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Doro Crecens Chimanikire Soccicah Muzvidzani Melody

 A Practical Approach
to

Geography

Form 2

Doro Crecens Chimanikire Soccicah Muzvidzani Melody

 CONTENTS

Chapter 1: Weather and Climate........................................................................................ 1

Unit 1.1 Weather hazards......................................................................................................................... 1

Unit 1.2 Influence of people on weather............................................................................................ 9
Unit 1.3 The climate of Zimbabwe........................................................................................................ 9
Unit 1.4 Climate variability...................................................................................................................... 12

Chapter 2: Landform and Landscape Processes............................................................... 16

Unit 2.1 Rock types..................................................................................................................................... 16

Unit 2.2 Weathering of rocks and resultant landforms................................................................. 21
Unit 2.3 Internal structure of the earth............................................................................................... 28

Chapter 3: Ecosystems....................................................................................................... 32

Unit 3.1 Biodiversity................................................................................................................................... 32

Unit 3.2 Tropical ecosystems................................................................................................................... 34
Unit 3.3 Sustainable management ecosystems............................................................................... 43
Unit 3.4 Tropical ecosystems................................................................................................................... 47

Chapter 4: Natural Resources............................................................................................. 52

Unit 4.1 Population and resources........................................................................................................ 52

Unit 4.2 Exploration of natural resources in Africa.......................................................................... 57

Examination I Paper 1.......................................................................................................................... 62

Examination I Paper 2.......................................................................................................................... 65
Chapter 5: Minerals and Mining......................................................................................... 83
Unit 5.1 Economic importance of energy types.............................................................................. 68
Unit 5.2 Relative importance of using different energy sources................................................ 74
Chapter 6: Map work and Geographical Information Systems....................................... 84
Unit 6.1 Contour lines and their interpretation................................................................................ 84
Unit 6.2 Gradient......................................................................................................................................... 90
Unit 6.3 Contour lines and their interpretation................................................................................ 92
Chapter 7: Minerals and Mining......................................................................................... 102
Unit 7.1 Factors influencing mining in Zimbabwe.......................................................................... 102
Unit 7.2 Methods of mining.................................................................................................................... 105
Unit 7.3 Mineralogy.................................................................................................................................... 108
Unit 7.4 Environment impact of mining............................................................................................. 108
Chapter 8: Environmental Management........................................................................... 119
Unit 8.1 Environmental degradation................................................................................................... 119
Unit 8.2 Impact of climate change on the environment.............................................................. 135
Unit 8.3 Climate change mitigation..................................................................................................... 137

Examination II Paper 1.......................................................................................................................... 141

Examination II Paper 2.......................................................................................................................... 146

Chapter 9: Agriculture and Land Reform.......................................................................... 150

Unit 9.1 Farming types in Zimbabwe .................................................................................................. 150

Unit 9.2 Agro-ecological regions in Zimbabwe............................................................................... 163

Chapter 10: Industry............................................................................................................. 169

Unit 10.1 Quarternary industries............................................................................................................. 169

Unit 10.2 Transnational corporations (TNCs)....................................................................................... 173

Chapter 11: Settlement and Population.............................................................................. 179

Unit 11.1 Urbanisation ................................................................................................................................ 179

Unit 11.2 Urban land use models............................................................................................................ 185
Unit 11.3 Unplanned urban settlements.............................................................................................. 189
Unit 11.4 Effects and solutions of unplanned settlements............................................................ 193
Unit 11.5 Disaster resilient infrastructure............................................................................................. 194

Chapter 12: Trade.................................................................................................................. 200

Unit 12.1 Trade .............................................................................................................................................. 200

Unit 12.2 Domestic and foreign trade.................................................................................................... 202

Examination III Paper 1.......................................................................................................................... 209

Examination III Paper 2.......................................................................................................................... 212

Index ........................................................................................................................................................... 216

 Chapter
WEATHER AND CLIMATE
1
Chapter objectives
By the end of this chapter, you should be able to:
•• outline weather hazards.
•• describe causes and effects of weather hazards.
•• suggest measures to reduce weather hazards.
•• describe how human activities contribute to weather changes.
•• evaluate the effect of human influence on weather.
•• describe Zimbabwe’s climatic zones.
•• relate Zimbabwe’s climatic zones to various economic activities.
•• describe climate variability.
•• suggest solutions to effects of climate variability.
•• describe effects of climate variability.

Introduction
In form 1, you have learnt about the different elements of weather, the instruments used to measure them
and how the data are recorded, represented and interpreted. Globally, weather vary from place to place
and from time to time. Around the world, people have lost lives, property and infrastructure worth billions,
due to weather hazards. In this chapter, we outline weather hazards, examine their impacts, suggest ways
on how these impacts can be reduced, examine people’s influence on weather and describe Zimbabwe’s
climate zones as well as climate variability.

UNIT 1.1 WEATHER HAZARDS

A weather hazard is an unfavorable extreme event that threatens people or property resulting from
weather phenomena. Weather hazards are many and cannot be prevented but their effects can be
mitigated.
Common weather hazards
Weather hazards happen time and again and from place to place around the world. In most places, their
effects are very significant because of poor disaster management preparedness. Weather hazards have
led to death of people and animals, left people homeless, without food and destructed infrastructure.
Nowadays, weather hazards cannot be regarded as purely natural as some are now triggered by human
factors. For example, flooding in some areas can be attributed to deforestation which speeds up surface
runoff causing river channels to fill up quickly resulting in floods.

1
Zimbabwe is among the many countries around the world which experiences weather hazards such as
drought. Common weather hazards include: floods, lightning, drought, frost and tropical storms.
1. Floods
Floods are the major weather hazards, which may
occur seasonally or irregularly and are caused by
heavy rainfall over a given area in a short period of
time. This normally happens when rivers overflow
their banks and water flows back to the floodplain.
Flooding is normally caused by heavy torrential or
persistent rain in tropical regions, rapid thawing of
snow in temperate and arctic regions, storm surge
and a combination of high tides and high river
levels in some areas. Flash floods are also common
in deserts and urban areas. Low lying areas are also
prone to flooding. Fig. 1.1 Floods caused by Cyclone Idai in
Causes of flooding Chimanimani - March 2019

Heavy torrential rains within a short space of time

When rainfall is heavy and sudden, the big raindrops clog the pores through which water enters soil. When
this happens, infiltration is discouraged and surface runoff is promoted. This causes river channels to fill up
more quickly and water over flows its banks.
Deforestation
Vegetation helps to bind the soil together and helps water to soak into the soil. When trees are cut, without
replacement, the soil is left bare promoting surface runoff which results in flooding.
Stream bank cultivation
The carrying out of farming activities close to the river channel causes heavy siltation as loose soil is easily
washed into the river. This makes the river to become shallow due to sediment deposition. When a river is
shallow, it holds less discharge. This causes water to over flow its banks when rainfalls.
Tarmac surfaces
The increasing construction of concrete surfaces especially in urban areas has led to increased runoff as
water finds it difficult to sink into the ground. This causes flash floods in urban areas when rain falls.
Effects of floods
Floods cause heavy damage to crops, destruction of infrastructure such as irrigation pipes, loss of life and
property than any other natural disaster. In Zimbabwe floods are very common in the Muzarabani area
along the Zambezi valley because the area is low lying.
•• During the wet season, the Zambezi River discharge increases causing the whole of the valley to
flood.
•• Flooding has had significant effects on the environment. When flooding occurs, a lot of soil is lost
through soil erosion causing loss of tonnes of fertile soils.
•• In some areas, flooding has led to spread of water borne diseases.
•• Shortage of clean water since the flood water contain sewage and any other waste.

2
Solutions/Mitigation measures
Widening and dredging of river channels – This helps river channels to hold more water and prevent
flooding. This is effective but very expensive as lots of capital is required.
Straightening river channels – One of the many reasons for river flooding is meandering channels.
Straightening river channels accelerates river flow by reducing friction.
Building artificial levees – Banks of rivers can be modified and built so that they are raised. This helps to
keep discharge within the channel preventing flooding.
Afforestation and reforestation – Planting trees help to vegetate soils and encouraging infiltration. This
reduces surface runoff which cause flooding to take place.
Building dams – Flood control dams are common in many parts of the world. Dams are constructed in
order to hold water and reduce over spilling of discharge outside the banks of the channel.
The construction of diversion channels to prevent flooding water from flowing through settlements.
Early warning systems – Efficient early warning systems helps to reduce impacts of floods.
Settling on higher ground – Low lying areas are at high risk of floods; therefore, people should settle on
higher ground and avoid valleys which are low lying.
2. Lightning
Lightning is a weather hazard which happens
when positive electrical charge or even potential
difference is created between the cloud and the
earth. As a result, a giant sparkle of lightning is
generated and sometimes a lightning flash may hit
any object like a tree or a building on the ground.
Veld fire can also occur because of lightning under
dry conditions. Lightning is very common in
tropical areas where summer rainfall is associated
with high temperatures. The high temperatures
cause convection currents to raise air in the late
afternoon resulting in convectional rainfall. In
Zimbabwe, lightning is very common in the late Fig. 1.2 Lightning
afternoons during the hot-wet summers, stretching
from October to March.
Causes of lightning
Lightning is caused by rapidly expanding and contracting air after it has been greatly heated. When the rain
falls, the raindrops produce a positive charge of electricity at the top of the cloud and negative electrical
charge at the bottom of the cloud due to the energy gained from convection when the air expands. The
earth becomes positively charged. As rain falls, the friction causes electric sparks in the form of lightning.
Effects of lightning
•• When lightning strikes, it may ignite veld fires in dry areas.
•• It also causes loss of human and animal life, destruction of property.
•• Lighting can cause ecosystem destruction where there will be loss of animal habitats.

3
Causes of drought
•• Drought is caused by existence of a high-
pressure belt. For rain to form and fall, water
vapour needs to rise high through the
atmosphere in order to condense and bring
about rain. However, in high pressure belts,
air subsides, and water vapour does not rise
and no rain or clouds will form. When the
high pressure stays in an area for a prolonged
length of time the result is drought.
•• Drought is caused by changes in rainfall
patterns, deforestation and global warming. Fig. 1.3 Drought stricken place
•• The rain shadow effect, on relief rainfall, also causes drought. In mountainous or highland areas
relief rainfall causes rain to fall on the windward side while moisture is lost as dry air descends on
the leeward side. Warmer and drier conditions prevail subsequently causing drought and in some
cases a desert.
•• Poor farming methods such as monoculture and overgrazing. These poor farming methods cause
a reduction in the water vapour as transpiration is reduced. The amount of moisture for cloud
formation is also reduced causing less rain than expected to fall.
Effects of drought
•• Where there is drought, there is lower crop yields, shortage of food supplies and outbreak of
diseases such as kwashiorkor in children.
•• Farmers will have to contend with spending huge sums of money for irrigation and watering
animals. This involves drilling wells or buying water from far distances.
•• Low yields equal loss of substantial income. Low yields also lead to pay cuts and layoffs to farm
workers.
•• Businesses and industries that produce farm equipment may close down since farmers have no
money to purchase equipment.
•• Prolonged shortage of rains means drier conditions. This makes an area susceptible to veldfires.
Veldfires can destroy property; devastate farms and burn down forests. Governments spend
millions to control or put out veldfires annually. All this affects the economy of the region.
•• If water supply plummets, hydroelectric power plants operate below capacity, and this means
businesses have to pay more for importing electricity or incur the cost of using their own generators.
Energy firms also lose out since they are unable to satisfy energy demands of the region. The
government also loses a big chunk of tax revenue.
•• Drought situation causes crop failure, water crisis, and food insecurity. Drought results in death of
animals. During the 1992 drought in Zimbabwe, many farmers lost their cattle to drought as there
were no pastures for them to feed on. Starvation is also a major threat during a drought.
Solutions/mitigation measures
•• In Zimbabwe, drought situation has been combated through construction of dams for irrigation to
supplement water deficit so as to prevent crop failure. One such dam is Tokwe-Mukhosi in Masvingo.
•• Growing of drought tolerant crops, such as rapoko, millet and sorghum has been encouraged in
recent years.
•• Non-governmental organisation such as CARE, USAID, also help with food aid during drought years.

5
 UNIT 1.2 INFLUENCE OF PEOPLE ON WEATHER

People consciously or unconsciously engage in activities on daily basis most of which influence weather
patterns greatly. These activities affect weather either positively or negatively.
Positive influences
Cloud seeding - This is the adding of silver iodine particles in the atmosphere to form clouds. They act
as condensation nuclei which help in formation of clouds. Cloud seeding increases the amount rainfall
received.
Afforestation and Reforestation - The planting of trees help in increasing the amount of water vapour
through transpiration. This causes rain bearing clouds to form and more rain falls. This is one of the main
reasons why there is high rainfall in equatorial regions where the vegetation is thick and abundant.
Negative influences
Industrialisation – Many industries produce toxic gases such as carbon dioxide. These gases cause acid
rain and global warming. Acid rain is rainfall that is too acidic because the water droplets combined with
too many gases from industrial fumes. Acid rain destroys vegetation and many animals die. On the other
hand, the emission of gases from industries has caused accumulation of greenhouse gasses such as carbon
dioxide which acts as an envelope preventing outgoing radiation to leave the earth. This has caused a rise
in the global temperatures, a process known as global warming. This usually causes change in rainfall
patterns and areas becoming drier than before. With increasing technology, many industries are now
using green sources of energy which causes less pollution.
Deforestation – The cutting down of trees causes reduced carbon dioxide absorption. This causes the
amount of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere to accumulate causing global warming. Afforestation and
reforestation are measures that can curb deforestation.
Urban population – The increase in the urban population of Zimbabwe led to the increase in the use of
motor vehicles and industrial pollution, thus resulting in the increase of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere.
Use of fertilisers in farming – Farmers use fertilisers that release methane and nitrous oxide into the
atmosphere.
Activity 1.2 Group discussion
Find out the effects of human activities on weather and present your answers to the class.

Exercise 1.2

1. What is a weather hazard?

2. Identify any 3 hazards you know and give examples of countries where they occurred.
3. Explain the causes of floods in Zimbabwe.
4. Identify 5 mitigation measures or solutions to the effects of drought.
5. What is climate change?
6. How do people influence weather?

UNIT 1.3 THE CLIMATE OF ZIMBABWE

Zimbabwe’s climate varies from place to place and this has had a great effect on the economic and
agricultural activities dominating in each region. The agro ecological regions were established after

9
prolonged study of rainfall and temperature patterns across the country. From the studies, 5 distinct
climate zones were established.

Fig. 1.6 The agro-climatic zones of Zimbabwe

Table 1.1 Agricultural activities in each region

Rainfall
Region Farming type Examples of activities Places
(mm/yr)
Citrus , plantation, tea and
(i) > 1000 Specialised farming Eastern Highlands
coffee growing, dairy farming
Horticulture, potatoes, maize, Highlands, Harare, Mazowe,
(ii) 750-1000 Intensive farming
beas, soya beans, tobbacco Bindura, Chinhoyi
Semi-intensive
(iii) 600-750 Cattle fattening, cotton Midlands, Sanyati,
farming
Cotton, rappoko, millet cattle
Semi-extensive
(iv) 450-600 ranching, wildlife, sugarcane Gokwe, Masvingo
farmoing
under irrigation
Extensive livestock Cattle ranching, wildlife
farming Zambezi Valley, Beitbridge,
(v) <450 management, irrigation
Matebeleland South
Irrigation farming farming.

