Experiments Manual To Accompany Digital Electronics Principles and Applications 9Th Edition Tokheim Full Chapter

Experiments Manual To Accompany
Digital Electronics: Principles and

Applications, 9th Edition Tokheim
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DIGITAL ELECTRONICS: PRINCIPLES AND APPLICATIONS
Published by McGraw Hill LLC, 1325 Avenue of the Americas, New

York, NY 10121. Copyright ©2022 by McGraw Hill LLC. All rights
reserved. Printed in the United States of America. No part of this
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ISBN 978-1-260-59786-8
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Contents page v
Preface ix
Acknowledgments x
Walkthrough xii
About the Author xiv
Safety xv
Chapter 1 Digital Electronics 1

1-1 What Is a Digital Signal? 2
1-2 Why Use Digital Circuits? 4
1-3 Where Are Digital Circuits Used? 8
1-4 How Do You Generate a Digital Signal? 9
1-5 How Do You Test for a Digital Signal? 15
1-6 Simple Instruments 19
Summary 22
Correlated Experiments 22
Chapter Review Questions 22
Critical Thinking Questions 24
Answers to Self-Tests 25
Chapter 2 Numbers We Use in Digital Electronics 26
2-1 Counting in Decimal and Binary 26
2-2 Place Value 27
2-3 Binary to Decimal Conversion 29
2-4 Decimal to Binary Conversion 30
2-5 Electronic Translators 31
2-6 Hexadecimal Numbers 34
2-7 Octal Numbers 36
2-8 Bits, Bytes, Nibbles, and Word Size 37
Summary 39
Chapter 3 Logic Gates 43

3-1 The AND Gate 43
3-2 The OR Gate 46
3-3 The Inverter and Buffer 48
3-4 The NAND Gate 50
3-5 The NOR Gate 51
3-6 The Exclusive OR Gate 53
3-7 The Exclusive NOR Gate 54
3-8 The NAND Gate as a Universal Gate 56
3-9 The NOR Gate as a Universal Gate 59
3-10 Gates with More Than Two Inputs 63
3-11 Using Inverters to Convert Gates 65
3-12 Practical TTL Logic Gates 68
3-13 Practical CMOS Logic Gates 71
3-14 Troubleshooting Simple Gate Circuits 75
3-15 IEEE Logic Symbols 77
3-16 Simple Logic Gate Applications 79
3-17 Logic Functions Using Software (BASIC Stamp Module) 83
Summary 88
Chapter 4 Combining Logic Gates 96

4-1 Constructing Circuits from Boolean Expressions 97
4-2 Drawing a Circuit from a Maxterm Boolean Expression 98
4-3 Truth Tables and Boolean Expressions 99
4-4 Sample Problem 103
4-5 Simplifying Boolean Expressions 105
4-6 Boolean Algebra 106
4-7 Karnaugh Maps 114
4-8 Karnaugh Maps with Three Variables 115
4-9 Karnaugh Maps with Four Variables 117
4-10 More Karnaugh Maps 118
4-11 A Five-Variable Karnaugh Map 119
4-12 Using NAND Logic 120
4-13 Computer Simulations: Logic Converter 122
4-14 Solving Logic Problems: Data Selectors 126
4-15 Programmable Logic Devices (PLDs) 130
4-16 Using De Morgan’s Theorems 138
4-17 Solving a Logic Problem (BASIC Stamp Module) 140 page vi
Summary 145
Chapter 5 IC Specifications and Simple Interfacing 155

5-1 Logic Levels and Noise Margin 155
5-2 Other Digital IC Specifications 160
5-3 MOS and CMOS ICs 165
5-4 Interfacing TTL and CMOS with Switches 167
5-5 Interfacing TTL and CMOS with LEDs 171
5-6 Interfacing TTL and CMOS ICs 175
5-7 Interfacing with Buzzers, Relays, Motors, and Solenoids 179
5-8 Optoisolators 182
5-9 Interfacing with Servo and Stepper Motors 185
5-10 Using Hall-Effect Sensors 193
5-11 Troubleshooting Simple Logic Circuits 200
5-12 Interfacing the Servo (BASIC Stamp Module) 201
Summary 204
Chapter 6 Encoding, Decoding, and Seven-Segment

Displays 212
6-1 The 8421 BCD Code 212
6-2 The Excess-3 Code 214
6-3 The Gray Code 215
6-4 The ASCII Code 218
6-5 Encoders 219
6-6 Seven-Segment LED Displays 221
6-7 Decoders 224
6-8 BCD-to-Seven-Segment Decoder/Drivers 225
6-9 Liquid-Crystal Displays 229
6-10 Using CMOS to Drive an LCD Display 234
6-11 Vacuum Fluorescent Displays 237
6-12 Driving a VF Display 240
6-13 Troubleshooting a Decoding Circuit 243
Summary 245
Chapter 7 Flip-Flops 252

