(Orange Grove Texts Plus) Miklós Bóna, Sergei Shabanov - Concepts in Calculus II-University Press of Florida (2012)

Concepts in Calculus II
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Concepts in Calculus II
Beta Version
Miklós Bóna and Sergei Shabanov

University of Florida Department of
Mathematics
University Press of Florida

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Pensacola • Orlando • Miami • Jacksonville • Ft. Myers • Sarasota
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Contents
Chapter 6. Applications of Integration 1

36. The Area Between Curves 1
37. Volumes 7
38. Cylindrical Shells 16
39. Work and Hydrostatic Force 21
40. Average Value of a Function 25
Chapter 7. Methods of Integration 29
41. Integration by Parts 29
42. Trigonometric Integrals 32
43. Trigonometric Substitution 36
44. Integrating Rational Functions 40
45. Strategy of Integration 45
46. Integration Using Tables and Software Packages 48
47. Approximate Integration 52
48. Improper Integrals 59
Chapter 8. Sequences and Series 69
49. Infinite Sequences 69
50. Special Sequences 76
51. Series 82
52. Series of Nonnegative Terms 87
53. Comparison Tests 93
54. Alternating Series 97
55. Ratio and Root Tests 102
56. Rearrangements 109
57. Power Series 115
58. Representation of Functions as Power Series 120
59. Taylor Series 126
Chapter 9. Further Applications of Integration 135
60. Arc Length 135
61. Surface Area 139
Chapter and section numbering continues from the previous volume in the series,
Concepts in Calculus I.
vi CONTENTS
62. Applications to Physics and Engineering 145

63. Applications to Economics and the Life Sciences 151
64. Probability 156
Chapter 10. Planar Curves 165
65. Parametric Curves 165
66. Calculus with Parametric Curves 172
67. Polar Coordinates 178
68. Parametric Curves: The Arc Length and Surface Area 185
69. Areas and Arc Lengths in Polar Coordinates 191
70. Conic Sections 196
CHAPTER 6
Applications of Integration
36. The Area Between Curves

36.1. The Basic Problem. In the previous chapter, we learned that if
the function f satisfies f (x) ≥ 0 for all real numbers x in the interval
[a, b], then the area of the domain whose borders are the graph of f ,
the
b
horizontal axis, and the vertical lines x = a and x = b is equal to
a
f (x) dx. If there is no danger of confusion as to what a and b are,
then this fact is sometimes informally expressed by the sentence “the
integral of f is equal to the area of the domain that is under the graph
of f .”
What can we say about the area of the domain between two curves?
There are several ways to ask this question. The easiest version, dis-
cussed by the following theorem, differs from the previous situation
only in that the horizontal line is replaced by another function g.
Theorem 6.1. Let f and g be two functions such that, for all real
numbers x ∈ [a, b], the inequality f (x) ≥ g(x) holds. Then the domain
whose borders are the graph of f , the graph of g, and the vertical lines
x = a and x = b has area
b
A= (f (x) − g(x)) dx.
a
See Figure 6.1 for an illustration of the content of Theorem 6.1.

The reader is invited to explain why this theorem is a direct conse-
quence of the fact that we recalled in the first paragraph of this section.
The reader is also invited to explain why the theorem holds even if f
and g take negative values.
Example 6.1. Compute the area A(D) of the domain D whose

borders are the graph of the function f (x) = x3 +1, the function g(x) =
x2 + 2, and the vertical lines x = 2 and x = 3. See Figure 6.2 for an
illustration of this specific example.
Solution: In order to see that Theorem 6.1 is applicable, we must

first show that, for all x ∈ [2, 3], the inequality f (x) ≥ g(x) holds.
1
2 6. APPLICATIONS OF INTEGRATION
Figure 6.1. Area enclosed by f (x) and g(x) between

x = a and x = b.
Figure 6.2. Area enclosed by the graphs of f (x) = x3 +

1 and g(x) = x2 + 2 between x = 2 and x = 3.
This is not difficult, since we only need to show that if x ∈ [2, 3], then
f (x) ≥ g(x), that is,
x3 + 1 ≥ x2 + 2,
x3 − x2 ≥ 1,
x2 (x − 1) ≥ 1,
and this is clearly true since x ≥ 2, so x2 ≥ 4, and x − 1 ≥ 1, forcing

x2 (x − 1) ≥ 4.
36. THE AREA BETWEEN CURVES 3
Therefore, Theorem 6.1 applies, and we have

3 3 3
x4 x3
A(D) = 3 2
(x +1)−(x +2) dx = (x −x −1) dx =
3 2
− −x
2 2 4 3 2
11
=8 .
12
2
36.2. Intersecting Curves. Sometimes, the points a and b are deter-

mined by the curves themselves, and not given in advance. In that
case, we have to compute them before we can apply Theorem 6.1.
Example 6.2. Find the area A(D) of the domain D whose borders
are the graphs of the functions f (x) = x2 + 3x + 5 and g(x) = 2x2 +
7x + 8. See Figure 6.3 for an illustration.
Solution: Let us find the points in which the graphs of f and g inter-
sect. In these points, we have
x2 + 3x + 5 = 2x2 + 7x + 8,
0 = x2 + 4x + 3,
0 = (x + 3)(x + 1).
That is, the two curves intersect in two points, and these points have
horizontal coordinates a = −3 and b = −1. Furthermore, if x ∈
Figure 6.3. Area enclosed by the graphs of f (x) and

g(x) between x = −3 and x = −1.
[−3, −1], that is, if x is between those two intersection points, then
f (x) − g(x) = (x2 + 3x + 5) − (2x2 + 7x + 8)

