of energy transfer, the concept of energy balance, thermoeconomics,
energy conversion, and conversion efficiency using familiar settings that involve
mostly electrical and mechanical forms of energy. It also exposes s­ tudents to some
exciting real-world applications of thermodynamics early in the course, and helps
them establish a sense of the monetary value of energy. There is special emphasis
on the utilization of renewable energy such as wind power and hydraulic energy,
and the efficient use of existing resources.

EMPHASIS ON PHYSICS
A distinctive feature of this book is its emphasis on the physical aspects of the
subject matter in addition to mathematical representations and ­manipulations. The
authors believe that the emphasis in undergraduate education should remain on
developing a sense of underlying physical mechanisms and a m ­ astery of solving
practical problems that an engineer is likely to face in the real world. Developing
an intuitive understanding should also make the course a more motivating and
worthwhile experience for students.

EFFECTIVE USE OF ASSOCIATION

An observant mind should have no difficulty understanding engineering sciences.
After all, the principles of engineering sciences are based on our everyday experi-
ences and experimental observations. Therefore, a physical, intuitive approach
is used throughout this text. Frequently, parallels are drawn between the subject
matter and students’ everyday experiences so that they can relate the subject mat-
ter to what they already know. The process of cooking, for example, serves as an
excellent vehicle to demonstrate the basic principles of thermodynamics.

SELF-INSTRUCTING
The material in the text is introduced at a level that an average student can follow
comfortably. It speaks to students, not over students. In fact, it is ­self-instructive.
The order of coverage is from simple to general. That is, it starts with the simplest
case and adds complexities gradually. In this way, the basic principles are repeat-
edly applied to different systems, and ­students ­master how to apply the principles
instead of how to simplify a general f­ormula. Noting that the principles of sci-
ences are based on experimental observations, all the derivations in this text are
based on physical arguments, and thus they are easy to follow and understand.

LEARNING OBJECTIVES AND SUMMARIES

Each chapter begins with an overview of the material to be covered and
­chapter-specific learning objectives. A summary is included at the end of each
chapter, providing a quick review of basic concepts and important ­relations, and
pointing out the relevance of the material.

NUMEROUS WORKED-OUT EXAMPLES WITH A ­SYSTEMATIC

SOLUTIONS PROCEDURE
Each chapter contains several worked-out examples that clarify the m ­ aterial and
illustrate the use of the basic principles. An intuitive and systematic approach is
used in the solution of the example problems, while m ­ aintaining an informal con-
versational style. The problem is first stated, and the ­objectives are identified.
 xx
PREFACE

The assumptions are then stated, together with their justifications. The properties
needed to solve the problem are listed separately if appropriate. Numerical values
are used together with their units to emphasize that numbers without units are
meaningless, and that unit manipulations are as important as manipulating the
numerical values with a calculator. The s­ ignificance of the findings is discussed
following the solutions. This approach is also used consistently in the solutions
presented in the ­instructor’s solutions manual.

A WEALTH OF REAL-WORLD, END-OF-CHAPTER PROBLEMS

The end-of-chapter problems are grouped under specific topics to make problem
selection easier for both instructors and students. Within each group of prob-
lems are Concept Questions, indicated by “C”, to check the students’ level of
understanding of basic concepts. The problems under Review ­Problems are more
comprehensive in nature and are not directly tied to any specific section of a chap-
ter—in some cases they require review of material learned in previous chapters.
Problems designated as Design and Essay are intended to encourage students to
make engineering judgments, to conduct independent exploration of topics of
interest, and to communicate their findings in a professional manner. Problems
designated by an “E” are in English units, and SI users can ignore them. Prob-
lems with the are comprehensive in nature and are intended to be solved with
a computer, using appropriate software. Several economics- and safety-related
problems are incorporated throughout to promote cost and safety awareness
among engineering students. Answers to selected problems are listed immediately
following the problem for convenience to students. In addition, to prepare stu-
dents for the Fundamentals of Engineering Exam and to facilitate multiple-choice
tests, over 200 multiple-choice problems are included in the end-of-chapter prob-
lem sets. They are placed under the title Fundamentals of Engineering (FE) Exam
Problems for easy recognition.

CYU QUESTIONS
“Check Your Understanding CYU” questions are included at the end of most sec-
tions. The CYU questions are intended for the students to check their understanding
of the main concepts right after studying a section and to enhance the self-learning
experience of the students. Most CYU questions are based on fundamental con-
cepts. The ones that involve numerical values are formulated such that they can be
answered without the use of a calculator. Instructors may just provide the answers
of CYU questions to the students or incorporate them into their teaching by pos-
ing some of the questions in class and set the stage for interactive discussions. The
instructors can also modify the questions easily for use in quizzes and exams.

RELAXED SIGN CONVENTION

The use of a formal sign convention for heat and work is abandoned as it often
becomes counterproductive. A physically meaningful and engaging approach is
adopted for interactions instead of a mechanical approach. Subscripts “in” and
“out,” rather than the plus and minus signs, are used to indicate the directions of
interactions.

PHYSICALLY MEANINGFUL FORMULAS

The physically meaningful forms of the balance equations rather than formu-
las are used to foster deeper understanding and to avoid a cookbook approach.
The mass, energy, entropy, and exergy balances for any system undergoing any
process are expressed as

m​  in​​ − ​m​  out​​ = Δ​m​  system​​

​Mass balance: ​
 xxi
PREFACE

Energy balance: ​ ​ ​E​  in​​ − E


​ ​  out​​ ​​ = ​ ​ Δ​E​  system​​ ​​ ​​
Net energy transfer ⏟
Change in internal, kinetic,
​    ​ ​ ​   ​​
by heat, work, and mass potential, etc., energies

Entropy balance: ​ ​ ​S​  in​​ − S​ ​  out​​ ​​ ​​ + ​ ​ ​S​  gen​​ ​​ ​​ = ​​  Δ​S​  system​ ​​​ ​​
Net⏟
entropy transfer ⏟
Entropy ⏟ Change
​   ​​ ​  ​​ ​  ​​
by heat and mass generation in entropy

X​  in​​ − X
Exergy balance: ​ ​ ​ ​ ​  out​​ ​​ − ​​ ​X​  destroyed​ ​ ​​ ​​ = ​​  Δ​X​  system​ ​​​​
Net exergy transfer ⏟ Exergy ⏟ ​Change
​    ​ ​ ​  ​ ​ ​  ​​
by heat, work, and mass​ destruction​ in exergy

These relations reinforce the fundamental principles that during an actual process
mass and energy are conserved, entropy is generated, and exergy is destroyed.
Students are encouraged to use these forms of balances in early chapters after
they specify the system, and to simplify them for the particular problem. A more
relaxed approach is used in later chapters as students gain mastery.

A CHOICE OF SI ALONE OR SI/ENGLISH UNITS

In recognition of the fact that English units are still widely used in some industries,
both SI and English units are used in this text, with an emphasis on SI. The mate-
rial in this text can be covered using combined SI/English units or SI units alone,
depending on the preference of the instructor. The property tables and charts in the
appendices are presented in both units, except the ones that involve dimensionless
quantities. Problems, tables, and charts in English units are designated by “E” after
the number for easy recognition, and they can be ignored by SI users.

TOPICS OF SPECIAL INTEREST

Most chapters contain a section called “Topic of Special Interest” where interest-
ing aspects of thermodynamics are discussed. Examples include T ­ hermodynamic
Aspects of Biological Systems in Chapter 4, Household Refrigerators in Chapter 6,
Implications of the Second-Law Concepts in Daily Life in Chapter 9, and
Saving Fuel and Money by Driving Sensibly in Chapter 10. The topics selected for
these sections provide intriguing extensions to thermodynamics, but they can be
ignored if desired without a loss in continuity.

GLOSSARY OF THERMODYNAMIC TERMS

Throughout the chapters, when an important key term or concept is introduced
and defined, it appears in boldface type. Fundamental thermodynamic terms and
concepts also appear in a glossary located on our accompanying website. This
unique glossary helps to reinforce key terminology and is an excellent learning and
review tool for students as they move forward in their study of thermodynamics.

CONVERSION FACTORS
Frequently used conversion factors and physical constants are listed at the end of
the text.

PROPERTIES TABLE BOOKLET

(ISBN 1-266-77001-1)
This booklet provides students with an easy reference to the most i­ mportant prop-
erty tables and charts, many of which are found at the back of the ­textbook in both
the SI and English units.
 xxii
PREFACE

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The authors would like to acknowledge with appreciation the numerous and valu-
able comments, suggestions, constructive criticisms, and praise from the follow-
ing evaluators and reviewers:
Teresa Benitez Andrew Kean
University of Florida Cal Poly San Luis Obispo
Sevki Cesmeci Randall Manteufel
Georgia Southern University University of Texas at San Antonio
Chris Dalton Brent Nelson
University of Oklahoma Northern Arizona University
Ram Devireddy Derrick Rodriguez
Louisiana State University Colorado School of Mines
Dayong Gao Evgeny Shafirovich
University of Washington The University of Texas at El Paso
Emmanuel Glakpe Farzad Taghaddosi
Howard University University of Kentucky
Shuang Gu Farshid Zabihian
Wichita State University California State University, Sacramento
Jaclyn Johnson
Michigan Technological University

Their suggestions have greatly helped to improve the quality of this text.
We thank Tugberk Hakan Cetin for his valuable contributions. We also would
like to thank our students, who provided plenty of feedback from students’ per-
spectives. Finally, we would like to express our appreciation to our wives, and to
our children for their continued patience, u­ nderstanding, and support throughout
the preparation of this text.
Yunus A. Çengel
Michael A. Boles
Mehmet Kanoğlu
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PREFACE

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PREFACE

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 CHAPTER

INTRODUCTION AND
BASIC CONCEPTS
1
E
very science has a unique vocabulary associated with it, and thermody-
namics is no exception. Precise definition of basic concepts forms a sound OBJECTIVES
foundation for the development of a science and prevents p­ ossible mis- The objectives of Chapter 1 are to:
understandings. We start this chapter with an overview of thermodynamics and
■ Identify the unique vocabulary
the unit systems, and continue with a discussion of some basic concepts such as
associated with thermodynamics
system, state, state postulate, equilibrium, process, and cycle. We discuss inten- through the precise ­definition
sive and extensive properties of a system and define density, specific gravity, and of basic concepts to form
specific weight. We also discuss temperature and temperature scales. We then a sound foundation for the
present pressure, which is the normal force exerted by a fluid per unit area, and development of the ­principles of
we discuss absolute and gage pressures, the variation of pressure with depth, thermodynamics.
and pressure measurement devices, such as manometers and barometers. Careful ■ Review the metric SI and the
English unit systems that will be
study of these concepts is essential for a good understanding of the topics in the
used throughout the text.
following chapters. Finally, we present an intuitive systematic problem-solving
■ Explain the basic concepts
technique that can be used as a model in solving engineering problems.
of thermodynamics such as
system, state, state postulate,
equilibrium, process, and cycle.
■ Discuss properties of a system
and define density, specific
gravity, and specific weight.
■ Review concepts of
­temperature, temperature
scales, ­pressure, and absolute
and gage pressure.
■ Introduce an intuitive
­systematic problem-solving
technique.

