Unit3 – Sensors

Classification of sensors, Industrial IR sensors, Potentiometer sensor, strain gauges, Piezo-electric

sensors, Pressure sensors, Pneumatic sensors, Proximity switches- Inductive and capacitive, two and
RTD
three wire, Thermocouple, specifications and selection criteria for above

 Sensor Definition
A sensor is a device which converts the physical parameter of a quantity into corresponding electrical
output.
 Classification of Sensors
1)Active and passive sensors:
Based on power requirement sensors can be classified as active and passive.
Active sensors are those which do not require external power source for their functioning. They
generate power within themselves to operate and hence called as self-generating type. The energy for
functioning is derived from the quantity being measured. For example piezoelectric crystal generate
electrical output (charge) when subjected to acceleration.
Passive sensors require external power source for their functioning. Most of the resistive, inductive and
capacitive sensors are passive (just as resistors, inductors and capacitors are called passive devices).
2) Analog and digital sensor:
An analog sensor converts the physical quantity being measured to analog form (continuous in time).
Thermocouple, RTD, Strain gauge are called analog sensors.
A digital sensor produces output in the form of pulse. Encoders are example of digital sensors.
3) Contact sensor & Non-contact sensor:
A contact sensor is a device that detects or measures physical properties or events through direct contact
with the object or environment being sensed. It relies on physical contact to provide information about
factors such as temperature, pressure, or presence/absence of an object. Contact sensors typically have a
direct physical interface with the object or environment being monitored.
Example:-Potentiometer, Thermocouple etc
A non-contact sensor, also known as a proximity sensor, is a device that detects or measures physical
properties or events without the need for direct physical contact. Instead, it relies on principles such as
electromagnetic fields, infrared radiation, ultrasonic waves, or laser light to sense and gather information
from the object or environment. Non-contact sensors can detect factors such as distance, presence,
positioning, or motion without physically touching the target. They are typically used in applications where
contact with the object being sensed is not desired or feasible.
Example IR Sensor, Proximity Sensor
4) Based on Quantity being measured
Temperature Sensor
Proximity Sensor
Accelerometer
IR Sensor (Infrared Sensor)
Pressure Sensor
Light Sensor
Ultrasonic Sensor
Smoke, Gas and Alcohol Sensor
Touch Sensor
Color Sensor
Humidity Sensor
Position Sensor
Magnetic Sensor (Hall Effect Sensor)
Microphone (Sound Sensor)
Tilt Sensor
Flow and Level Sensor
PIR Sensor
Touch Sensor
Strain and Weight Sensor
  How To Choose The Right Sensor?
There are many factors to consider while choosing a sensor for your project. But all starts by selecting the
physical parameter you’re willing to measure. Then it’s the time to consider some other factors to get the
best sensors for best results and within the given constraints such as budget, accuracy, etc. Down below are
some of the most important factors to consider.
1 Range of Operation
The most important factor to consider in a sensor is the operating range. If you’re designing a boiler system
that will control some liquid boiling at 500°c, You shouldn’t use a small LM35 sensor that can only read up
to 150°c. You should make sure that the sensor meets the range requirement of your application in order to
get the right sensor for it.
2 Accuracy (Resolution)
Decide on the required resolution (accuracy) of the sensor your applications need prior to choosing a sensor.
For example, a temperature sensor with an accuracy of 1°c will be sufficient for a boiler embedded
system’s design. However, the same sensor with the same accuracy may not be sufficient for some critical
scientific experiments or devices that require an accuracy of 0.1°c. So, there is a trade-off and you have to
make your own decision based on your system’s specifications.
3 Total Cost
Electronic sensors range widely in price. You can easily guess that high accuracy sensors are always way
more expensive than low accuracy ones. The operating wide dynamic rage also plays a role in determining
the price point of the sensor, etc. The point is you have to make sure that you choose the sensor that gives
you the best results within the allowed budget for the projects. Yes, you may drop out the resolution and still
get a decent project with a small error in the output but at least it’s working! instead of burning all the
budget for a high-end high-tech sensor with no money left for other parts. That’s the point of it, and again
you will have to decide on these trade-offs given the exact situation and application specifications for your
project.
4 Interfacing Method
As we’ve stated earlier, some sensors are analog and others are digital. Hence, there are different ways to
interface and read these sensors using analog input pins of an MCU. Or connect it on a serial bus like
UART, SPI, or I2C. You should also decide on the type of interface that your application can handle much
more smoothly without problems or running out of serial ports.
5 Data Rate (For Digital Sensors)
Digital sensors can send you readings (data) at a rate we call the sampling rate. Typically sensors’ rate is
defined by ksp/s (kilo samples per second) which is a thousand sample points (readings) in a second. Some
sensors can supply up to a few Msp/s. Most of the time, it’s a programmable feature in sensor modules. And
you have to check whether this rate of data supplies your MCU with the information it needs to run the
algorithm or perform the required calculations flawlessly.
6 Documentation
Good documentation is key whether to choose a sensor or not. Of course, you don’t want to et a sensor that
has only a couple of Chinese papers describing nothing useful on how to use this crappy sensor even if it’s
very cheap!
Check the datasheet before getting a sensor and make sure it’s very clear and has the information you need
to hook it up and run it on your system. Most of the quality sensors come with a very clear concise datasheet
having all specifications and parameters. With connection diagrams, mode of operation, and maybe some
code snippets to test it out!
7 Environment
We must be aware of environmental conditions while installing a product. Numerous sensors can be
affected by the environmental conditions (such as temperature variation, gas, humidity, chemicals, etc.)
8 Flexibility
While selecting a sensor, we need to check if it can provide flexibility, like features that can adapt to
changing the products.