The relationships between climatic zones and economic activities of Zimbabwe

Climate directly affects human activities.
Region 1
Region 1 covers the eastern highlands of Zimbabwe. Rainfall received is very high due to the mountains
which dominate the region. It receives the highest amount of rainfall (> 1000mm/year) and the temperatures
are moderate. The soils are well drained due to the high relief of the area. Major crops grown are tea,
coffee, citrus fruits, plantation trees and dairy farming is also practiced. There is diversified and specialized

10
farming which is the production of special crops such as apples, tea and coffee. Many slopes of the eastern
highlands are forested with pine and wattle. Tea and coffee are grown on gentler terrain. Deciduous fruit
trees are common in Nyanga. Parts of Chipinge are dotted with beef and dairy cattle.
Region 2
Region 2 receives moderate to high rainfall of between 750-1000mm/year. This region specialises in
intensive horticultural farming as well as commercial agriculture for cash crops. Major crops grown are,
maize, tobacco, potatoes, flowers, vegetables, citrus. It is dominated by red clay soils that are rich and
fertile. It covers areas like Mazowe, Bindura, Rusape, Chinhoyi and Banket. Maize, tobacco, potatoes and
soya beans are grown during the summer season while wheat is grown intensively in winter. The farmers
also raise beef cattle. Most white commercial farms were situated in this region. Region 2 is dominated by
A2 commercial farmers.
Region 3
Region 3 is dry and experiences erratic rains with seasonal droughts being common. It covers parts of
Midlands, Gokwe and Sanyati. The rainfall is usually low, ranging between 600mm and 750 mm/year
and normal farming without supplementary irrigation can be a challenge. Semi extensive agriculture
dominates the region. The region has high risk of drought and farmers grow drought tolerant and drought
resistant crops such as cotton and small grains.
Drought resistant crops such as rapoko, millet, cotton is commonly grown. Cattle fattening is also practiced
in some parts of the region such as in Midlands.
Region 4
Region 4 is the driest and seasonal droughts are common. Rainfall is very low, averaging between 450mm
and 600mm/year. Temperatures are very high in this region. This area carries a larger number of dams with
the recently completed Tokwe-Mukosi dam being one of them. Crops mostly do well under irrigation for
example the Mushandike irrigation scheme. Cattle ranching is highly practiced in areas such as Mwenezi
and Gwanda. This region covers parts of Midlands and Masvingo. The area is very dry and long dry spells
in the rainy season are common. The main agricultural activities are raising beef cattle and growing fodder
crops. Drought tolerant crops are also grown. The soils are also generally poor.
Region 5
This is the driest region and extensive agriculture is dominant. It is found in the low-lying areas of the
country such as the Zambezi valley and the lowveld of Zimbabwe. Profitable cultivation can only be done
under irrigation for example sugarcane plantations in Chiredzi. Crops such as sugarcane and citrus fruits
are grown. Wildlife management is also done in this region as vast land available. Examples include the
Gonarezhou National Park in Chiredzi. Vegetation in this region is dominated by mopane woodlands,
acacia and other drought tolerant vegetation.
Activity 1.3 Group discussion
In groups, describe the climatic zones of Zimbabwe. Present your findings to the class.

Exercise 1.3
1. What are greenhouse gases?
2. List ways of avoiding being struck by lightning.
3. How do human activities contribute to weather changes?
4. Describe Zimbabwe’s climatic zones.
5. How does Zimbabwean climatic zones and economic activities of Zimbabwe link.

11
 •• Growing drought tolerant varieties. Small grains such as finger millet and rapoko are drought
tolerant and therefore are encouraged to farmers in the driest areas.
•• Diversification. Most farmers are now engaged in some horticultural activities such as growing
vegetables and other farming activities such as aquaculture and bee farming. Some farmers are
now involved in the keeping of small livestock.
•• Growing early maturity varieties. With improved research, early maturing seed varieties are
constantly being produced to cater for effects of climate variability. A good example is the panner
variety of maize seed which matures early. This helps farmers to harvest within short periods.
Exercise 1.4
1. What are the measures that can be done to reduce greenhouse gas emissions?
2. Identify the effects of climate change.
3. How does climate change affect people and the environment?
4. What is climate variability?
5. Describe the solutions to effects of climate variability.

Interesting facts
1. Weather conditions can reach extreme levels pose high risks to human and animal lives.
2. The climate varies over short- and long-term basis due to natural or sometimes human causes.
Summary of the chapter
•• Weather hazard is an extreme weather event which causes harm to people, animals, property,
infrastructure and ecosystems.
•• Flooding causes soil erosion, loss of human and animal life and destruction of infrastructure.
•• Lightning is caused by positive charge created between clouds and the earth.
•• Drought is a situation of moisture deficiency.
•• Frost is common in very cold regions and on mountain summits in tropical areas.
•• People impact positively and negatively on weather.
•• Zimbabwe is divided into 5 agro climatic regions.
•• The temperature and rainfall distribution in each zone play a role in determining the agricultural
activities to be done.
•• Climate variability is short term climatic variations whose impacts greatly affect agricultural
activities.
Glossary of terms
Phenomena – something which happens or occurs.
Cloud seeding – is a type of weather modification which changes the amount or type of
precipitation that falls from clouds, by injecting substances into the air that
serve as cloud condensation or ice nuclei.
Torrential – falling rapidly and with force.
Green house – a structure with walls and roof made of transparent material, such as glass or
plastic, in which plants requiring regulated climatic conditions are grown.
Global warming – refers to the rise in average surface temperatures on earth normally caused
by change in climate.

13
Intensive agriculture – involves various types of agriculture with higher levels of input and output
per cubic unit of agricultural land area. It is characterized by a low fallow
ratio, higher use of inputs such as capital and labour, and higher crop yields
per cubic unit land area. A good example is horticulture where crops such as
potatoes, flowers, vegetables are grown.
Extensive agriculture – is an agricultural production system that uses small inputs of labour, fertilizers,
and capital, relative to the land area being farmed. A good example is cattle
ranching.
El Nino – Southern Oscillation refers to the cycle of warm and cold temperatures, as
measured by sea surface temperature, of the tropical central and eastern
Pacific Ocean.
Lamina – is the direct opposite of El Niño, it occurs when sea surface temperatures in
the central Pacific Ocean drop to lower-than-normal levels.

Revision Exercises
Multiple Choice Questions
1. The following are weather hazards except ____________.
A. frost. B. cloud seeding.
C. lightning. D. drought.
2. What causes lightning?
A. clouds. B. the sun.
C. positively charged clouds. D. rain.
3. The best way to mitigate frost is ________.
A. make artificial levees. B. grow crops in green house.
C. burn the crop. D. plant crops with manure.
4. In which region below is horticulture dominant?
A. 5. B. 3.
C. 2. D. 4.
5. What causes climate variability?
A. Agriculture. B. El nino.
C. Drilling boreholes. D. Lightning.
6. Which area in Zimbabwe are prone to flooding?
A. Chipinge. B. Muzarabani.
C. Harare. D. Beitbridge.
7. Which crops are grown on the hill slopes of the eastern highlands?
A. Sugarcane. B. Tobacco.
C. Tea and coffee. D. Cotton.
8. Which of the following factors has a positive impact on weather?
A. Cloud seeding. B. Stream bank cultivation.
C. Global warming. D. Farming.
9. What has the Government of Zimbabwe done in order to reduce the impacts of drought?
A. Resettlement. B. Increasing exports.
C. Construction of dams. D. Distributing seeds.

14
10. What are the signs of climate change and climate variability in Zimbabwe?
A. More sunshine. B. Erratic rainfall with prolonged dry spells.
C. Commercial agriculture. D. Cloudy conditions.
11. Intensive agriculture require _______.
A. more land. B. less inputs.
C. less land and more inputs. D. drought resistant crops.
12. How can people reduce the impacts of flooding?
A. Settling on higher ground. B. Practicing crop rotation.
C. Ploughing up and down the slope. D. Stream bank cultivation.
13. In Zimbabwe, during drought years, how do people in rural areas acquire food?
A. Exporting. B. Food aid.
C. Harvest in their fields. D. Barter trade.
14. What are the main causes of global warming?
A. Farming. B. Lightning.
C. Industrialization. D. Using fertilisers.
15. Which type of rainfall dominate the eastern highlands of Zimbabwe?
A. Convectional. B. Orographic.
C. Frontal. D. Torrential rainfall.

Structured Questions
1. (a) Define weather hazard. [2]
(b) i. Identify the causes and effects of any two weather hazards you have studied. [7]
ii. From the weather hazards identified in b (i) above, suggest solutions to reduce their impacts. [6]
(c) i. Describe and explain any 3 human activities which contribute to climate change. [6]
ii. Describe major farming activities practiced in agro-ecological zone 1. [4]
2. (a) i. What is a flood? [2]
ii. What are the causes of floods? [4]
iii. List the effects of floods. [4]
(b) Identify measures put in place to mitigate flooding. [5]
(c) List ways of avoiding being struck by lightning. [5]
(d) i. What causes frost to occur? [3]
ii. What are the effects of frost? [2]

15
 Chapter
LANDFORMS
AND LANDSCAPE
2 PROCESSES

Chapter objectives
By the end of this chapter, you should be able to:
•• identify main types of rocks.
•• describe formation of each of the main rock types.
•• describe the characteristics of various rock under each main rock type.
•• classify the rock types.
•• describe the main types of weathering.
•• distinguish between mechanical and chemical weathering.
•• describe landforms resulting from weathering.
•• illustrate with a diagram the internal structure of the earth.
•• describe the parts of the internal structure of the earth.

Introduction
In form 1 you learnt about the different landforms found across the globe. If you look around your
environment, you will notice different types of rocks. There are also some unique distinct features on the
landscape. Have you ever wondered how the landforms were formed? The earth is spherical in shape and
its interior is made up of different forms of rocks which form the unique features we see on the surface. The
features we see result from rocks which are then sculptured by denudational processes such as weathering.
In this chapter, you will learn about the earth’s interior and origin of rocks. You will also learn how physical
and chemical weathering wear away different rock types leading to formation of unique landforms. The
internal structure of the earth is made up of different layers of rocks in different states.

UNIT 2.1 ROCK TYPES

A rock is a solid combination of mineral particles that makes up the physical structure of the earth formed
under great heat and or pressure. It is a naturally formed, non-living earth material. Rocks are made of
collections of mineral grains that are held together in a firm, solid mass and they break down to give us soil.
Rocks differ in mineral composition, colour, structure, hardness and texture.
Rocks are grouped according to the way they are formed into three main groups which are:
(a) Igneous,
(b) Sedimentary and
(c) Metamorphic.

16
 •• Railroad surfacing.
•• Used for stone sculpturing of artefacts.
2. Sedimentary rocks
These are rocks made from material breaking away
from already existing rocks deposited as sediments
in depressions or river beds and hardened/
cemented together forming layers and they cover
two-thirds of the Earth’s surface. The sediments from
already existing rocks like granite are worn away by
either wind or water and deposited in layers and
cemented together to form rocks. The sediments
are piled on top of each other forming layers called
strata. In other words, sedimentary rocks form when
sediments are carried by water or wind, laid down Fig. 2.2 The balancing rocks of Matobo are made up
and compacted together. This process is called of granite
sedimentation. The layers/strata are separated from
each other by bedding planes. Sedimentary rocks
can be classified into three groups which are;
(a) Mechanically formed sedimentary rocks
These are formed from weathered rock materials
deposited in depressions or ocean floors for
example clay, sandstone, breccia sedimentary rock,
conglomerate sedimentary rock and shale.
Mechanically formed sedimentary rock types form
depending on the size of the rock fragments that
make up the deposits. There is;
•• Breccia sedimentary rock – the gravel,
pebbles and boulders in this type have a
sharper, angular shape. Fig. 2.3 Breccia sedimentary rock
•• Conglomerate sedimentary rock – it is
made up of rounded gravel and pebbles and smaller rock pieces. The smaller pieces fill up the
spaces between the larger particles and
bind them together.
•• Sandstone – it is formed when sand particles
are deposited by wind or water and bind
them together to form a porous rock mass.
•• Siltstone – the particles in this type are finer,
silt particles.
•• Shale – is a soft, brittle, non-porous and
smooth textured rock. It has a reddish-
brown to green colours. It is a result of the
binding together of clay deposits and sand
particles in shallow water bodies.
•• Clay – is a fine-grained rock deposited in
water and is commonly found on vleis. Fig. 2.4 Conglomerate sedimentary rock

18
(b) Organically formed sedimentary rocks
These are formed from the accumulation of dead
plants and animals. Example of such rocks are coal,
limestone and peat.
•• Coal – is a hard-black rock with a high carbon
content. It is formed when plants decay in
the absence of oxygen in swamps.
•• Peat – is a soft fibrous brown rock in the
early stages of coal formation.
•• Limestone – it is formed when the sea water Fig. 2.5 Sedimentary rocks (sandstone) which
organisms such as polyps and shellfish form the magnificent Chilojo cliffs in Gonarezhou
accumulate on the seabed. national Park
(c) Chemically formed sedimentary rocks
These are made from chemicals deposited in
depression for example limestone, gypsum,
rock salt. When water evaporates, the chemicals
that were in the solution are deposited.
Sedimentary rocks are usually seen by the different
colours making up the rock. The layers are known
as strata which show different phases of sediment
accumulation over long period of time. The thin
line which separate the strata is called the bedding
plane.
•• Limestone – is a fine-grained, whitish-
grey or yellowish rock made up of calcium Fig. 2.6 Shale
carbonate. It is formed by the precipitation
of calcium carbonate in the water.
Importance of sedimentary rocks
•• They are the main source of oil in the Middle
East.
•• Provide coal for example coal from Hwange.
•• Unique features such as the Chinhoyi caves
are formed when erosion takes place. The
features act as tourist attractions.
•• Used in making of building material such as
cement.
3. Metamorphic rocks
These are already existing rocks that have
undergone changes due to exposure to great heat
Fig. 2.7 Peat
and pressure. Metamorphism means a change in
structure and appearance. Metamorphic rocks are formed when metamorphic rocks are created by the
physical or chemical alteration by heat and pressure of an existing igneous or sedimentary material into a
denser form.

19
 Activity 2.1 Educational tour
Take a tour around your school and identify infrastructure made from granite rocks.

Activity 2.2 Observation

Pick any five different types of stones around your school. Physically examine them and establish their types
using the characteristics outlined above.

Exercise 2.1

1. Identify main rock types.

2. Describe how each rock type is formed.
3. Distinguish characteristics of the rock types.
4. Which rocks are found under the igneous rocks?

UNIT 2.2 WEATHERING OF ROCKS AND RESULTANT LANDFORMS

Weathering is the disintegration or breaking down and decomposition of rocks into smaller particles in situ
(without movement). Weathering helps in the creation of landforms, shaping them and formation of soil.
There two main types of weathering which are physical/mechanical weathering and chemical weathering.
However, there is a third type, biological weathering but, can also be classified as physical weathering.