1
 2
INTRODUCTION AND BASIC CONCEPTS

Potential
1–1 ■
THERMODYNAMICS AND ENERGY
PE = 10 units
KE = 0 energy Thermodynamics can be defined as the science of energy. Although everybody
has a feeling of what energy is, it is difficult to give a precise definition for it.
Energy can be viewed as the ability to cause changes.
The name thermodynamics stems from the Greek words therme (heat) and
dynamis (power), which is most descriptive of the early efforts to convert heat
into power. Today the same name is broadly interpreted to include all aspects of
Kinetic energy and energy transformations including power generation, refrigeration, and
PE = 7 units energy
KE = 3 units relationships among the properties of matter.
One of the most fundamental laws of nature is the conservation of
energy principle. It simply states that during an interaction, energy can change
from one form to another but the total amount of energy remains constant. That
is, energy cannot be created or destroyed. A rock falling off a cliff, for example,
picks up speed as a result of its potential energy being converted to kinetic energy
(Fig. 1–1). The conservation of energy principle also forms the backbone of the
diet industry: A person who has a greater energy input (food) than energy output
FIGURE 1–1 (exercise) will gain weight (store energy in the form of fat), and a person who has
Energy cannot be created or a smaller energy input than output will lose weight (Fig. 1–2). The change in the
destroyed; it can only change forms energy content of a body or any other system is equal to the difference between
(the first law). the energy input and the energy output, and the energy balance is expressed as
Ein − Eout = ΔE.
Energy storage The first law of thermodynamics is simply an expression of the conservation
(1 unit) of energy principle, and it asserts that energy is a thermodynamic ­property. The
second law of thermodynamics asserts that energy has quality as well as quan-
Energy in
tity, and actual processes occur in the direction of decreasing quality of energy.
(5 units) For example, a cup of hot coffee left on a table eventually cools, but a cup of cool
coffee in the same room never gets hot by itself (Fig. 1–3). The high-temperature
energy of the coffee is degraded (transformed into a less useful form at a lower
Energy out
temperature) once it is transferred to the surrounding air.
(4 units) Although the principles of thermodynamics have been in existence since the
creation of the universe, thermodynamics did not emerge as a science until the
FIGURE 1–2 construction of the first successful atmospheric steam engines in England by
Conservation of energy principle for Thomas Savery in 1697 and Thomas Newcomen in 1712. These engines were
the human body. very slow and inefficient, but they opened the way for the development of a new
science.
The first and second laws of thermodynamics emerged simultaneously in the
1850s, primarily out of the works of William Rankine, Rudolph Clausius, and
Cool Lord Kelvin (formerly William Thomson). The term thermodynamics was first
environment used in a publication by Lord Kelvin in 1849. The first thermodynamics text-
20°C
book was written in 1859 by William Rankine, a professor at the University
Hot of Glasgow.
coffee Heat It is well known that a substance consists of a large number of particles called
70°C
molecules. The properties of the substance naturally depend on the behavior of
these particles. For example, the pressure of a gas in a container is the result of
momentum transfer between the molecules and the walls of the container. How-
ever, one does not need to know the behavior of the gas particles to determine
FIGURE 1–3 the pressure in the container. It would be sufficient to attach a pressure gage to
Heat flows in the direction of the container. This macroscopic approach to the study of thermodynamics that
decreasing temperature. does not require a knowledge of the behavior of individual particles is called
classical thermodynamics. It provides a direct and easy way to solve engi-
neering problems. A more elaborate approach, based on the average behavior
of large groups of individual particles, is called statistical thermodynamics.
This microscopic approach is rather involved and is used in this text only in a
supporting role.
 3
CHAPTER 1

Application Areas of Thermodynamics

All activities in nature involve some interaction between energy and matter; thus,
it is hard to imagine an area that does not relate to thermodynamics in some man-
ner. Therefore, developing a good understanding of basic principles of thermody- Solar
namics has long been an essential part of engineering education. collectors
Thermodynamics is commonly encountered in many engineering systems and
other aspects of life, and one does not need to go very far to see some applica-
tion areas of it. In fact, one does not need to go anywhere. The heart is constantly
Shower
pumping blood to all parts of the human body, various energy conversions occur
in trillions of body cells, and the body heat generated is constantly rejected to Hot
the environment. Human comfort is closely tied to the rate of this metabolic heat water
Hot water tank
rejection. We try to control this heat transfer rate by adjusting our clothing to the Cold
environmental conditions. water
Heat
Other applications of thermodynamics are right where one lives. An ordi- exchanger Pump
nary house is, in some respects, an exhibition hall filled with wonders of ther-
modynamics (Fig. 1–4). Many ordinary household utensils and appliances are FIGURE 1–4
designed, in whole or in part, by using the principles of thermodynamics. Some The design of many engineering
examples include the electric or gas range, the heating and ­air-­conditioning sys- systems, such as this solar
tems, the refrigerator, the humidifier, the pressure cooker, the water heater, the hot water system, involves
shower, the iron, and even the computer and the TV. On a larger scale, thermo- thermodynamics.
dynamics plays a major part in the design and analysis of automotive engines,
rockets, jet engines, and conventional or nuclear power plants, solar collectors,
and the design of vehicles from ordinary cars to airplanes (Fig. 1–5). The energy-
efficient home that you may be living in, for example, is designed on the basis of
minimizing heat loss in winter and heat gain in summer. The size, location, and
the power input of the fan of your computer is also selected after an analysis that
involves thermodynamics.

CYU 1-1 — Check Your Understanding

NOTE TO STUDENTS: The Check Your Understanding (CYU) questions at the end of sections are intended to help
you assess your level of understanding of the subject matter after you complete studying the section. You should not
need a calculator to answer the questions with numerical values.

CYU 1-1.1 Choose the wrong statement about the first law of thermodynamics.
(a) During an interaction, energy can change from one form to another.
(b) During an interaction, the total amount of energy remains constant.
(c) Energy can be destroyed but it cannot be created.
(d) Energy is a thermodynamic property.
(e) A system with more energy input than output will gain energy.

CYU 1-1.2 Which statement best expresses the second law of thermodynamics?
(a) The temperature of a well-sealed room increases when a fan in the room is turned on.
(b) A cup of cool coffee in a warm room never gets hot by itself.
(c) Heat is generated when there is friction between two surfaces.
(d) A household refrigerator supplies heat to the kitchen when operating.
(e) A person who has a smaller energy input than output will lose weight.
 4
INTRODUCTION AND BASIC CONCEPTS

(a) Refrigerator (b) Boats (c) Aircraft and spacecraft

(d) Power plants (e) Human body (f) Cars

(g) Wind turbines (h) Food processing (i) A piping network in an industrial facility.

FIGURE 1–5
Some application areas of thermodynamics.
(a) Jill Braaten/McGraw-Hill Education; (b) Doug Menuez/Forrester Images/Photodisc/Getty Images; (c) Ilene MacDonald/Alamy Stock Photo; (d) Malcolm
Fife/Photodisc/Getty Images; (e) Ryan McVay/Getty Images; (f) Mark Evans/Getty Images; (g) iStockphoto/Getty Images; (h) Glow Images; (i) Toca Marine/
Shutterstock.

1–2 ■
IMPORTANCE OF DIMENSIONS
AND UNITS
Any physical quantity can be characterized by dimensions. The magnitudes
assigned to the dimensions are called units. Some basic dimensions such as mass
m, length L, time t, and temperature T are selected as primary or fundamental
dimensions, while others such as velocity V, energy E, and volume V are expressed
in terms of the primary dimensions and are called secondary dimensions, or
derived dimensions.
A number of unit systems have been developed over the years. Despite strong
efforts in the scientific and engineering community to unify the world with a
single unit system, two sets of units are still in common use today: the English
system, which is also known as the United States Customary System (USCS), and
 5
CHAPTER 1

the metric SI (from Le Système International d’ Unités), which is also known as

the International System. The SI is a simple and logical system based on a deci-
mal relationship between the various units, and it is being used for scientific and
engineering work in most of the industrialized nations, including England. The
English system, however, has no apparent systematic numerical base, and various
units in this system are related to each other rather arbitrarily (12 in = 1 ft, 1 mile
= 5280 ft, 4 qt = 1 gal, etc.), which makes it confusing and difficult to learn. The
United States is the only industrialized country that has not yet fully converted to
the metric system.
The systematic efforts to develop a universally acceptable system of units dates
back to 1790 when the French National Assembly charged the French Academy
of Sciences to come up with such a unit system. An early version of the metric
system was soon developed in France, but it did not find universal acceptance
until 1875 when The Metric Convention Treaty was prepared and signed by
17 nations, including the United States. In this international treaty, meter and
gram were established as the metric units for length and mass, respectively, and a
General Conference of Weights and Measures (CGPM) was established that was
to meet every six years. In 1960, the CGPM produced the SI, which was based
on six fundamental quantities, and their units were adopted in 1954 at the Tenth
General Conference of Weights and Measures: meter (m) for length, kilogram
(kg) for mass, second (s) for time, ampere (A) for electric current, degree Kelvin
(°K) for temperature, and candela (cd) for luminous intensity (amount of light). In
1971, the CGPM added a seventh fundamental quantity and unit: mole (mol) for
the amount of matter.
Accurate and universal definitions of fundamental units have been challenging
for the scientific community for many years. Recent new definitions of kilogram,
mole, ampere, and kelvin are considered to be a historical milestone.
The kilogram unit represents the mass of one liter of pure water at 4°C. Previ-
ously, the kilogram was officially defined as the mass of a shiny metal cylinder that
has been stored in Paris since 1889. This International Prototype of Kilogram is an
alloy of 90 percent platinum and 10 percent iridium, also known as Le Grand K.
On November 26, 2018, representatives from 60 countries gathered for the 26th
General Conference on Weights and Measures in Versailles, France, and adopted
a resolution to define the unit of mass in terms of the Planck constant h, which has
a fixed value of 6.62607015 × 10−34 m2⋅kg/s.
At the same conference, the approach of using fixed universal constants was also
adopted for the new definitions of the mole, the kelvin, and the ampere. The mole
(sometimes mol) is related to the value of Avogadro’s constant and the ampere to
the value of the elementary charge. The kelvin is related to the Boltzmann con-
stant, whose value is fixed at 1.380649 × 10−23 J/K.
The standard meter unit was originally defined as 1/10,000,000 of the distance
between the north pole and the equator. This distance was measured as accurately
as possible at the time, and in the late 18th century a “master metre” stick of this
length was made. All other meters were measured from this stick. Subsequent TABLE 1–1
calculations of the pole-equator distance showed that the original measurement
was inaccurate. In 1983, the meter is redefined as the distance traveled by light in The seven fundamental (or primary)
dimensions and their units in SI
a vacuum in 1/299,792,458 of a second.
Based on the notational scheme introduced in 1967, the degree symbol was Dimension Unit
officially dropped from the absolute temperature unit, and all unit names were
Length meter (m)
to be written without capitalization even if they were derived from proper names Mass kilogram (kg)
(Table 1–1). However, the abbreviation of a unit was to be capitalized if the unit Time second (s)
was derived from a proper name. For example, the SI unit of force, which is named Temperature kelvin (K)
after Sir Isaac Newton (1647–1723), is newton (not Newton), and it is abbreviated Electric current ampere (A)
Amount of light candela (cd)
as N. Also, the full name of a unit may be pluralized, but its abbreviation cannot. Amount of matter mole (mol)
For example, the length of an object can be 5 m or 5 meters, not 5 ms or 5 meter.
 6
INTRODUCTION AND BASIC CONCEPTS