 Industrial IR sensors
What is an IR Sensor?
IR sensor is an electronic device, that emits the light in order to sense some object of the surroundings. An IR
sensor can measure the heat of an object as well as detects the motion. Usually, in the infrared spectrum, all
the objects radiate some form of thermal radiation. These types of radiations are invisible to our eyes, but
infrared sensor can detect these radiations.
The emitter is simply an IR LED (Light Emitting Diode) and the detector is simply an IR photodiode .
Photodiode is sensitive to IR light of the same wavelength which is emitted by the IR LED. When IR light
falls on the photodiode, the resistances and the output voltages will change in proportion to the magnitude of
the IR light received.
There are five basic elements used in a typical infrared detection system: an infrared source, a transmission
medium, optical component, infrared detectors or receivers and signal processing. Infrared lasers and Infrared
LED’s of specific wavelength used as infrared sources.
The three main types of media used for infrared transmission are vacuum, atmosphere and optical fibers.
Optical components are used to focus the infrared radiation or to limit the spectral response.
Types Of Infrared Sensor

Infrared sensors are classified into two types like active IR sensor and passive IR sensor.
Active IR Sensor
This active infrared sensor includes both the transmitter as well as the receiver. In most of the applications,
the light-emitting diode is used as a source. LED is used as a non-imaging infrared sensor whereas the laser
diode is used as an imaging infrared sensor.
These sensors work through energy radiation, received & detected through radiation. Further, it can be
processed by using the signal processor to fetch the necessary information. The best examples of this active
infrared sensor are reflectance and break beam sensor.
Passive IR Sensor
The passive infrared sensor includes detectors only but they don’t include a transmitter. These sensors use
an object like a transmitter or IR source. This object emits energy and detects through infrared receivers.
After that, a signal processor is used to understand the signal to obtain the required information.
The best examples of this sensor are pyroelectric detector, bolometer, thermocouple-thermopile, etc. These
sensors are classified into two types like thermal IR sensor and quantum IR sensor. The thermal IR sensor
doesn’t depend on wavelength. The energy source used by these sensors is heated. Thermal detectors are
slow with their response and detection time. The quantum IR sensor depends on the wavelength and these
sensors include high response and detection time. These sensors need regular cooling for specific
measurements.
 Advantages

 Low power consumption

 There is no data leakage because of the ray direction
 These sensors are not affected by oxidation & corrosion
 Noise immunity is strong
 Detects motion when the light is present or absent
 These sensors are not affected by rust
 They do not need to get in touch with objects for detection.
 No data leakage because of the directionality infrared radiation of ray
 These are more modest in size and are more moderate.
 It responds very quickly as compared to thermocouples.
 It provides high reliability
Disadvantages

 Line of sight is required

 Range is limited
 These can be affected by fog, rain, dust, etc
 Less data transmission rate
 These sensors can be blocked with common objects.
 High force IR signals can harm human eyes

IR Sensor Applications

IR sensors are classified into different types depending on the applications. IR sensors are used in a variety
of projects and electronic devices. The following are some of them:

1)Radiation Thermometers

Radiation thermometers use infrared sensors to measure temperature, which is dependent on the object’s
temperature and substance, and these thermometers contain some of the following qualities.

 Measurement without direct contact with the object

 Faster response
 Easy pattern measurements
2)Flame Monitors

These sensors are used to detect the light emitted by the flames and to keep track of how they’re burning.
Flames emit light that ranges from ultraviolet to infrared. Some of the most widely utilized detectors in
flame monitors are PBS, PbSe, two-color detectors, and pyroelectric detectors.