7-1 The R-S Flip-Flop 252
7-2 The Clocked R-S Flip-Flop 255
7-3 The D Flip-Flop 257
7-4 The J-K Flip-Flop 259
7-5 IC Latches 263
7-6 Triggering Flip-Flops 265
7-7 Schmitt Trigger 267
7-8 IEEE Logic Symbols 268
7-9 Application: Latched Encoder-Decoder System 270
Summary 273
Chapter 8 Counters 278

8-1 Ripple Counters 278
8-2 Mod-10 Ripple Counters 281
8-3 Synchronous Counters 282
8-4 Down Counters 283
8-5 Self-Stopping Counters 285
8-6 Counters as Frequency Dividers 286
8-7 TTL IC Counters 288
8-8 CMOS IC Counters 292
8-9 A Three-Digit BCD Counter 296
8-10 Counting Real-World Events 300
8-11 Using a CMOS Counter in an Electronic Game 304
8-12 Using Counters—An Experimental Tachometer 307
8-13 Troubleshooting a Counter 311
Summary 314
page vii
Chapter 9 Shift Registers 321
9-1 Serial-Load Shift Registers 323
9-2 Parallel-Load Shift Registers 324
9-3 A Universal Shift Register 327
9-4 Using the 74LS194 IC Shift Register 329
9-5 An 8-Bit CMOS Shift Register 331
9-6 Using Shift Registers: Digital Roulette 333
9-7 Troubleshooting a Simple Shift Register 338
Summary 340
Critical Thinking Questions 342 page viii
Chapter 10 Arithmetic Circuits 345

10-1 Binary Addition 345
10-2 Half Adders 347
10-3 Full Adders 348
10-4 3-Bit Adders 350
10-5 Binary Subtraction 351
10-6 Parallel Subtractors 353
10-7 IC Adders 355
10-8 Binary Multiplication 358
10-9 Binary Multipliers 360
10-102s Complement Notation, Addition, and Subtraction 363
10-112s Complement Adders/Subtractors 368
10-12Troubleshooting a Full Adder 370
Summary 372
Chapter 11 Memories 377

11-1 Overview of Memory 378
11-2 Random-Access Memory (RAM) 381
11-3 Static RAM ICs 383
11-4 Using a SRAM 386
11-5 Read-Only Memory (ROM) 388
11-6 Using a ROM 391
11-7 Programmable Read-Only Memory [PROM] 393
11-8 Nonvolatile Read/Write Memory 397
11-9 Memory Packaging 400
11-10Computer Bulk Storage Devices 403
11-11Digital Potentiometer: Using NV Memory 410
Summary 414
Chapter 12 Simple Digital Systems 419

12-1 Elements of a System 419
12-2 A Digital System on an IC 422
12-3 Digital Games 423
12-4 The Digital Clock 425
12-5 The LSI Digital Clock 429
12-6 The Frequency Counter 434
12-7 An Experimental Frequency Counter 439
12-8 LCD Timer with Alarm 441
12-9 Simple Distance Sensing 447
12-10JTAG/Boundary Scan 453
Summary 456
Chapter 13 Computer Systems 461

13-1 The Computer 461
13-2 The Microcomputer 463
13-3 Microcomputer Operation 466
13-4 Microcomputer Address Decoding 470
13-5 Data Transmission 473
13-6 Detecting Errors in Data Transmissions 477
13-7 Data Transmission in a Computer System 480
13-8 Programmable Logic Controllers 485
13-9 Microcontrollers 489
13-10The BASIC Stamp Microcontroller Modules 491
13-11Digital Signal Processing 498
13-12DSP in a Digital Camera 502
13-13Microcontroller: Photo Input and Servo Motor Output 504
Summary 509
Chapter 14 Connecting with Analog Devices 515
14-1 D/A Conversion 516
14-2 Operational Amplifiers 517
14-3 A Basic D/A Converter 518
14-4 Ladder-Type D/A Converters 520
14-5 An A/D Converter 522
14-6 Voltage Comparators 524
14-7 An Elementary Digital Voltmeter 526
14-8 Other A/D Converters 528
14-9 A/D Converter Specifications 532
14-10An A/D Converter IC 533
14-11Digital Light Meter 536
14-12Digitizing Temperature 539
Summary 541
Appendix A Solder and the Soldering Process 546