= −(x2 + 4x + 3)
= −(x + 3)(x + 1)
≥ 0,
since x + 3 ≥ 0 and x + 1 ≤ 0. Therefore, if x ∈ [−3, −1], then

f (x) ≥ g(x), and Theorem 6.1 applies. So we have
−1 3 −1
x
A(D) = (f (x)−g(x)) dx = −(x +4x+3) dx = − − 2x − 3x
2 2
−3 3 −3
1
=1 .
3
2
The situation becomes slightly more complicated if f ≥ g does not
hold throughout the entire interval [a, b]. For instance, it could happen
that f (x) ≥ g(x) at the beginning of the interval [a, b], and then, from a
given point on, g(x) ≥ f (x). In that case, we split [a, b] up into smaller
intervals so that on each of these smaller intervals, either f (x) ≥ g(x)
or g(x) ≥ f (x) holds. Then we can apply Theorem 6.1 to each of
these intervals. As on some of these intervals f (x) ≥ g(x) holds, while
on some others g(x) − f (x) holds, theapplication of Theorem 6.1 will
sometimes
involve the computation of (f (x)−g(x)) dx and sometimes
(g(x) − f (x)) dx. The following theorem formalizes this idea.
Theorem 6.2. Let f and g be two functions. Then the area of the
domain whose borders are the graph of f , the graph of g, the vertical
line x = a and the vertical line x = b is equal to
b
|f (x) − g(x)| dx.
a
Note that Theorem 6.1 is a special case of Theorem 6.2, namely,

the special case when f (x) − g(x) = |f (x) − g(x)| for all x ∈ [a, b].
Example 6.3. Let f (x) = x3 + 3x2 + 2x and let g(x) = x3 + x2 .

Compute the area A(D) of the domain whose borders are the graphs of
f and g and the vertical lines x = −2 and x = 1. See Figure 6.4 for
an illustration.
36. THE AREA BETWEEN CURVES 5
Figure 6.4. Graphs of f (x) and g(x) on [−2, 1].
Solution: In order to use Theorem 6.2, we need to compute |f (x) −

g(x)|. We have
f (x) − g(x) = (x3 + 3x2 + 2x) − (x3 + x2 ),
2x2 + 2x = 0,
2x(x + 1) = 0.
That is, there are only two points where these two curves intersect,
namely, at x = −1 and x = 0. If x ≤ −1 or if x ≥ 0, then f (x)−g(x) =
2x(x+1) > 0, so |f (x)−g(x)| = f (x)−g(x) = 2x2 +2x. If −1 < x < 0,
then f (x) − g(x) < 0, so |f (x) − g(x)| = g(x) − f (x) = −2x2 − 2x.
Figure 6.5 shows the behavior of the function |f (x) − g(x)|.
We can now directly apply Theorem 6.2. We get
1
A(D) = |f (x) − g(x)| dx
−2
−1 0
= (f (x) − g(x)) dx + (g(x) − f (x)) dx
−2 −1
1
+ (f (x) − g(x)) dx
0
−1 0
= 2
(2x + 2x) dx + (−2x2 − 2x) dx
−2 −1
1
+ (2x2 + 2x) dx
0
−1 0 3 1
2x3 2x3 2x
= + x2 + − −x 2
+ 2
+x .
3 −2 3 −1 3 0
Figure 6.5. Graph of |f (x) − g(x)| on [−2, 1].

2
36.3. Curves Failing the Vertical Line Test. Sometimes we want to com-
pute the area between two curves that do not pass the vertical line
test; that is, they contain two or more points on the same vertical line.
Such curves are not graphs of functions of the variable x. If they pass
the horizontal line test, that is, if they do not contain two points on
the same horizontal line, then they can be viewed as functions of y.
We can then change the roles of x and y in Theorems 6.1 and 6.2 and
proceed as in the earlier examples of this section.
Example 6.4. Compute the area A(D) of the domain between the
vertical line x = 4 and the curve given by the equation y 2 = x. See
Figure 6.6 for an illustration.
Solution: Neither curve satisfies the vertical line test, but both satisfy
the horizontal line test. Therefore, we set f (y) = 4 and g(y) = y 2 . It is
Figure 6.6. Graph of y 2 = x and x = 4.

37. VOLUMES 7
clear that the two curves intersect at the points given by y = −2 and
y = 2. Between these two curves, the value of f (y) is larger. Therefore,
Theorem 6.1 applies (with the roles of x and y reversed). So we have
2
A(D) = (f (x) − g(x)) dx
−2
2
= 4 − y 2 dy
−2
2
y3
= 4y −
3 −2
16
= 16 −
3
2
= 10 .
3
2
Note that the geometric meaning of reversing the roles of x and y
is simply reflecting all curves through the x = y line. That reflection
does not change the area of any domain, so one can expect analogous
methods of computing areas before and after that reflection.
36.4. Exercises.
(1) Find the area of the domain whose borders are the vertical line
x = 0, the vertical line x = 2, and the graphs of the functions
f (x) = x2 + 3 and g(x) = sin x.
(2) Find the area of the domain whose borders are the vertical line
x = 1, the vertical line x = 3, and the graphs of the functions
f (x) = x3 and g(x) = e−x .
(3) Find the area of the domain between the graphs of the func-
tions f (x) = x2 + 2 and g(x) = 4x − 1.
(4) Find the area of the domain between the graphs of the func-
tions f (x) = x3 − 3x2 and g(x) = x2 .
(5) Find the area between the curves given by the equations x =
5y and x = y 2 + 6.
(6) Compute the area between the three curves f (x) = x, g(x) =
−x, and h(x) = 4.
37. Volumes
37.1. Extending the Definition of Volumes. If a solid S can be built up
using unit cubes, then we can simply say that the volume V (S) of S is
the number of unit cubes used to build S. However, if the borders of
S are not planes, then this method will have to be modified. A ball or
a cone is an example of this.
So we would like to define the notion of volume so that it is applica-
ble to a large class of solids, not just to those solids that are bordered
by planes. This definition should agree with our intuition. It should
also be in accordance with the fact that we can approximate all solids
with a collection of very small cubes; therefore, V (S) must be close to
the number of unit cubes used in the approximation.
With these goals in mind, we recall that we already defined the area
of a domain in the plane whose borders are the graphs of continuous
functions. Building on that definition, we say that the volume of a
prism is its base area times its height. More formally, let S be a solid
whose base and cover are identical copies of the plate P , located at
distance h from each other, on two parallel planes that are at distance
h from each other. Then we define the volume of S to be
V (S) = A(P )h,
where A(P ) is the area of P . See Figure 6.7 for an illustration. In
particular, the volume of a cylinder whose base is a circle of radius r
and whose height is h is r2 πh.
Now let S be any solid located between the planes given by the
equations x = a and x = b. In order to define and compute the volume
V (S) of S, we cut S into n parts by the planes x = xi for i = 0, 1, . . . , n,
where
a = x0 < x1 < · · · < xn = b.
Let n be large. Then the part Si of S that is between the planes
x = xi−1 and x = xi is well approximated by a prism Pi described as
follows. The height of Pi is ∆x = (b − a)/n, the base plate and cover
Figure 6.7. The volume of S is defined by V (S) = A(P )h.