1. Mechanical (or physical) weathering process

It is the breaking down of rocks without any change in the chemical composition of the original rock.
Physical weathering happens especially in places where there is little soil and few plants grow, such as in
mountain regions and hot deserts. Physical weathering is also referred to as mechanical weathering. It is
the weakening of rocks followed by disintegration due to the physical or mechanical forces including the
actions on the rocks by abrasion, frost chattering, temperature fluctuations and salt crystal growth.
External environmental forces such as wind, water waves, and rain also consistently exert pressure on the
rock structures resulting in accelerated disintegration. Physical weathering does not involve any chemical
changes because the chemical composition of the rocks is never altered.
Physical weathering is caused by:
•• Insolation/diurnal temperature changes.
•• Freeze thaw action.
•• Salt weathering.
•• Pressure release.
•• Plant and animal action (biological).
Physical weathering processes
(a) Insolation weathering/diurnal temperature
changes/onion weathering/exfoliation
It is caused by temperature changes which cause
variations in the expansion and contraction of rock
surfaces. During daytime, high temperatures cause
the rock’s outer layer to absorb heat and expand and
at night when temperatures fall, the rocks contract.
The continuous expansion and contraction of the Fig. 2.11 Onion weathering/exfoliation weathering

21
2. Plant and animal action (biological weathering)
This is when plant roots grow and develop in rock cracks. As the tree grows, so does the roots, causing rock
cracks to widen and eventually the rock disintegrates into blocks. Also, some animals as rodents, worms
and ants cause loosening of rock particles and make them detach.
Biological weathering also means organic weathering. It is the disintegration of rocks as a result of the
action by living organisms. Plants and animals have a significant effect on the rocks as they penetrate or
burrow into the soil respectively. Biological weathering can work hand in hand with physical weathering
by weakening rock or exposing it to the forces of physical or chemical weathering.
For instance, some plants and trees grow within the fractures in the rock formation. As they penetrate into
the soil, and their roots get bigger, they exert pressure on rocks and make the cracks wider, and deeper that
weaken and eventually disintegrate the rocks. Microscopic organisms can also produce organic chemicals
that can contribute to the rock’s mineral weathering.
Biological weathering is a very common type of weathering that we see around us. There are many small
animals that bore holes in the rock and live inside it. Over the time, they burrow and widen cracks and
end up breaking rocks apart. Then there are bacteria, algae and lichens produce chemicals that help break
down the rock on which they survive, so they can get the nutrients they need. They produce weak acids
which convert some of the minerals to clay. We, humans, are also responsible for biological weathering. As
we construct more homes, industries, dams, power plants, roads, we rip the rocks apart.
3. Chemical weathering processes
It is the decomposition of rocks involving a change in the chemical composition of the rocks. Chemical
weathering takes place when rock minerals reacts with water and corrode. It is highly prevalent in areas
receiving very high rainfall and high temperatures for example the equatorial rainforest. The rainfall
facilitates chemical reactions as a solvent while the high temperatures speeds up the chemical reactions.
Chemical weathering takes place through the following ways:

Fig. 2.15 Plant root action Fig. 2.16 Animal action

(a) Carbonation
It is the decomposition of calcareous rocks such as limestone. Calcareous rocks are rocks containing
carbonate compounds. Carbonation takes place when rocks containing carbonate compounds reacts with
acid water. Rain water is usually acidic because it combines with carbon dioxide in the atmosphere forming

23
a weak carbonic acid. This weak acid dissolves
weak rock minerals. This is how limestone rocks are
weathered. This kind of weathering is responsible
for the existence of the Chinhoyi caves.
(b) Oxidation

This is a form of chemical weathering which

happens when oxygen in water reacts with rock
minerals containing iron. The rocks affected by Fig. 2.17 Carbonation
this type of weathering turn reddish or brownish
indicating rust.
(c) Hydrolysis
This is the reaction of hydrogen in water with
feldspar to form clay. It mainly occurs in rocks that
contain feldspar, for example, granite, basalt and
dolerite. Granite rock is chemically worn away in
this way to form clay and sand. When the feldspar in
a rock such as granite is changed into clay, the other
minerals such as quartz and mica remaining in the
granite lose their original cohesion. This enables
them to fall off the mother rock as individual grain
and this is called granular disintegration. Hydrolysis Fig. 2.18 Oxidation
occur below the ground level, and this is called
deep weathering.
(d) Hydration
This type of chemical reaction is highly common in
igneous rocks. The reaction takes either the form of
hydration or dehydration. Absorption of water into
the rock pertains to hydration while the removal
of water from the rock pertains to dehydration.
Hydration expands the rock’s volume resulting in
size alteration.
This is when rocks absorb a lot of water leading to
the change of its chemical composition. The rocks
absorb water and the water enters the rock’s interior. Fig. 2.19 Hydrolysis
Factors influencing weathering
The rate and type of weathering vary from place to place across the world. There are areas where the rate
of weathering is very high than others while some areas experience physical weathering others chemical
weathering. This is because of the following factors:
(a) Rock type
The chemical structure of a rock determines the speed at which rocks are weathered. Rocks that are made
up of weak and non-resistant minerals such as limestone are easily weathered as compared to rocks made
up of strong and resistant minerals which takes time to be worn away. Some rock minerals are prone to
some chemical reactions for example feldspar in granite is susceptible to hydrolysis and limestone is prone
to carbonation.

24
Weathering takes place relatively above the
ground surface. Main processes such as frost
action, exfoliation takes place above the ground.
Results in the formation of large and medium
sized rock fragments.
It is caused by heat, cold or force.
Chemical weathering takes place mainly in the sub
surface area.
Fine soil particles are produced. For example,
feldspar weathers into Kaoline clay.
It is caused by reaction of substances

Landforms resulting from weathering

When weathering takes place, there are a lot of landforms which are left behind. The following are the
main landforms:
1. Granite landforms
These are the features associated with the weathering of igneous rocks. Granite topography is found in
areas such as Murehwa, Nyanga, Gutu, Buhera, Matobo amongst others. The following are the landforms
formed from granitic rocks.
(a) Inselbergs
This is a steep sided hill which is isolated and
standing high above the ground. They can be
dwalas, bornhadts or castle kopjes.
i. Castle kopjes
Castle kopje is steep side pile of massive crystalline
boulders with a castle like profile. It is a hill with
rocky outcrops on its sides. They normally appear
as balancing rocks. They have core stones which are
balancing at the top. For example, castle kopje is a
hill and is located in the Kanyemba area in Guruve,
Mashonaland East, Zimbabwe. Fig. 2.23 Castle kopje
ii. Dwala

Ruware
Lower limit of active weathering Weathered material

Pressure release or ‘ unloading ’

Fig. 2.24 Formation of dwala/ ruware

It is a low-lying dome shaped bare rock feature with little or no jointing. They are mostly composed of
granite rocks. They are formed when cycles of weathering and erosion expose unweathered rock on the
surface. In Zimbabwe, Domboshava is a good example of a place dominated by ruwares.

26
iii. Bornhadts
Bornhadts are dome shapes high rock outcrops
with steep sides. These are smooth rocks with steep
sides. They are isolated hills standing high up above
low-lying areas. They have invisible rock joints and
usually have little vegetation on them.
2. Karst landforms
These are landforms produced in areas of limestone
rocks.
(a) Stalactites and stalagmites Fig. 2.25 Bornhadt at Nyanga National Park in Zimbabwe
These are hanging pillars and protruding pillars
found in a cave caused by chemical weathering.
These pillars result from the accumulation of
dripping salts in underground caves. They form
a mound which rise up from the cave floor while
others will remain hanging from the cave roof.
When stalactites and stalagmites join together, they
form pillars.
(b) Grikes and clints
These are depressions caused by uneven chemical
weathering on limestone rocks. They form ridge Fig. 2.26 Stalactites and stalagmites
and furrow feature on the landscape. Limestone
rocks have alternating layers of very soft and slightly Grikes
resistant parts formed due to different times of
sediment accumulation. The softer parts are worn
away faster and more easily than the resistant part, Clints
causing weathering to affect the weaker parts
leaving behind ridge and furrow landscape. Ridges
are called clints and furrows grikes.
(c) Underground caves
These are formed when limestone rocks dissolve
beneath the ground surface due to solution
weathering. Fig. 2.27 Grike and clint

Fig. 2.28 (a) Chinhoyi caves Fig. 2.28 (b) Chinhoyi caves

27
The limestone dissolve leaving large holes which can stretch for several meters. Underground caves range
from small to big ones. A good example is the Chinhoyi caves in Zimbabwe.
Activity 2.3 Individualisation
Identify and state any distinct features in your local area. Compare the features you found with your friend’s.
Write a short essay on the formation of the features you have identified.

Activity 2.4 Research

Imagine you are a school leaver, write down ways in which you would utilise weathering landforms in your local
area to generate income.

Exercise 2.2

1. Name the main types of weathering.

2. Distinguish between mechanical and chemical weathering.
3. Name any two landforms that are produced in areas of limestone rock and two from igneous rock.
4. Explain the process of hydrolysis and carbonation.
5. Describe biological weathering in your own words.

UNIT 2.3 INTERNAL STRUCTURE OF THE EARTH

The earth is spherical in shape and is made up of
a number of layers’ rock. These rocks are the ones
susceptible to weathering once exposed to the
agents of weathering.
The earth is made up of three layers namely crust,
mantle and core. Between the layers, there is a
zone called a discontinuity zone. Mohorovicic zone
of discontinuity is found between or separates
the crust from the mantle. Gutenberg zone of
discontinuity separates the mantle from the core.
Fig. 2.29 Internal structure of the Earth
(a) The crust
Continental crust Oceanic crust
It is also called the lithosphere and is the outer most
layer of the earth. This layer comprises of two parts
which are the oceanic and the continental layers. The
oceanic layer is made up of silica and magnesium
(SIMA), while the continental layer is made up of
silica and aluminum (SIAL). The oceanic layer (SIMA)
is denser and heavy while the continental layer is
less dense and light. This is why oceans have lower
altitudes than continents.
The crust is very mobile and is responsible for most
tectonic movements which cause earthquakes and
Mantle
volcanic eruptions. It is in the crust where most
plutonic rocks are formed. Hot magma sometimes
solidifies before reaching the surface forming some Fig. 2.30 The structure of the crust
rock features such as dykes, laccoliths, lopoliths and batholiths. With repeated cycles of erosion, the features
will become exposed to the surface together with the minerals they contain.

28
(b) Mantle
It is the layer which comes beneath the crust.
It is made up of hot olivine minerals that are in a
semi molten state. It contributes to vulcanicity in
form of magma and lava. It is in this zone where
volcanic eruptions originate. The mantle contains
highly olivine rocks that are very rich in minerals.
The temperature in this layer is very high which
contributes to the aqueous state the rocks are
in. the high temperature causes high pressure to
characterize the layer as well. The molten rock finds
its way through rock fissures and cracks and reaches
the surface as lava resulting in volcanic eruption.
When the crust layers move away from each other in
Fig. 2.31 The mantle
tectonic activity, the magma finds its way through
the created fissures and cause volcanic eruptions.
(c) Core
The core has two parts, the inner and outer core. The inner core is solid while the outer core is semi-
liquid. The outer core lies beneath the mantle, is about 2000 km thick and its temperature varies from
4500 and 5000 degrees Celsius. The inner core is the centre of the earth, is about 1400 km in diameter,
and has temperatures around 5 500 degrees Celsius. Both the outer and inner core are composed of iron
and nickel. The layer also called the NIFE layer. The temperatures in the core are very high. It makes up the
center of the earth and all rock formation begin in this layer.
Activity 2.5 Discussion
With the aid of a diagram, describe in groups, the internal structure of the earth.

Exercise 2.3
1. Draw and label a diagram to show the internal structure of the earth.
2. Differentiate between inner and outer core.
3. Differentiate between continental and oceanic crust.
4. Explain how metamorphic rocks are formed?
5. The layer of the earth that is made up of mainly iron and magnesium is called ________.
6. Give an example of an igneous rock.

Interesting facts
The earth is made up of layers of rocks. These rocks are weathered when they are exposed to agents of
weathering leaving spectacular landforms on the landscape.
Summary of the chapter
•• Rocks are a combination of minerals.
•• There are three main types of rocks which are igneous, sedimentary and metamorphic rocks.
•• Rocks are weathered physically and chemically.
•• The rate and type of rock weathering vary from place to place due to a number of factors such as
rock jointing, climate, rock type, human activities.

29
 •• Weathering result in the formation of various landforms on the landscape.
•• The earth’s interior as got three layers which are the crust, the mantle and the core.
•• The crust floats on the mantle and moves due to tectonic activity.
•• The mantle is in a semi liquid state and rich in minerals.
•• The core has very high temperatures and pressure is very high.
•• Volcanic eruptions originate in the mantle due to high pressure and temperature.

Glossary of terms
Igneous – rocks formed due to solidification of magma.
Sedimentary – rocks formed due to the accumulation of sediments.
Metamorphic – these are rocks formed when rocks change due to exposure to great heat and
pressure.
Denudation – the process that cause the breaking and wearing away of the earth’s surface.
Exfoliation – the peeling off of outer rock layers due to changes in temperatures.
Karst topography – it is a landscape formed from the dissolution of soluble rocks such as a limestone.
Magma – these are molten rock found within the crust.
Mantle – is a part of the earth’s interior which is semi liquid in state and rich in rock minerals.
Calcareous rocks – these are rock made up of carbonate compound for example limestone.

Revision Exercises
Multiple Choice Questions
1. A rock is ____________.
A. soil particles B. solid combination of minerals
C. mixture of silt D. a landscape
2. All the following are groups of rocks except ____________.
A. sedimentary B. igneous
C. sand D. metamorphic
3. Which of the following is a unique property of igneous rocks?
A. They are strong. B. They are colourless.
C. They are rare. D. They are solvent.
4. Granite rock is very important because ___________.
A. it makes jewellery B. it is used in construction of infrastructure
C. is used in car manufacturing D. it is used to trade
5. The line which separates sedimentary rock strata is called _________.
A. strata B. crack
C. bedding plane D. layer
6. Which type of rock is gneiss?
A. Igneous B. Metamorphic
C. Sedimentary D. Granite
7. Which of the following weathering type is physical?
A. Oxidation B. Hydrolysis
C. Carbonation D. Exfoliation
8. Salt weathering is common in which area?
A. Deserts B. Arctic regions
C. Tropical rainforest D. Temperate regions

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9. Which of the following landform results from chemical weathering?
A. Tors B. Stalagmites
C. Cracks D. Inselbergs
10. The following are parts of the earth’s interior except,
A. Core B. Mantle
C. Oceans D. Crust
11. Which of the following landforms is not a result of weathering?
A. Chilojo cliffs. B. Balancing rocks in Epworth.
C. Chinhoyi caves. D. Save river.
12. The main characteristic of physical weathering is that _________.
A. It takes place due to reaction of chemical substances.
B. It results in completely new rocks.
C. It takes place in the sub surface zone.
D. It takes place in cold and relatively dry regions.
13. Which of the following factors greatly influence chemical weathering?
A. Rock jointing B. Relief.
C. Human factors. D. Slope.
14. The continental crust is made up of _________.
A. Iron. B. Olivine minerals.
C. Silica and aluminum. D. Phosphorus.
15. Sedimentary rocks are formed from ____________.
A. Solidifying magma. B. Accumulation of sediments.
C. Exposure great heat and pressure. D. Volcanic eruptions.