TABLE 1–2 Finally, no period is to be used in unit abbreviations unless they appear at the end
of a sentence. For example, the proper abbreviation of meter is m (not m.).
Standard prefixes in SI units The move toward the metric system in the United States seems to have started in
Multiple Prefix 1968 when Congress, in response to what was happening in the rest of the world,
passed a Metric Study Act. Congress continued to promote a voluntary switch
1024 yotta, Y
1021 zetta, Z to the metric system by passing the Metric Conversion Act in 1975. A trade bill
1018 exa, E passed by Congress in 1988 set a September 1992 deadline for all federal agencies
1015 peta, P to convert to the metric system. However, the deadlines were relaxed later with no
1012 tera, T clear plans for the future.
109 giga, G
106 mega, M
The industries that are heavily involved in international trade (such as the auto-
103 kilo, k motive, soft drink, and liquor industries) have been quick to convert to the met-
102 hecto, h ric system for economic reasons (having a single worldwide design, fewer sizes,
101 deka, da smaller inventories, etc.). Today, nearly all the cars manufactured in the United
10−1 deci, d States are metric. Most car owners probably do not realize this until they try an
10−2 centi, c
10−3 milli, m English socket wrench on a metric bolt. Most industries, however, resisted the
10−6 micro, μ change, thus slowing down the conversion process.
10−9 nano, n At present the United States is a dual-system society, and it will stay that way
10−12 pico, p until the transition to the metric system is completed. This puts an extra burden on
10−15 femto, f
10−18 atto, a today’s engineering students, since they are expected to retain their understanding
10−21 zepto, z of the English system while learning, thinking, and working in terms of the SI.
10−24 yocto, y Given the position of the engineers in the transition period, both unit systems are
used in this text, with particular emphasis on SI units.
As pointed out, the SI is based on a decimal relationship between units. The
prefixes used to express the multiples of the various units are listed in Table 1–2.
1 MΩ They are standard for all units, and the student is encouraged to memorize them
200 mL 1 kg
(0.2 L) (103 g) because of their widespread use (Fig. 1–6).
(10 6 Ω)
Some SI and English Units
FIGURE 1–6
In SI, the units of mass, length, and time are the kilogram (kg), meter (m), and
The SI unit prefixes are used in all
second (s), respectively. The respective units in the English system are the pound-
branches of engineering.
mass (lbm), foot (ft), and second (s). The pound symbol lb is actually the abbrevi-
ation of libra, which was the ancient Roman unit of weight. The English retained
this symbol even after the end of the Roman occupation of Britain in 410. The
mass and length units in the two systems are related to each other by
1 lbm = 0.45356 kg
​​ ​ ​  
​ ​ ​  ​​  ​​​
1 ft = 0.3048 m
In the English system, force is usually considered to be one of the primary
dimensions and is assigned a nonderived unit. This is a source of confusion and
error that necessitates the use of a dimensional constant (gc) in many formulas. To
avoid this nuisance, we consider force to be a secondary dimension whose unit is
derived from Newton’s second law, that is,
​Force = ​(​Mass​)​(​Acceleration​)​

or
​
F = ma​ (1–1)
a = 1 m/s2
m = 1 kg F=1N
In SI, the force unit is the newton (N), and it is defined as the force required to
accelerate a mass of 1 kg at a rate of 1 m/s2. In the English system, the force unit
a = 1 ft/s2 is the pound-force (lbf) and is defined as the force required to accelerate a mass
m = 32.174 lbm F = 1 lbf of 1 slug (32.174 lbm) at a rate of 1 ft/s2 (Fig. 1–7). That is,
​1 N = 1 kg⋅m / ​s2​​ ​​
FIGURE 1–7
The definition of the force units. ​1 lbf = 32.174 lbm⋅ft / ​s2​​ ​​
 7
CHAPTER 1

A force of 1 N is roughly equivalent to the weight of a small apple (m = 102 g), 1 kgf
whereas a force of 1 lbf is roughly equivalent to the weight of four medium apples
(mtotal = 454 g), as shown in Fig. 1–8. Another force unit in common use in many
European countries is the kilogram-force (kgf), which is the weight of 1 kg mass 10 apples
at sea level (1 kgf = 9.807 N). m ≈ 1 kg
The term weight is often incorrectly used to express mass, particularly by the 4 apples
1 apple m ≈1 lbm
“weight watchers.” Unlike mass, weight W is a force. It is the gravitational force m ≈ 102 g
applied to a body, and its magnitude is determined from Newton’s second law,

W = mg ​ (N​)​​
​ (1–2) 1N
1 lbf

where m is the mass of the body, and g is the local gravitational acceleration
(g is 9.807 m/s2 or 32.174 ft/s2 at sea level and 45° latitude). An ordinary bath-
room scale measures the gravitational force acting on a body.
The mass of a body remains the same regardless of its location in the universe.
Its weight, however, changes with a change in gravitational acceleration. A body
weighs less on top of a mountain since g decreases with altitude. On the surface
of the moon, astronauts weigh about one-sixth of what they normally weigh on
earth (Fig. 1–9). FIGURE 1–8
At sea level a mass of 1 kg weighs 9.807 N, as illustrated in Fig. 1–10. A mass The relative magnitudes of the force
of 1 lbm, however, weighs 1 lbf, which misleads people into believing that pound- units newton (N), kilogram-force
mass and pound-force can be used interchangeably as pound (lb), which is a major (kgf), and pound-force (lbf).
source of error in the English system.
It should be noted that the gravity force acting on a mass is due to the attraction
between the masses, and thus it is proportional to the magnitudes of the masses
and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them. Therefore,
the gravitational acceleration g at a location depends on latitude, the distance to
the center of the earth, and to a lesser extent, the positions of the moon and the
sun. The value of g varies with location from 9.832 m/s2 at the poles (9.789 at
the equator) to 7.322 m/s2 at 1000 km above sea level. However, at altitudes up
to 30 km, the variation of g from the sea-level value of 9.807 m/s2 is less than
1 percent. Therefore, for most practical purposes, the gravitational acceleration
can be assumed to be constant at 9.807 m/s2, often rounded to 9.81 m/s2. It is
interesting to note that at locations below sea level, the value of g increases with
distance from the sea level, reaches a maximum at about 4500 m, and then starts
decreasing. (What do you think the value of g is at the center of the earth?)
The primary cause of confusion between mass and weight is that mass is usually
measured indirectly by measuring the gravity force it exerts. This approach also
assumes that the forces exerted by other effects such as air buoyancy and fluid
motion are negligible. This is like measuring the distance to a star by measur-
ing its redshift, or measuring the altitude of an airplane by measuring barometric FIGURE 1–9
pressure. Both of these are also indirect measurements. The correct direct way of A body weighing 150 lbf on earth will
measuring mass is to compare it to a known mass. This is cumbersome, however, weigh only 25 lbf on the moon.
and it is mostly used for calibration and measuring precious metals.
Work, which is a form of energy, can simply be defined as force times ­distance;
therefore, it has the unit “newton-meter (N·m),” which is called a joule (J). That is,
kg lbm

​
1 J = 1 N·m​ (1–3) g = 9.807 m/s2 g = 32.174 ft/s2

A more common unit for energy in SI is the kilojoule (1 kJ = 103 J). In the W = 9.807 kg·m/s2 W = 32.174 lbm·ft/s2
= 9.807 N = 1 lbf
English system, the energy unit is the Btu (British thermal unit), which is = 1 kgf
defined as the energy required to raise the temperature of 1 lbm of water at
68°F by 1°F. In the metric system, the amount of energy needed to raise the FIGURE 1–10
temperature of 1 g of water at 14.5°C by 1°C is defined as 1 calorie (cal), and The weight of a unit mass at sea level.
 8
INTRODUCTION AND BASIC CONCEPTS

FIGURE 1–11
A typical match yields about one Btu (or
one kJ) of energy if completely burned.
John M. Cimbala
1 cal = 4.1868 J. The magnitudes of the kilojoule and Btu are almost identical
(1 Btu = 1.0551 kJ). Here is a good way to get a feel for these units: If you light a
typical match and let it burn itself out, it yields approximately one Btu (or one kJ) of
energy (Fig. 1–11).
The unit for time rate of energy is joule per second (J/s), which is called a watt
(W). In the case of work, the time rate of energy is called power. A commonly
used unit of power is horsepower (hp), which is equivalent to 746 W. Electrical
energy typically is expressed in the unit kilowatt-hour (kWh), which is equiva-
lent to 3600 kJ. An electric appliance with a rated power of 1 kW consumes
1 kWh of electricity when running continuously for one hour. When dealing with
electric power generation, the units kW and kWh are often confused. Note that
kW or kJ/s is a unit of power, whereas kWh is a unit of energy. Therefore, state-
ments like “the new wind turbine will generate 50 kW of electricity per year” are
meaningless and incorrect. A correct statement should be something like “the
new wind turbine with a rated power of 50 kW will generate 120,000 kWh of
electricity per year.”
Dimensional Homogeneity

We all know that apples and oranges do not add. But we somehow manage to do
it (by mistake, of course). In engineering, all equations must be d­ imensionally
homogeneous. That is, every term in an equation must have the same unit. If, at
some stage of an analysis, we find ourselves in a position to add two quantities
that have different units, it is a clear indication that we have made an error at an
earlier stage. So checking dimensions can serve as a valuable tool to spot errors.

EXAMPLE 1–1 Electric Power Generation by a Wind Turbine

A school is paying $0.12/kWh for electric power. To reduce its power bill, the school
installs a wind turbine (Fig. 1–12) with a rated power of 30 kW. If the turbine operates
2200 hours per year at the rated power, determine the amount of electric power generated
by the wind turbine and the money saved by the school per year.

SOLUTION A wind turbine is installed to generate electricity. The amount of electric

energy generated and the money saved per year are to be determined.
Analysis The wind turbine generates electric energy at a rate of 30 kW or 30 kJ/s. Then the
total amount of electric energy generated per year becomes

Total energy = (​ ​Energy per unit time​)(​ ​Time interval​)​

     
​    ​= ​(​30 kW​)​(​2200 h​)​ ​​
​ = 66,000 kWh

The money saved per year is the monetary value of this energy determined as

Money saved = (​ ​Total energy​)(​ ​Unit cost of energy​)​

    
​    
​ ​= (​ ​66,000 kWh​)(​ ​$0.12 / kWh​)​ ​
​ = $7920

Discussion The annual electric energy production also could be determined in kJ by unit
manipulations as

​Total energy = ​(30 kW)(2200 h)​(​_​)​(_

1 kW )
3600 s 1 kJ / s
​ ​ ​= 2.38 × ​10​​8​kJ​
FIGURE 1–12 1h
A wind turbine, as discussed in
­Example 1–1. which is equivalent to 66,000 kWh (1 kWh = 3600 kJ).
Bear Dancer Studios
 9
CHAPTER 1

We all know from experience that units can give terrible headaches if they are
not used carefully in solving a problem. However, with some attention and skill,
units can be used to our advantage. They can be used to check formulas; sometimes
they can even be used to derive formulas, as explained in the following example.

EXAMPLE 1–2 Obtaining Formulas from Unit Considerations

A tank is filled with oil whose density is ρ = 850 kg/m3. If the volume of the tank
is V = 2 m3, determine the amount of mass m in the tank. Oil
V = 2 m3
ρ = 850 kg/m3
SOLUTION The volume of an oil tank is given. The mass of oil is to be determined.
m=?
Assumptions Oil is a nearly incompressible substance and thus its density is constant.
Analysis A sketch of the system just described is given in Fig. 1–13. Suppose we forgot the
formula that relates mass to density and volume. However, we know that mass has the unit of FIGURE 1–13
kilograms. That is, whatever calculations we do, we should end up with the unit of kilograms. Schematic for Example 1–2.
Putting the given information into perspective, we have

​​ρ = 850 kg / ​m3​​ ​​  and​  V​​= 2 ​​m​​3​​ ​​​

It is obvious that we can eliminate m3 and end up with kg by multiplying these two quanti-
ties. Therefore, the formula we are looking for should be

​m = ρV​

Thus,

​m = (850 kg / ​m​​3​)(2 ​m​​3​) = 1700 kg​

Discussion Note that this approach may not work for more complicated formulas. Nondi-
mensional constants also may be present in the formulas, and these cannot be derived from unit
considerations alone.

You should keep in mind that a formula that is not dimensionally homogeneous
is definitely wrong (Fig. 1–14), but a dimensionally homogeneous formula is not
necessarily right.