Appendix B 2s Complement Conversions 551
Glossary of Terms and Symbols 552

Index 566
Preface page v
Digital Electronics: Principles and Applications, ninth edition, is an

easy-to-read introductory text for students new to the field of digital
electronics. Providing entry-level knowledge and skills for a wide
range of occupations is the goal of this textbook and its ancillary
materials. Prerequisites are general math and introductory
electricity/electronics. Binary math, Boolean concepts, simple
programming, and various codes are introduced and explained as
needed. Concepts are connected to practical applications, and a
systems approach is followed that reflects current practice in
industry. Earlier editions of the text have been used successfully in a
wide range of programs: electronic technology, electrical trades and
apprenticeship training, computer repair, communications
electronics, and computer science, to name a few. This concise and
practical text can be used in any program needing a quick and
readable overview of digital principles.
New to This Edition

Over 100 Multisim simulation files have been developed to bring the
examples within these chapters to life. These simulation files can be
run within Multisim, to provide students with a firsthand experience
with the examples presented in the textbook. Multisim simulation
files have also been developed for the laboratory experiments to
provide an improved learning experience for the student.
The experiments in the Experiments Manual are designed to
provide a hands-on learning experience, to reinforce the topics
covered in this textbook. The titles of the individual experiments
associated with each chapter are listed in a new section,
Correlational Experiments, following the summary at the end of
each chapter in this textbook. This listing will help the reader
identify the experiments in the Experiments Manual associated with
the topics covered in each chapter.
Chapter 1
• Expanded the formulas and examples.
• Revised the section on the oscilloscope.
Chapter 2
• Revised and expanded the section on binary to decimal
conversion.
• Expanded the Bit, Bytes, Nibbles, and Words section.
Chapter 3
• Revised and expanded the section on the universal NAND gate.
• Added a new section on the use of a NOR gate as a universal
gate.
• Revised the coverage of DeMorgan’s theorem.
• Revised the Summary section.
Chapter 4
• Added a new section on Boolean algebra.
• Expanded the coverage of Karnaugh maps.
• Revised the Summary section.
Chapter 5
• Expanded the section on digital IC specifications.
• Added new examples for the calculation of fan-out and power
dissipation.
Chapter 6
• Revised the coverage of the ASCII codes.
Chapter 8
• Revised and expanded the section on ripple counters.
Chapter 11
• Revised the coverage of optical storage devices.
Chapter 12
• Introduced a real-time clock IC in the LSI digital clock section.
• Expanded the coverage of distance measurement using
ultrasound.
Chapter 13
• Expanded the section on the microcomputer.
Chapter 14
• Revised the coverage of operational amplifiers in D/A
conversion.
page 321
Additional Resources
An Experiments Manual for Digital Electronics contains a
comprehensive test, a variety of hands-on lab exercises and
experiments, and additional problems for each chapter in the
textbook.
McGraw-Hill Connect includes comprehensive Multisim files,
keyed to circuits found in the ninth edition, and a Multisim primer,
which provides a tutorial on the software for new users.
Instructors can access instructor resources on McGraw-Hill
Connect to find a wide selection of information including:
• An Instructor’s Manual that includes a list of the parts and
equipment needed to perform lab experiments, learning
outcomes for each chapter, answers to chapter review
questions and problems, and more.
• PowerPoint presentations that provide comprehensive coverage
of the topics in each chapter. A set of questions at the end of
each chapter’s slide deck provides a review of the topics
covered.
• An image library that contains all of the figures presented in
this textbook.
• A test bank with questions for each chapter.
Remote Proctoring & Browser-Locking

Capabilities
New remote proctoring and browser-locking capabilities, hosted by

Proctorio within Connect, provide control of the assessment
environment by enabling security options and verifying the identity
of the student.
Seamlessly integrated within Connect, these services allow
instructors to control students’ assessment experience by restricting
browser activity, recording students’ activity, and verifying students
are doing their own work.
Instant and detailed reporting gives instructors an at-a-glance
view of potential academic integrity concerns, thereby avoiding
personal bias and supporting evidence-based claims.
Acknowledgments page x
Roger Tokheim thanks family members Marshall, Rachael, Dan, Jack,