Structured Questions
1. (a) Describe how igneous rock are formed. [4]
(b) i. Outline the main differences between physical and chemical weathering. [4]
ii. Describe and explain any three factors influencing weathering. [8]
(c) i. Identify 5 landforms made from physical weathering. [5]
ii. List 4 factors that affect weathering. [4]
iii. What are the economic importance of granite? [3]
2. (a) i. What is a mantle? [2]
ii. Explain the main characteristics of the mantle. [3]
(b) i. How does continental crust differ from oceanic crust? [2]
ii. Draw and label a diagram to show the internal structure of the Earth. [6]
(c) Distinguish between weathering and erosion. [6]
(d) Describe the types of weathering? [6]

31
A biome is a specific environment that is home to living things suited for that place and climate. A desert
biome is great for a lizard, but a koala needs the leafy greens of a forest biome. A plant or animal makes
its home in a specific biome. While a biome can range from an arctic tundra to a tropical rain forest, living
things need to stay in the biome that is best suited to keeping them alive and growing. Scientists in the
field of ecology, the study of the environmental connections between living things, work to understand
the effects of climate change and population growth on biomes.
1. Species diversity
It is the variety of different organisms within an area, or all the living things found in an area. Species
diversity encompasses species richness, species evenness and species dominance. Species richness refers
to the total number of species in a given location. For example, the Gonarezhou Transfrontier Park is an area
with different types of living organisms such as grasshoppers, lizards, elephants, crocodiles, hippopotamus,
fish, buffalo, lion, pangolin, Musasa trees, Mopane trees, acacia trees, hares, hyenas, pythons, owls, impala,
eagles to name a few.
Species evenness refers to the relative abundance of
a given species in relation to other species in a given
location. This is the proportional quantity of a given
species against other species in that particular area.
Species dominance refers to the most abundant
species within a given ecosystem. This is when a
single specie dominates in a given area. For example,
a wetland area can be dominated by reeds only.
Generally, more species means high biodiversity.
A dominant specie is a plant, animal or functional
group of different species most commonly or clearly Fig. 3.1 Trees and living organisms in Gonarezhou
found in a particular ecosystem. It is generally the
most populous species or comprises the greatest
biomass in an ecosystem. It also influences the
distribution of other organisms and helps define
the ecosystem and its characteristics. A dominant
species might be better at obtaining resources,
resisting diseases or deterring competitors or
predators than other species.
Species diversity promotes a healthy ecosystem
and each organism is like a thread holding together
the ecosystem.
2. Genetic diversity
Fig. 3.2 The dominant plants in any kind of forest are
It refers to the total number of genes or hereditary trees
characteristics of a specific organism, sub group of
groups of species. There is a high level of diversity among species, but even a higher level of diversity among
genetic materials of the individuals of a specific species. A variety of genes ensures successful survival of
organisms and therefore reduces the chances of extinction. The wider the gene pool in a species, the more
the diversity.

33
1. Tropical rainforests
Location
Tropical rainforest are located in equatorial regions
and is mainly located between 00 and 100 South or
North of the Equator. Examples include the Congo
Basin in Africa, the Amazon basin in South America
and South East of Asia. (Brazil, Zaire and Indonesia).
Most of the Africa’s remaining rainforests are found
in the Congo River basin on the Atlantic Ocean side Fig. 3.4 Location of tropical rainforests in the world
of the continent. The Congo rainforest is famous of
its guerillas, chimpanzees and elephants.
Rainforests in the Congo are mostly under threat from logging, subsistence activities like small-scale
agriculture and firewood collection and commercial agriculture including large plantations. Wildlife is
endangered from hunting.
Major inputs
In tropical rainforests there are warm to hot temperatures all year round with an average temperature of
around 250C which is normally fairly uniform throughout the year. There is very little temperature variation.
Temperature range is very small around 30C. High temperature is due to the fact that the sun is almost
always directly overhead throughout the year because it is close to the Equator. The soils in the tropical
rainforests are deficient in minerals. The soils are red due to high iron and aluminum content. Soils are
heavily leached due to high rainfall and there is quick up take of nutrients by plants.
Humus content is low because of rapid breakdown by bacteria and quick uptake by plants as well as
leaching. Some is consumed by small creatures such as ants and termites. Bacteria activity is very high
due to high temperature and high precipitation. Soils are light in colour due to low humus content.
Decomposition is very fast due to high active nature of bacteria.
Processes
Photosynthesis – green plants use carbon dioxide and water during the presence of sunlight to produce
plant minerals or food.
Decay of plant debris – dead leaves fall to the ground and decaying vegetation is carried into the soil by
worms.
Outputs
•• Rainfall is received throughout the year meaning that there is no month without rain.
•• Rainfall is largely convectional due to high evaporation during the day.
•• Annual rainfall ranges between 1500mm to 2000mm which is evenly distributed.
•• A double ‘maxima’ is experienced.
•• Water running through the soil causes leaching. Water lost through leaf surface by evapotranspiration.
•• Water runs into rivers through ground or overflow.
•• Vegetation.

35
 350 35

300 30
Average rainfall (mm)

250 25

Average temperature oC)

200 2104 mm of 20
annual rainfall
150 15

100 10

50 5

0
Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec

2oc of annual temperature range

Fig. 3.5 Rainfall and temperature distribution of tropical rainforest

Vegetation characteristics and adaptations of the tropical rainforest biome

Fig. 3.6 Huge buttress roots

•• It is highly forested and dominated by woody vegetation.

•• It consists of a wide variety of plant species per unit area.
•• Vegetation is ever green due to plenty of rainfall and ideal temperature conditions.
•• Tall trees with straight trunks due to rapid growth as a result of good rainfall and temperature
condition and also competition for sunlight.
•• Trees have buttress roots for support/anchor the huge trees since soils are wet and roots are shallow.
•• There are a lot of climbers/lianas for support and to access sunlight.
•• There is very little undergrowth due to lack of sunlight because of the continuous canopy that gives
shade to the floor.
•• Flowering and fruiting take place throughout the year due to adequate rainfall and temperature.
•• The vegetation is made up of four distinct layers – emergent, canopy layer, under layer and shrub
layer.
•• The leaves are broad and ever green to allow photosynthesis to take place.
•• The vegetation is dominated by hard wood.

36
Rainforest vegetation levels
Tropical rainforests have dense vegetation. From
ground level, up these levels of vegetation are:
(a) The shrub layer – it is dark and gloomy with
very little vegetation between the trees. During
heavy rainfall this area can flood.
(b) The under canopy – it is the second level up.
There is limited sunlight. Saplings wait here for
larger plants and trees to die, leaving a gap in
the canopy which they can grow into. Woody
climbers called lianas avoid having to wait for Fig. 3.7 Tropical rainforest vegetation levels
gaps by rooting in the ground and climbing up
trees to get to the sunlight.
(c) The canopy – This is the upper parts of the trees
are found. The canopy is typically about 20 to
40 metres tall. This leafy environment is home to
insects, birds and some mammals.
(d) Emergents – These are the tops of the tallest
trees in the rainforest. These are much higher
and so are able to get light than the average
trees in the forest canopy.
Adapting to rainforest life
The vegetation in the rainforest has evolved
characteristics which help it to survive in this Fig. 3.8 Fan palms tree leaves
unique environment. Each has adapted to rainforest
conditions in a different way.
•• Fan palms have large, fan-shaped leaves that are good for catching sunlight and shed off water. The
leaves are segmented, so excess water can drain away.
•• Rainforests have a shallow layer of fertile soil,
so trees only need shallow roots to reach the
nutrients. However, shallow roots cannot
support huge rainforest trees, so many
tropical trees have developed huge buttress
roots. These stretch from the ground to two
metres or more up the trunk and help to
anchor the tree to the ground.
•• Lianas are woody vines that start at ground
level and use trees to climb up to the canopy
where they spread from tree to tree to get as
much light as possible.
Animal characteristics and adaptation in tropical
rainforest biome
There is a wide variety of birds and animals. Tree
Fig. 3.9 The forest in which small animals recide
climbing animals are more dominant. Tropical

37
rainforests support a greater number and variety
of animals than any other biome. This is due to the
constant warmth, constant supply of water and
wide variety of food for the animals. Small animals
including monkeys, birds, snakes, frogs and lizards
are common in the tropical rainforests.
Adaptation of animals in tropical rainforest
biome
In a volatile and competitive ecological environment
like the tropical rainforest, animals need to adapt Fig. 3.10 The camouflaged insect blending with the
to survive. Some animals have the ability to blend leaves
in with the surrounding environment to avoid
detection. The camouflaged rainforest animals such as walking stick insects which look like a tree branch,
green algae-covered sloths that hang from trees and blend in with the environment, use camouflage to
avoid predators such as jaguars and large American cats.
A multitude of insects never set foot on the ground. The animals use the tall trees and under canopy for
shelter and hiding places from their predators.
2. Tropical grasslands/Savanna ecosystem
Savannas are also called tropical grasslands and
are found close to tropical rainforests. It is a biome
characterised by tall grasses and occasional trees.
Savannas can result from either climate, soil
conditions, animal behavior, or agricultural practices
which limit the occurrence of trees. Humans create
savannas by cutting down trees and burning
grasslands. Large animals such as elephants can
turn a forest into a savanna by stripping the bark
from the trees, knocking over trees and trampling
on tree seedlings.
Fig. 3.11 Tropical grasslands or savanna
Location
Savannas are located between latitudes 50-150 North and South of the Equator. It is mainly found
between the Tropical rainforest and the hot desert
ecosystems. Examples include parts of Central
Africa for example Kenya, Southern parts of Africa
for example Zimbabwe, Zambia, the North and East
of South America (Brazil).
Inputs
The areas receive seasonal rainfall of about 775 -
1500mm per annum. They are characterised by hot/
warm rainy summer season and cool, dry winter Fig. 3.12 Distribution of Tropical grasslands or savanna
season. Rainfall is mainly convectional and coincides
with overhead sun over the tropics of Capricorn in the South and the tropic of cancer in the North.

38
 Fig. 3.15 Deciduous wooded grasslands Fig. 3.16 Umbrella shaped tree in savanna forest
•• Trees have thick trunks for example, baobab
to store excess water.
•• The trees have thick, hard barks to protect
themselves from fires (fire resistant).
•• The grass remains dormant during the dry
season.
•• Trees are thorny with small leaves to minimise
loss of water through transpiration.
Adaptation of animals in savanna biome
It supports large number of animals due to plenty
of grass. This has led to the development of
ecotourism. The species of animals in a savanna
include large antelopes, elephants as well as rodents.
Dry season is one characteristic of a savanna biome.
Tropical grassland animals (which do not all occur
in the same area) include giraffes, zebras, buffaloes,
kangaroos, mice, moles, gophers, ground squirrels, Fig. 3.17 A baobab tree with a broad trunk
snakes, worms, termites, beetles, lions, leopards,
hyenas, and elephants.
The world’s greatest diversity of ungulates (hoofed mammals) is found on the savannas of Africa. The
antelopes are especially diverse and include eland, impalas, gazelles oryx, gerenuk and kudu. Buffalo,
wildebeest, zebra, rhinos, giraffes, elephants and warthogs are among other herbivores of the African
savanna. Carnivores include lions, leopards, cheetahs, jackals, wild dogs and hyenas. Termites are especially
abundant in the tropical grasslands of the world. Animals adapt to the shortage of water and food during
the dry season through various ways including;
•• Migrating – they move to another area in search of water and food. Many animals in the savanna
migrate throughout the year, searching for food and water. Many of the droughts are seasonal and
hit one area before another, so animals are constantly following the rains.
•• Grazing animals like gazelles and zebras feed on grasses and often use camouflage to protect
themselves from predators when they are roaming in the open.
•• Small animals also avoid predators by burrowing underground and by being nocturnal; that they
become active during nighttime.

40
 •• During the cool season, temperatures can be as low as 00C - 100C.
•• Daytime temperatures can rise to 470C or more.
•• Night temperature can drop to as low as 50 C or less.
•• Annual temperature range is very high. It can reach 260 C.
•• Rainfall is usually less than 250mm/year. The rainfall is sporadic and it falls as sudden torrential
downpours which results in flash floods. Throughout the year, rain is in form of dew. The rain enables
dormant seeds to germinate and dry grass to rejuvenate. Humidity is very low throughout the year.
Outputs
There are very limited outputs due to harsh climatic
and soil conditions. The soils are very poor; they lack
of humus due to lack of vegetation.
Vegetation adaptation in desert biome
•• Vegetation is sparse. Xerophytic plants with
fleshy leaves and stems are common (cactus,
aloe).
•• Vegetation has thorny leaves, and sometimes
very small leaves.
•• Plant seeds can lie dormant for a very long Fig. 3.21 A desert biome with sparse vegetation
time and will germinate when rain falls.

Fig. 3.22 Desert cactus flowers that store water Fig. 3.23 Thorny trees found in deserts
•• Plants have a short life enabling them to germinate, grow and reproduce within very short spaces
of time.
•• Desert vegetation has long tap roots in order to tap water from deep water tables.
•• Vegetation consist of cactus/euphorbia with fleshy leaves which helps to store water.
•• They have succulent leaves to store water during the long hot dry climate. These plants are usually
smaller in order to prevent water loss from leaf surfaces.
•• Some plants remain dormant during dry periods and come to life when water is available.
•• Trees are thorny – to reduce evapotranspiration and for protection from grazing animal.

42
Animal adaptations in desert biomes

Fig. 3.24 Desert tortoise Fig. 3.25 Lizard burrow

•• Some animals are nocturnal (active at night).

•• Burrowing animals are common such as lizards which can hide in holes during the day when
temperature is high and become active at night.
•• Animals have hard shells to protect their bodies from direct sun’s heat and to reduce water loss
through respiration for example the desert tortoise.
•• Limited wildlife due to scarcity of food and water.
Activity 3.2 Discussion
Identify the causes, effects and solutions to the problem of savannah ecosystem destruction.

Exercise 3.2

1. What is a biome?
2. (a) How does vegetation and animal life adapt in the tropical rainforest?
(b) Where is the tropical rainforest located?
3. (a) List major inputs and outputs of a tropical grassland.
(b) Explain how tropical grassland vegetation has adapted to its environment.
4. (a) Define a desert in your own words.
(b) Where do we find tropical deserts in Africa?
5. How does animal life adapt in the tropical desert environment?

UNIT 3.3 SUSTAINABLE MANAGEMENT OF ECOSYSTEMS

Ecosystem sustainability is the wise use of ecosystem biomes in a manner which ensures that the ecosystem
remains healthy and intact for future generations. This means that while the ecosystems are being used for
the benefit of today’s generation, they should be protected and conserved so that future generations will
enjoy the same benefits. Ecosystems are constantly threatened by veld fires, soil erosion, deforestation,
commercial logging, overgrazing, poor farming methods such as monoculture and poaching.

43
 Fig. 3.31 Contour farming Fig. 3.32 Mulched garlic and tomatos
(d) Mulching and fertilizer
Applying organic fertilizers and mulch to soil that is at-risk for erosion can help it to absorb more water
than normal. This protects the soil against the impact of increased moisture. It also helps to balance out
pH levels in the soil, which will also help to prevent erosion from occurring. Mulches are loose coverings
or sheets of organic material placed on the surface of cultivated soil. Continuous application of artificial
fertilisers can promote soil erosion where a hard crust develops due to capillary action.
Organic mulches also improve the condition of the soil. As these mulches slowly decompose, they provide
organic matter which helps keep the soil loose. This improves root growth, increases the infiltration of water,
and also improves the water-holding capacity of the soil. The application of a protective layer of straw or
other suitable material to the soil surface are commonly used in mulching. To protect the soil surface from
the erosive forces of raindrop impact and overland flow. Mulching assists in soil moisture conservation,
reduces runoff and erosion, controls weeds, prevents soil crusting and promotes the establishment of
desirable vegetation.
Conservation measures against veldfires
Fire management is the process of planning,
preventing and fighting fires to protect people,
property and the environment. Best practices in fire
management are measures which should be put in
place before the occurrence of a veld fire to curb
and prevent their rapid spread and the associated
destruction. Some of the measures are as follows;
•• Fire-fighting equipment should be in areas
which are easily accessible through out the
fire season. Fig. 3.33 Veld fires
•• Form fire-fighting teams or committees
which can educate the local people on the best practices to use whilst putting out veld fires in your
communities.
•• The community should also monitor the areas from which most of the veld fires originate from so
that they will not be caught off-guard.
•• Construct standard fireguards which are at least 9metres wide on either side of a boundary line/
fence and 4.5 metres for internal fireguards using either the tractor, ox-drawn plough or hoeing
methods.