Unity Conversion Ratios FIGURE 1–14

Just as all nonprimary dimensions can be formed by suitable combinations of pri- Always check the units in your
mary dimensions, all nonprimary units (secondary units) can be formed by combi- calculations.
nations of primary units. Force units, for example, can be expressed as
m ft
​​1 N = 1 kg __
​  2 ​​  and ​  1 lbf = 32.174 lbm __
​  2 ​ ​​
​s​​ ​ ​s​​ ​
32.174 lbm.ft/s2 1 kg.m/s2
1 lbf 1N
They can also be expressed more conveniently as unity conversion ratios as
1W 1 kJ 1 kPa
________1N 1 lbf 1 J/s 1000 N.m 1000 N/m2
​ ​​  ​ = 1​  and ​  ______________
​   2 ​ = 1​​
1 kg·m / ​s​​2​ 32.174 lbm·ft / ​s​​ ​
0.3048 m 1 min 1 lbm
1 ft 60 s 0.45359 kg
Unity conversion ratios are identically equal to 1 and are unitless, and thus such
ratios (or their inverses) can be inserted conveniently into any calculation to prop-
erly convert units (Fig. 1–15). You are encouraged to always use unity conversion FIGURE 1–15
ratios such as those given here when converting units. Some textbooks insert the Every unity conversion ratio (as well
archaic gravitational constant gc defined as gc = 32.174 lbm·ft/lbf·s2 = 1 kg·m/N·s2 as its inverse) is exactly equal to 1.
= 1 into equations in order to force units to match. This practice leads to unneces- Shown here are a few commonly used
sary confusion and is strongly discouraged by the present authors. We recommend unity conversion ratios, each within its
that you instead use unity conversion ratios. own set of parentheses.
 10
INTRODUCTION AND BASIC CONCEPTS

EXAMPLE 1–3 The Weight of One Pound-Mass

Using unity conversion ratios, show that 1.00 lbm weighs 1.00 lbf on earth (Fig. 1–16).

lbm SOLUTION A mass of 1.00 lbm is subjected to standard earth gravity. Its weight in lbf
is to be determined.
Assumptions Standard sea-level conditions are assumed.
Properties The gravitational constant is g = 32.174 ft/s2.
Analysis We apply Newton’s second law to calculate the weight (force) that ­corresponds to
the known mass and acceleration. The weight of any object is equal to its mass times the local
value of gravitational acceleration. Thus,
FIGURE 1–16
​W = mg = ​(1.00 lbm)(32.174 ft / ​s2​​ ​)​(​______________
​   2 ​​)​​ = 1.00 lbf​
1​lbf
A mass of 1 lbm weighs 1 lbf on earth.
32.174 lbm​·ft/s​​ ​
Discussion The quantity in large parentheses in this equation is a unity conversion ratio.
Mass is the same regardless of its location. However, on some other planet with a different
value of gravitational acceleration, the weight of 1 lbm would differ from that calculated here.

Net weight:
One pound
(454 grams)

When you buy a box of breakfast cereal, the printing may say “Net weight:
One pound (454 grams).” (See Fig. 1–17.) Technically, this means that the cereal
inside the box weighs 1.00 lbf on earth and has a mass of 453.6 g (0.4536 kg).
Using Newton’s second law, the actual weight of the cereal on earth is

(1 kg​·m/s​​2​)(1000 g)
1​N 1 kg
​W = mg = ​(453.6 g)(9.81 ​m / s​​2​)​ ________
​​   ​​ ​ _
​ ​ ​​ = 4.49 N​

CYU 1-2 — Check Your Understanding

CYU 1-2.1 Which of the following is not a correct unit for work?
(a) kg⋅m/s2 (b) N⋅m (c) kPa⋅m3
(d) kJ (e) kWh
FIGURE 1–17 CYU 1-2.2 Using unit considerations, select the correct equations.
A quirk in the metric system of units.
I. Mass = Force × Acceleration II. Work = Force × Distance
III. Work = Power × Time IV. Density = Mass × Volume
(a) I and II (b) I and III (c) II and III
(d) I, II, and III (e) II, III, and IV

CYU 1-2.3 What is the weight of 10 kg?

(a) 10 N (b) 10 lbf (c) 9.8 N
Surroundings (d) 98 N (e) 322 lbf

System
1–3 ■
SYSTEMS AND CONTROL VOLUMES
Boundary A system is defined as a quantity of matter or a region in space chosen for study.
The mass or region outside the system is called the surroundings. The real or
FIGURE 1–18 imaginary surface that separates the system from its surroundings is called the
System, surroundings, and boundary. boundary (Fig. 1–18). The boundary of a system can be fixed or movable. Note
 11
CHAPTER 1

that the boundary is the contact surface shared by both the ­system and the sur-
roundings. Mathematically speaking, the boundary has zero thickness, and thus it
can neither contain any mass nor occupy any ­volume in space. Mass No
Systems may be considered to be closed or open, depending on whether a Closed
fixed mass or a fixed volume in space is chosen for study. A closed system system
(also known as a control mass or just system when the context makes it clear) m = constant
consists of a fixed amount of mass, and no mass can cross its boundary. That is,
no mass can enter or leave a closed system, as shown in Fig. 1–19. But energy, Energy Yes
in the form of heat or work, can cross the boundary; and the volume of a closed
system does not have to be fixed. If, as a special case, even energy is not allowed
FIGURE 1–19
to cross the boundary, that system is called an isolated system.
Mass cannot cross the boundaries of a
Consider the piston-cylinder device shown in Fig. 1–20. Let us say that we would
closed system, but energy can.
like to find out what happens to the enclosed gas when it is heated. Since we are
focusing our attention on the gas, it is our system. The inner surfaces of the piston
and the cylinder form the boundary, and since no mass is crossing this boundary,
it is a closed system. Notice that energy may cross the boundary, and part of the Moving
boundary
boundary (the inner surface of the piston, in this case) may move. Everything out-
side the gas, including the piston and the cylinder, is the surroundings. Gas
An open system, or a control volume, as it is often called, is a properly 2 kg
Gas
selected region in space. It usually encloses a device that involves mass flow such 1.5 m3
2 kg
as a compressor, turbine, or nozzle. Flow through these devices is best studied 1 m3
by selecting the region within the device as the control volume. Both mass and
energy can cross the boundary of a control volume.
A large number of engineering problems involve mass flow in and out of a Fixed
system and, therefore, are modeled as control volumes. A water heater, a car radia- boundary
tor, a turbine, and a compressor all involve mass flow and should be analyzed as
FIGURE 1–20
control volumes (open systems) instead of as control masses (closed systems). In
A closed system with a moving
general, any arbitrary region in space can be selected as a control volume. There
boundary.
are no concrete rules for the selection of control volumes, but the proper choice
certainly makes the analysis much easier. If Imaginary
we were to analyze the flow of air
through a nozzle, for example, a good choice boundary
for the control Realvolume
boundarywould be the
region within the nozzle.
The boundaries of a control volume are called a control surface, and they can be
real or imaginary. In the case of a nozzle, the inner surface of the nozzle forms the
real part of the boundary, and the entrance and exit areas form CVthe imaginary part,
(a nozzle)
since there are no physical surfaces there (Fig. 1–21a).
A control volume can be fixed in size and shape, as in the case of a nozzle, or it
may involve a moving boundary, as shown in Fig. 1–21b. Most control volumes,
however, have fixed boundaries and thus do not (a) involve
A control any moving
volume boundaries.
(CV) with real and A
control volume can also involve heat and work interactions just as a closed system,
imaginary boundaries
in addition to mass interaction.

Imaginary
boundary Real boundary

Moving
boundary
CV CV
(a nozzle)
Fixed
boundary
FIGURE 1–21
(a) A control volume (CV) with real and (b) A control volume (CV) with fixed and A control volume can involve
imaginary boundaries moving boundaries as well as real and fixed, moving, real, and
imaginary boundaries imaginary boundaries.
 12
INTRODUCTION AND BASIC CONCEPTS

As an example of an open system, consider the water heater shown in Fig. 1–22.
Let us say that we would like to determine how much heat we must transfer to the
water in the tank in order to supply a steady stream of hot water. Since hot water
will leave the tank and be replaced by cold water, it is not convenient to choose a
fixed mass as our system for the analysis. Instead, we can concentrate our atten-
tion on the volume formed by the interior surfaces of the tank and consider the
hot and cold water streams as mass leaving and entering the control volume. The
interior surfaces of the tank form the control surface for this case, and mass is
crossing the control surface at two locations.
In an engineering analysis, the system under study must be defined carefully. In
most cases, the system investigated is quite simple and obvious, and defining the
system may seem like a tedious and unnecessary task. In other cases, however, the
system under study may be rather involved, and a proper choice of the system may
greatly simplify the analysis.

CYU 1-3 — Check Your Understanding

FIGURE 1–22
An open system (a control volume)
with one inlet and one exit.
Christopher Kerrigan/McGraw Hill
CYU 1-3.1 Choose the wrong statement regarding systems and control volumes.
(a) The mass or region outside the system is called the surroundings.
(b) The real or imaginary surface that separates the system from its
surroundings is called the boundary.
(c) The boundary has zero thickness.
(d) The boundary can neither contain any mass nor occupy any volume
in space.
(e) The boundary of a system is fixed; it cannot move.

CYU 1-3.2 Choose the wrong statement regarding systems and control volumes.
(a) Both mass and energy can cross the boundary of a control volume.
(b) Mass cannot enter or leave a closed system but energy can.
(c) Mass can enter or leave an isolated system but energy cannot.
(d) The boundaries of a control volume can be real or imaginary.
(e) The volume of a closed system does not have to be fixed.

V
1–4 ■
PROPERTIES OF A SYSTEM
Any characteristic of a system is called a property. Some familiar properties
are pressure P, temperature T, volume V, and mass m. The list can be extended
to include less familiar ones such as viscosity, thermal conductivity, modulus of
elasticity, thermal expansion coefficient, electric resistivity, and even velocity
and elevation.
Properties are considered to be either intensive or extensive. Intensive
V V properties are those that are independent of the mass of a system, such as tem-
perature, pressure, and density. Extensive properties are those whose values
depend on the size—or extent—of the system. Total mass, total volume, and total
momentum are some examples of extensive properties. An easy way to determine
whether a property is intensive or extensive is to divide the system into two equal
FIGURE 1–23 parts with an imaginary partition, as shown in Fig. 1–23. Each part will have the
Criterion to differentiate intensive and same value of intensive properties as the original system, but half the value of the
extensive properties. extensive properties.
 13
CHAPTER 1

Generally, uppercase letters are used to denote extensive properties (with mass
m being a major exception), and lowercase letters are used for intensive properties
(with pressure P and temperature T being the obvious exceptions).
Extensive properties per unit mass are called specific properties. Some examples of
specific properties are specific volume (v = V/m) and specific total energy (e = E/m).

Continuum
Matter is made up of atoms that are widely spaced in the gas phase. Yet it is very
convenient to disregard the atomic nature of a substance and view it as a continu-
ous, homogeneous matter with no holes, that is, a continuum. The continuum
idealization allows us to treat properties as point functions and to assume the
properties vary continually in space with no jump discontinuities. This idealiza-
tion is valid as long as the size of the system we deal with is large relative to the
O2
space between the molecules. This is the case in practically all problems, except 1 atm, 20°C
some specialized ones. The continuum idealization is implicit in many statements
we make, such as “the density of water in a glass is the same at any point.”
To have a sense of the distance involved at the molecular level, consider a 3 × 1016 molecules/mm3
container filled with oxygen at atmospheric conditions. The diameter of the
oxygen molecule is about 3 × 10−10 m and its mass is 5.3 × 10−26 kg. Also, the
mean free path of oxygen at 1 atm pressure and 20°C is 6.3 × 10−8 m. That
is, an oxygen molecule travels, on average, a distance of 6.3 × 10−8 m (about Void
200 times its diameter) before it collides with another molecule.
Also, there are about 3 × 1016 molecules of oxygen in the tiny volume of 1 mm3 at
1 atm pressure and 20°C (Fig. 1–24). The continuum model is applicable as long as
the characteristic length of the system (such as its diameter) is much larger than the FIGURE 1–24
mean free path of the molecules. At very high vacuums or very high elevations, the Despite the relatively large gaps
mean free path may become large (for example, it is about 0.1 m for atmospheric between molecules, a gas can usually
air at an elevation of 100 km). For such cases the rarefied gas flow theory should be treated as a continuum because of
be used, and the impact of individual molecules should be considered. In this text the very large number of molecules
we will limit our consideration to substances that can be modeled as a continuum. even in an extremely small volume.