Ben, and Carrie for their help on this project.
Patrick Hoppe would like to thank his wife Rose and the team at
McGraw-Hill for their invaluable help on this project: Theresa Collins,
Product Development Coordinator; Beth Baugh, Product Developer;
Carey Lange, Copy Editor; Sandy Wille and Jane Mohr, Content
Project Managers; David Hash, Designer; and Lorraine Buczek,
Content Licensing Specialist.
page xi
Walkthrough page xii
Digital Electronics: Principles and Applications, ninth edition, is designed

for a first course in digital electronics. It provides a concise, modern, and
practical approach that’s suitable for a range of electricity and electronics
programs. With its easy-to-read style, numerous full-color illustrations, and
accessible math level, the text is ideal for readers who need to learn the
essentials of digital electronics and apply them to on-the-job situations.
page xiii
About the Author page xii
Over several decades, Roger L. Tokheim has published many

textbooks and lab manuals in the areas of digital electronics and
microprocessors. His books have been translated into nine
languages. He taught technical subjects including electronics for
more than 35 years in public schools.
Patrick Hoppe has been the Division Chair for Engineering
Technology and lead electronics instructor at Gateway Technical
College for the past 21 years. He is also the coauthor of Electronic
Principles, 9th edition (McGraw-Hill) and its Experiments Manual. Pat
has received state and national awards for his teaching, including
the NISOD Excellence award.
Safety page xv
Electric and electronic circuits can be dangerous. Safe practices are

necessary to prevent electrical shock, fires, explosions, mechanical
damage, and injuries resulting from the improper use of tools.
Perhaps the greatest hazard is electrical shock. A current through
the human body in excess of 10 milliamperes can paralyze the
victim and make it impossible to let go of a “live” conductor or
component. Ten milliamperes is a rather small amount of current
flow: It is only ten one-thousandths of an ampere. An ordinary
flashlight can provide more than 100 times that amount of current!
Flashlight cells and batteries are safe to handle because the
resistance of human skin is normally high enough to keep the
current flow very small. For example, touching an ordinary 1.5-V cell
produces a current flow in the microampere range (a microampere
is one-millionth of an ampere). The amount of current is too small
to be noticed.
High voltage, one the other hand, can force enough current
through the skin to produce a shock. If the current approaches 100
milliamperes or more, the shock can be fatal. Thus, the danger of
shock increases with voltage. Those who work with high voltage
must be properly trained and equipped.
When human skin is moist or cut, its resistance to the flow of
electricity can drop drastically. When this happens, even moderate
voltages may cause a serious shock. Experienced technicians know
this, and they also know that so-called low-voltage equipment may
have a high-voltage section or two. In other words, they do not
practice two methods of working with circuits: one for high voltage
and one for low voltage. They follow safe procedures at all times.
They do not assume protective devices are working. They do not
assume a circuit is off even though the switch is in the OFF position.
They know the switch could be defective.
Even a low-voltage, high-current-capacity system like an
automotive electrical system can be quite dangerous. Short-
circuiting such a system with a ring or metal watchband can cause
very severe burns—especially when the ring or band welds to the
points being shorted.
As your knowledge and experience grow, you will learn many
specific safe procedures for dealing with electricity and electronics.
In the meantime:
1. Always follow procedures.
2. Use service manuals as often as possible. They often contain
specific safety information. Read, and comply with, all
appropriate material safety data sheets.
3. Investigate before you act.
4. When in doubt, do not act. Ask your instructor or supervisor.
General Safety Rules for Electricity and

Electronics
Safe practices will protect you and your fellow workers. Study the
following rules. Discuss them with others, and ask your instructor
about any you do not understand.
1. Do not work when you are tired or taking medicine that makes
you drowsy.
2. Do not work in poor light.
3. Do not work in damp areas or with wet shoes or clothing.
4. Use approved tools, equipment, and protective devices.
5. Avoid wearing rings, bracelets, and similar metal items when
working around exposed electric circuits.
6. Never assume that a circuit is off. Double-check it with an
instrument that you are sure is operational.
7. Some situations require a “buddy system” to guarantee that
power will not be turned on while a technician is still working
on a circuit.
8. Never tamper with or try to override safety devices such as an
interlock (a type of switch that automatically removes power
when a door is opened or a panel removed).
9. Keep tools and test equipment clean and in good working
condition. Replace insulated probes and leads at the first sign
of deterioration.
10.Some devices, such as capacitors, can store a lethal charge.
They may store this charge for long periods of time. You must
be certain these devices are discharged before working around
them.
11.Do not remove grounds and do not use adapters that page xvi
defeat the equipment ground.
12.Use only an approved fire extinguisher for electrical and
electronic equipment. Water can conduct electricity and may
severely damage equipment. Carbon dioxide (CO2) or
Halotron-type extinguishers are usually preferred. Foam-type
extinguishers may also be desired in some cases. Commercial
fire extinguishers are rated for the type of fires for which they
are effective. Use only those rated for the proper working
conditions.
13.Follow directions when using solvents and other chemicals.
They may be toxic, flammable, or may damage certain
materials such as plastics. Always read and follow the
appropriate material safety data sheets.
14.A few materials used in electronic equipment are toxic.
Examples include tantalum capacitors and beryllium oxide
transistor cases. These devices should not be crushed or
abraded, and you should wash your hands thoroughly after
handling them. Other materials (such as heat shrink tubing)
may produce irritating fumes if overheated. Always read and
follow the appropriate material safety data sheets.
15.Certain circuit components affect the safe performance of
equipment and systems. Use only exact or approved
replacement parts.
16.Use protective clothing and safety glasses when handling
high-vacuum devices such as picture tubes and cathode-ray
tubes.
17.Don’t work on equipment before you know proper procedures
and are aware of any potential safety hazards.
18.Many accidents have been caused by people rushing and
cutting corners. Take the time required to protect yourself and
others. Running, horseplay, and practical jokes are strictly
forbidden in shops and laboratories.
19.Never look directly into light emitting diodes or fiber- optic
cables; some light sources, although invisible, can cause
serious eye damage.
Circuits and equipment must be treated with respect. Learn how