46
2. The total number of genes or hereditary characteristics of a specific organism or sub-group of groups
of species is called ________.
A. genetic diversity B. species diversity
C. habitat diversity D. species richness
3. The climatic ecosystem which receives rainfall throughout the year is ______.
A. Desert B. Savanna
C. Equatorial D. Mediterranean
4. The best commercial activity to carryout in tropical rainforest is ________.
A. motor racing B. commercial logging
C. irrigation farming D. paddocking
5. What type of plants dominate desert ecosystems?
A. Climbers B. Umbrella shaped
C. Emergent D. Xerophytes
6. Soil erosion can be controlled by ________.
A. logging B. building dams
C. applying fertilisers D. afforestation
7. Wildlife management is best suited in which ecosystem?
A. Savanna B. Desert
C. Equatorial D. Mediterranean
8. Trees in savannah ecosystem have the following characteristics except _____.
A. long tap roots B. climbers
C. thick barks D. thorny leaves
9. The best way to sustainably utilise desert ecosystems is by using it for ______.
A. motor racing B. hydro electricity generation
C. ecotourism D. farming
10. The temperature range for equatorial rainforest is _________.
A. around 150c B. 260c
C. between 3 and 50c D. over 30 0c
11. Which animal burrows in the desert?
A. Antelope B. Lizard
C. Lion D. Giraffe
12. Why do some of the animals in the desert have hard shells?
A. To protect their bodies from direct sun’s heat. B. To cover themselves.
C. To provide food and water. D. For respiration.
13. Trees have broad trunks so as to __________________.
A. protect their roots. B. store excess water.
C. keep them stronger. D. to absorb more heat.
14. Desert inputs are _______________.
A. high temperature and low rainfall B. low temperature and low rainfall
C. high temperature and high rainfall D. low temperature and high rainfall

50
 Chapter
NATURAL RESOURCES
4
Chapter objectives
At the end of this chapter, you should be able to:
•• describe the growth of population and its effects on resources.
•• describe the factors influencing exploitation of natural resources.

Introduction
Population growth can be defined as an increase or decrease in the population size of human beings
residing in a country, region or city. Population growth is known as one of the driving forces behind
environmental problems because the growing population demands more and more natural resources for
its own application. Studying growth of population is important in providing answers to questions on the
rate of growth of human population and related effects on climate change and resource exploitation.

UNIT 4.1 POPULATION AND RESOURCES

Population growth refers to change in the size of a population which can be either positive or negative
over a period of time, depending on the balance of births and deaths. The world human population is
expected to reach nine billion before 2050 but in 1999 it surpassed six billion people.
The exponential growth in population has been enhanced by advances in agriculture, science and medicine
which have enabled people to survive longer than before. The population of developing countries is
growing rapidly while in other countries slowly.
The growth of population results from the difference between birth rate and death rate. The following
formula is used to represent population growth:
(Birth rate immigration) - (death rate + emigration)
Studying how and why population grow or shrinks helps government and other stakeholders use this
information to plan for investments in different regions. For the world as a whole, population grows to the
extent that birth rate exceeds death rate. This situation is termed natural increase or natural decrease.
The growth in human population around the world affects all people through its impact on the economy
and environment. The present rate of population growth is now posing a burden to mankind. It is therefore
important to understand population growth patterns can help us plan for the future.

52
6. The closer the contour lines are on a map the steeper the slope. (True/False)
7. Contour lines on a topographic can split or divide. (True or False)
8. Every contour line close on itself eventually (True or False)
9. Contour lines on a topographical map never cross or intersect each other (True or False)

UNIT 6.2 GRADIENT

Contour lines show us the change in elevation between two points. If we find an area on the map, where
the elevation changes a lot in a very limited space that indicates a steep slope.
Steep slopes = Contour lines close together.
Now that we have identified areas with steep slopes, the next thing is to measure exactly how steep it is.
This is done by measuring gradient between two points.
It is the ratio of the vertical interval (VI) or rise to the horizontal equivalent (HE) or run. Gradient is also
referred to as the slope of the land. Slope is typically expressed as a percentage, an angle or a ratio. The
average slope of a terrain can be calculated from contour lines on a topographical map. To find the slope
of a feature, the horizontal distance (run) as well as the vertical distance (rise) between two points on a
parallel line to the feature to be determined.
Calculation of gradient
To calculate gradient between two points on a map the following must be known;
•• The vertical interval which is the difference in height between the two points.
•• The horizontal equivalent is the distance between the two contours expressed as a horizontal
measurement. Measurements on a map are the horizontal equivalent of distances on the ground.
It varies that is if the horizontal equivalent is a short distance, it shows the slope is steep and if the
distance is a long distance, the slope of the land is gentle.
Vertical Interval
Gradient =
Horizontal Equivalent

Example 1: Calculating gradient

X
Distance on the ground
Vertical interval
Y

Distance on map (horizontal equivalent)

It is given that the vertical interval between X and Y is 300m and the horizontal equivalent is 4 000m (4km),
calculate the gradient with a map scale of 1: 100 000
300
Gradient = VI
h
= 4000 1
= 13 or 1:13

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 (c) Landfills
One of the calamitous effects of landfills is the degradation of the environment. The landfills discharge
various kinds of chemicals on the land, various natural habitats, and water systems such as underground
and surface water, and these have adverse effects on trees, vegetation, animal and humans.
(d) Increase in deforestation
Deforestation (cutting down of trees) has led to the depreciating of the natural environment and
wildlife. It has also affected environmental support processes such as weather conditions. The causes of
deforestation include farming, construction, settlement and mining. Deforestation causes biodiversity
loss, soil erosion, species extinction, global warming, and interference with the water cycle.
(e) Environmental pollution
Most of the earth’s natural environments have been destroyed and a large portion is under huge threat
due to the toxic substances and chemicals emitted from fossil fuel combustions, industrial wastes, and
homemade utilities among other industry processed materials such as plastics. Land, air, and water
pollution pose long-term cumulative impacts on the quality of the natural environments in which they
occur.
Pollution affects both biotic and abiotic components of the environments. It affects the chemical
compositions of lands, soil, ocean water, underground water and rocks, and other natural processes. Air
pollution from automobiles and industries results in the formation of acid rain which in turn brings about
acidic lakes.
(f) Improper land use planning and development
The unplanned conversion of lands into urban settings, mining areas, housing development projects, office
spaces, shopping malls, industrial sites, parking areas, road networks, and so on leads to environmental
pollution and degradation of natural habitats and ecosystems. Mining and oil exploration, for instance,
renders land unusable for habitation and causes other forms of environmental degradation by releasing
toxic materials into the environment. Improper land use has led to the loss and destruction of natural
environments.
(g) Natural causes
Natural events such as veldfires, hurricanes, landslides, tsunamis and earthquakes can lower the survival
grade of local animal communities and plant life in a region. These disasters can also destroy and alter the
nature of the landscape rendering it unable to support life forms on it. Natural disasters wash or force the
migration of invasive species into foreign environments which can lead to its eventual degradation.
Effects of environmental degradation
One of the greatest challenges facing humanity is environmental degradation, including deforestation,
desertification, pollution, and climate change an issue of increasing concern for the international community.
Environmental degradation increases the vulnerability of the societies it affects and contributes to the
scarcity of resources. The effects of the major environmental problems on both health and productivity
are:
(a) Impact on human health
Environmental degradation results in reduction in water quality, water scarcity, decline in quality foods
and reduction in air quality which in turn cause chronic diseases. For example, when the water is polluted
there can be an outbreak of cholera.

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 and plant grass on them; plant trees that enrich the soils like msangu, luceana and avoid grazing
animals in the same area.
•• Water management – River waters should be made clean. Moreover, provision should be made to
supply clean drinking water to the rural population.
The impact of environmental disasters can be devastating on the social, economic, and environmental
systems of a country or region as well as the global ecosystem. Environmental disasters do not recognise
man-made borders, and threaten the legacy left to future generations of a clean and supportive environment.
Because of the interdependency of earth ecosystems international co-operation is paramount to prevent,
and when disaster strikes, respond to relieve quickly and effectively the effects of environmental disasters.
Thus, Governments, International organizations and communities must work together – at all levels – to
lessen the risks associated with environmental degradation and its contributing factors, such as climate
change, and ensure that vulnerable people are prepared to survive and adapt. At the same time, companies,
organizations and individuals must also ensure that their work is environmentally friendly and sustainable.
Activity 8.1 Discussion
Discuss the effects of environmental degradation.
Activity 8.2 Debate
Debate on the causes of environmental degradation.

Exercise 1
1. What is environmental degradation?
2. Describe causes of environmental degradation?
3. Identify the causes and effects of veldfires.
4. What are the suggested measures to mitigate deforestation?
5. Explain any four effects of environmental degradation.

UNIT 8.2 IMPACT OF CLIMATE CHANGE ON THE ENVIRONMENT

Climate change refers to long-term fluctuations in temperature, precipitation, wind, and other elements
of the earth’s climate system. Climate changes as a result of two factors, namely natural variability and
human induced or anthropogenic causes. The natural causes of climate change include factors such as
biotic processes, variations in solar radiation received by earth, plate tectonics, and volcanic eruptions.
Human causes such as burning fossil fuels such as coal, oil and gas for energy. This process adds carbon
dioxide to the atmosphere, warming the Earth and causing climate change. Carbon dioxide is one of
the major greenhouse gases together with methane produced from livestock and nitrous oxide which
mainly comes from nitrogen-based fertilizers. Other greenhouse gases that also cause climate change are
water vapour, ozone, and chlorofluorocarbons. Deforestation, agricultural practices and some industrial
processes also contribute to climate change through the emission of greenhouse gases.
Impact of climate change on land
Impact of climate change on soil
Along with changes in temperature, climate change will bring changes in global rainfall amounts and
distribution patterns. And since temperature and water are two factors that have a large influence on the
processes that take place in soils, climate change will therefore cause changes in the world’s soils. There
are several ways that climate change will affect soil. Soils are also part of the global carbon and nitrogen
cycles. The carbon-based gases carbon dioxide and methane, and the nitrogen-based gas nitrous oxide,

135
are important greenhouse gases. So, as carbon dioxide, methane, and nitrous oxide levels change in the
atmosphere, there will be corresponding changes in the soil.
Organic matter is very important in soils. Increased carbon dioxide levels in the atmosphere to increase
plant growth, which would mean more organic matter could potentially be added to the soil. However,
higher temperatures also mean increased rates of organic matter decomposition by soil microorganisms.
If the microorganisms decompose organic matter more rapidly than it’s replacement, then soil organic
matter levels will decline. Working out relationships like this are key to our understanding of the exact
effects of climate change on soil and the ramifications for those effects on resources we rely on, like food
crops and timber, that depend on soil.
Impact of climate change on vegetation
Global warming affects more than just plant biodiversity it even alters the way plants grow. Plants react
much more sensitively to fluctuations in temperature than animals. They are also unable to seek out
warmer or cooler locations. When temperatures rise, plants grow taller in order to cool themselves off.
Their stalks become taller and their leaves become narrower and grow farther apart. Yet, this makes the
plant more unstable overall.
Impact of climate change on water quantity and quality
Water resources are important to both society and ecosystems. We depend on a reliable, clean supply of
drinking water to sustain our health. We also need water for agriculture, energy production, navigation,
recreation and manufacturing. Many of these uses put pressure on water resources and stresses that are
likely to be worsened by climate change.
In many areas, climate change is likely to increase water demand while shrinking water supplies. This shifting
balance would challenge water managers to simultaneously meet the needs of growing communities,
sensitive ecosystems, farmers, ranchers, energy producers and manufacturers.
In some areas, water shortages will be less of a problem than increases in runoff, flooding or sea level
rise. These effects can reduce the quality of water and can damage the infrastructure that people use to
transport and deliver water.
Water quality could suffer in areas experiencing increases in rainfall. For example, in the Northeast
and Midwest increases in heavy precipitation events could cause problems for the water infrastructure,
as sewer systems and water treatment plants are overwhelmed by the increased volumes of water. Heavy
downpours can increase the amount of runoff into rivers and lakes, washing sediment, nutrients, pollutants,
trash, animal waste, and other materials into water supplies, making them unusable, unsafe, or in need of
water treatment.
Negative impact of climate change on the environment
Global climate change will affect people and the environment in many ways. Some of these impacts, like
stronger hurricanes and severe heat waves, could be life threatening. Others, like spreading weeds, will be
less serious. And some effects, like longer growing seasons for crops, might even be good. However, as the
Earth keeps getting warmer, the negative effects are expected to outweigh the positive ones.
Negative responses may include further growth of oxygen poor ocean zones, contamination or exhaustion
of fresh water, increased incidence of natural fires, extensive vegetation die-off due to droughts, increased
risk of coral extinction, decline in global photoplankton, changes in migration patterns of birds and animals,
changes in seasonal periodicity, disruption to food chains and species loss.

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Positive impact of climate change on the environment
Positive effects of climate change may include greener rainforests and enhanced plant growth in the
Amazon, increased vegetation in northern latitudes and possible increases in plankton biomass in some
parts of the ocean.
Activity 8.3 Discussion
Discuss the impact of climate change on the environment.

UNIT 8.3 CLIMATE CHANGE MITIGATION

The term mitigation refers to efforts to cut or prevent the emission of greenhouse gases - limiting the
magnitude of future warming. It may also encompass attempts to remove greenhouse gases from the
atmosphere.
It differs from climate change adaptation, which refers to the actions taken to manage the unavoidable
impacts of climate change. Mitigation may require us to use new technologies, clean energy sources,
change people’s behaviour, or make older technology more energy efficient. Climate change mitigation
refers to efforts to reduce or prevent emission of greenhouse gases.
Mitigation measures
•• Switching to low-carbon energy sources such as wind power, solar, geothermal, hydroelectric or
nuclear represents one of the major strategies for lowering the emissions of greenhouse gases in
the atmosphere.
•• Mitigation can mean using new technologies and renewable energies, making older equipment
more energy efficient, or changing management practices or consumer behaviour. It can be as
complex as a plan for a new city, or as a simple as improvements to a cook stove design. Efforts
underway around the world range from high-tech subway systems to bicycling paths and walkways.
•• Mitigation may also be achieved by increasing the capacity of carbon sinks, for example, through
reforestation.
•• Energy efficiency can also play a major role, for example, through improving the insulation of
buildings.
•• Geo-engineering.
Climate change adaptation
Adaptation means anticipating the adverse effects of climate change and taking appropriate action to
prevent or minimise the damage they can cause, or taking advantage of opportunities that may arise.
Climate change adaptation helps individuals, communities, organisations and natural systems to deal with
those consequences of climate change that cannot be avoided.
Examples of adaptation measures include: using scarce water resources more efficiently; adapting building
codes to future climate conditions and extreme weather events; building flood defences and raising the
levels of dykes; developing drought-tolerant crops; choosing tree species and forestry practices less
vulnerable to storms and fires; and setting aside land corridors to help species migrate.
Adaptation includes;
•• Building new water reservoirs.
•• Establishment of early warning systems.

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 •• Causes of global warming include deforestation, methane emissions from livestock ranching and
carbon dioxide from fossil fuel burning.
•• Global warming causes rise in sea levels, increased frequency of droughts and floods.

Glossary of terms
Environmental degradation/
deterioration – any change or disturbance to the environment perceived to be deleterious
(harmful and damaging) or undesirable.
Global warming – gradual increase in the overall temperature of the earth’s atmosphere
generally attributed to the greenhouse effect caused by increased levels
of carbon dioxide, CFCs, and other pollutants.
Greenhouse gases (GHGs) – gases that contribute to the greenhouse effect by absorbing infrared
radiation for example water vapour, carbon dioxide, methane and nitrous
oxide.
Greenhouse effect – trapping of heat (solar energy) by the greenhouse gases.
Climate change (CC) – long-term fluctuations in temperature, precipitation, wind, and other
elements of the Earth’s climate system.
CC adaptation – actions taken to manage the unavoidable impacts of climate change.
CC mitigation – efforts to reduce or prevent emission of greenhouse gases.