CYU 1-4 — Check Your Understanding

CYU 1-4.1 Which properties are intensive?

I. Volume, m3 II. Density, kg/m3 III. Temperature, °C IV. Pressure, kPa
(a) II and III (b) III and IV (c) I, II, and III (d) II, III, and IV (e) I, II, III, and IV

1–5 ■
DENSITY AND SPECIFIC GRAVITY
V = 12 m3
Density is defined as mass per unit volume (Fig. 1–25). m = 3 kg

m
​   ​  ​​(​​kg / ​m3​​ ​​)​​​​​
Density: ​​​​  ρ = __ (1–4)
V ρ = 0.25 kg/m3
1
v =– 3
The reciprocal of density is the specific volume v, which is defined as ­volume per ρ = 4 m /kg
unit mass. That is,
V 1
v​ =  ​ __ ​  =  ​ __ ​​
​ (1–5) FIGURE 1–25
m ρ
Density is mass per unit volume;
For a differential volume element of mass δm and volume δV, density can be ­specific volume is volume
expressed as ρ = δm/δV. per unit mass.
 14
INTRODUCTION AND BASIC CONCEPTS

The density of a substance, in general, depends on temperature and pressure.

The density of most gases is proportional to pressure and inversely proportional
to temperature. Liquids and solids, on the other hand, are essentially incompress-
ible substances, and the variation of their density with pressure is usually neg-
ligible. At 20°C, for example, the density of water changes from 998 kg/m3 at
1 atm to 1003 kg/m3 at 100 atm, a change of just 0.5 percent. The density of liq-
uids and solids depends more strongly on temperature than it does on pressure.
At 1 atm, for example, the density of water changes from 998 kg/m3 at 20°C to
975 kg/m3 at 75°C, a change of 2.3 percent, which can still be neglected in many
engineering analyses.
Sometimes the density of a substance is given relative to the density of a well-
known substance. Then it is called specific gravity, or relative density, and is
defined as the ratio of the density of a substance to the density of some stan-
dard substance at a specified temperature (usually water at 4°C, for which ρ​​H​2​​O​ =
1000 kg/m3). That is,

____ ρ
Specific gravity: ​​​​  SG = ​   ​​​ (1–6)
​ρ​  ​H​  2​​O​​

Note that the specific gravity of a substance is a dimensionless quantity. How-

ever, in SI units, the numerical value of the specific gravity of a substance is
exactly equal to its density in g/cm3 or kg/L (or 0.001 times the density in kg/m3)
TABLE 1–3 since the density of water at 4°C is 1 g/cm3 = 1 kg/L = 1000 kg/m3. The specific
Specific gravities of some gravity of mercury at 0°C, for example, is 13.6. Therefore, its density at 0°C is
substances at 0°C 13.6 g/cm3 = 13.6 kg/L = 13,600 kg/m3. The specific gravities of some substances
Substance SG
at 0°C are given in Table 1–3. Note that substances with specific gravities less
than 1 are lighter than water, and thus they would float on water.
Water 1.0 The weight of a unit volume of a substance is called specific weight and is
Blood 1.05 expressed as
Seawater 1.025
Gasoline 0.7
Ethyl alcohol 0.79 ​ ​γ​s​= ρg​
Specific weight: ​ (N / ​m3​​ ​)​ (1–7)
Mercury 13.6
Wood 0.3–0.9
Gold 19.2
Bones 1.7–2.0
where g is the gravitational acceleration.
Ice 0.92 The densities of liquids are essentially constant, and thus they can often be
Air (at 1 atm) 0.0013 approximated as being incompressible substances during most processes without
sacrificing much in accuracy.

CYU 1-5 — Check Your Understanding

CYU 1-5.1 A 1-m3 tank contains 0.5 kg of a gas. What is the density (in kg/m3) and specific volume (in m3/kg) of the
gas, respectively?
(a) 1, 0.5 (b) 0.5, 1 (c) 0.5, 2 (d) 2, 0.5 (e) 0.5, 0.5

CYU 1-5.2 What is the specific volume of a fluid whose specific gravity is 1.25?
(a) 1.25 m3/kg (b) 1250 m3/kg (c) 1/1.25 m3/kg (d) 1/1250 m3/kg (e) 1.25 m3/kg

CYU 1-5.3 What is the specific weight of a fluid whose specific gravity is 1?
(a) 1 N/m3 (b) 9.8 N/m3 (c) 10 N/m3 (d) 980 N/m3 (e) 9800 N/m3
 15
CHAPTER 1

1–6 ■
STATE AND EQUILIBRIUM
Consider a system not undergoing any change. At this point, all the properties
can be measured or calculated throughout the entire system, which gives us a set m = 2 kg
of properties that completely describes the condition, or the state, of the system. T2 = 20°C
m = 2 kg
At a given state, all the properties of a system have fixed values. If the value of V2 = 2.5 m3
T1 = 20°C
even one property changes, the state will change to a different one. In Fig. 1–26 a
V1 = 1.5 m3
system is shown at two different states.
Thermodynamics deals with equilibrium states. The word equilibrium implies
a state of balance. In an equilibrium state there are no unbalanced potentials (or (a) State 1 (b) State 2
driving forces) within the system. A system in equilibrium experiences no changes
FIGURE 1–26
when it is isolated from its surroundings.
A system at two different states.
There are many types of equilibrium, and a system is not in thermodynamic equi-
librium unless the conditions of all the relevant types of equilibrium are satisfied.
For example, a system is in thermal equilibrium if the temperature is the same
throughout the entire system, as shown in Fig. 1–27. That is, the system involves 20°C 23°C 32°C 32°C
no temperature differential, which is the driving force for heat flow. Mechanical 30°C 32°C
equilibrium is related to pressure, and a system is in mechanical equilibrium if there 35°C 40°C 32°C 32°C
is no change in pressure at any point of the system with time. However, the pressure 42°C 32°C
may vary within the system with elevation as a result of gravitational effects.
For example, the higher pressure at a bottom layer is balanced by the extra weight (a) Before (b) After
it must carry, and, therefore, there is no imbalance of forces. The variation of pressure
as a result of gravity in most thermodynamic systems is relatively small and usually FIGURE 1–27
disregarded. If a system involves two phases, it is in phase equilibrium when the A closed system reaching thermal
mass of each phase reaches an equilibrium level and stays there. Finally, a system is equilibrium.
in chemical equilibrium if its chemical composition does not change with time, that
is, no chemical reactions occur. A system will not be in equilibrium unless all the rel-
evant equilibrium criteria are satisfied.

The State Postulate

As noted earlier, the state of a system is described by its properties. But we
know from experience that we do not need to specify all the properties in order
to fix a state. Once a sufficient number of properties are specified, the rest of
the properties assume certain values automatically. That is, specifying a cer-
tain number of properties is sufficient to fix a state. The number of properties
required to fix the state of a system is given by the state postulate:
The state of a simple compressible system is completely specified by two
independent, intensive properties.

A system is called a simple compressible system in the absence of electrical,

magnetic, gravitational, motion, and surface tension effects. These effects are due
to external force fields and are negligible for most engineering problems. Other-
wise, an additional property needs to be specified for each effect that is signifi-
cant. If the gravitational effects are to be considered, for example, the elevation z
needs to be specified in addition to the two properties necessary to fix the state.
The state postulate requires that the two properties specified be independent to fix
the state. Two properties are independent if one property can be varied while the
other one is held constant. Temperature and specific volume, for example, are always
Nitrogen
independent properties, and together they can fix the state of a simple compressible T = 25°C
system (Fig. 1–28). Temperature and pressure, however, are independent properties v = 0.9 m3/kg
for single-phase systems, but are dependent properties for multiphase systems. At
sea level (P = 1 atm), water boils at 100°C, but on a mountaintop where the pressure
is lower, water boils at a lower temperature. That is, T = f (P) during a phase-change FIGURE 1–28
process; thus, temperature and pressure are not sufficient to fix the state of a two- The state of nitrogen is fixed by two
phase system. Phase-change processes are discussed in detail in Chap. 3. independent, intensive properties.
 16
INTRODUCTION AND BASIC CONCEPTS

Property A
CYU 1-6 — Check Your Understanding
State 2

CYU 1-6.1 Choose the wrong statement regarding state and equilibrium.
(a) A set of properties completely describes the state of a system.
Process path
(b) At a given state, all the properties of a system have fixed values.
State 1 (c) The state of a system only changes if the values of at least two properties
change.
Property B
(d) In an equilibrium state there are no driving forces within the system.
FIGURE 1–29 (e) A system in equilibrium experiences no changes when it is isolated from its
A process between states 1 and 2 and surroundings.
the process path.