they work and the proper way of working on them. Always practice
safety. Your health and life depend on it.
Electronics workers use specialized safety knowledge.
Light Poet/Shutterstock
CHAPTER 1 Digital page 1
Electronics
Learning Outcomes
This chapter will help you to:
1-1 Identify several characteristics of digital circuits as opposed to
analog circuits. Differentiate between digital and analog
signals, and identify the HIGH and LOW portions of a digital
waveform.
1-2 Classify the signals (analog or digital) in several application
circuits. Analyze the operation of several liquid-measuring
circuits. Explain why converting analog inputs (currents and
voltages) from sensors to digital form can be useful.
1-3 List several common pieces of electronic gear that contain
digital circuitry. Discuss the demand for computer and
electronics technicians, and identify training opportunities.
1-4 List three types of multivibrators, and describe how they
generate types of digital signals. Analyze several multivibrators
and switch debouncing circuits.
1-5 Analyze several logic-level indicator circuits. Interpret logic
probe readings during testing of a digital circuit. Understand
the definitions of HIGH, LOW, and undefined when observing
logic levels in both TTL and CMOS digital circuitry.
1-6 Demonstrate the use of several lab instruments.
E ngineers generally classify electronic circuits as being either analog or

digital in nature. Historically, most electronic products contained
analog circuitry. Most newly designed electronic devices contain digital
circuitry. This chapter introduces you to the world of digital electronics.
What are the clues that an electronic product contains digital circuitry?
Signs that a device contains digital circuitry include:
Identifying digital products
1. Does it have a display that shows numbers, letters, pictures, or video?
2. Does it have a memory or can it store information?
3. Can the device be programmed?
4. Can it be connected to the Internet?
If the answer to any one of the four questions is yes, then the product
probably contains digital circuitry.
Digital circuitry is quickly becoming pervasive because of its advantages
over analog including:
Advantages of digital
1. Generally, digital circuits are easier to design using modern integrated
circuits.
2. Information storage is easier to implement with digital.
3. Devices can be made programmable with digital.
4. More accuracy and precision are possible.
5. Digital circuitry is less affected by unwanted electrical interference
called noise.
All persons working in electronics must have knowledge of digital
electronic circuits. You will use simple integrated circuits and displays to
demonstrate the principles of digital electronics.
page 2
1-1 What Is a Digital Signal?
In your experience with electricity and electronics you have probably used
analog circuits. The circuit in Fig. 1-1(a) puts out an analog signal or
voltage. As the wiper on the potentiometer is moved upward, the voltage
from points A to B gradually increases. When the wiper is moved
downward, the voltage gradually decreases from 5 to 0 volts (V). The
waveform diagram in Fig. 1-1(b) is a graph of the analog output. On the
left side the voltage from A to B is gradually increasing to 5 V; on the right
side the voltage is gradually decreasing to 0 V. By stopping the
potentiometer wiper at any midpoint, we can get an output voltage
anywhere between 0 and 5 V. An analog device, then, is one that has a
signal which varies continuously in step with the input.
Fig. 1-1 (a) Analog output from a potentiometer. (b) Analog signal waveform.
Analog signal
A digital device operates with a digital signal. Figure 1-2(a) pictures a
square-wave generator. The generator produces a square waveform that
is displayed on the oscilloscope. The digital signal is only at +5 V or at 0
V, as diagrammed in Fig. 1-2(b). The voltage at point A moves from 0 to 5
V. The voltage then stays at +5 V for a time. At point B the voltage drops
immediately from +5 to 0 V. The voltage then stays at 0 V for a time.
Only two voltages are present in a digital electronic circuit. In the
waveform diagram in Fig. 1-2(b) these voltages are labeled HIGH and
LOW. The HIGH voltage is +5 V; the LOW voltage is 0 V. Later we shall
call the HIGH voltage (+5 V) a logical 1 and the LOW voltage (0 V) a
logical 0. Circuits that handle only HIGH and LOW signals are called digital
circuits.
Fig. 1-2 (a) Digital signal displayed on scope. (b) Digital signal waveform.
HIGH and LOW signals