37. VOLUMES 9
plate of Pi are on the planes x = xi−1 and x = xi , respectively, and the

base and cover plates of Pi are congruent to the intersection Ti of S and
the plane x = x∗i for some point x∗i ∈ [xi−1 , xi ]. We can assume that x∗i
is the midpoint of [xi−1 , xi ], but that will turn out to be insignificant.
Note that Pi has volume A(Ti ) ∆x.
If n is large, then the union of the prisms Pi approximates S well,
so V (S) should be defined in a way that assures that V (S) is close to

n
n
(6.1) V (Pi ) = A(Ti ) ∆x.
i=1 i=1
As n goes to infinity, the Riemann sum on the right-hand side of

(6.1) has a limit. We define that limit to be the volume V (S) of S, so

n
V (S) = lim A(Ti ) ∆x.
n→∞
i=1
On the other hand, by the definition of the definite integral, we have

n b
lim A(Ti ) ∆x = A(t) dt,
n→∞ a
i=1
where A(t) is the area of the intersection of S and the plane x = t.

Therefore, this integral is equal to the volume V (S) of the solid S.
That proves the following theorem, which will be our main tool in this
section.
Theorem 6.3. Let S be a solid located between the planes x = a

and x = b, and let A(t) be the area of the intersection of S and the
plane x = t. Then the volume V (S) of S satisfies the equation
b
V (S) = A(t) dt.
a
Example 6.5. Compute the volume of the ball B whose center is

at the origin and whose radius is r.
Solution: For any given t ∈ [−r, r], the intersection of the plane
x = t and the ball B is a circle. Let √ Ct denote this circle. By the
Pythagorean theorem, Ct has radius r2 − t2 , and therefore, the area
of Ct is A(t) = (r2 − t2 )π. See Figure 6.8 for an illustration.
Figure 6.8. The volume of the ball B approximated by cylinders.
Now we can use Theorem 6.3 to compute the volume of B. We get

r

V (B) = π r2 π − t2 dt
−r
r
1 3
=π· r t− t
2
3 −r
2
= 2r3 π − r3 π
3
4 3
= r π.
3
2
There is nothing magical about the x axis as far as Theorem 6.3 is
concerned. The argument that yielded that theorem can be repeated
for the y axis instead of the x axis, yielding the following theorem.
Theorem 6.4. Let S be a solid located between the planes y = a
and y = b, and let B(t) be the area of the intersection of S and the
plane y = t. Then the volume V (S) of S satisfies the equation
b
V (S) = B(t) dt.
a
Example 6.6. Let S be the right circular cone whose symmetry

axis is the y axis, whose apex is at y = h, and whose base is a circle
in the plane y = 0 with its center at the origin and with radius r. Find
the volume of S.
Solution: The cone S is between the planes y = 0 and y = h, and
B(t) of Theorem 6.4 is easier to compute than A(t) of Theorem 6.3, so
we use the former.
37. VOLUMES 11
The intersection of the plane y = t and S is a circle. The radius rt

of this circle, by similar triangles, satisfies
rt h−t
= ,
r h
showing that rt = r(h − t)/h. Therefore, B(t) = r2 (h − t)2 π/h2 , and
Theorem 6.4 implies
h
V (S) = (r2 (h − t)2 π/h2 ) dt
0

r2 π h 2
= 2 (h − 2ht + t2 ) dt
h 0
h
r2 π 2 t3
= 2 h t − ht + 2
h 3 0
2 3
r π h
= 2 ·
h 3
1 2
= hr π.
3
See Figure 6.9 for an illustration. 2
37.2. Annular Rings. In the examples that we have solved so far, the
computation of A(t) or B(t), that is, the computation of the area of
the intersection between a solid and a horizontal or vertical plane, was
not difficult. That computation could be done directly.
There are situations in which the domains whose areas we need to
compute are not convex; that is, visually speaking, there is a hole in
Figure 6.9. Right circular cone.

them. This happens particularly often when S is obtained by rotating

a domain D around a line.
Example 6.7. Let D be the domain between the two curves y =

2
x = f (x) and y = 2x = g(x) and let S be the solid obtained by
rotating D about the line x = −3. Find the volume of S.
Solution: The two curves intersect at the points (0, 0) and (2, 4). The
intersection of the horizontal plane y = t with S has the form of an
annular ring, which is sometimes informally called a washer. This is
simply a smaller circle cut out off the middle of a larger circle, so that
the two circles are concentric. If the larger circle has radius r1 and the
smaller circle has radius r2 , then the annular ring has area π(r12 − r22 ).
This general recipe enables us to compute B(t) in the example at
hand. The points in D satisfy x ∈ [0, 2] and y ∈ [0, 4]. As 0 ≤ x ≤ 2,
the inequality x2 ≤ 2x holds. So, for t ∈ [0, 4], the point Pi = (t/2, t)
on the √graph of g(x) = y = 2x is closer to the y axis than the point
Po = ( t, t) on the graph of y = x2 = f (x). (It takes a larger value
of x to get the same value t = y by f than it takes to get the same
value by g.) So the outer circle of the annulus will be given by the
rotated image of the curve of f (the parabola), and the inner circle of
the annulus will be given by the rotated image of the curve of g (the
straight line).
In particular, for fixed t, the radii are obtained as the distance of
Po (resp. Pi ) from the axis of rotation, that is, the line x = −3. For
the inner radius, this yields

t t + 6
r2 = −3 − = ,
2 2
while for the outer radius, this yields

√ √

r1 = −3 − t = t + 3.
Therefore, the area of the annular ring that is the intersection of S

and the plane y = t is given by
√ 2 t+6
2
t2
B(t) = π(r12 − r22 ) = π t+3 −π = π 6t0.5 − − 2t .
2 4
37. VOLUMES 13
Now we can apply Theorem 6.4 to compute V (S). We obtain