1–7 ■
PROCESSES AND CYCLES
Any change that a system undergoes from one equilibrium state to another is
(a) Slow compression called a process, and the series of states through which a system passes during a
(quasi-equilibrium) process is called the path of the process (Fig. 1–29). To describe a process com-
pletely, one should specify the initial and final states of the process, as well as the
path it follows, and the interactions with the surroundings.
When a process proceeds in such a manner that the system remains infinites-
imally close to an equilibrium state at all times, it is called a quasi-static, or
quasi-equilibrium, process. A quasi-equilibrium process can be viewed as a suf-
(b) Very fast compression
(nonquasi-equilibrium)
ficiently slow process that allows the system to adjust itself internally so that prop-
erties in one part of the system do not change any faster than those at other parts.
FIGURE 1–30 This is illustrated in Fig. 1–30. When a gas in a piston-cylinder device is com-
Quasi-equilibrium and nonquasi- pressed suddenly, the molecules near the face of the piston will not have enough
equilibrium compression processes. time to escape, and they will have to pile up in a small region in front of the piston,
thus creating a high-pressure region there. Because of this pressure difference, the
system can no longer be said to be in equilibrium, and this makes the entire pro-
cess nonquasi-equilibrium. However, if the piston is moved slowly, the molecules
will have sufficient time to redistribute, and there will not be a molecule pileup
P in front of the piston. As a result, the pressure inside the cylinder will always be
Final state nearly uniform and will rise at the same rate at all locations. Since equilibrium is
2 maintained at all times, this is a quasi-equilibrium process.
Process path It should be pointed out that a quasi-equilibrium process is an ­idealized ­process and
is not a true representation of an actual process. But many actual processes closely
Initial
state approximate it, and they can be modeled as ­quasi-equilibrium with negligible error.
1 Engineers are interested in quasi-equilibrium processes for two reasons. First, they
are easy to analyze; second, work-producing devices deliver the most work when
they operate on quasi-equilibrium processes. Therefore, quasi-equilibrium processes
V2 V1 V
serve as standards to which actual processes can be compared.
Process diagrams plotted by employing thermodynamic properties as coordi-
nates are very useful in visualizing the processes. Some common properties that
are used as coordinates are temperature T, pressure P, and volume V (or specific
System volume v). Figure 1–31 shows the P-V diagram of a compression process of a gas.
Note that the process path indicates a series of equilibrium states through which
(2) (1) the system passes during a process and has significance for quasi-equilibrium pro-
cesses only. For nonquasi-equilibrium processes, we cannot characterize the entire
FIGURE 1–31 system by a single state, and thus we cannot speak of a process path for a system
The P-V diagram of a compression as a whole. A nonquasi-equilibrium process is denoted by a dashed line between
process. the initial and final states instead of a solid line.
Another random document with
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Wang Wen-shao and I had known the man well, when we
held the Chihli Viceroyalty, and respected him.
“At the end of the 9th Moon of last year there were Boxers
openly displaying huge banners in Chihli, on which was
written, ‘The Gods assist us to destroy all foreigners; we invite
you to join the patriotic Militia.’ At one place a Buddhist abbot
was the head of the Society and he led on the mob, burning
the Christian chapel there. Subsequently, while they were
burning converts’ houses at Liupa, the magistrate came out
and attacked them with his troops. The soldiers opened fire
and the Boxers retreated, but their priest leaders were
captured, and some thirty or forty were shot dead. This ought
to have demonstrated to the people at large how nonsensical
were the stories about the invulnerability of these
mountebanks: our soldiers dealt with them as easily as if they
had been trussing chickens! There were charms and forms of
incantation found on the persons of the priests who, after an
examination by the magistrate, were summarily executed.
“The provincial treasurer, T’ing Yung,[65] was largely
responsible for the beginning of the trouble. I hear that about
ten days ago he sent for all his subordinates to attend at his
Yamên, and the Prefect of Hsüanhua,[66] who was passing
through, came to pay his respects with the others. This man
said, ‘in the reign of Chia Ch’ing there were heterodox cults of
this kind, and the Emperor ordered them to be suppressed.’
T’ing Yung replied, ‘circumstances alter cases. Why should
you now refer to those days?’ The Prefect answered him, ‘It is
quite true that the calendar is no longer the same as it was at
that time, but the enlightened principles laid down by our
sacred ancestors should be a guidance to us for ever.’ T’ing
had of course nothing to say, and could only glare at him in
silence and change the conversation.
“When first I read Her Majesty’s decree of the 21st June in
which she orders us to form train-bands of these brave
Boxers, describing them as patriots of whom large numbers
are to be found, and should be enrolled, in every province, I
lay awake all the next night thinking over this matter. Unable
to sleep, more than once I sprang from my bed restless and
excited with mixed feelings of joy and fear. The idea of
enlisting these patriotic volunteers to repel the aggression of
the foreigner is undoubtedly a good one, and, if carefully
worked out and directed by firm discipline and good
leadership, it might no doubt be of the very highest utility. But
if otherwise handled, these men will inevitably get out of hand,
and the only result will be chaos and disaster. You will, no
doubt, agree with me, my old friend and colleague, that the
motive which inspires these Boxers is a patriotic one. So
great is the ill-feeling that exists between the mass of our
people and the converts to Christianity that we have been
unavoidably dragged to the very verge of hostilities, and our
Government has embarked upon a desperate course ‘of
inviting the enemy to meet us in battle before the walls of our
capital.’ It is as if we were treading on naked swords without
flinching; there can be no question as to the enthusiasm and
ardour in our cause.
“But, at the beginning of the movement, these Boxers were
afraid to come together in large numbers lest the Imperial
troops should attack and destroy them; from this alone we
may reasonably infer that they are not devoid of the common
instinct of fear. By themselves they cannot be fully trusted, but
it seems to me (though you may consider the idea absurd)
that one might profitably use them to inspire, by their
fanaticism, the martial ardour of our regular troops. As a
fighting force they are absolutely useless, but their claims to
supernatural arts and magic might possibly be valuable for
the purpose of disheartening the enemy. But it would be quite
wrong, not to say fatal, for us to attach any real belief to their
ridiculous claims, or to regard them as of any real use in
action. Even if there were any truth in these tales of magic
they must necessarily be founded in heresy, and you know full
well that Chinese history records numerous instances of such
superstitious beliefs ending in rebellions against the reigning
Dynasty. You recently telegraphed me advising me not to be
unduly anxious, because in your opinion the Boxers acquitted
themselves exceedingly well in the fights at Tientsin and Taku
on the 20th June. I am not so sure of this myself; in any case
it is well to bear in mind that there is a very great difference
between the fighting capacity and temperament of the natives
of the north and south of China.[67] All the southern provinces
are teeming with secret and revolutionary societies, salt
smugglers, and other kinds of desperadoes; so much tinder,
which any spark may kindle into flames of disturbance at any
moment. These southern people are gamblers and disorderly
characters by profession, but they are certainly not animated
by any patriotic instinct, and if you were to enlist any large
number of them as a military force, it would be just like
organising bands of jackals and wolves to fight tigers. The
result would be that while none of the tigers would be
destroyed, millions of your own people, who may be likened
to sheep, would suffer miserably. On the other hand these
northern Boxers are not inspired by any lust of plunder, but by
a species of religious frenzy. Now, as you know, northerners
are dull and obstinate by nature, while the southerners are
alert but unreliable, so that it is difficult, if not impossible, to
arrive at any fixed policy or joint action in dealing with them
together. Was it not because of this characteristic of the
southerners that the Grand Council was so indignant in 1894,
when, in fighting against the Japanese, our men feared them
worse than tigers, and, recognising their own hopeless
inferiority, threw down their weapons and would not face the
enemy?
“These Boxers are not trained troops, but they are ready to
fight, and to face death. It is indeed a very gratifying surprise
to see any of our people display courage, and to witness their
enthusiasm for paying off old scores against the foreigner; but
if, inspired by the sight of these brave fellows, we imagine for
a moment that the whole Empire is going to follow their
example, and that we shall thus be enabled to rid ourselves of
the accursed presence of the foreigner, we are very much
mistaken, and the attempt is foredoomed. My advice therefore
to your Excellency, is not to hesitate in disobeying the Edict
which commanded you to raise these train-bands. I do not
hesitate to give you this advice and to assure you that you run
no risks in following it. You should, of course, act with great
discretion, but the main thing is to prevent the Throne’s
Decree becoming an excuse for the banding together of
disorderly characters. I write this private letter under stress of
much natural apprehension, and you will therefore pray
forgive the haste and confusion of its contents, and I trust that
you will favour me in due course with your reply.
(Signed)
“Jung Lu.”
The “Beileh” Tsai Ying, Son of Prince Kung (Cashiered by Tzŭ Hsi for pro-
Boxer Proclivities), and his Son.
 XVII
THE DIARY OF HIS EXCELLENCY CHING SHAN