3)Night Vision Devices

An Infrared technology implemented in night vision equipment if there is not enough visible light available
to see unaided. Night vision devices convert ambient photons of light into electrons and then amplify them
using a chemical and electrical process before finally converting them back into visible light.

4)Gas Analyzers

IR sensors are used in gas analyzers that use the absorption characteristics of gases in the IR region. Two
types of methods are used to measure the density of gas such as dispersive and nondispersive
 5)IR Imaging Devices

The infrared image device is one of the most common uses of infrared photons, due to its invisibility.
Thermal imagers, night vision equipment, and other accessories utilise it.Water, rocks, soil, vegetation, and
atmosphere, as well as human tissue, all emit infrared radiation. Thermal infrared detectors measure these
IR radiations and map the object/spatial area’s temperature distributions on an image. Sb (indium
antimonite), Gd Hg (mercury-doped germanium), and Hg Cd Te (mercury-cadmium-telluride) sensors are
commonly used in thermal imagers.

6)Infrared Tracking

An Infrared tracking or Infrared homing, is a missile guidance system which operates using the infrared
electromagnetic radiation emitted from a target to track it.

Other Key Application Areas:

 Climatology
 Meteorology
 Photo bio modulation
 Flame Monitors
 Gas detectors
 Water analysis
 Moisture Analyzers
 Anesthesiology testing
 Petroleum exploration
 Rail safety
 Gas Analyzers
 Specifications:

 The operating voltage is 5VDC

 I/O pins – 3.3V & 5V
 Mounting hole
 The range is up to 20 centimeters
 The supply current is 20mA
 The range of sensing is adjustable
 Fixed ambient light sensor

 Potentiometer Sensor
A potentiometer sensor measures the distance or displacement of an object in a linear or rotary
motion and converts it into an electrical signal
A potentiometer sensor, also known as a potentiometer or a variable resistor, is an electronic component that
measures and adjusts the resistance in a circuit. It consists of a resistive element and a movable contact, or
wiper, that slides along the resistive element. By adjusting the position of the wiper, the resistance between
the wiper and the ends of the resistive element can be changed, altering the current flowing through the
circuit.
Potentiometer sensors are commonly used for controlling and adjusting various parameters in electronic
circuits, such as volume or tone control in audio equipment, brightness control in displays, and speed
control in motorized devices. They are also used in certain types of sensors for measuring physical
quantities, like angle or position.
The output of a potentiometer sensor is generally an analog voltage that is proportional to the position of the
wiper. This analog signal can be converted to a digital value using an analog-to-digital converter (ADC) if
necessary.
Overall, potentiometer sensors provide a simple and versatile means of adjusting and measuring resistance
in electronic circuits.
Types of Potentiometers
 Rotary Potentiometers
These are the most common type of potentiometers, where the wiper moves along a circular path. These
potentiometers are mainly used to get a changeable voltage supply to a fraction of circuits. The best example
of this rotary potentiometer is a radio transistor’s volume controller where the rotating knob controls the
current supply toward the amplifier.
This kind of potentiometer includes two terminal contacts where a consistent resistance can be located in a
semi-circular model. And also it includes a terminal in the middle that is allied to the resistance using a
sliding contact that is connected through a rotating knob. The sliding contact can be turned by turning the
knob over the half-circular resistance. The voltage of this can be obtained among the two contacts of
resistance & the sliding. These potentiometers are used wherever level voltage control is necessary.
 Linear Potentiometers
In these types of Potentiometers, the wiper moves along a linear path. Also known as slide pot, slider, or
fader. This potentiometer is similar to the rotary-type but in this potentiometer, the sliding contact simply
rotated on the resistor linearly. The connection of the resistor’s two terminals is connected across the
voltage source. A sliding contact on the resistor can be moved using a path that is connected through the
resistor.
The terminal of the resistor is connected toward the sliding which is connected to one finish of the circuit’s
output & another terminal is connected to the other finish of the circuit’s output. This kind of potentiometer
is mostly used to calculate the voltage in a circuit. It is used to measure the battery cell’s internal resistance
and also used in the mixing systems of sound & music equalizer.
 Advantages of Potentiometer
The benefits of the potentiometer are:

 The potentiometer has a simple construction. It has three terminals with a sliding contact that forms an
adjustable voltage divider. If only two terminals are used, it acts as a variable resistor or rheostat.
 It is a low-cost instrument. You can buy hundreds of potentiometers at an affordable price. (Check price)
 It can be operated easily. The potentiometer is not complex and is easy to use.
 It has a wide range of resistance values.
 It has high efficiency. It enables to the measurement of the difference in potential between two points.