4
V (S) = B(t) dt
0
4
t2
=π 6t0.5 − − 2t dt
4
0 3

t
= π 4t −1.5
− t dt
2
12
≈ 77.01.
2
37.3. Special Cases of Theorems 6.3 and 6.4. Note that the solids we
discussed so far in this section could be obtained by rotating the graph
of a function around an axis. Such volumes are called volumes of rev-
olution. Indeed, the ball of Example √ 6.5 can be obtained by rotating
the graph of the function f (x) = r2 − x2 (a semicircle) about the x
axis. The cone of Example 6.6 can be obtained by rotating the graph
of the function f (x) = −x hr + r = y (a straight line) about the y axis.
For such solids, the areas A(t) and B(t) appearing in Theorems 6.3
and 6.4 are easy to compute, since the intersections appearing in those
theorems will be circles or annular rings. If S is a solid obtained by
rotating a curve about the x axis, then the intersection of the plane
x = t and S is a circle of radius f (x), and hence A(t) = f (x)2 π. If S is
a solid obtained by rotating the curve of the function g(y) = x about
the y axis, then the intersection of S and the plane y = t is a circle
of radius g(t), and so B(t) = g(t)2 π. This yields the following special
versions of Theorems 6.3 and 6.4.
Theorem 6.5. Let S be a solid between the planes x = a and x = b
obtained by rotating the graph of the function f (x) = y about the x
axis. Then we have b
V (S) = f (t)2 π dt.
a
Theorem 6.6. Let S be a solid between the planes y = a and y = b

obtained by rotating the graph of the function g(y) = x about the y axis.
Then we have b
V (S) = g(t)2 π dt.
a
The exercises at the end of this section will provide further examples
for the uses of these theorems.
If the domain to be rotated does not include the entire area between
the curve and and coordinate axis (for instance, because it is a domain
between two curves), then we get annular rings, which we discussed in
the last section.
37.4. A Solid Not Obtained by Revolution. While volumes of revolution

are a very frequent application of Theorems 6.3 and 6.4, they are not
the only applications of those theorems.
Example 6.8. Let S be a pyramid whose base is a square of side

length a and whose height is h. Compute the volume of S.
Solution: The first step is to place S in a coordinate system so that

Theorem 6.3 can be applied. Let us place the axis of S on the x axis of
the coordinate system, so that the center of the base of S is at the origin
and the cusp of S is at x = h. This does not completely determine the
position of S, because S could still rotate around the x axis. However,
such rotations will not change the value of A(t) for any t ∈ [0, h], and
so they are insignificant for the computation of V (S).
Now note that, for any t ∈ [0, h], the intersection of S and the plane
x = t is a square of side length a(h − t)/h (by similar triangles). See
Figure 6.10. Pyramid.

37. VOLUMES 15
Figure 6.10 for an illustration. So A(t) = a2 (h − t)2 /h2 , and Theorem

6.3 implies
h 2
a (h − t)2
V (S) = dt
0 h2
h
a2 2 t3
= 2 h t − ht + 2
h 3 0
2
ah
= .
3
2
37.5. The Big Picture. Note that the theorems presented in this sec-
tion on integrals confirm our intuition that if a certain function mea-
sures a quantity, then, under the appropriate conditions, the integral
of that function measures a quantity that is somehow in a space that
is one dimension higher. For instance, we saw earlier that if f (x) mea-
sured the height of a curve at a given
horizontal coordinate x, then,
under the appropriate conditions, f (x) dx measured the area under
the curve. So taking integrals meant moving from one dimension to
two. In this section, the functions A(t) and B(t) measured areas
of domains in a given plane, while A(t) dt and B(t) dt measured
volumes. So taking integrals meant moving from two dimensions to
three.
37.6. Exercises.
(1) Compute the volume of the solid between the planes x = −1
and x = 1 obtained by rotating the graph of the function
f (x) = x2 = y about the y axis.
(2) Compute the volume of the solid between the planes x = −1
and x = 1 obtained by rotating the graph of the function
f (x) = x2 = y about the x axis.
(3) Compute the volume of the solid between the planes x = 0
and x = π obtained by rotating the graph of the function
f (x) = sin x = y about the x axis.
(4) Compute the volume of the solid √ obtained by rotating the
domain between the curves y = x and y = x about the line
y = −2.
(5) Compute the volume of the solid obtained by rotating the
domain between the curves y = x4 and y = x about the line
x = −1.
(6) Compute the volume of a regular tetrahedron of side length z.

A regular tetrahedron is a solid that has four faces, each of
which is a regular triangle.
(7) Compute the volume of the solid between the planes x = 0 and
x = 1 obtained by rotating the curve f (x) = ex = y about the
y axis.
(8) Compute the volume of the solid between the planes x = 0
and x = 1 obtained by rotating the curve of the function
f (x) = x(1 − x) about the x axis.
38. Cylindrical Shells

38.1. An Alternative Method to Compute Volumes. In principle, Theo-
rems 6.3 and 6.4 are simple methods to compute the volumes of solids.
In practice, however, the areas A(t) and B(t) that appear in these the-
orems may be difficult to explicitly evaluate. One situation in which
these areas are often difficult to compute is when the solid in question
is obtained by rotating a domain around some line; that is, it is a solid
of revolution.
As an example, let us try to compute the volume of the solid S
obtained by rotating about the y axis the domain bordered by the lines
x = 0, x = 3, and y = 0 and the graph of the function f (x) = 3x3 − x4 .
If we try to solve this problem using Theorems 6.3 or 6.4, we run into
difficulties, because A(t) and B(t) will not be easy to compute. For
instance, if we wanted to use Theorem 6.4, then, in order to compute
B(t), we would need to describe the intersection of S and the plane
y = t. For this, we would have to find the x coordinates of the points
of that intersection; that is, we would need to find all real numbers
x ∈ [0, 3] for which y = 3x3 − x4 = t. This is a fourth-degree equation
for x, which is very difficult and cumbersome to solve. If we wanted
to use Theorem 6.3, then, in order to compute A(t), we would need
to describe the intersection of the plane x = t and S, which is not
straightforward to do.
In situations like this, that is, when the application of Theorems
6.3 and 6.4 leads to technical difficulties, it often helps to use another
method called the method of cylindrical shells. A cylindrical shell C
is simply a cylinder C1 of which a smaller cylinder C2 is removed, so
that C1 and C2 have the same symmetry axis. See Figure 6.11 for an
illustration. If C2 is just a little bit smaller than C1 , then C looks like
a shell, explaining the name cylindrical shell.
38. CYLINDRICAL SHELLS 17
Figure 6.11. Single cylindrical shell.
If C1 and C2 both have height h and Ci has radius ri , then the