[Note.—Ching Shan, a Manchu of the Plain Yellow Banner Corps, was born in
1823. In 1863 he became a Metropolitan Graduate and Hanlin Compiler, especially
distinguished as a scholar in Sung philosophy. In the following year he was
appointed a Junior Secretary of the Imperial Household (Nei wu fu), rising to
Senior Secretary in 1869 and Comptroller in 1879. His father, Kuang Shun, had
held the post of Comptroller-General under the Emperor Tao-Kuang, with whom he
was for years on terms of intimacy; he was a kinsman of the Empress Dowager’s
family and in close touch with all the leading Manchu nobles. Ching Shan had
therefore exceptional opportunities of knowing all the gossip of the Court, of
learning the opinions and watching the movements of the high officials, Chinese
and Manchu, who stood nearest to the Throne. After holding office in several of the
Metropolitan Boards, he retired in 1894. He was tutor to Prince Tuan, Duke Tsai
Lan, and other sons of Prince Tun (younger son of the Emperor Tao-Kuang), and
therefore intimately associated with the leaders of the Boxer movement.
Seen even against the lurid background of the abomination of desolation which
overtook Peking in August 1900, Ching Shan’s fate was unusually tragic. Above
the storm and stress of battle and sudden death, of dangers from Boxers, wild
Kansuh soldiery and barbarian invaders, the old scholar’s domestic griefs, the
quarrels of his women folk, his son’s unfilial behaviour, strike a more poignant note
than any of his country’s fast pressing misfortunes. And with good cause. On the
15th August, after the entry of the allied forces into Peking and the flight of the
Empress Dowager, his wife, his senior concubine, and one of his daughters-in-law
committed suicide. He survived them but a few hours, meeting death at the hands
of his eldest son, En Ch’un, who pushed him down a well in his own courtyard.
This son was subsequently shot by British troops for harbouring armed Boxers.
The Diary was found by the translator in the private study of Ching Shan’s house
on August 18th and saved, in the nick of time, from being burnt by a party of Sikhs.
Many of the entries, which cover the period from January to August 1900, refer to
trivial and uninteresting matters. The following passages are selected chiefly
because of the light they throw on the part played by the Empress Dowager in that
tragedy of midsummer madness—on the strong hand and statecraft of the woman,
and on the unfathomable ignorance which characterises to-day the degenerate
descendants of Nurhachu. It should be explained that Ching Shan ( 景 善 ), who
retired from office in 1894, must be distinguished from Ching Hsin (敬信), who died
about 1904. The latter was also a Manchu and a favourite of Tzŭ Hsi, well known
to foreigners at the capital. He held various high posts, rose to be a Grand
Secretary, and remained in Peking after the flight of the Court, in charge of the
Palace. It was he who escorted the Diplomatic Body through the deserted halls of
the Forbidden City in September 1900. He was highly respected by all who knew
him.
Ching Shan, though of similarly high rank, was personally quite unknown to
foreigners, but a short note on his career (and another on that of Ching Hsin) will
be found in the “List of the Higher Metropolitan and provincial officials” periodically
compiled by the Chinese Secretariat of the British Legation; Edition of 1902, Kelly
and Walsh, Shanghai.]
25th Year of Kuang Hsü, 12th Moon, 25th Day (25th January,
1900).—Duke Tsai Lan came to see me, his old tutor, to-day. He has
much to tell me concerning the “Patriotic Harmony” train-bands (I Ho
Tuan) which have been raised in Shantung by Yü Hsien, the
Governor. Later, he described yesterday’s audience at the Palace; in
addition to the Grand Secretaries, the Presidents of Boards and the
Ministers of the Household, the “Sacred Mother” received Prince
Kung, his uncles Tsai Ying and Tsai Lien and Prince Tuan. The Old
Buddha announced her intention of selecting a new Emperor. She
said: “The nation has shown resentment and reproached me for
putting Kuang Hsü on the Throne, he being of the wrong generation;
furthermore, he himself has shown great lack of filial duty to me
notwithstanding the debt of gratitude he owed me for my kindness in
thus elevating him. Has he not plotted against me with traitors from
the south? I now propose therefore to depose him and to place a
new Emperor on the Throne, whose accession shall take place on
the first day of the New Year. It should be for you Ministers now to
consider what title should be given to Kuang Hsü upon his
abdication. There is a precedent for his removal from the Throne in
the case of the Emperor Ching T’ai of the Ming Dynasty who was
reduced to the rank of Prince and whose brother was restored to the
Throne after eight years of captivity among the Mongols.” There was
dead silence for some time in the Hall of Audience. At last the Grand
Secretary Hsü T’ung suggested as appropriate the title of “Hun-te-
Kung,” which means, “The Duke of Confused Virtue”—or well-
meaning bungler:—it had been given by the Mongol Dynasty to a
deposed Sung Emperor. The Old Buddha approved. She then
declared to the assembly that her choice of the new Emperor was
already made; it had fallen upon the eldest son of Prince Tuan,
whose great devotion to Her Majesty’s person was well known.
Henceforward Prince Tuan should be in constant attendance at the
Palace to supervise the education of his son. At this point the Grand
Secretary Sun Chia-nai[68] craved permission to speak. He implored
the Empress not to depose the Emperor; of a certainty there would
be rebellion in the Southern provinces. The choice of a new
Sovereign rested with her, but it could only be done after “ten
thousand years had elapsed” (i.e., after the death of the present
Emperor). The “Motherly Countenance” showed great wrath; turning
on Sun Chia-nai, she bade him remember that this was a family
council to which she only admitted Chinese as an act of grace. She
had already notified the Emperor of her intention, and he had no
objections to offer. The Empress then ordered all present to repair to
the Hall of Diligent Government there to await her and the Emperor,
and upon their coming to witness the draft of the Decree appointing
the Heir Apparent. The formal announcement of his accession to the
throne would be postponed until the first day of the New Year.
They proceeded therefore to the entrance of the appointed Hall,
and in a few minutes the Empress’s chair appeared at the gateway,
when all knelt and kowtowed three times. A number of eunuchs
accompanied her, but she bade them remain without. She sent
Major-domo Li Lien-ying to request the Emperor’s presence; he
came in his chair, alighting at the outer gate and kowtowed to the
Empress, who had taken her seat on the main throne within. She
beckoned him to come to the Hall, and he knelt again, all officials still
kneeling outside. “Chin lai, pu yung kuei hsia” (Come in, you need
not kneel), called Her Majesty. She bade him sit down, and
summoned next the princes and ministers—some thirty in all—to
enter. Again the Old Buddha repeated her reasons for the step she
was taking. The Emperor only said “What Your Majesty suggests is
quite proper and in accordance with my views.” At this the Grand
Secretary Jung Lu handed to the Empress the Decree which the
Grand Council had drafted.[69] She read it through and forthwith
ordered its promulgation. Nothing was said to “The Lord of Ten
Thousand Years” as to his being deposed; only the selection of the
Heir Apparent was discussed. The Grand Council then remained for
further audience, but the Princes were ordered to withdraw, so that
Duke Lan does not know what passed thereafter. The Emperor
seemed dazed, as one in a dream.
30th Day (30th January, 1900).—To-day Liu Shun shaved my
head; he leaves to-night for his home at Pao-ti-hsien there to spend
the new year. My eldest son, En Ch’u, is pressing me to give him fifty
taels to buy an ermine cloak; he is a bad son and most undutiful. Chi
Shou-ch’ing came to see me to-day; he has moved to “Kuai Pang”
Lane. He tells me that his father-in-law, Yü Hsien, is to be made
Governor of Shansi. The Old Buddha has received him in audience
since his removal from the Governorship of Shantung on account of
the murder of a French[70] missionary, and praised him for the
honesty and justice of his administration. She does not approve of
the Big Sword Society’s proposed extermination of foreigners,
because she does not believe they can do it; Yü Hsien goes often to
Prince Tuan’s palace, and they have many secret interviews. Prince
Tuan declares that if he were made President of the Tsung-li Yamên
he would make short work of all difficulties with foreigners. He is a
violent man and lacking in refinement.
1st Day of 26th Year of Kuang Hsü (31st January, 1900).—To-day
I am 78 years of age and my children mock me for being deaf. They
are bad sons and will never rise so high as their father has done.
When I was their age, between 20 and 30, the Emperor Tao-Kuang
had already praised my scholarship and presented me with a
complimentary scroll bearing a quotation from the writings of the
philosopher Chu.
This year will witness many strange events; the people all say so.
The eighth month is intercalary which, in a year that has “Keng” for
its cyclical character, has ever been an evil omen. The New Emperor
was to have been proclaimed to-day under the title of “Heng-
Ching”—all pervading prosperity—but my son En Lin tells me that
the new year sacrifices were performed by the Ta-A-Ko (heir
apparent) at the Palace of Imperial Longevity, acting only as Deputy
for the Emperor Kuang Hsü. The Ta-A-Ko is a boy of fourteen; very
intelligent, but violent-tempered. He walked on foot to the Palace
Hall from the Coal Hill Gate.
5th Moon, 5th Day: The Dragon Festival (1st June, 1900).[71]—
Arose at six o’clock and was washing my face in the small inner
room, when Huo Kuei, the gatekeeper, came in with the card of Kang
Yi, the Grand Secretary, and a present of ten pounds of pork, with
seasonable greetings. I was not aware that he had already returned
from his journey to Chu Chou, whither he had gone with Chao Shu-
ch’iao to examine and report on the doings of the “patriotic train
bands” (i.e. Boxers). He sends word by the messenger that he will
call upon me this morning.
My sons En Ch’u and En Shun are going to-day to a theatrical
performance at Chi Shou-ch’eng’s residence. My youngest son, En
Ming, is on duty at the Summer Palace, where, for the next four
days, the Old Buddha will be having theatricals. I am surprised that
Kang Yi is not out there also. No doubt he only returned to Peking
last night, and so does not resume his place on the Council till to-
morrow morning.
The Hour of the Monkey (3 p.m.).—Kang Yi has been here and I
persuaded him to stay for the mid-day meal. He is a worthy brother-
in-law, and, though twenty years younger than I am, as wise and
discreet a man as any on the Grand Council. He tells me that several
hundred foreign devil troops entered the City yesterday evening. He
and Chao Shu-ch’iao arrived at Peking at 4.30 p.m., and immediately
set to composing their memorial to the Empress Dowager about the
heaven-sent Boxers, for presentation to-morrow morning. Prince
Tuan has five days’ leave of absence: Kang Yi went to see him
yesterday evening. While they were discussing the situation, at the
Prince’s own house, there came a Captain of Prince Ch’ing’s
bodyguard with a message. Saluting Prince Tuan, he announced
that about 300 foreign soldiers had left Tientsin in the afternoon as
reinforcement for the Legation Guards. Prince Ch’ing implored
Prince Tuan not to oppose their entry, on the ground that a few
hundred foreigners, more or less, could make no difference. He
trusted that Prince Tuan would give orders to his Corps (the
“Celestial Tigers” Force) not to oppose the foreign devils. It was the
wish of the Old Buddha that they should be permitted to guard the
Legations. Prince Tuan asked for further details, and the Captain
said that Prince Ch’ing had received a telegram from the Governor-
General of Chihli (Yü Lu) to the effect that the detachment carried no
guns. At this Prince Tuan laughed scornfully and said “How can the
few resist the many? What indeed will a hundred puny hobgoblins,
more or less, matter?” Kang Yi, on the contrary, tells me that he
strongly urged Prince Tuan to issue orders to Chung Li, the
Commandant of the city, to oppose the entry of the foreign troops,
but it appears that Jung Lu had already ordered their admission.
Kang Yi is much incensed with Jung Lu about this, and cannot
understand his motives. It seems that towards the close of last year
Prince Tuan and Jung Lu had agreed to depose the Emperor and to
put the Heir Apparent on the Throne, and Tuan confesses that, were
it not for Jung Lu’s great influence with the Old Buddha she would
never have agreed to select his son as Heir Apparent. But now Jung
Lu is for ever denouncing the Boxers and warning the Empress
against encouraging and countenancing them. Prince Tuan and
Kang Yi despair of ever being able to induce her to support the
Boxers whole-heartedly so long as Jung Lu is against them. As an
example of her present attitude, Prince Tuan told Kang Yi one day
lately that his son, the Ta-a-ko, had dressed himself up as a Boxer
and was going through their drill in the Summer Palace grounds with
some eunuchs. The Old Buddha saw him and promptly gave orders
that he be confined to his rooms. She also reprimanded the Grand
Secretary, Hsü Tung, for not keeping a better watch on his pupil and
for permitting such unseemly behaviour, as she called it.
 H.M. The Empress Dowager and Ladies of her Court (1903).

Daughters of H. E. Yü Keng. Wife of H. E. Yü

Keng, ex-Minister to
Paris.
Second wife of H.M. Tzŭ Hsi. Empress Consort of
late Emperor. Kuang-Hsü, now
Empress Dowager.