Disadvantages of Potentiometer
The drawbacks of the potentiometer are:

 It is slow in operation.
 It has low accuracy.
 It has limited bandwidth.
 If you use a linear potentiometer, you should apply a large force to move the sliding contact.
 There is a possibility of friction and wear due to the sliding of the wiper across the resistive element.
 External factors sometimes hinder the accuracy of producing the results.
 The temperature of the potentiometer wire must remain uniform but it is difficult because of the flowing
current.

Applications
Potentiometers are commonly used in a variety of applications as sensors. Some of the most common
applications include:
Volume control: Potentiometers are frequently used in audio equipment, such as amplifiers and speakers, to
control the volume. The position of the potentiometer's wiper determines the resistance and, consequently,
the output volume.
Lighting control: Potentiometers are used in dimmer switches to adjust and control the brightness of lights.
The position of the potentiometer determines the resistance, which in turn determines the amount of current
flowing to the light source.
Joysticks and game controllers: Potentiometers are often incorporated into joysticks and game controllers
to sense the movement or position of the joystick. The potentiometer converts the mechanical movement of
the joystick into an electrical signal that can be used by the device or game.
Robotics: Potentiometers are used in robotic arms and other robotic systems to measure position, angle, and
movement. By attaching a potentiometer to joints or moving parts, the system can determine the position or
angle of the joint.
Industrial automation: Potentiometers are widely used in industrial automation systems to monitor and
control various parameters. Examples include measuring rotational speed, position, or angle in motor
control systems, or controlling the position of robotic arms in manufacturing processes.
Medical devices: Potentiometers are used in medical devices to measure and control various parameters.
For example, they can be used in insulin pumps to control the dosage, or in prosthetic limbs to sense and
control movement.
HVAC (heating, ventilation, and air conditioning) systems: Potentiometers are employed in HVAC
systems to control parameters such as temperature, humidity, and fan speed. They can be used to adjust the
setpoint or manipulate the output levels based on user preferences.
Automotive applications: Potentiometers are used in automotive applications for various functions,
including throttle position sensors, steering angle sensors, pedal position sensors, and HVAC controls.

 Specifications
Resistance: The resistance of a potentiometer sensor indicates the range of resistance values it can offer.
Typical values can range from a few ohms to several megohms.
Tolerance: The tolerance specification indicates the maximum acceptable deviation from the nominal
resistance value. It is usually expressed as a percentage.
Power rating: The power rating of a potentiometer sensor indicates the maximum amount of power that it
can dissipate without causing damage. It is typically measured in watts.
Linearity: Linearity is a measure of how accurately the resistance changes in relation to the mechanical
position of the potentiometer slider. Higher linearity values indicate more accurate readings.
Temperature coefficient of resistance: The temperature coefficient specifies how much the resistance
value of the potentiometer changes with temperature. It is usually expressed in parts per million per degree
Celsius (ppm/°C).
Operating voltage: The operating voltage range specifies the minimum and maximum voltage values that
can be applied across the potentiometer sensor without damaging it.
Mechanical specifications: These include dimensions, mounting options, and mechanical life (number of
cycles the potentiometer can withstand before failure).
It is important to refer to the manufacturer's datasheet for the specific potentiometer sensor you are using to
obtain accurate and complete specifications.
  Strain Gauge
What is a Strain Gauge
A strain gauge is a resistor used to measure strain on an object. When an external force is applied on an
object, due to which there is a deformation occurs in the shape of the object. This deformation in the shape
is both compressive or tensile is called strain, and it is measured by the strain gauge. When an object
deforms within the limit of elasticity, either it becomes narrower and longer or it become shorter and
broadens. As a result of it, there is a change in resistance end-to-end.
The strain gauge is sensitive to that small changes occur in the geometry of an object. By measuring the
change in resistance of an object, the amount of induced stress can be calculated.
The change in resistance normally has very small value, and to sense that small change, strain gauge has a
long thin metallic strip arrange in a zigzag pattern on a non-conducting material called the carrier, as shown
below, so that it can enlarge the small amount of stress in the group of parallel lines and could be measured
with high accuracy. The gauge is literally glued onto the device by an adhesive.
When an object shows physical deformation, its electrical resistance gets change and that change is then
measured by gage
.
 Strain Gauge Bridge Circuit
Strain gauge bridge circuit shows the measured stress by the degree of discrepancy, and uses a voltmeter
in the center of the bridge to provide an accurate measurement of that imbalance:
In this circuit, R1 and R3are the ratio arms equal to each other, and R2 is the rheostat arm has a value equal
to the strain gage resistance. When the gauge is unstrained, the bridge is balanced, and voltmeter shows zero
value. As there is a change in resistance of strain gauge, the bridge gets unbalanced and producing an
indication at the voltmeter. The output voltage from the bridge can be amplified further by a differential
amplifier.