Revision Exercises
Multiple Choice Questions
1. Which one of the following gases is not included in the category ‘greenhouse gases’?
A. Methane B. Hydrogen
C. Carbon dioxide D. Nitrous oxide
2. Which of the following is/are the main factor(s) responsible for the rapid rate deforestation in the
developing countries?
A. Rapid growth of population.
B. Extension of agriculture and grazing land.
C. Rising demand for lumber, timber, paper, fuel-wood and charcoal, and other forest products.
D. All of the above.
3. What is greenhouse effect?
A. It is a phenomenon that traps long wavelength radiation that leads to more heating and a higher
resultant temperature.
B. It is a phenomenon of releasing heat wave to the environment.
C. It is the growing of different crops.
D. It is the release of energy to the crops.
4. Which of the following is not related with the sources of Air pollution?
A. Volcanic emission B. Acid rain
C. Fuel combustion in vehicular traffic D. Petroleum refining
5. Global atmospheric temperatures are likely to be increased due to _______.
A. burning of fossil fuel B. water pollution
C. soil erosion D. none of the above

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EXAMINATION II
PAPER 1: MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS
Answer all questions in this section. Questions 1-12 refer to the 1:50 000 map of Odzi
1. In which grid square would you find a dip tank?
A. 4291007912000 B. 4308007903300
C. 4391007911200 D. 4460007904300
2. Mwenje Summit is in grid square ______.
A. 790500043300 B. 4335007905500
C. 4335007906100 D. 43340007906000
3. Fig. 1 below represents part of the map.

31 32 33 34
16 16

15 15

14 14

13 13
31 32 33 34
The track on this part of the map follows a ______.
A. valley B. ridge
C. pass D. watershed
4. What is the name of the man-made feature in grid reference point 4430007916000?
A. Huts B. Buildings
C. Dam D. Power line
5. The drainage pattern shown in grid square 44430007910000 is _______.
A. antecedent B. centripetal
C. dendritic D. trellis
6. The rural settlement pattern shown in grid square 4430007907000 is ______.
A. clustered B. dispersed
C. linear D. radial
7. What is the altitude of the summit of the hill in grid square 4300007914000?
A. 1200m B. 1220m
C. 1240m D. 1260m
8. Considering accessibility and size of population, which of the following settlement areas has the
potential to be developed to a growth point?
A. 4280007903000 B. 4290007912000
C. 4340007909000 D. 4300007914000

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20. Energy of running water is exploited to run turbines in ______.
A. hydroelectric power station B. oceans
C. railway stations D. rural area
21. Coal, crude oil, petroleum and natural gas are examples of _________.
A. elements B. man-made fuels
C. fossil fuels D. compounds
22. Study the diagram below which shows a power station.

The structure is typical of a ___________.

A. hydro-electric power station B. power station
C. nuclear power station D. coal-fired thermal power station
23. Which is true of non-renewable resources?
A. The resources are increasing B. They can easily be refilled
C. They do not cause climate change D. These resources are decreasing
24. Which of the following is a renewable resource?
A. Oil B. Coal
C. Natural gas D. Wind
25. A __________ is a large wheel that rotates when pushed by water, wind or steam.
A. coil B. motor
C. meter D. turbine
26. As a Minister of Mines in Zimbabwe, the best measure you would take to increase export earnings
from minerals would be to promote ________.
A. beneficiation of the minerals B. overproduction of minerals
C. surveying deeper mineral ores D. exportation of more raw minerals
27. Fig 2 below shows sources of electricity.

4% 3%
Fuels
8% 20% Gas 20%
Coal 51%
14% Wood 14%
HEP 8%
51% Petrolium 4%
Others 3%

What percentage of the total electricity comes from other sources fuels?
A. 28% B. 11%
C. 31% D. 8%

143
PAPER 2: STRUCTURED QUESTIONS
Answer four questions in this paper.
Answer one question from each Section A, B, C and one other question from any section.

Section A
Answer one question in this section.
1. (a) i. Draw diagrams of a spur and valley. [7]
ii. Distinguish between a spur and a valley drawn in (i). [6]
A B

Label landforms A and B
iii. Give the difference between the two features in (a) above. [4]
(b) Describe the following landform. [6]

(e) Which landform is represented by the below contour pattern? [2]

146
 (b) i. Distinguish between renewable and non-renewable resources. [6]
ii. State the advantages and disadvantages of using wood. [6]
(c) i. State factors considered when siting a hydro-electrical station. [4]
ii. Study the picture.

Which source of energy is used in the diagram above? [2]

4. (a) i. State different types of energy. [5]

ii. Describe the importance of the types of energy you mentioned in (i). [5]
(b) i. Mining industries use energy. What is the importance of energy in mining? [7]
ii. Identify advantages of using solar energy in industries. [4]
(c) Study the diagram A and B.

A B
i. Identify the types of energy shown above in picture A and B. [2]
ii. Give one advantage and disadvantage of each type. [2]

148
Revision Exercises
Multiple Choice Questions
1. A footloose industry is __________.
A. raw material based in its location B. power based in its location
C. located at the market D. free to locate anywhere
2. ‘The company is like a tree with many branches and products. It has roots represented by the
headquarters in one country’. The company being referred to is a __________.
A. Parastatal B. Shelf company
C. State-owned company D. Transnational company
3. Which of the following is a manufacturing industry?
A. Car Assembly B. Forestry
C. Mining D. Tourism
4. Which of the following is a market-based industry?
A. Brewery B. Sugarcane processing
C. Oil refinery D. Iron and steel production
5. A heavy industry should be located far away from densely settled areas because it ____.
A. takes up little space B. causes traffic congestion
C. destroys vegetation D. causes pollution
6. Which of the following industries sells most of its products along the major highways of Zimbabwe?
A. Craft B. Printing
C. Iron and steel D. Furniture
7. Which one of the following is a raw-material based industry?
A. Sugar milling in Triangle B. Car assembly in Mutare
C. Furniture making in Harare D. Sugar refining in Bulawayo
8. The main problem with transnational companies (TNCs) located in a developing country is the _____.
A. enjoyment of product monopoly B. creation of few jobs
C. introduction of new technology D. infrastructural development
9. The following are advantages of transnational companies (TNCs) to the host country except _____.
A. creation of jobs B. development of infrastructure
C. introduction of new technology D. loss of natural resources
10. Which mineral processing industry is most likely to be located near a large hydroelectric power plant?
A. Iron ore smelting B. Alumina reduction
C. Copper smelting D. Gold purification
11. Which of the following industries favour a breakoff bulk location?
A. Bakery B. Oil refining
C. Printing D. Sugar refining
12. Most developing countries are reluctant to invite TNCs to invest in their countries. This is because TNCs
__________.
A. transfer knowledge to indigenous people B. pay higher wages to locals
C. repatriate large profits D. create employment for local people
13. Employment structure in four countries.
COUNTRY % PRIMARY % SECONDARY % TERTIARY
A. 8 21 71
B. 74 15 11
C. 79 6 15
D 5 38 85
Which of the countries A, B, C or D is the least economically developed?

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 Chapter
SETTLEMENT AND

11 POPULATION

Chapter objectives
By the end of this chapter, you should be able to:
•• explain the causes of urbanisation.
•• describe the process of urbanisation.
•• describe the effects of urbanisation.
•• suggest the solutions to the problems of urbanisation.
•• describe urban land use zones.
•• outline the main features of the land use models.
•• state characteristics of unplanned settlements.
•• describe the location of unplanned settlements.
•• explain causes of unplanned settlements.
•• outline effects of unplanned settlements.
•• suggest solutions to the problems of unplanned settlements.
•• identify main features of disaster resilient infrastructure.
•• describe factors considered in siting settlements.

Introduction
Settlement is where people live. Settlements can be classified as rural or urban settlements. As such
settlements vary from a single dwelling to very large cities/conurbations. A conurbation is made up
of large cities joined together. People shift from rural areas to urban areas in search of jobs and better
living standards and facilities. However, this led to overpopulation in urban areas, thus, poverty, spread
of diseases, social vices, crime rate, shortage of housing, under employment and transport problems and
formation of unplanned settlements amongst others, come to the rise.

UNIT 11.1 URBANISATION

Urbanisation is defined as the shift of population from rural to urban areas or a change in the ratio of
the total population living in urban areas. Urbanisation is mainly driven by two factors which are natural
increase and migration.

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Causes of urbanisation
The causes of urbanisation include the following:
(a) Economic development
Economic growth and job opportunities draw people to cities. The urbanisation process typically begins
when a factory or industries are established in an area; this establishment brings about a high demand
of skill and labour. Other businesses such as building manufacturers, retailers and service providers then
follow the factories in order to meet the product demands of the workers, thus, this creates even more jobs
and demands for housing, thus creating an urban area.
(b) Agglomeration economies
Urban areas provide infrastructure, services, skills, labour and capital that attract new investments to be
located in such areas. This initiative leads to cumulative growth of the cities.
(c) Employment opportunities
People move from rural areas to urban areas in search of employment as well as to access well-paying jobs
in all developmental sectors such as public health, education, transport, sports and recreation, industries,
and business enterprises.
(d) Marginalisation of rural areas
People in developing countries are attracted to the cities because they perceive the city as providing a
better standard of life than the rural areas.
(e) Availability of better transportation
The gradual increase in the proportion of people living in urban areas or cities could also be linked to the
development of public transport systems which facilitated commuters which ferry people from one place
to another over longer distances.
Effects of urbanisation
Urbanisation has many impacts. Some of the effects are outlined below:
(a) Unemployment and under employment
Rapid urbanisation is associated with high rates of unemployment, poverty and little income and high cost
of living. The problem of joblessness is highest in urban areas and it is even higher among the educated
people. It is estimated that more than half of unemployed youths around the globe live in metropolitan
cities. And, as much as income in urban areas is high,
the costs of living make the incomes to seem too
low. The increasing relocation of people from rural
or developing areas to urban areas is the leading
cause of urban unemployment.
(b) Shortage of residential housing
Urbanisation allows the movement of people
from the rural areas to the cities and towns which
in turn results in population increase. Increase in
the number of people living in urban areas often
results in continuous scarcity of houses. This is due
to insufficient expansion space for housing and Fig. 11.1 Growth of squatter camps in Harare due to
shortage of accommodation

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congestion and vehicular pollution. Many people in
urban areas drive to work and this creates a severe
traffic problem, especially during the rush hours.
Also, as the cities grow in dimension, people will
move to shop and access other social needs/wants
which often cause traffic congestion and blockage.
(i) Social vices
Insufficient resources and social amenity may lead
to many social vices such as poverty, prostitution,
psychological problems, theft, rape, alcoholism,
drugs, crime, violence and other deviant behaviours.
These acts of urban crime normally upset the peace
Fig. 11.5 Traffic congestion in Harare, CBD
and tranquillity of the urbanites. Issues of lack of
resources, overcrowding, unemployment, poverty,
and lack of social services and education habitually
leads to many social problems including violence,
drug abuse, and crime. Most of the crimes such
as murder, rape, kidnapping, riots, assault, theft,
robbery, and hijacking are reported to be more
prominent in the urban vicinities. Besides, poverty
related crimes are the highest in fast-growing urban
regions. These acts of urban crime normally upset
the peace and tranquility of cities or towns.
(j) Development of slums Fig. 11.6 Drug abuse
The cost of living in urban areas is very high. When
this is combined with random and unexpected
growth as well as unemployment, there is the spread
of unlawful resident settlements represented by
slums and squatters. The growth of slums and
squatters in urban areas is even further exacerbated
by fast-paced industrialisation, lack of developed
land for housing, large influx of rural immigrants to
the cities in search of better life, and the elevated
prices of land beyond the reach of the urban poor.
Fig. 11.7 Slums
Process of urbanisation
The term urbanisation is well explained as the change from a rural to an urban society which involves
an increase in the number of people in urban regions during a particular year. It is also referred to as the
immigration of people in huge numbers from rural to urban areas and this process happen due to the
concentration of resources and facilities in towns and cities. It is the development of the population and
cities, so that higher proportion of population lives in urban areas.

Normally, urbanisation is directly associated with innovation, industrialisation, and the sociological
process of good reason. Urbanisation process had been started during the industrial revolution, when
workforce moved towards manufacturing hubs in cities to get jobs in factories as agricultural jobs became
less common.

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 •• The government should improve the
standard of living of the rural dwellers; an
effective way to do this is to make the rural
economy and small-scale industries fully
viable.
•• The government can decentralise industries
to the rural areas. This will reduce rural urban
migration, and then attract people living in
the city to move to rural areas.
•• Urban slums can be controlled by
implementing clean up campaigns such as Fig. 11.10 Commuter trains
Operation Murambatsvina of 2005. However,
these are often seen as ruthless measures
since people are left homeless.
•• The slums can be upgraded and make social
services available in these communities.
•• Governments should construct low cost
multi storey flats to provide accommodation.
•• Provide low cost residential stands.
•• Provide affordable housing.
•• Improved sewage waste and organic
waste management to reduce pollution
for example making biogas and organic Fig. 11.11 Operation Murambatsvina in Harare
fertilisers.
•• Government should create more jobs by establishing industries, supporting private investors, and
should encourage entrepreneurship by providing more funds in the urban areas. This will go a long
way to encourage hard while reducing the number of unemployed graduates in the city.
•• To prevent shortage of residential housing, government should make life better for the rural
dwellers; an effectual way to do this is to make the economy of village and small-scale industries
fully viable. This will keep the rural dwellers from migrating to the city that is already crowded, and
then attract people leaving in the city to move to rural areas for a simplicity and comfort.
•• Encourage entrepreneurship by providing more funds for income generating projects in the urban
areas. This reduces unemployment.
•• Governments should develop some strict laws guiding refuse dumping in an open environment
in order to prevent water pollution, air pollution and land pollution. These will help control
contamination and prevent the spread of communicable diseases in the urban areas.

Activity 11.1 Discussion

In groups, discuss the causes of urbanisation.

Exercise 11.1
1. What is urbanisation in your own words?
2. Describe the process of urbanisation.
3. Explain any three causes of urbanisation in Zimbabwe.
4. Describe four effects of urbanisation.
5. Suggest possible solutions to the problems of urbanisation.

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 UNIT 11.2 URBAN LAND USE MODELS

Land use zoning is the process of dividing land in a municipality into zones for example, residential,
recreational, Central Business District and industrial in which certain land uses are permitted or prohibited.
The purpose of zoning is to allow local and national authorities to regulate and control land and property
markets to ensure complementary uses. Zoning can also provide the opportunity to stimulate or slow
down development in specific areas. Following are the different land use zones:
1. Central Business District
The Central Business District (CBD) is at the heart
of a town or city and usually has great accessibility,
large shopping and banking areas and government
buildings. A Central Business District is the nucleus
or downtown of an urban area that contains the
main concentration of commercial land use, with
the highest percentage of retail shops, offices, and
services such as banking and finance. Large cities
are characterised by distinct retail sub-areas that
have their own “walking district.” Some specialised
clusters of non-retail activities can be found, such
as law offices, medical facilities, and offices services.
Applicable to any city, the CBD is found in global
cities with international and financial business Fig. 11.12 Harare, CBD
centres.
Characteristics of the CBD
These are the features found in a CBD.
••Traffic restrictions for example, pedestrian areas (like Commercial Road).
••High land values.
••Government buildings for example, councils.
••Departmental stores.
••Limited residential areas because rents are
high.
•• Banks.
•• Taller buildings.
•• Lots of pedestrians during the day.
•• Purpose built shopping centres.
•• Public transport.
•• Entertainment, pubs, clubs.
Fig. 11.13 Industrial land use zone
2. Industrial zones
Industrial land uses are extremely varied, depending on the nature of the industry being considered. Urban-
industrial land usage generally refers to the siting of factories or petroleum refineries, and of utilities such
as electricity generating stations, and water and sewage-treatment facilities. Industrial zones are mostly
located on the outskirts of the town on a Greenfield site, beside the main roads for access and on a flat
land with open space. It is away from the congestion of the CBD. There is room to expand and the land is
cheaper so low density factories can be built.