After leaving Prince Tuan’s house, Kang Yi had gone out of the
city by the Ch’ien Men and had seen the foreign troops pass in. The
people muttered curses, he says, but no one molested them. What
does it matter? None of them will ever leave the city. Kang Yi’s
journey to Chu-chou has convinced him that the whole province
stands together as one man; even boys in their teens are drilling. Not
a doubt of it; the foreigner will be wiped out this time! At Chu-chou
the Departmental Magistrate, a man named Kung, had arrested
several Boxer leaders, but Kang Yi and Chao Shu-ch’iao ordered
them to be released and made them go through their mystic
evolutions and drill. It was a wonderful sight, scarcely to be believed;
several of them were shot, some more than once, yet rose uninjured
from the ground. This exhibition took place in the main courtyard of
the Magistrate’s Yamên, in the presence of an enormous crowd, tight
pressed, as compact as a wall. Chao Shu-ch’iao remembers having
seen many years ago, in his native province of Shensi, a similar
performance, and it is on record that similar marvels were seen at
the close of the Han Dynasty, when Chang Chio headed the Yellow
Turban insurrection against the Government and took many great
cities with half a million of followers. They were said to be under the
protection of the Jade Emperor[72] and quite impervious to sword-
thrusts. Kang Yi and Chao Shu-Ch’iao will memorialise the Empress
to-morrow, giving the results of their journey and begging her to
recognise the “patriotic train-bands” as a branch of the army. But
they should be placed under the supreme command of Prince Tuan
and Kang Yi, as Jung Lu, the Commander-in-Chief of the Northern
army, is so incredulous as to their efficacy against foreign troops.
Although Major Domo Li Lien-ying is a warm supporter of the
Boxers, and never wearies of describing their feats to the Old
Buddha, feats which he himself has witnessed, it is by no means
certain that the “kindly Mother” will heed him so long as Jung Lu is
opposed to any official encouragement of the movement. And,
besides, the nature of the Empress is peace-loving; she has seen
many springs and autumns. I myself know well her refined and
gentle tastes, her love of painting, poetry, and the theatre. When in a
good mood she is the most amiable and tractable of women, but at
times her rage is awful to witness. My father was Comptroller-
General of the Imperial Household, and it was his lot on one
occasion to experience her anger. This was in the sixth year of T’ung
Chih (1868), when she learned that the chief eunuch, “Hsiao
An’rh,”[73] had been decapitated in Shantung by the orders of the
Co-Regent, the late “Empress Dowager of the East.” She accused
the Comptrollers of the Household of being leagued together in
treachery against her, as they had not told her of what was going on
she declared that Prince Kung was plotting against her life, and that
all her attendants were associated in his treason. It was years before
she forgave him. All An’s fellow-eunuchs were examined under
torture by the Department responsible for the management and
discipline of the Household. When the chief eunuch’s betrayer was
discovered by this means, he was flogged to death by her orders in
the Palace. But nowadays the Old Buddha’s heart has softened,
even towards foreigners, and she will not allow any of them to be
done away with. One word from her would be sufficient to bring
about their immediate and complete destruction, so that neither dog
nor fowl be left alive, and no trace be left of all their foreign buildings.
Kang Yi stayed with me about two hours and left to go and see
Prince Tuan, who was expecting Major Domo Li Lien-ying to come
into the city this afternoon.
K’un Hsiu, Vice-President of the Board of Works, called to see me.
He tells me that Prince Ch’ing habitually ridicules the Boxers in
private conversation, declaring them to be utterly useless, and
unworthy of even a smile from a wise man. In public, however, he is
most cautious—last week when the Old Buddha asked his opinion of
them he replied by vaguely referring to the possible value of train-
bands for protection of the Empire.
9 p.m.—My son En Ch’u has returned from Chi Shou-ch’eng’s
theatricals; everyone was talking, he says, of Jung Lu’s folly in
allowing the foreign troops to enter the city yesterday. Chi’s father-in-
law, Yü Hsien, has written to him from Shansi saying that for the
present there are but few Boxers enrolled in that province, but he is
doing his best to further the movement, so that Shansi may unite
with the other provinces of the north “to destroy those who have
aroused the Emperor’s wrath.” By common report, Yüan Shih-k’ai
has now become a convert to Christianity: if he too were to suppress
the movement in Shantung, not death itself could expiate his guilt.
En Chu’s wife is most undutiful; this evening she has had a quarrel
with my senior concubine, and the two women almost came to
blows. Women are indeed difficult to manage; as Confucius has said,
“Keep them at a distance, they resent it; treat them familiarly, and
they do not respect you.” I am seventy-eight years of age and sore
troubled by my family; their misconduct is hard for an old man to
bear.
12th Day of the 5th Moon (June 8th, 1900).—My son, En Ming,
came in this morning about midday; as Officer of the Bodyguard he
had been in attendance on the Empress coming in from the Summer
Palace. Jung Lu had been there yesterday morning and had had a
long audience with Her Majesty. He gave her details of the burning of
the railway by the Boxers. She was seriously alarmed and decided to
return at once to the Winter Palace on the Southern Lake. It seems
she cannot make up her mind as to the Boxers’ invulnerability. Jung
Lu has again applied for leave. When he is absent from the Grand
Council, Kang Yi and Ch’i Hsiu have the greatest influence with her.
En Ming says that on the way to the city she kept urging the chair-
bearers to hurry, and seemed out of sorts—nervously fanning herself
all the time. At the Ying Hsiu gate of the Winter Palace the Emperor
and the Heir Apparent were kneeling to receive her. No sooner had
she reached the Palace than she summoned Prince Tuan to
audience, which lasted a long time. It is a pity that the Old Buddha
will not decide and act more promptly. The Emperor never speaks at
audience nowadays, although Her Majesty often asks him for his
opinion. Tung Fu-hsiang accompanied the Court into Peking; he
denounced Jung Lu at audience to-day, telling the Empress that if
only the Legations were attacked, he would undertake to demolish
them in five days; but that Jung Lu, by failing to support the Boxers,
was a traitor to the Dynasty. The Empire, said he, would be
endangered unless the present opportunity were seized to wipe off
old scores against the foreigner. Tung is a coarse, foul-spoken
fellow, most violent in his manner towards us Manchus. Kang Yi
hates him, but for the present is only too willing to make use of him.
14th day of the 5th Moon (June 10th).—Grand Councillor Ch’i Hsiu
called to-day—he showed me the draft of a Decree breaking off all
relations with foreigners, which he had prepared for the Empress’s
signature; so far, however, she has given no indication of agreeing to
make war against them. In the afternoon I went to Duke Lan’s
residence—to-day being his wife’s birthday. There are more than a
hundred Boxers living in his outer courtyard, most of them country-
folk, under the command of a Banner Captain named Wen Shun.
Among them are five or six lads of thirteen or fourteen who will fall
into a trance, foam at the mouth, then rise up and grasp wildly at
anything that comes within their reach, uttering the while strange
uncouth noises. Duke Lan believes that by their magic arts they will
be able to guide him, when the time comes, to the houses of
Christian converts (lit. Secondary Devils). He says that his wife goes
often to the Palace and that she has told the Old Buddha of these
things. The “Ta Kung Chu” (Princess Imperial and adopted daughter
of the Empress Dowager) has over two hundred and fifty Boxers
quartered at the Palace outside the Hou Men, but she has not dared
to tell the Empress Dowager. Her brother, the “Prince” Tsai Ying, is
also learning this drill. Truly it is a splendid society! The Kansuh
braves are now entering the Chinese city, and thousands of people
are preparing to leave Peking.
16th day of the 5th Moon (June 12th).—Jung Lu attended the
Grand Council this morning. Prince Li, the Senior Councillor, did not
dare to tell the Empress that a foreign devil[74] had been killed
yesterday by the Kansuh braves just outside the Yung-Ting Gate.
Jung Lu was called to the audience chamber after Prince Li had
retired, and Kang Yi believes that he urged her to order Tung Fu-
hsiang to leave the city with his troops and at the same time to issue
an Edict, bestowing posthumous honours on the murdered foreigner.
None of the other Grand Councillors were summoned to audience;
when Jung Lu left the presence, he returned straightway to his own
house and spake no word to any of his colleagues. It is rumoured
that more foreign troops are coming to Peking, and that the Empress
Dowager will not permit them to enter the city. In this Jung Lu agrees
with her. He has advised that all foreigners shall be allowed to leave
Peking, but that it is contrary to the law of nations to attack the
accredited representatives of foreign Powers.
18th Day of the 5th Moon (June 14th).—Yesterday, just before
nightfall, En Ch’u came in to tell me that several hundred Boxers had
entered the Ha-Ta Gate. I was sorry that my lameness prevented me
from going out to see them, but I sent Hao Ching-ting to report. Well
indeed, is it, that I have lived to see this day; almost every foreign
building except the Legations had been burnt to the ground.
Throughout the night flames burst forth in every quarter of the city; a
grand sight! Kang Yi has sent me a message to say that he and
Duke Lan went to the Shun Chih (S.W.) Gate at about the third
watch to encourage and direct the Boxers who were burning the
French Church. Hundreds of converts were burnt to death, men,
women and children, and so great was the stench of burning flesh
that Duke Lan and Kang Yi were compelled to hold their noses. At
dawn Kang Yi went to the Palace to attend the Grand Council. Major
Domo Li Lien-ying told him that the Old Buddha had watched the
conflagrations from the hillock to the west of the Southern Lake, and
had plainly seen the destruction of the French Church at the Shun-
Chih Men. Li Lien-ying had told her that the foreigners had first fired
on the crowd inside the Ha-Ta Gate, and that this had enraged the
patriotic braves who had retaliated by slaughtering the converts. It
seems that Hsü T’ung is unable to get out of his house because the
foreign devils have barricaded the street; the Old Buddha is anxious
about him and has commanded Prince Ch’ing to ask the foreign
Legations to let him pass out. She is amazed at the Boxers’ courage,
and Kang Yi believes that she is about to give her consent to a
general attack upon the Legations. Nevertheless, Li Lien-ying has
warned him that exaggerated praise of the Boxers arouses her
suspicions, and that, with the exception of Jung Lu, all the Grand
Councillors are afraid to advise her. Her Majesty is moving into the
Palace of Peaceful Longevity in the Forbidden City, as all these
alarms and excursions disturb her sleep at the Lake Palace.
21st Day of the 5th Moon (June 17th).—A great fire has been
raging all to-day in the southern city. Those reckless Boxers set fire
to a foreign medicine store in the Ta Sha-lan’rh, and from this the
flames spread rapidly, destroying the shops of the wealthy
goldsmiths and assayers. Rightly says the Canon of History, “When
fire rages on the Kun Lun ridge, common pebble and precious jade
will be consumed together.” The Boxers themselves are worthy men,
but there are among them many evil doers whose only desire is
plunder; these men, wearing the Boxer uniform, bring discredit upon
the real “patriotic braves.” The outer tower of the Ch’ien Men having
caught fire, the Empress ordered Jung Lu to send Banner troops on
to the wall so as to prevent any ruffians entering the Tartar City by
the Ta Ch’ing Gate.
In the afternoon my married niece came over to see her aunt: she
has been greatly alarmed by the uproar and fighting near her home,
so they are moving to her father-in-law’s house in the northern city.
I hear that Prince Tuan has now persuaded the Old Buddha to
appoint him President of the Tsung Li Yamên; also that she has
authorised him to require all foreigners to leave Peking, but they are
to be protected against any attacks by the Boxers. My old friend, Ch’i
Hsiu, has been made a Minister of the Tsung Li Yamên, also Na
T’ung, the Sub-Chancellor of the Grand Secretariat. The latter
memorialised lately advising the Throne to declare war before the
foreign Powers could send reinforcements; the Old Buddha has
placed him in the Tsung Li Yamên to assist Prince Tuan and Chi Hsiu
in arranging for the foreigners’ departure from the city. Prince Ch’ing
still says nothing for or against the Boxers. Jung Lu has offered to
escort the foreign Ministers half-way to Tientsin, but he stipulates
that the Viceroyalty of Chihli must be taken from Yü Lu. My wife was
taken seriously ill this evening; she kept on muttering incoherently
and rolling about on the k’ang as if in great pain. We sent for Dr.
Yung, who applied acupuncture.
24th Day of the 5th Moon (June 20th).—Yesterday, at mid-day, Yü
Lu’s memorial reached the Throne. He says that the foreign devils
have actually demanded the surrender of the Taku forts, and he begs
the Empress Dowager to declare war on them forthwith, to make
them atone for their insolence and treachery. A special meeting of
the Grand Council was immediately called. The Old Buddha was
very wroth, but said she would postpone her decision until to-day,
when all the Princes, Presidents and Vice-Presidents of the Boards
and Ministries, and the Lieutenant-Generals of Banners, would meet
in special audience. Prince Tuan, Ch’i Hsiu and Na T’ung showed
her a despatch from the foreign Ministers couched in most insolent
language demanding her immediate abdication, the degradation of
the Heir Apparent, and the restoration of the Emperor.[75] The
Ministers also asked that the Emperor should allow 10,000 foreign
troops to enter Peking to restore order. Kang Yi came to tell me that
never had he seen the Old Buddha so angry, not even when she
learned of K’ang Yu-wei’s treason. “How dare they question my
authority!” she exclaimed. “If I can bear this, what must not be
borne? The insults of these foreigners pass all bounds. Let us
exterminate them before we eat our morning meal.”[76]
The wrath of the Old Buddha is indeed beyond control; neither
Jung Lu, nor any other can stop her now. She has told Jung Lu that if
he wishes, he may still offer to escort the foreign Ministers to
Tientsin, but she will give no guarantee for their safety on the journey
because of their monstrous suggestion that she should abdicate.
She does not absolutely desire their death, but says that the
consideration she showed them in allowing the Legation guards to
enter the city, and her solicitude in restraining the Boxers, have been
ill-requited. “It were better,” says she, “to go down in one desperate
encounter than to surrender our just rights at the bidding of the
foreigner.”
Though only a woman, Her Majesty Tzŭ Hsi has all the courage of
a man, and more than the ordinary man’s intelligence.
24th Day of the 5th Moon: The Hour of the Cock, 5-7 p.m. (20th
June).—I have just returned from visiting my brother-in-law, the
Grand Secretary Kang Yi; he told me all about this morning’s
audience. At the hour of the Tiger (3-5 a.m.) the Grand Council
assembled in the Palace by the Lake, and were received by the Old
Buddha in the Pavilion of the Ceremonial Phœnix. All were there,
Prince Li, Jung Lu, Kang Yi, Wang Wen-shao, Ch’i Hsiu, and Chao
Shu-ch’iao, but the Emperor was absent. This was a special
audience, preparatory to the general audience of all the Princes and
Ministers, and its object was to give the Grand Council an
opportunity of laying before Her Majesty any new facts or opinions
bearing upon the situation.
With tears in his eyes, Jung Lu knelt before Her Majesty; he
confessed that the foreigners had only themselves to blame if China
declared war upon them, but he urged her to bear in mind that an
attack on the Legations, as recommended by Prince Tuan and the
rest of the Council, might entail the ruin of the ancestral shrines of
the Dynasty, as well as the altars of the local and tutelary Gods.
What good purpose, he asked, would be served by the besieging
nay, even by the destruction, of this isolated handful of Europeans?
What lustre could it add to the Imperial arms? Obviously, it must be
waste of energy and misdirected purpose.
The Old Buddha replied that if these were his views, he had better
persuade the foreigners to leave the city before the attack began;
she could no longer restrain the patriotic movement, even if she
wished. If therefore, he had no better advice than this to offer, he
might consider himself excused from further attendance at the
Council.
Jung Lu thereupon kowtowed thrice and left the audience hall to
return to his own house. Upon his departure, Ch’i Hsiu drew from his
boot the draft of the Decree which was to declare war. Her Majesty
read it and exclaimed, “Admirable, admirable! These are exactly my
views.” She asked each Grand Councillor in turn for his opinion, and
they declared unanimously in favour of hostilities. It was now the
hour appointed for the general audience and Li-Lien-ying came in to
conduct her Majesty to her own apartments to take tea before
proceeding to the “Hall of Diligent Government.”
All the leading members of the Imperial Clan were kneeling at the
entrance to the Hall, awaiting their Majesties’ arrival: the Princes
Kung, Ch’un and Tuan; the “Beilehs” Tsai Lien and Tsai Ying; Duke
Lan and his brother the “Beitzu” Ying; Prince Ch’ing and the five
Grand Councillors; the Princes Chuang, Su and Yi; the Presidents,
Chinese and Manchu, of the six Boards and the nine Ministries; the
Lieutenants-General of the twenty-four Banner divisions; and the
Comptrollers of the Imperial Household. Their Majesties arrived
together in chairs, borne by four bearers. The Emperor alighted first,
and knelt as the “benign mother” left her palanquin and entered the
Hall, supported by the Chief Eunuch Li Lien-ying, and by his
immediate subordinate, T’sui Chin. The Emperor was ghastly pale,
and it was observed that he trembled as he took his seat on the
Lower Throne by the Empress Dowager’s side.