 Gauge Factor: It is the ration of per unit change in resistance to per unit change in length
  Based on mounting, Strain Gauge are classified into
Bonded strain gauge
Unbounded strain gauge
 Advantages of Strain Gauge :
(i) There is no moving part and hence no wear
(ii) Strain gauges are very precise
(iii) It is small and inexpensive
(iv) It has a high-frequency bandwidth.
 Disadvantages of Strain Gauge :
(i) It is non-linear
(ii) It is very sensitive to temperature.
(iii) It needs to be calibrated regularly
(iv) Strain gauges have to be applied manually. Putting them in their place consuming and costly. It is one
of their biggest disadvantages
 Applications of Strain Gauge :
(i) Strain measurement
(ii) Residual stress measurement
(iii) Vibration measurement
(iv) Torque measurement
(v) Bending and deflection measurement
(vi) Compression and tension measurement
Piezo-electric sensors
  Pressure sensors
To understand pressure sensors, first, you need to understand the pressure. Pressure is an expression of force
exerted on a surface per unit area.
We commonly measure the pressure of liquids, air, and other gases, amongst other things.
The standard unit for pressure is the “Pascal”. This is equivalent to one “Newton per meter squared”.
How does Pressure Sensor Work?
In a nutshell, a pressure sensor converts the pressure to a small electrical signal that is transmitted and
displayed.
These are also commonly called pressure transmitters because of this. Two common signals that are used is
a 4 to 20 milliamps signal and a 0 to 5 Volts signal.
What are Pressure Sensors Used for?
Pressure sensors are widely used in various demanding applications across a wide range of industries and
sectors. Different types can incorporate many variations in core technology, features and performance
levels.
Pneumatic pressure sensors measure changes in air or gas pressure, while hydraulic pressure sensors
measure changes in water or fluid pressure. Different technologies for constructing these devices can result
in configurations such as piezoresistive pressure sensors, capacitive pressure sensors, fibre optic pressure
sensors, and strain-gauge pressure sensors.
 Types of pressure sensors
Pressure sensors can be categorized according to the method they sense pressure changes. Sensors can
observe and measure various physical reactions. Some of the most common types of pressure sensors are
listed below:
1. Strain gauge
A strain is defined as the proportional expansion or contraction of materials, as an object applies force.
Strain gauges, as the name implies, use these tangible changes in the spring’s dimensions to measure
pressure.
Strain gauge sensors have a spring element that deforms, as force is applied. The material proportionally
varies in its electrical resistance as its structure varies. With pressure changes, fluctuations in resistance and
voltage readings are taken as electric signals. These are then calibrated to an equivalent pressure reading and
displayed by the sensor.
Strain gauge sensors are particularly favorable for long-term monitoring tasks. They are the most commonly
used type of sensor due to their availability and versatility.
2. Piezoelectric
Piezoelectric sensors work by employing the piezoelectric effect. The piezoelectric effect describes the
generation of an electric charge as a response to physical changes to material. This effect is more evident in
certain materials to a degree that can be measured. The charge created is proportional to the applied force.
The sensor can measure and calibrate changes in the charge and display a corresponding pressure
measurement.
Piezoelectric sensors can come in very small sizes – making it a good choice for applications with space
constraints. They also generally allow high frequencies when taking in data. This is an advantage for
readings that require dynamic measurements taken between data points with short intervals.
3. Capacitive
Capacitors are devices used to store an electric charge. They operate by having two conductors separated by
a close gap between each other. The sensor can measure the capacitance between the two plates. The
distance between the two plates determines the capacitance values, which vary with the surrounding
pressure.
Applications of capacitive pressure sensors include measuring pressure changes in jet engines, car tires, and
other vessels. They have a simple mechanical design that enables them to withstand harsh environments.
4. Manometers
The earliest devices used to measure pressure comprised of glass tubes filled with liquid. Manometers are
essentially that – a tube that uses liquid movement to compare the pressure experienced by its two surfaces.
The most basic manometers are U-shaped with a liquid inside that is displaced by varying pressure
differences.
Manometers can be used to calibrate other equipment. They are still common instruments found in
laboratory settings. Because of their slower response and limited range of pressures, they are not suitable for
dynamic pressure sensing applications.
5. Vacuum pressure
The previous pressure sensors typically work by measuring an applied force to a mechanical apparatus.
These mechanical methods can get more complex when the pressure is below atmospheric levels,
particularly extreme vacuum pressure levels. For vacuum pressure applications, measurements rely less on
mechanical reactions. Instead, the sensors observe and measure the effects on the properties of the materials.
The most well-known sensor used for vacuum pressure measurement is the Pirani sensor, named after its
inventor, Marcello Stefano Pirani. The Pirani sensor works by measuring the resistance of a heated filament
within a gauge chamber. As the gauge chamber becomes exposed to surrounding vacuum pressure, the
temperature felt by the chamber drops. This change in temperature proportionally changes the conductivity
in the filament. This can then be taken as an indirect measurement of the pressure experienced.
6. Bourdon tube
From the previous types of sensors, we have seen how the physical deformations, due to an applied force,
measure pressure. The Bourdon tube is an ingenious mechanical device that uses physical movements. It
harnesses the surrounding force to drive a dial that is calibrated to display a pressure reading.
Bourdon tubes are made with a tube coiled into a C-shape. One end is closed, while the other is exposed to
the surrounding that is being measured. As the pressure felt by one end of the tube increases, the coil tries to
straighten. Coupled to a spindle, this physical motion of the coil moves a pointer to show the pressure
reading on a dial gauge.
Due to its simplicity and ruggedness, Bourdon tube gauges are usually inexpensive, yet durable. They
provide accuracy for high-pressure applications. However, due to their purely mechanical nature, readings
are susceptible to shock and vibration. It is not advisable to use them on low pressures requiring precise
measurements.
7. Aneroid barometer
An aneroid barometer is another type of a purely mechanical device used to measure pressure. This
instrument has an air-tight metal cylinder, resembling a capsule. This capsule compresses and expands in
response to the surrounding pressure. These small differences can be measured and coupled to a dial that
then displays a corresponding pressure reading.
Aneroid barometers are typically used to measure atmospheric pressure. They are commonly used in
aircrafts, due to their durable and convenient design. For aircraft applications, they can also be used to
measure altitude based on changes in barometric pressure.