volume of C can be computed as
V (C) = V (C1 ) − V (C2 )
= hr12 π − hr22 π
= hπ(r12 − r22 ).
Note that the last form of V (C) can be rearranged as
2π(r1 + r2 )
(6.2) V (C) = h · (r1 − r2 ) · .
2
This way of writing V (C) might seem contrived at first sight. How-
ever, it has the following motivation. Note that r1 − r2 is the “width”
of C, while h is its height. Finally, if we flatten C out in the plane,
it will become a brick with side lengths h, r1 − r2 , and, 2π r1 +r
2
2
, since
the length of the missing side is equal to the circumference of a circle
whose radius is the average of the radii of C1 and C2 .
In other words, (6.2) says that the volume of a cylindrical shell is
equal to the product of its height, width, and “length” (if the latter is
interpreted properly).
We are now in a position to use cylindrical shells to compute vol-
umes. Let S be a solid that is obtained by rotating the domain D,
which lies below the curve of f (x) = y from x = a to x = b, about the

y axis. In order to estimate V (S), we cut [a, b] into n intervals of equal
length using points
a = x0 < x1 < · · · < xn−1 < xn = b.
For each integer i ∈ [1, n], we will take a cylindrical shell Si , which
will roughly cover the part of S that is obtained by rotating the part
of D that is between the lines x = xi−1 and x = xi about the y axis.
More precisely, this shell will be obtained by removing the cylinder Ci,2
from the cylinder Ci,1 , where Ci,1 and Ci,2 are both cylinders whose
symmetry axis is the y axis and whose height is f (x∗i ) for the midpoint
x∗i of the interval [xi−1 , xi ]. The radius of Ci,1 is f (xi ), and the radius
of Ci,2 is f (xi−1 ).
If we set ∆x = (b − a)/n, then (6.2) implies that
V (Si ) = f (x∗i ) ∆x 2πx∗i ,
since x∗i is the midpoint of the interval [xi−1 , xi ]. Summing the last
displayed equation over all i, we get

n
(6.3) V (S) ≈ f (x∗i ) ∆x 2πx∗i ,
i=1
since the union of the shells Si has roughly identical volume to S.

As n goes to infinity, this approximation gets better and better,
and the Riemann sum on the right-hand side of (6.3) converges to the
corresponding definite integral. Hence, we have proved the following
theorem.
Theorem 6.7. The volume V (S) of the solid obtained by rotating

the domain D whose borders are the curve of f (x) = y, the lines x = a
and x = b, and the horizontal axis y = 0 about the y axis is equal to
b
V (S) = 2πxf (x) dx.
a
Example 6.9. Compute the volume of the solid S obtained by ro-

tating about the y axis the domain bordered by the lines x = 0, x = 3,
and y = 0 and the graph of the function f (x) = 3x3 − x4 .
38. CYLINDRICAL SHELLS 19
Figure 6.12. (a) The curve of y = 3x3 − x4 and (b) the

solid obtained by its rotation.
Solution: By Theorem 6.7, we have

3
V (S) = 2π x(3x3 − x4 ) dx
0
3
= 2π (3x4 − x5 ) dx
0
3
3x5 x6
= 2π −
5 6 0
729 729
= 2π −
5 6
= 152.677.
2
The axis around which we rotate a domain does not have to be
a coordinate axis in order for the method of cylindrical shells to be
applicable. We can apply the method as long as we can decompose the
solid in question into cylindrical shells whose height and radius we can
compute.
Example 6.10. Let S be the solid obtained by rotating the domain

whose borders are the horizontal axis, the vertical lines x = 0 and
x = 2, and the graph of the function f (x) = 2x − x2 about the vertical
line x = 3. Compute V (S).
Solution: We can decompose S into cylindrical shells whose center

is on the vertical line x = 3. The shell containing the point x of
the horizontal axis will have height f (x) = 2x − x2 and radius 3 − x.
Figure 6.13. (a) The curve of y = x2 /2 and (b) the

solid obtained by its rotation.
Therefore, we have
2
V (S) = 2π(2x − x2 )(3 − x) dx
0
2
3
= 2π x − 5x2 + 6x dx
0
2
x4 5x3
= 2π − + 3x2
4 3 0
8
= 2π ·
3
≈ 16.755.
2
38.2. Exercises.
In (1)–(3), use the method presented in this section to compute the
volume of the solid obtained by rotating the domain between the given
curves about the y axis.
(1) f (x) = x3 = y, x = 1, y = 0.
(2) f (x) = x12 , x = 2, x = 3, y = 0.
(3) f (x) = x, g(x) = −x, x = 2.
In (4)–(7), use the best available method to compute the volume of the
solid obtained by rotating the domain between the given curves about
the given axis.
(4) f (x) = x = y, g(x) = −x = y, x = 2, about x = −1.
39. WORK AND HYDROSTATIC FORCE 21
(5) f (x) = 6 − x, g(x) = x = y, y = 6, about the y axis.