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1. The Concentric Model
The Concentric model also known as the Burgess model was created by sociologist Ernest Burgess in 1925
based on the study of Chicago. The model depicts urban land use in concentric rings: the Central Business
District (or CBD) was in the middle of the model, and the city expanded in rings with different land uses.
The zones identified are:
1. The centre was the CBD.
2. The transition zone otherwise known as the
Inner City.
3. Low-class residential homes (Inner Suburbs).
4. Better quality middle-class homes (Outer
Suburbs).
5. Commuters zone.
Burgess observed that there was a correlation
between the distance from the CBD and the socio-
economic status of the inhabitants; richer families
tended to live further away from the CBD. As the city
grew, Burgess also observed that the CBD would
cause it to expand outwards; this in turn forced the
other rings to expand outwards as well.
The model is more detailed than the traditional
down-mid-uptown divide by which downtown is
the CBD, uptown the affluent residential outer ring,
and midtown in between.
Limitations of the model
Fig. 11.16 The concentric model is centred around
•• It assumes an even, unchanging landscape. the CBD of a city
•• Physical features - land may restrict growth
of certain sectors.
•• Commuter villages - commuter villages defy the theory since they are located far away from the
city.
•• Decentralization of shops, manufacturing industry, and entertainment.
•• Urban regeneration and gentrification - more expensive property can be found in ‘low class’ housing
areas.
•• Many new housing estates were built on the edges of cities in Britain.
•• It does not address local urban politics and forces of globalization.
2. The Sector Model
The sector model also known as the Hoyt model was proposed in 1939 by economist Homer Hoyt. It is a
model of urban land use and modified the concentric zone model of city development. The benefits of the
application of this model include the fact that it allows for an outward progression of growth however, like
all models of urban form its validity is limited.
While accepting the existence of a central business district, Hoyt suggested that various socio-economic
groups expand outward from the city centre along railroads, highways, and other transportation arteries.

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from the suburbs. This phenomenon creates nodes or nuclei in other parts of the city other than the CBD,
thus the name multiple nuclei model.
As multiple nuclei evolve, transportation hubs, are built which allow industries to be established with
reduced shipping costs. These transportation hubs have negative by-products, such as noise pollution and
lower land values, making land around the hub cheaper. You will find hotels near airports because people
who travel want to stay near the source of travel. Housing develops in sections and gets more expensive
the farther it is from the CBD.
Activity 11.2 Matching
Match the models to actual towns in Zimbabwe.
Exercise 11.2
1. What do you understand by land use zones?
2. What are the types of land use zones you know?
3. Explain the concentric model.
4. Identify the features of a multiple-nuclei models.

UNIT 11.3 UNPLANNED URBAN SETTLEMENTS

Unplanned settlements are also known as squatter settlements, shanties or informal settlements. They lack
basic infrastructure and services and in some cases, they are semi-permanent. Unplanned settlements
are common in developing countries and they are seen as a solution to the problems of accommodation
shortage.
They are a feature of rapid urbanisation associated
with high rates of rural-urban migration. An example
of an informal settlement is Cassa Banana (Porta
Farm) situated about 28 kilometres from Harare
along Bulawayo road close to Morton Jaffrey water
works. Another example is Soweto in South Africa
and Epworth in Zimbabwe. In Zimbabwe some of
the unplanned settlements grew as refugee camps
during the war. Usually the residents of unplanned
settlements are unemployed and underemployed.
Shanty towns are often characterised by improvised
dwellings made from scrap materials, often
plywood, corrugated metal and sheets of plastic.
Characteristics of unplanned settlements
Features of the unplanned settlements such as Fig. 11.18 Unplanned settlement
squatter settlement are as follows;
•• settlements are unplanned so the houses do not have basic infrastructure such as sanitation, piped
water, electricity and road access.
•• houses are made of any material available nearby - corrugated iron, pieces of board - haphazardly
assembled to provide a basic shelter.
•• houses have a simple layout that may have a living area separate from a sleeping area.
•• parents and large families inhabit a small shack which is often overcrowded and the squatter
settlements are very overcrowded.

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 •• there are no toilets, water must be collected from a nearby source - often at a cost - and carried
back.
•• rubbish is not collected and the area quickly degenerates into a place of filth and disease.
•• the inhabitants tend to create poorly paid jobs where the income is unreliable or they work in the
less well-paid jobs part of the formal sector.
•• quality of life is poor; the housing and environment are largely responsible for this
the residents have very little money so cannot improve their homes or environments.
•• crime is a problem, children often do not go to school, the family lives on top of each other, there is
no privacy, disease is rife and life is one of trying to survive from one day.
Location of unplanned settlements
•• Informal settlements often sit on the periphery of urban areas, lacking access to markets and/or
resources. For women, for example, this can heighten barriers they face in accessing livelihood
opportunities.
•• Home-based workers also face challenges to entrepreneurial activity.
•• Women in informal settlements spend more time and energy accessing basic services than other
urban counterparts, limiting their ability and time to earn through paid employment.
Causes of unplanned settlements
Unplanned settlements can also be referred to a squatter settlement. People build a house without a
permission from government and without legal permits. They are characterised easily because of low
quality of houses. Some people do not have sufficient money to have a house to live in they go somewhere
to collect different materials or foods. As the informal settlers grows the government cannot afford the
needs of them. The three main causes of informal settlements are lack of resources, urbanization, and
poverty.
(a) Lack of resources
It is the reason why each country suffers under poverty. The government cannot afford the needs of
authority because of insufficient funds for financial resources. In addition, shortage of financial resources
of one people may lead into a poverty. For example, one person who is in a job to work for their family and
the income and salaries are insufficient for they daily needs. In addition, lack of supply of government to
authority is also a reason why poverty and informal settlers comes rapidly. Each country has a funds for
project making but the government use it for their own good.
(b) Urbanisation
Over population in one country can also affect the informal settlements. Family planning may help to
control the population. As the population continue to increase the financial needs of each family becomes
insufficient for their daily needs. Somehow each member of a family needs to study or find a job to
overcome the poverty.
(c) Poverty
Poor countries are the ones which suffer under poverty. In addition, government should make a move
to overcome the problem of poverty. The government is taking care of the funds of a country and no
monitoring measures are taken. Some officials or members of government take the money for their own
good than to spend it on development. Many proposed projects have failed due to misappropriation of
the funds.

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 UNIT 11.4 EFFECTS AND SOLUTIONS OF UNPLANNED SETTLEMENTS
The growth of the unplanned settlement has resulted in many, complex socio-economic and environmental
consequences. These include pollution, deforestation, flooding and waste of agricultural lands. The
following are some of the effects of unplanned settlements:
(a) Lack of facilities
In the unplanned settlements, facilities for drinking water, health service, transport, electricity,
communication and employment are often inadequate. They are a threat to a healthy life for the residents.
(b) Adverse effect on health
A healthy settlement is one which is neat and clean. In unplanned settlements, the drainage system,
drinking water and sanitation, road traffic are poorly managed. This leads to pollution of the ground water
sources leading to frequent outbreaks of water borne diseases such as cholera and dysentery, particularly
during high rainfall seasons.
(c) Unequal distribution of population
Facilities, means and resources are not adequate in unplanned urbanisation. The population pressure is
high and there is overcrowding and this disturbs the balance of the environment.
(d) Social disorder
The struggle of people for limited means and resources creates social disorder like dispute, theft,
prostitution, alcoholism, drug trafficking, crime and lack of discipline.
(e) Degradation in the environment
Resources like land, water, forest are excessively used by the residence of unplanned settlements. The
environment is polluted. Due to air, land and water pollution, decline in the qualitative aspect of the
environment can be seen.
Measures to solve problems of unplanned settlements
•• Upgrading the unplanned settlements by providing sewerage and proper roads.
•• Providing basic amenities such as water.
•• Establishing schools and health facilities in the informal settlements.
•• Urban slums can be controlled by implementing clean up campaigns such as Operation
Murambatsvina of 2005. However, these are often seen as ruthless measures since people are left
homeless.
•• Providing low cost housing for the urban poor for example, Operation Garikai/Hlalani Kuhle (2006).
•• Servicing residential stands.
•• Setting up home industries to solve the problem of unemployment.
•• Improved sewage waste and organic waste management to reduce pollution for example making
biogas and organic fertilisers.
•• Government should create more jobs by establishing industries and supporting private investors.
•• Resettling the people living in the unplanned settlements in organised settlements.
Activity 11.4 Discussion
Discuss the distribution of unplanned settlement in urban areas.

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Exercise 11.4

1. What is meant by urban land use zone?

2. Describe urban land use zones.
3. Explain unplanned settlement and its characteristics.
4. What are the causes of unplanned settlements?
5. Identify any 3 effects of unplanned settlements.

UNIT 11.5 DISASTER RESILIENT INFRASTRUCTURE

Urban society is highly reliant on the functioning of its linear infrastructure such as telecommunications,
electricity, water and transportation networks. Failure of such infrastructure leads to crisis hence there is
need to develop disaster resilient infrastructure as mitigation against natural and technological disasters.
Resilience refers to a system’s the ability to anticipate, absorb and recover from a hazardous event in a
timely and efficient manner. Resilience can also be defined as the ability to:
•• absorb acceptable shock or deformation in a time of crisis;
•• recover the functionality of the system after a disaster or a sudden shock; and
•• operate appropriately even if some parts of the system fail.
Therefore, disaster resilient infrastructure is the infrastructure that can withstand the shocks of disasters like
earthquakes. Disaster resilient infrastructure include building earthquake resistant structures, retrofitting
buildings, roads that can withstand floods, buildings that can withstand fires and volcanoes. Performance
of the built-up environment is dependent on the codes and standards in place at the time of construction,
enforcement, maintenance, and operation, building codes, standards, type of materials used, architecture,
and engineering.
Features of disaster resilient infrastructure
Robustness - refers to the strength or ability to withstand the impact of hazardous events for example,
effects of earthquakes, strong winds or wildfires. Robustness depends on the building codes and standards.
Redundancy - this refers to the availability of alternative accommodation/housing for disaster victims for
example safe shelter during flooding.
Resourcefulness - refers to the ability of the authority’s business and industry to improvise when disasters
strike. Availability of materials for restoration and repair. Capacity to address human needs and capacity
to innovate.
Rapidity - refers to the time taken to restore lifeline services, (time between impact and early recovery).

Factors considered in siting settlements

Many factors influence the location of settlements. The factors can be physical, social, political or economic.
You should note that some the factors are historical and have since changed. These factors include the
following:
1. Water supply
A nearby guaranteed supply of water is very essential as water is needed on a daily basis. In early times, rivers
were sufficiently clean to give a town permanent supply. In regions where rainfall is limited or unreliable,
people settled where the water table is near the surface of desert oasis, thus enabling shallow wells to be
dug. Such settlement sites are known as ‘wet point or water seeking sites. Nowadays it can be drawn from
boreholes or dams but water remains an important factor influencing the location of settlements.

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12. Fuel supply
Even tropical areas needed fuel especially for cooking purposes and for warmth during colder nights.
In most early settlements, firewood was an important source of fuel and still is in many of the least
economically developed areas such as the Sahel.
Activity 11.5 Discussion
Discuss the examples of disaster resilient infrastructure.

Exercise 11.4

1. With reference to a city you have studied, discuss the causes of urbanisation.
2. Explain the process of urbanisation.
3. Identify the benefits and problems of urbanisation.
4. Identify the solutions to the problems of urbanisation.
5. Describe and explain the applicability of land use models to actual towns in Zimbabwe.
6. Identify the main features of disaster resilient infrastructure.
7. Describe factors considered in siting settlements.

Interesting facts
1. Rapid urbanisation is common in developing countries which are characterised by uneven development.
2. Unplanned settlements are in some cases seen as a solution to the problem of accommodation even
though they are an eyesore.

Summary of the chapter

•• Urbanisation is caused by a number of factors including natural population growth and migration
due to employment opportunities and better standards of living.
•• Urbanisation causes a lot of negative effects amongst the people like crimes, poor sanitation and
growth of shanty towns.
•• Solutions to the problem of urbanisation include; population control, developing rural areas and
proving low cost housing.
•• Urban land use models were developed in trying to explain the urban land uses. These include the
concentric, sector and multiple-nuclei models. However, the models do have their own limitations.
•• Unplanned settlements are also known as shanties, squatter settlements or informal settlements.
Usually the residents of unplanned settlements are unemployed and underemployed. Shanty
towns are often characterised by improvised dwellings made from scrap materials, often plywood,
corrugated metal and sheets of plastic.
•• Unplanned settlements are associated with a lot of problems including social disorder, environmental
degradation and lack of basic amenities.
•• Solutions to the problems of unplanned settlements include upgrading the unplanned settlements
by providing sewerage and proper roads and providing basic amenities such as water.
•• An urban area’s infrastructure needs to be disaster proofed with building standards and codes.
•• Factors that influence the location of settlements include relief, water supply and defence.

Glossary of terms

Agglomeration economies – benefits that come when firms and people locate near one
another together in cities and industrial clusters.

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CBD (central business district) – the main business and commercial area of a town or city.
Conurbation – an extended urban area, typically consisting of several towns
merging with the suburbs of a central city.
Disaster resilient infrastructure – infrastructure that withstand the shocks of disasters/accidents.
Land use – is the function of land.
Disaster resilience – the capacity to recover quickly after a disaster/tragedy.
Urbanisation – the shift of population from rural to urban areas or a change in the
ratio of the total population living in urban areas.
Unplanned settlement – residential areas where a group of housing units have been
constructed on land to which the occupants have occupied
illegally and the housing does not comply with planning and
building regulations.

Revision Exercises
Multiple Choice Questions
1. In urban housing the terms high density and low density refer to the _______.
A. quality of life of the residents B. number of houses per unit area
C. number of people per unit area D. quality of building materials
2. One of the aims of the clean-up operation of illegal settlements by the Zimbabwean government in
2005 was to reduce the spread of _________.
A. cholera B. HIV/AIDS
C. kwashiorkor D. malaria
3. An extensive built up area formed by the joining together of once separate urban settlements is
referred to as a __________.
A. capital city B. conurbation
C. primate city D. metropolis
4. Buildings in the city centre expand upwards because __________.
A. there is a lot of traffic congestion B. parking space is limited
C. land values and rents are high D. there is a great flow of pedestrians
5. Which of the following provisions by the government would have the greatest impact in improving the
quality of life in a squatter settlement?
A. A bus services B. Clean water
C. Shops D. Recreational facilities
6. Which one is a primary factor that draws people from rural areas to urban areas?
A. More open space B. More jobs
C. Heat islands D. Less population
7. The shift of a population from the countryside to cities is called ___________.
A. urbanisation B. ecological footprint
C. infrastructure D. land preservation
8. Which of the following describes a city’s CBD?
A. An area with residential development and large areas of open space
B. An area of industry, particularly the heavier industries that require large amounts of raw materials
C. An area with important businesses, government buildings and high class retail shops
D. An area on the edge of the city where new developments include housing estates and parks

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9. Urbanisation is best defined as ___________.
A. people moving from rural areas to urban areas
B. the growth in the population of urban areas as a result of several factors
C. the increase in the proportion of people living in urban areas
D. people moving from urban areas to rural areas
10. All of the following are reasons for urbanisation except ________.
A. rent is more affordable in urban areas
B. urban areas have better healthcare and educational facilities
C. there are more jobs available in urban areas
D. there are more opportunities for entertainment in urban areas
11. Which of the following statements is not true about urban areas?
A. There is traffic congestion B. Public utilities are not readily available
C. There are higher crime rates D. Slums often develop in or near urban areas
12. Who developed concentric- zone theory of city?
A. Louis Wirth B. Burgess
C. Hoyt D. Ullman and Harris
13. What does conurbation mean? ___ _
A. Cluster of cities and towns B. Cities of cities
C. Group of slams D. Capital city
14. A model of the internal structure of cities in which the social groups are spatially arranged in a series
of rings is the ______.
A. concentric zone model B. sector model
C. peripheral model D. multiple nuclei model
15. Squatter settlements in developing countries cities are usually located _____.
A. along major highways B. on the outskirts of the urban areas
C. in warehouse districts D. adjacent to industrial areas

Structured Questions
1. Growth of unplanned settlements is linked to urbanisation in developing countries.
(a) With reference to a named city, describe the problems associated with the growth of unplanned
settlements. [6]
(b) Suggest measures that can be taken to improve the quality of life of the people who live in
unplanned settlements. [7]
(c) For an urban area you have studied, state two problems, which occurs and explain its causes:
(i) housing issues [4]
(ii) traffic congestion [4]
(iii) air pollution [4]

2. (a) What is urbanisation? [2]

(b) Describe the processes of urbanisation in your own words. [7]
(c) i. Identify any six causes of urbanisation in Zimbabwe. [6]
ii. Explain five effects of urbanisation in Zimbabwe. [5]
iii. Suggest five possible measures to problems of urbanisation in Zimbabwe. [5]

3. (a) Define urban land use zones. [2]

(b) Identify the types of urban land use zones. [4]

198
 Chapter
TRADE
12
Chapter objectives
By the end of this chapter, you should be able to:
•• explain trade.
•• explain trade patterns in Zimbabwe, SADC, Africa and the world.
•• outline the characteristics of domestic and foreign trade.
•• differentiate foreign and domestic trade.