 Pneumatic Sensor
A pneumatic sensor is a device that measures and detects changes in pressure. It uses compressed air or gas
to create and detect pressure changes, which can be converted into electrical signals for analysis and
measurement.
Pneumatic sensors are commonly used in various applications, such as industrial automation, HVAC
systems, automotive industry, medical equipment, and pneumatic control systems. They are often used to
monitor and control pressure levels, detect leaks, or measure fluid flow.
Different types of pneumatic sensors are available, including pressure sensors, vacuum sensors, and
differential pressure sensors. Pressure sensors measure the absolute or relative pressure of a fluid or gas,
while vacuum sensors measure the pressure below atmospheric level. Differential pressure sensors measure
the difference in pressure between two points.
Pneumatic sensors have several advantages, including high accuracy, fast response time, resistance to harsh
environments, and easy integration into pneumatic systems. However, they may require a pneumatic power
source, such as compressed air, and may be limited in their measurement range compared to other sensor
technologies.

The Figure shows a schematic of construction and working of such a sensor. It comprises of three ports.
Low pressure air is allowed to escape through port A.

In the absence of any obstacle / object, this low pressure air escapes and in doing so, reduces the pressure in
the port B.

However when an object obstructs the low pressure air (Port A), there is rise in pressure in output port B.
This rise in pressure is calibrated to measure the displacement or to trigger a switch.

These sensors are used in robotics, pneumatics and for tooling in CNC machine tools
.
Pneumatic system Advantages Disadvantages
Pneumatic system Advantages Disadvantages are given in details below.
Pneumatic system Advantages
1) Infinite availability of the source
Air being freely and easily available everywhere there is no scarcity of the source. Just need some filtration
for its use in the pneumatic system. As compared to the Hydraulic oil it is very cheap.

2) Safe and clean

As compared to hydraulic and other systems air is very safe and clean in operation. Food industry,
pharmaceuticals industry ect. prefer pneumatic system over other because leakage of air doesn't causes any
issues. The system is relatively clean , no dirt accumulates due to oil leakage like in hydraulic system.

3) Less Operating and Maintenance cost

Pneumatic system operates with very less resources and is easy to maintain.

4) The transfer of power and the speed is very easy to set up .

The speed and power is controlled by pressure and flow of air, which can be easily controlled by knobbed
controls. Just varying the pressure changes the force and varying air flow changes the speed of the actuator.

5) Can be stored and Easy utilized .

Compressed air can be easily stored in a reservoir tank. It retains its pressure over long time. Also it is
harmless even it leakages.
Pneumatic System Disadvantages

1) Requires installation of air-producing equipment

Every pneumatic system needs constent supply of compressed air, which is produced by a compressor.