(6) f (x) = 6 − x, g(x) = x = y, y = 6, about the line y = 6.
(7) f (x) = 6 − x, g(x) = x = y, y = 6, about the line y = 7.
39. Work and Hydrostatic Force
39.1. Work Moving a Point-like Object. In physics, the word work has
a more specific meaning than in everyday life. Work in physics means
that a force is extended to move an object a certain distance.
The force F moving an object is computed by the formula
d2 s
F = m 2,
dt
which is called Newton’s second law. Here m is the mass of the object,
2
while a = ddt2s is its acceleration. So Newton’s second law says that the
mass of an object is in direct proportion to the force needed to move
it at constant acceleration.
If a constant force F is exerted while an object moves distance d,
then the work done by that constant force is computed by the formula
W = F d.
Note that in the metric system, distance is measured in meters (m),
time is measured in seconds (s), and therefore acceleration is measured
in m/s2 . Mass is measured in kilograms (kg), so force is measured in
kg · sm2 , which are called newtons (N), and, finally, work is measured in
N · m, which are also called joules (J). One joule is the work that is
done when a force equal to 1 newton moves an object a distance of 1
meter.
Example 6.11. How much work is needed to lift a child of 20 kg to
a height of 0.5 meters? Use the fact that gravitation causes downward
acceleration of g = 9.8 m/s2 .
Solution: In order to lift the child, one needs to overcome the down-
ward acceleration caused by gravity. This means that an upward force
of
m
m · g = 20 kg · 9.8 2 = 198 N
s
has to be exerted across a distance of d = 0.5 meters. This yields
W = F d = 198 N · 0.5 m = 99 J.
So the work needed is 99 J. 2
If the force exerted is not constant across the entire distance, but
the distance can be split up into a few parts so that the force is constant
on each part, then we can compute the work done by the force on each
part just as in the previous example, and then we can add the obtained
amounts to get the total amount of work done across the entire distance.
If the force exerted changes according to a continuous function f (d),
then we can approximate the work done using the idea of the previous
paragraph and then use integration to compute the total work done by
the force as follows.
Let a and b be real numbers and let us assume that an object is
moving from a to b, and the force moving the object at a given point x
is equal to f (x), where f is a continuous function. In order to compute
the work done across the entire distance, let us split the interval [a, b]
into n equal intervals, using points
a = x0 < x1 < · · · < xn−1 < xn = b,
and set ∆x = (a−b)/n. Then the work done by the force on the interval
Ii = [xi−1 , xi ] is about f (x∗i ) ∆x, where x∗i is some sample point in Ii .
Indeed, f is continuous, so if n is large and therefore Ii is short, then
f does not change much on that interval, so the shape of the domain
under the curve of f and above Ii is roughly a rectangle. This means
that the total work done by the force on [a, b] is close to

n
(6.4) f (x∗i ) ∆x.
i=1
As n gets larger, this approximation gets better, and so we define the

total work done by the force across the interval [a, b] as the limit of the
sum in (6.4) as n goes to infinity. On the other hand, that sum is a
b
Riemann sum, so its limit, as n → ∞, is the definite integral a f (x) dx.
In other words, we have proved the following theorem.
Theorem 6.8. Let a and b be real numbers. If an object is moved

from a to b by a force that is equal to f (x) at point x, where f is
continuous on [a, b], then the total work done by the force on [a, b] is
b
W = f (x) dx.
a
Example 6.12. The force needed to extend a given spring x cen-

timeters over its natural length is given by the function f (x) = 70x.
How much work is needed to extend the spring 10 cm over its natural
length?
39. WORK AND HYDROSTATIC FORCE 23
Solution: By Theorem 6.8, we have

0.1
W = 70x dx
0
= [35x2 ]0.1
0
= 12.25 J.
So 12.25 J of work is needed to stretch the spring 10 cm over its natural
length. 2
We point out that the law of physics that says that the force needed
to extend a spring by x units over its natural length is equal to kx is
called Hooke’s law, and k is called the spring constant.
39.2. Hydrostatic Force. Let us say that we want to pump water out
of a tank that has the shape of the southern half of a ball of radius
1 (m). How much work is needed to do that? This question is more
complex than the previous one since deeper layers of the hemisphere
are smaller, and water in those layers has to travel farther in order to
reach the top of tank.
Therefore, we will cut the tank up into small layers and estimate
the amount of work needed to pump out each layer of water.
Let x = 0 denote the bottom of the tank and let x = 1 denote
the center of the top circle of the tank. Cut the tank into i horizontal
layers by planes that are at heights
0 = x0 < x1 < · · · < xn = 1.
Here xi − xi−1 = 1/n = ∆x for all i. Let Li denote the ith layer.
The shape of this layer is close to a cylinder of height ∆x. Each water
particle in this layer has to be pumped at a distance roughly equal
to 1 − zi , where zi is a point in [zi−1 , zi ]. The square of the radius
of the cylinder approximating Li is, by the Pythagorean theorem, 1 −
(1 − zi )2 = 2zi − zi2 , and therefore the volume of Li is close to Vi =
∆x(2zi − zi2 )π. See Figure 6.14 for an illustration.
One cubic meter of water has a mass of 1000 kg, so the density of
water is ρ = 1000 kg/m3 . Therefore, the mass of the water in Li is
close to mi = ρVi π. In order to pump this water out of the tank, the
downward acceleration caused by gravitation, that is, mi g, has to be
overcome, across a distance of 1 − zi . Therefore, the work needed to
pump out the water in Li is about mi g(1 − zi ), and the work needed
to pump out all the water in the tank is approximated by
n n
(6.5) mi g(1 − zi ) = ρ · gπ ∆x(2zi − zi2 )(1 − zi ).
i=1 i=1
Figure 6.14. The tank in a coordinate system, and its

layer at height z.
As n grows, the expression displayed in (6.5) approximates the

needed work better and better. We define the total work needed (to
pump all the water out of the tank) to be the limit of the sum shown
in (6.5) as n goes to infinity. As that sum is a Riemann sum, its limit,
as n goes to infinity, is the definite integral
1
W = ρgπ (2x − x2 )(1 − x) dx.
0
As the integrand is a polynomial, this integral is very easy to compute.