Digital circuits
The digital signal in Fig. 1-2(b) could also be generated by a simple on-
off switch. A digital signal could also be generated by a transistor turning
on and off. Digital electronic signals are usually generated and processed
by integrated circuits (ICs).
Both analog and digital signals are represented in graph form in Figs. 1-
1 and 1-2. A signal can be defined as useful information transmitted
within, to, or from electronic circuits. Signals are commonly represented
as a voltage varying with time, as they are in Figs. 1-1 and 1-2. However,
a signal could be an electric current that either varies continuously
(analog) or has an on-off (HIGH-LOW) characteristic (digital). Within most
digital circuits, it is customary to represent signals in the voltage versus
time format. When digital circuits are interfaced with nondigital devices
such as lamps and motors, then the signal can be thought of as current
versus time.
The standard volt-ohm-millimeter (VOM) shown in Fig. 1-3(a) is an
example of an analog measuring device. As the voltage, resistance, or
current being measured by the VOM increases, the needle gradually and
continuously moves up the scale. A digital multimeter (DMM) is shown in
Fig. 1-3(b). This is an example of a digital measuring device. As the
current, resistance, or voltage being measured by the DMM increases, the
display jumps upward in small steps. The DMM is an example of digital
circuitry taking over tasks previously performed only by analog devices.
This trend toward digital circuitry is growing. Currently, the modern
technician’s bench probably has both a VOM and a DMM.
page 3
Fig. 1-3 (a) Analog meter. (b) Digital multimeter (DMM).

(a) DonNichols/iStock/Getty Images; (b) Volodymyr Krasyuk/Rawpixel/Shutterstock
Volt-ohm-millimeter
Digital multimeter
Trend toward digital circuitry
Self-Test
Supply the missing word in each statement.
1. Refer to Fig. 1-2. The +5-V level of the __________ (analog, digital)
signal could also be called a logical 1 or a __________ (HIGH, LOW).
2. A(n) __________ (analog, digital) device is one that has a signal
which varies continuously in step with the input.
3. Refer to Fig. 1-4. The input to the electronic block is classified as a(n)
__________ (analog, digital) signal.
4. Refer to Fig. 1-4. The output from the electronic block is classified as
a(n) __________ (analog, digital) signal.
5. An analog circuit is one that processes analog signals while a digital
circuit processes __________ signals.
Fig. 1-4 Block diagram of electronic circuit shaping a sine wave into a square
wave.
page 4
ABOUT ELECTRONICS
A Changing Field.
Electronics is among the most exciting areas of technical study. New
developments are reported weekly. Interestingly, most developments
are based on the fundamentals learned in the first classes in
electricity, analog and digital circuits, computer technology and
robotics, and communications.
1-2 Why Use Digital Circuits?

Electronics designers and technicians must have a working knowledge of
both analog and digital systems. The designer must decide if the system
will use analog or digital techniques or a combination of both. The
technicians must build a prototype or troubleshoot and repair digital,
analog, and combined systems.
Analog electronic systems have been popular in the past. Older page 5
TVs, telephones, and automobiles featured analog circuits. Before
modern digital computers, analog computers were used in some military
applications such as fire control on ships.
Most real-world information is analog in nature. Natural phenomena,
such as time, temperature, humidity, wind speed, radiation, and sound
intensity, are analog in nature. You probably have already measured
voltage, current, resistance, power, capacitance, inductance, and
frequency in other electricity and electronics courses. Other things to be
measured include pressure, weight, oxygen (and other gases), ultrasonic
sound, acceleration and tilt, vibration, direction (compass), global
positioning, proximity, magnetic fields, linear distance, and angle of
rotation (angular speed). They are all analog in nature. Engineers and
technicians commonly use sensors to measure these things. Many sensors
emit an analog signal.
A simple analog electronic system for measuring the amount of liquid in
a tank is illustrated in Fig. 1-5. The input to the system is a varying
resistance. The processing proceeds according to the Ohm’s law formula
shown in Eq. 1-1.
(1-1)
The output indicator is an ammeter, which is calibrated as a water tank