2) Can easily leak

Leakage of air is one of the main issue in pneumatic system. Air can easily leak from the joints and
threadings.

3) Potential noise
Exhausting air produces large noise as compared to other power transmitting systems.

4) Low operating pressure

As compared to Hydraulic system where the pressure above 500 bar is possible to produce, pneumatic
system max pressure is limited in most cases to 10-20 bar. Hence very heavy work can not be done with
pneumatic system.

6) Compressibility of air causes problems in precision

As compared to hydrualic system working medium, which is oil, air is compressible. Hence very precise
motions and movements are not possible.

Applications

Pneumatic sensors are used in various applications where pressure or vacuum measurements are required.
Some common applications of pneumatic sensors include:

Industrial automation: Pneumatic sensors are widely used in industrial automation systems to measure and
control pressure in pneumatic systems. They help detect leaks, monitor pressure levels, and ensure the
proper functioning of pneumatic valves and actuators.

HVAC systems: Pneumatic sensors are used in heating, ventilation, and air conditioning (HVAC) systems
to measure air pressure, ensuring proper air circulation and balanced airflow. They help maintain consistent
room temperatures and optimize energy efficiency in HVAC systems.

Tire pressure monitoring systems (TPMS): Pneumatic sensors are integrated into TPMS to continuously
monitor tire pressure in automotive vehicles. They provide real-time tire pressure readings to the driver and
alert them if the pressure falls below or exceeds the recommended levels, ensuring vehicle safety and
optimal fuel efficiency.
Medical devices: Pneumatic sensors are used in various medical devices such as blood pressure monitors,
ventilators, and anesthesia machines. They help measure and control air pressure in these devices to ensure
accurate readings, proper oxygen flow, and controlled ventilation.
Aerospace industry: Pneumatic sensors are employed in various aerospace applications, including aircraft
pneumatic systems, cabin pressure monitoring, and fuel tank pressure measurement. They help maintain
proper pressure levels, detect any abnormalities, and ensure the safety and efficiency of aerospace systems.
Manufacturing: Pneumatic sensors are used in manufacturing processes for quality control and process
monitoring. They help monitor and control pressure in various manufacturing applications such as
pressurized molding, assembly line operations, and pneumatic control systems.
Robotics: Pneumatic sensors are utilized in robotics to monitor and control pressure for the movement and
gripping functions of robot arms. They help ensure precise and controlled movements, allowing robots to
perform tasks with accuracy and consistency.
Environmental monitoring: Pneumatic sensors are used in environmental monitoring systems to measure
air pressure and detect changes in atmospheric pressure. They help in weather forecasting, air pollution
monitoring, and other environmental monitoring applications.
Water management systems: Pneumatic sensors are utilized in water management systems to measure
water pressure in pipes and tanks. They help monitor water levels, detect leaks, control water flow, and
ensure efficient water management.

 Proximity Sensor
A proximity sensor is a component which is designed to detect the absence or presence of an object without
the need for physical contact. They are non-contact devices, highly useful for working with delicate or
unstable objects which could be damaged by contact with other types of sensor.
This non-contact operation also means that most types of proximity sensor (excluding types such as
magnetic proximity sensors) have a prolonged lifespan. This is because they have semiconductor outputs,
meaning that no contacts are used for output.
Proximity sensors are designed to provide a high-speed response (the interval between the point when the
object triggers the sensor and the point when the output activates). Different types use varying sensing
technologies but they all have the same purpose.
  What are Proximity Switches?

Proximity switch is a term often used interchangeably with proximity sensor, but the two should not be
confused. As explained above, a proximity sensor is a non-contact component which detects the presence of
objects within its sensing range. On the other hand, a proximity switch is a specific component which opens
or closes the electrical circuit when the sensor detects the absence or presence of an object.

Types of Proximity Switch

 Inductive Proximity Switch.
 Photoelectric or Optical Proximity Switch.
 Capacitive Proximity Switch.
 Magnetic Proximity Switch.
 Ultrasonic proximity Switch

 What is an Inductive Proximity Sensor?