We get that
1
W = ρgπ x3 − 3x2 + 2x dx
0
1
x4
= ρgπ − x3 + x2
4 0
= ρgπ/4
= 7696.675 J.
So it takes almost 7700 J of work to pump out all the water from the
tank.
39.3. Exercises.
(1) How much work is done when a book of mass 2 kg is lifted 1.5
meters from its original location?
40. AVERAGE VALUE OF A FUNCTION 25
(2) If it takes 10 J of work to lift an object 2 meters, how much

work does it take to lift that object an additional 3 meters?
(3) If it takes 20 J of work to stretch a spring 20 cm over its natural
length, how much work does it take to stretch that spring an
additional 5 cm?
(4) How much work is needed to pump out all the water from a
tank of the shape of an inverted cone of height 10 whose top
circle has radius 2? (Length is measured in meters.)
tank of the shape of a cylinder of height 20 whose base circle
has radius 30?
tank of the shape of an inverted pyramid of height 15 whose
top plate is a square of side length 10?
40. Average Value of a Function

The concept of average is a simple one as long as we take the average
of a finite number of values, such as the average price of a house in a
given neighborhood or the average daily high temperature in a given
city in a given month. If a1 , a2 , . . . , an are real numbers, then
(6.6) A = (a1 + a2 + · · · + an )/n
is their average. However, what can we say about the average value
of a function over a given interval [a, b]? We will clearly need a new
definition for that since there are infinitely many real numbers in [a, b],
so summing all of them and then dividing their sum by the number of
summands is not an option.
Here is an intuitive way of extending the definition of average to
the values taken by a function over an interval. It follows from (6.6)
that A is the only real number with the property that if we replace
each of a1 , a2 , . . . , an by A, then the sum (a1 + a2 + · · · + an ) does not
change. This observation suggests the following definition.
b
Definition 6.1. Let f be a function such that a f (x) dx exists.
Then the average value of f on the interval [a, b] is the real number
b
f (x) dx
c= a .
b−a
Indeed, c is the only real number with the property that
b if we replace
f by the constant function f (x) = c, then the integral a f (x) dx does
not change.
A more systematic approach b is the following. As we saw when we

first learned about integrals, a f (x) dx can be approximated in the
following way. Split [a, b] into n equal intervals and choose a point xi
in the ith such interval. Take a rectangle of height f (xi ) over the ith
interval. The average value of the n values of f taken at the points xi
is, of course,
f (x1 ) + f (x2 ) + · · · + f (xn )
An = .
n
On the other hand, the total area of the n rectangles we have just
defined is
b−a
Rn = · (f (x1 ) + f (x2 ) + · · · + f (xn )).
n
Comparing the last two displayed equations, we see that
Rn
(6.7) An = .
b−a
If n goes to infinity, then the n rectangles will approximate the domain
under

the graph of f , and so the right-hand side of (6.7) will converge
b
f (x) dx
to a b−a , while the left-hand side will approximate the average value
of f on [a, b].
Example 6.13. What is the average value A of sin x on the interval
[0, π]?
Solution: We have
π
0
sin x dx
A=
π
[− cos x]π0
=
π
1 − (−1)
=
π
2
= .
π
2
See Figure 6.15 for an illustration.
It is worth pointing out that a continuous function f will actually
take its average value on each interval. This is the content of the
following theorem.
Theorem 6.9. Let f be a continuous function on [a, b] and let c
be the average value of f on [a, b]. Then there exists a real number
x ∈ [a, b] such that f (x) = c.
40. AVERAGE VALUE OF A FUNCTION 27
Figure 6.15. The average value of sin x on [0, π].
Proof. It suffices to show that if m is the minimum of f on [a, b]

and M is the maximum of f on [a, b], then m ≤ c ≤ M , and our claim
follows from the intermediate value theorem.
We know that
b
m(b − a) ≤ f (x) dx ≤ M (b − a)
a
for obvious geometric reasons. Now divide all three terms by b − a to
get m ≤ c ≤ M . 2
Example 6.14. There is a real number x ∈ [0, π] such that sin x =
2/π.
Solution: This follows from the previous example and Theorem 6.9.
2
40.1. Exercises.
(1) Find the average value of xn on [0, 1].
(2) Find the average value of tan x on [0, π/4].
(3) Find the average value of ln x on [1, e].
(4) Find the average value of ex on [0, 1].
(5) What is larger, the average value of sin x or the average value
of cos x, if both averages are taken on the interval [0, π/2]?
(6) What is larger, the average value of sin x on [0, π] or the av-
erage value of sin x on [−14π, 17π]? Can you find an answer
that does not involve computation?
CHAPTER 7
Methods of Integration
41. Integration by Parts

41.1. Method of Integration by Parts. Let u and v be two differentiable
functions of the variable x. We used the simple product rule
(7.1) (uv) = u v + uv
to compute the derivative of the product of these two functions. Is
there a similar rule for computing the integral of the product of two
functions? In general, the answer is no. There is no rule that provides
the integral of the product of two functions that would work in every
case. However, there are many cases in which a relatively simple way
of “reversing” the product rule of differentiation will give us the answer
we are trying to obtain.
Indeed, integrating both sides of the product rule (7.1) of differen-
tiation (7.1) with respect to x, we get the identity

u(x)v(x) = (u (x)v(x)) dx + (u(x)v (x)) dx

or, after rearrangement,

(7.2) (u (x)v(x)) dx = u(x)v(x) − (u(x)v (x)) dx.

Formula (7.2) is very useful if we want to compute the integral of

the product of two functions, one of which can play the role of u and
the other
one of which can play the role of v. If wecan compute u,
and (uv ), then formula (7.2) enables us to compute (u v) as well. If

we cannot carry out one or both of these computations, then formula

(7.2) will not help.

Example 7.1. Compute xex dx.
Solution: We set u (x) = ex and v(x) = x. Then formula (7.2) is easy
to apply, since v(x) = x and v (x) = 1. Therefore, (7.2) implies that

xe dx = e · x − ex · 1 dx = ex · x − ex + C = ex (x − 1) + C.
x x
2
29
30 7. METHODS OF INTEGRATION
The reader is encouraged to verify that the obtained solution is

correct by computing the derivative of ex (x − 1) and checking that it
is indeed equal to ex · x.
At this point, the reader may be asking how we knew that we
needed to set u (x) = ex and v(x) = x, and not the other way around.
The answer is that the other distribution of roles, that is, u (x) = x
and v(x) = ex would not have helped. Indeed, if we had chosen u

andx v2 in that way, we would have needed to compute (uv ) dx =
(e x )/2 dx. That would have been more complex than the original

problem. We should always choose u and v so that (uv ) dx is easy
to compute. That usually means selecting v so that it becomes simpler
when differentiated, and to select u so that u does not get much
more complex when integrated (or at least one of these two desirable
outcomes occur).