Introduction
Trade is when people exchange commodities amongst each other. People used to trade what they have
with what they do not have. Nowadays, people buy and sell goods and services amongst each other in a
community or between countries. Trade is essential for the growth and upkeep of the country. It brings
in foreign currency, promotes the growth of local industries and maintains relations between trading
countries.

UNIT 12.1 TRADE

Trade is a commercial transaction involving the sale and purchase of a good, service or information.
It involves the transfer or exchange of goods for money or money’s worth. Goods move from the
manufacturers to the wholesalers, then retailers and finally to the consumers. Countries trade to satisfy
their needs and wants. A country may not have all the resources it requires and therefore may need to get
these from another whilst also sharing what it has.
There are two main types of trade namely:
1. Internal trade or home or domestic trade
2. External or foreign or international
(a) Domestic trade
Domestic trade is also known as internal trade
or home trade. It is conducted within a country’s
political and geographical boundaries. Both the
buyer and seller belong to the same country.
Payments are made or received in local currency.
Below are some of the characteristics of domestic Fig. 12.1 Local people selling goods for money - Mbare
trade: Musika, Harare

200
 •• Goods are transported from one place to another by road or rail within the same country for
example maize seed produced and packed by Seedco in Harare are transported to the rural areas.
•• Buying and selling of goods within a country’s boundaries.
•• Payment is made or received in the local currency.
•• A wide choice of goods.
•• Payments can be made in cheque, cash or bank transfers.
•• Local rules and regulations have to be followed.
•• Minimum legal and administrative formalities involved in organising internal trade.
•• Generally, there is limited interaction between producers and the final consumers.
(b) International trade
Foreign trade is also referred to as international
trade. Foreign trade is the trade that takes place
between two or more countries. Foreign trade
involves the transfer of goods from one country to
the other country. The seller and buyer of the goods
are from different countries.
International trade has the following characteristics:
•• Territorial specialisation – every country
specialises in the production of goods and
services in which it has a specific advantage.
Fig. 12.2 International trade
•• International competition – producers
from different countries compete to sell their products to the international market.
•• Separation of sellers from buyers – sellers can be in one country and buyers in another creating
need for middlemen or brokers for transaction.
•• Mutually acceptable currency – due to the
differences in currencies between nations
there has to be a mutually agreed currency
for use by buyers and sellers
•• International rules and regulations
– international trade is governed by
international laws and trade restrictions.
•• Government control – governments may
impose export as well as import duties or
tariffs.
Trade patterns
The patterns of international trade facilitate in
developing an overview about the types of products
traded and the countries involved in trade. The shifts
in trade patterns and their causes provide insights
into the upheavals in the economic environment
and trade policies of nations.
Trade patterns in Zimbabwe, SADC and Africa
Trade in Zimbabwe, is based on processing, Fig. 12.3 Trade patterns

201
 HOME TRADE FOREIGN TRADE
More documentations and approvals from government
Fewer documentations and approvals from the government
and it is a long process to get approvals from
to transfer the goods.
government.
Volume of trade
The volume of the trade depends upon the population of Many restrictions imposed on free entry of goods. Du-
the country, demand for the product. ties and taxes paid to trade goods between countries.
Time gap
Involves wide time gap between the goods dispatched
Has less time gap between the goods dispatched and goods
from the home country and goods received by the
received and payment received for the consignment.
other country.
Credit problems
Fewer credit problems between the sellers and buyers in the Involves special steps to find out the credit worthiness
country. of the importer by the exporter of the goods.
Trading of goods
Facilitates countries to export the goods, which they
Involves the trade of the goods and services which are
have surplus and import goods, which are short in
available in the country.
supply.
Flow of currency
Flow of currency from one place to another place in the Helps in exchange of currencies between two countries
country. and helps increase of foreign exchange reserves.
Advantage to people
Increases the employment and specialisation within the Helps in bringing the international division of labour
country. and specialisation.
Insurance
The goods do not carry a compulsion to have the insurance The goods sent to other countries by foreign producers
for goods in transport. need to be insured compulsorily.

Activity 12.2 Discussion

Discuss the difference between domestic and foreign trade.

Exercise 12.1

1. What is a trade?
2. Identify the two types of trade.
3. Give characteristics of international trade.
4. What are the major exports and imports of Zimbabwe?
5. What are the major differences between domestic and foreign trade?

Interesting facts
1. When a country’s exports have a lower value than its imports that country experiences a trade deficit,
or negative balance of payment.
2. Trade within African countries is limited.

Summary of the chapter

•• Trade is the exchange of goods and services
•• There two main types of trade, domestic and foreign trade

205
 •• trade makes it possible for people to satisfy their needs and wants
•• Zimbabwe, SADC and other African Countries export mostly raw materials and import manufactured
goods and services from Europe, North America and Japan.
•• Many people in Zimbabwe are informal traders.
•• Export trade brings in foreign currency in the country.
•• Export maintains relations between the trading countries.
•• In domestic trade, there is retail and in foreign trade, there is export and import trade.
•• In domestic trade, it is done within a country and international trade occurs between different
countries.
•• In domestic trade, most people have the same language and culture whilst in foreign trade there is
different language and cultures and this can cause communication problems.
Glossary of terms

Trade – exchange of goods and services.

Imports – goods or services brought from another country.
Exports – goods sent to other countries.
Balance of payment – is a record of all economic transactions between residents of a country and
the rest of the world in a given period.
Balance of trade – the difference between the value of goods and services exported and the
value of the goods and services imported.
Trade deficit – the amount by which a country’s imports exceeds the exports.
Home trade – trade within a country’s boundaries.
Foreign Trade – transfer of goods from one country to the other country.
Terms of trade – ratio of export prices to import prices.
Trade pattern – the types of products traded and the countries involved in trading.

Revision Exercises
Multiple Choice Questions
1. The terms of trade measure are _________.
A. the income of one country compared to another
B. the GDP of one country compared to another
C. the quantity of exports of one country compared to another
D. export prices compared to import prices
2. The balance of payments equals is __________.
A. the difference between household spending and income
B. the difference between government spending and income
C. a measure of the value of economic transactions between residents of a country and the rest of
the world
D. the difference between inflation and unemployment

206
EXAMINATION III
PAPER 1: MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS
INSTRUCTIONS TO CANDIDATES
Answer all questions in this section. Choose the most appropriate answer.
1. What is greenhouse effect?
A. It is a phenomenon that traps long wavelength radiation that leads to more heating and a higher
resultant temperature
B. It is a phenomenon of releasing heat wave to the environment
C. Desertification
D. Increased rainfall and greenery
2. Which of the following is not a solution of global warming?
A. Reducing fossil fuel consumption B. Planting more trees
C. Deforestation D. Using alternative energy
3. The least effective management practice to protect wetlands is ________.
A. reforestation with exotics B. legislation
C. education D. creation of buffer zones
4. The main components of photochemical smog is _________.
A. water vapour B. sulphur dioxide
C. Oxides of nitrogen D. all of the above
5. Noise is measured using sound meter and the units are __________.
A. hertz B. decibel
C. joule D. sound
6. Eutrophication means __________.
A. thermal change in water
B. solid waste
C. air pollution
D. filling up of water body with aquatic plants due to extra nourishment
7. The process of land becoming a desert is _____________.
A. soil erosion B. desertification
C. soil conservation D. habitat
8. ‘The company is like a tree with many branches and products. It has roots represented by the
headquarters in one country’. The company being referred to is a ___________.
A. parastatal B. shelf company
C. state-owned company D. transnational company
9. Which of the following is a manufacturing industry?
A. Car assembly B. Forestry
C. Mining D. Tourism
10. Which of the following is a market-based industry?
A. Brewery B. Sugar can processing
C. Oil refinery D. Iron and steel production
11. A heavy industry should be located far away from densely settled areas because it _____.
A. takes up little space B. causes traffic congestion
C. destroys vegetation D. causes pollution
12. Which of the following industries sells most of its products along the major highways of Zimbabwe?
A. Craft B. Printing
C. Iron and steel D. Furniture

209
 i. Describe how the activity conserve the soil against erosion. [5]
ii. Suggest other methods used to conserve local forests. [6]
(b) How is ecosystem used in entrepreneurship in Zimbabwe? [4]
(c) i. State the types of biomes. [3]
ii. Describe how animals and plants adapt in any one of the biomes. [7]

Section B
Answer one question in this section.
4. (a) i. Identity forms of environmental degradation that are commonly found in Zimbabwe. [5]
ii. Outline the causes of environmental degradation you identified above. [7]
iii. Describe the effects of environmental degradation. [6]
(b) Discuss ways in which local people can contribute to soil conservation. [7]

5. (a) What is a wetland? Give two examples of wetlands you know. [4]
(b) i. Outline the human activities that can be carried out on a wetland. [7]
ii. Explain how the human activities can lead to wetland degradation. [7]
(c) Suggest how the community could be involved in the management of wetlands. [7]

6. (a) Why is it important for a society to move away from using fossil fuels? [5]
(b) Outline the advantages of the following sources of energy;
i. nuclear energy
ii. biomass energy
iii. Geothermal energy. [6]
(c) Crude oil is another energy that is widely used in Zimbabwe. Outline its uses in the following sectors
of the economy;
i. Agriculture
ii. Manufacturing [4]
(d) Outline the benefits derived from exploiting the following natural resources in Zimbabwe:
i. Forests [2]
ii. Minerals [2]
iii. Water resources [2]
iv. Suggest problems of exploiting encountered in exploiting any two of these resources. [4]

7. (a) What are fossil fuels? [2]

(b) What is the negative impact of mining on the environment? [6]
Uses of coal Percentage of total amount produced %
Coke 40
Thermal power 25
Agriculture 12
Railway transport 10
Manufacturing 8
Mining 5

(c) Describe the uses of coal. [6]

(d) i. As an environmental officer, suggest measures you would put in place for the sustainable
management of minerals in Zimbabwe. [5]
ii. What problems are you likely to face in putting in place the measures in place in (d) i above? [3]

213
 Section C
Answer one question in this section.
8. (a) i. Define the term: Transnational Corporation (TNC). Give an example of a transnational
corporation in Zimbabwe. [3]
ii. Describe the main characteristics of TNCs. [5]
iii. State the advantages and disadvantages of TNCs in a country. [7]
(b) Suggest why factories which process crops such as sugarcane and tea are located close to
areas where they are grown. [3]
(c) For a named manufacturing industry you have studied in Zimbabwe, draw a labelled sketch map
to show the factors that influenced its location. [7]

9. (a) Define the term urbanisation and give causes of urbanisation. [4]
(b) i. The growth of unplanned settlements is linked to urbanisation in developing countries. With
reference to a named city, describe the problems associated with the growth of unplanned
settlements. [7]
ii. Suggest measures that can be taken to improve the quality of life of the people who live in
unplanned settlements. [7]
(c) For an urban area you have studied, state one problem, which occurs and explain its causes. You
should choose from the following problems:
i. Housing issues
ii. Traffic congestion
iii. Air pollution [7]

10. (a) i. Explain the term land use. [2]

ii. Describe the main land uses found in urban areas. [5]
iii. Outline the main characteristics of the Central Business District (CBD) of a town you have
studied. [7]
(b) i. Draw a labelled diagram to show the sector and concentric models of urban land use. [7]
ii. Identify a model that suits a local city you have studied and describe its shortcomings. [4]

11. (a) Explain what is meant by population growth. [2]

(b) i. The table below shows the average population growth rates of different countries in 1997.

Country rate Average population growth

Zimbabwe 2.1
China 0.9
India 1.6
Japan 0.2
United Kingdom 0.1

Describe the differences in the population growth rates. [5]

ii. Developing countries experience high rates of population growth. Explain why this is so with
six reasons. [6]
iii. What are the problems of rapid population growth rates? Give seven results. [7]
(c) Suggest solutions to these problems. [5]

214
 ODZI
ZIMBABWE

215
 Updated Curriculum A Practical Approach to Geography | Form 1–4

A Practical Approach

Updated Curriculum
FORM A Practical Approach FORM
to to

his is a learner centred comprehensive book which gives learners an effective

Geography 1 Geography 2
A Practical Approach to Geography | Form 1

nderstanding of the learning area. It constitutes of the following features:

• well-structured content as outlined in the syllabus.

A Practical Approach to Geography | Form 2

• interesting facts about the subject that motivate and stimulate interest in the
learning of Geography.
• activities that require learners to actively participate in their learning process.
• knowledge of geographic terms, laws, facts, concepts, theories and phenomena.
• knowledge and understanding of geographical instruments and apparatus
including techniques of operations and aspects of safety.
• simple language to enhance understanding.
• attractive illustrations that reinforce concepts being learned.
• thorough revision exercises at the end of the chapter and follow up examinations
meant to evaluate the extent to which taught skills and knowledge have been
grasped.

9 78079 74 60621

Kafikira Wiseman Ncube Nkosilomusa Ntshingila Sithabisiwe Doro Crecens Chimanikire Soccicah Muzvidzani Melody

A Practical Approach
Updated Curriculum

Updated Curriculum

FORM A Practical Approach FORM

to
to

Geography 3 Geography 4
A Practical Approach to Geography | Form 2

his is a learner centred comprehensive book which gives learners an effective

understanding of the learning area. It constitutes of the following features:
• well-structured content as outlined in the syllabus.
• interesting facts about the subject that motivate and stimulate interest in the
learning of Geography.
• activities that require learners to actively participate in their learning process.
• knowledge of geographic terms, laws, facts, concepts, theories and phenomena.
• knowledge and understanding of scientific instruments and apparatus including
techniques of operations and aspects of safety.
• simple language to enhance understanding.
• attractive illustrations that reinforce concepts being learned.
• thorough revision exercises at the end of the chapter and follow up examinations
meant to evaluate the extent to which taught skills and knowledge have been
grasped.

9 78079 74 60645

Chitengu Bothwell Mussett Mashiringwane Chengetai Mazendame Renias T.

Ntshingila Sithabisiwe Pikirai Tinashe Shenjere Trymore