gauge. In the analog system in Fig. 1-5 as the water rises, the input
resistance drops. Decreasing the resistance R causes an increase in
current (I). Increased current causes the ammeter (water tank gauge) to
read higher.
The analog system in Fig. 1-5 is simple and efficient. The gauge in Fig.
1-5 gives an indication of the water level in the tank. If more information
is required about the water level, then a digital system such as the one
shown in Fig. 1-6 might be used.
Fig. 1-5 Analog system used to interpret float level in water tank.
Digital systems are required when data must be stored, used for
calculations, or displayed as numbers and/or letters. A somewhat more
complex arrangement for measuring the amount of liquid in a water tank
is the digital system shown in Fig. 1-6. The input is still a variable
resistance as it was in the analog system. The resistance is converted into
numbers by the analog-to-digital (A/D) converter. The central processing
unit (CPU) of a computer can manipulate the input data, output the
information, store the information, calculate things such as flow rates in
and out, calculate the time until the tank is full (or empty) based on flow
rates, and so forth. Digital systems are valuable when calculations, data
manipulations, data storage, and alphanumeric or video outputs are
required. Data transfers via the Internet are common.
Fig. 1-6 Digital system used to interpret float level in water tank.
Analog-to-digital (A/D) converter

Central processing unit (CPU)
page 6
Application: Automobile Fuel Indicators
Older automobile circuitry was analog in nature. Consider the traditional
fuel gauge system sketched in Fig. 1-7(a). The fuel tank sending unit has
a float that moves a wiper on a resistive material. Increasing the fuel level
in the tank raises the float, causing the wiper to move left on the resistor.
The resistor’s value decreases. Decreased circuit resistance causes an
increase in current in the series circuit (via Ohm’s law I = V∕R). The
increased current causes the needle on the fuel gauge (an ammeter) to
move clockwise toward F on the meter face. The older-style fuel gauge
diagram in Fig. 1-7(a) is an example of an analog circuit.
Newer automobiles may use the information from the fuel tank sending
unit for several purposes. Figure 1-7(b) shows the analog voltage from
the fuel tank sending unit entering the instrument panel module. The
computer module converts the analog input to digital information (A∕D
converter). The computer module also receives signals from the vehicle
speed sensor, engine control module (ECM). The input information is
processed by the computer module. The instrument control module will
drive a traditional-looking fuel gauge located on the instrument panel. A
tachometer is probably also located on the instrument panel. With the
inputs shown in Fig. 1-7(b), the instrumentation computer module
calculates the average-fuel-consumption and miles-to-empty data. The
driver sees this information displayed on an LCD screen.
Fig. 1-7 (a) Automobile fuel tank sending unit and fuel gauge. (b) Modern
automobile fuel indicator system with computer module.
It will be noted that information from the sensors in Fig. 1-7(b) page 7
comes in various forms. The fuel tank sending unit delivers a
variable-voltage signal to the computer module. With higher levels of fuel
in the tank the sending unit generates a higher positive voltage.
The vehicle speed sensor sends a variable-frequency signal. At lower
vehicle speeds the sensor emits a low-frequency signal. At higher speeds
a high-frequency signal is sent to the computer module.
The engine control module sends several digital signals to the
instrument control module. The engine control module determines how
much fuel is injected into the cylinders of the engine and the timing.
Digital Circuitry: Advantages and Limitations
Some of the advantages of using digital circuitry instead of analog are as
follows:
1. Inexpensive ICs can be used with few external components.
2. Information can be stored for short periods or indefinitely.
3. Data can be used for precise calculations.
4. Systems can be designed more easily using compatible digital logic
families.
5. Systems can be programmed and show some manner of
“intelligence.”
6. Alphanumeric, picture, and video information can be viewed using a
variety of electronic displays.
7. Digital circuits are less affected by unwanted electrical interference
called noise.
8. Such circuits are compatible with the Internet and computers.
The limitations of digital circuitry are as follows:

1. Most real-world events are analog in nature.
2. Analog processing is usually simpler and faster.
Digital circuits are appearing in more and more products primarily

because of low-cost, reliable digital ICs. Other reasons for their growing
popularity are accuracy, added stability, computer compatibility, memory,
ease of use, simplicity of design, and compatibility with a variety of
displays.
Internet Connection
Search the web for LED, LCD, and VFD seven-segment displays.
Self-Test
Answer the following questions.
6. Generally, electronic circuits are classified as either analog or
__________.
7. Measurements of time, speed, weight, pressure, light intensity, and
position are __________ (analog, digital) in nature.
8. Refer to Fig. 1-5. As the water level drops, the input resistance
increases. This causes the current I to __________ (decrease,
increase) and the water level gauge (ammeter) will read __________
(higher, lower).
9. Refer to Figs. 1-5 and 1-6. If this water tank were part of the city
water system, where rates of water use are important, the system in
Fig. __________ (1-5, 1-6) would be most appropriate.
10. True or false. The most important reason why digital circuitry is
becoming more popular is that digital circuits are usually simpler and
faster than analog circuits.
11. Refer to Fig. 1-7(a). This traditional auto fuel tank gauge assembly
that senses and indicates the fuel level is an example of a(n)
__________ (analog, digital) circuit.
12. Refer to Fig. 1-7(b). The input voltage from the fuel tank sending unit
is a digital signal before it enters the instrument panel module. (T or
F)
13. Refer to Fig. 1-7(b). The input from the ECM having to do with fuel
flow and time is __________ (analog, digital) in nature.
page 8
1-3 Where Are Digital Circuits Used?
Digital electronics is a huge and rapidly expanding field. The global system
of interconnected computer networks called the Internet serves billions of
users. Digital computers, in all their forms, serve as the backbone of the
Internet. The Internet consists of academic, business, private, and
government networks. The Internet allows users to access huge amounts
of information using the World Wide Web (WWW). The Internet also
supports two-way communications with e-mail and social networking sites
including Facebook. Huge amounts of data are transferred via the Internet
by banks, manufacturers, the military, medical professions, security
companies, governments, and businesses. The global economy could
hardly survive without the capabilities of digital computers, huge memory
banks, and the Internet.
Millions of individual electronic devices must be designed,
manufactured, tested, and repaired by technicians. Electronics technicians
and engineers are in great demand. The circuitry inside today’s electronic
devices almost always includes digital electronics as shown in Fig. 1-8.
Fig. 1-8 Integrated circuits are the building blocks of digital electronics.
Raimundas/Shutterstock
Jobs for technicians are available with most high-technology

businesses. Many government jobs call for some skills in computer
technology including electronics. Highly skilled technicians work on
extremely sophisticated military electronics. It is reported that half the
cost of some military aircraft is electronics in nature. The military has
many outstanding advanced electronics training programs. Ask about
these when you visit a military recruiter.
The driving experience of a modern automobile has been greatly
enhanced by electronics. Automobile engines have more power, run
smoother, and use less fuel due to precise electronic engine control. More
automobiles contain entertainment systems that are outstanding.
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Experiments Manual To Accompany Digital Electronics Principles and Applications 9Th Edition Tokheim Full Chapter

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Experiments Manual To Accompany

Digital Electronics: Principles and

DIGITAL ELECTRONICS: PRINCIPLES AND APPLICATIONS

Published by McGraw Hill LLC, 1325 Avenue of the Americas, New

Some ancillaries, including electronic and print components, may

This book is printed on acid-free paper.

Cover Image: ©Pitju/Getty Images

Chapter 1 Digital Electronics 1

Chapter 3 Logic Gates 43

Chapter 4 Combining Logic Gates 96

Chapter 5 IC Specifications and Simple Interfacing 155

Chapter 6 Encoding, Decoding, and Seven-Segment

Chapter 7 Flip-Flops 252

Chapter 8 Counters 278

Chapter 10 Arithmetic Circuits 345

Chapter 11 Memories 377

Chapter 12 Simple Digital Systems 419

Chapter 13 Computer Systems 461

Appendix A Solder and the Soldering Process 546

Glossary of Terms and Symbols 552

Digital Electronics: Principles and Applications, ninth edition, is an

New to This Edition

Remote Proctoring & Browser-Locking

New remote proctoring and browser-locking capabilities, hosted by

Roger Tokheim thanks family members Marshall, Rachael, Dan, Jack,

Digital Electronics: Principles and Applications, ninth edition, is designed

Over several decades, Roger L. Tokheim has published many

Electric and electronic circuits can be dangerous. Safe practices are

General Safety Rules for Electricity and

Circuits and equipment must be treated with respect. Learn how

E ngineers generally classify electronic circuits as being either analog or

HIGH and LOW signals

Fig. 1-3 (a) Analog meter. (b) Digital multimeter (DMM).

1-2 Why Use Digital Circuits?

The output indicator is an ammeter, which is calibrated as a water tank

Analog-to-digital (A/D) converter

The limitations of digital circuitry are as follows:

Digital circuits are appearing in more and more products primarily

Jobs for technicians are available with most high-technology

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