An inductive sensor is a non-contact type of sensor, helpful in the detection of metallic objects. It can sense
ferrous as well as non-ferrous materials. The sensing range is up to 100 mm
Main Components of Inductive Proximity Sensor
An inductive proximity sensor consists of four elements – the coil, the oscillator, the trigger circuit, and an
output.
Coil
The coil generates the necessary electromagnetic field. Cup-shaped ferrite magnetic core holds the coil
inside. The cup-shaped core is necessary to concentrate the coil magnetic field on the front area of the
sensor.
Oscillator
The oscillator is generally an LC oscillator. It produces radio frequency (100 kHz to 1 MHz) which helps to
generate an electromagnetic field.
Trigger Circuit
The trigger circuit senses the change in amplitude of oscillation and gives the signal to solid-state output.
Output Circuit
The output circuit has a transistor NPN or PNP. After receiving the gate signal, the transistor switches ON
and gives an output.
Working Principle of Inductive Proximity Sensor

When a metal target enters the magnetic field created by coil, eddy current circulates within the target. This
causes load on the sensor which decreases the oscillator’s amplitude. As the target reaches close to the
sensor further the oscillator’s amplitude decreases.
The trigger circuit is normally a Schmitt trigger. It monitors the amplitude of an oscillator. If the oscillator’s
amplitude reaches a predetermined level, the trigger circuit gives the signal to the output circuit to switch-
ON the output.
Advantages of Inductive Proximity Sensors

 Contactless detection
 Environment adaptability- resistant to common conditions seen in industrial areas such as dust and dirt
 Capable and versatile in metal sensing
 High switching rate
 No moving parts, ensuring a longer service life
Disadvantages of Inductive Proximity Sensors

 Lack in detection range, averaging a max range of up to 60 mm

 Can only detect metal objects
 External conditions like extreme temperatures, cutting fluids or chemical affects on the performance of
the sensor.

Application of Inductive Proximity Sensors

Inductive sensors are used in various applications. I am mentioning a few of them.

1. Can be used to monitor the rotational speed of the machine.

2. In conveyor application, you can use it to monitor the position.
3. In a pipe manufacturing plant, the sensors are best for metal pipe detection for further processing
of pipe.
4. Robotic arm control is possible with the help of inductive sensors.
  What is Capacitive Proximity sensor?
Capacitive Proximity Sensors detect changes in the capacitance between the sensing object and the Sensor. As
per the name, capacitive proximity sensors operate by noting a change in the capacitance read by the sensor.
The amount of capacitance varies depending on the size and distance of the sensing object. An ordinary
Capacitive Proximity Sensor is similar to a capacitor with two parallel plates, where the capacity of the two
plates detected.

One of the plates is the object being measured (with an imaginary ground), and the other is the Sensor’s
sensing surface. It detectes the changes in the capacity generated between these two poles. The detection of the
object depends on their dielectric constant, but they include resin and water in addition to metals.
Working Principle of Capacitive Proximity Sensor
The capacitive proximity sensor consist a high-frequency oscillator along with a sensing surface formed by
two metal electrodes. When an object comes near the sensing surface, it enters the electrostatic field of the
electrodes and changes the capacitance of the oscillator.
As a result, the oscillator circuit starts oscillating and changes the output state of the sensor when it reaches
certain amplitude. As the object moves away from the sensor, the oscillator’s amplitude decreases, switching
the sensor back to its initial state.
A typical sensing range for capacitive proximity sensors is from a few millimeters up to about 1 inch. (or 25
mm), and some sensors have an extended range up to 2 inch. Where capacitive sensors really excel, however,
is in applications where they must detect objects through some kind of material such as a bag, bin, or box.
They can tune out non-metallic containers and can be tuned or set to detect different levels of liquids or solid
materials.

The capacitive proximity sensor detects the larger dielectric constant of a target easilty. This makes possible
the detection of materials inside nonmetallic containers because the liquid has a much higher dielectric
constant than the container, which gives the sensor ability to see through the container and detect the liquid.
For best operation, they should use in an environment with relatively constant temperature and humidity.
 Advantages of Capacitive proximity sensors

 Contactless detection
 A wide array of materials can detect
 Able to detect objects through non-metallic walls with its wide sensitivity band
 Well-suited to be used in an industrial environment
 Contains potentiometer that allows users to adjust sensor sensitivity, such that only wanted objects will
be sensed
 No moving parts, ensuring a longer service life
  Disadvantages of Capacitive proximity sensors

 Relative low range, though incremental increase from inductive sensors

 Higher price as compared to inductive sensors

 Applications of Capacitive Sensor

The capacitive sensor’s applications include the following.

 They detect things that are conductive but lack dielectric, such as air.
 All such sensors are most commonly used to detect changes in the position of a conductive target.
However, these detectors can also be quite useful in measuring density, existence, thickness, and the
location of non-conductors.
 Position, proximity, velocity, displacement, fluid level, and humidity are all detected or measured
using capacitive sensors.
 Active sensor touch screens are being used as input devices in cell devices, tablets, digital sound
players, and other devices.
 These sensors take the place of mechanical buttons.
 Thermocouple:-