Example 7.2. Compute x cos x dx.
Solution: We set u (x) = cos x and v(x) = x, which means that
u(x) = sin x and v (x) = 1. So formula (7.2) implies

x cos x dx = x sin x − sin x dx = x sin x + cos x + C.
2
The technique of integration we have just explained is called inte-
gration by parts.
41.2. Advanced Examples. Sometimes the integrand does not seem to

be a product, but it can be transformed in to one. The following is a
classic example.

Example 7.3. Compute ln x dx.
Solution: The crucial observation is that writing ln x = 1 · ln x helps.
Let u (x) = 1 and v(x) = ln x. Then u(x) = x and v (x) = 1/x, so,
crucially, u(x)v (x) = 1. Therefore, formula (7.2) yields

ln x dx = 1 · ln x dx = x ln x − 1 dx = x ln x − x + C.
2
Sometimes integration by parts leads to an equation or a system of
equations that needs to be solved in order to get the solution to our
problem.

Example 7.4. Compute ex cos x.
41. INTEGRATION BY PARTS 31
Solution: We set u (x) = ex and v(x) = cos x. Then u(x) = ex and

v (x) = − sin x, and formula (7.2) yields

(7.3) e cos x dx = e cos x + ex sin x dx.
x x

So we could solve our problem if we could compute the integral ex sin
x dx. We can do that by applying the technique of integration by parts
again, setting u (x) = ex and v(x) = sin x. We obtain

(7.4) e sin x dx = e sin x − ex cos x dx.
x x
Finally, note that (7.3) and

x(7.4) is a system of equations with un-
x
knowns e cos x dx and e cos x dx. We can solve this system, for
instance, by adding these two equations and noting that ex sin x can-
cels. We get the equation

e cos x dx = e (cos x + sin x) − ex cos x dx
x x
or
ex
ex cos x dx = (cos x + sin x) + C.
2
x 2
Note that substituting the
obtained expression for e cos x dx into
(7.4), we get a formula for ex sin x dx, namely,

ex
ex sin x dx = (sin x − cos x) + C.
2
41.3. Definite Integrals. If we evaluate both sides of formula (7.2) from

a to b and we apply the fundamental theorem of calculus, we get the
identity
b b

(7.5) (u v) dx = [uv]a −
b
(uv ) dx.
a a
2
Example 7.5. Evaluate 1
ln x dx.
Solution: As we saw in Example 7.3, we can set u(x) = x and v(x) =
ln x. Then u (x) = 1, v (x) = 1/x, and formula (7.5) yields
2 2
ln x = [x ln x]1 −
2
1 dx = 2 ln 2 − 1.
1 1
2
41.4. Exercises.

(1) Compute x sin x dx.
(2) Compute x2 ex dx.
(3) Compute x ln x dx.
(4) Compute x2 ln x.
2
(5) Evaluate 1 x cos 2x.
1
(6) Evaluate 0 x2 sin x.
42. Trigonometric Integrals

42.1. Powers of sin and cos. In this section, we consider functions of the
form f (x) = sinm x cosn x and discuss techniques for their integration.
It seems natural to first consider the cases when m or n is 0, that is,
when f is just a power of sin or cos. Even these special cases will break
up into further subcases. The easiest subcase is when the exponents
are even numbers. In that case, we can use the trigonometric identities
(7.6) cos 2x = 2 cos2 x − 1
and
(7.7) sin 2x = 2 sin x cos x
to eliminate high powers of trigonometric functions in the integrand.

Example 7.6. Compute cos4 x dx.
1+cos 2x
Solution: Using (7.6), we get that cos2 x = 2
, and so
2
1 + cos 2x 1 cos 2x cos2 2x
cos4 x = = + + .
2 4 2 4
Applying (7.6) again, with 2x replacing x, we get that cos2 2x = 1+cos
2
4x
,
so the previous displayed equation turns into
3 cos 2x 1 + cos 4x
cos4 x = + + .
8 2 8
Having eliminated the powers of cos, the integration is easy to carry
out as follows:

4 3 cos 2x cos 4x
cos x dx = + + dx
8 2 8
3x sin 2x sin 4x
= + + + C.
8 4 32
2
42. TRIGONOMETRIC INTEGRALS 33
The computation is more complex if the integrand is an odd power

of sin or cos. In that case, we separate one factor and convert the rest
into the other trigonometric function, using the rule cos2 x + sin2 x = 1.

Example 7.7. Compute sin3 x dx.
Solution: We have
sin3 x = sin x · sin2 x = sin x · (1 − cos2 x) = sin x − sin x cos2 x.
The advantage of this form is that it makes integration by substi-
tution easy. Indeed, set u = cos x, then du/dx = − sin x, and so

u3 cos3 x
− sin x cos x dx = u du =
2 2
+C = + C.
3 3
Comparing
the two displayed equations of this solution and noting that
sin x dx = − cos x, we get

cos3 x
sin3 x = − cos x + + C.
3
2
The methods shown above can be used to compute the integral of
products of powers
of sin x and cos x. In other words, the method allows
us to compute cosm x sinn x dx as shown below.

Example 7.8. Compute cos2 x sin3 x dx.
Solution: Just as in Example 7.7, we separate one sin x factor. This
accomplishes two things. It allows us to convert the remaining even
number of sin x factors to cos x factors, and it allows us to integrate by
substitution.
Indeed,

cos x sin x dx = cos2 x sin2 x sin x dx
2 3

= cos2 x(1 − cos2 x) sin x

= cos2 x sin x − cos4 x sin x

= −u2 du + u4 du
u3 u5
=− + +C
3 5
− cos3 x cos5 x
= + + C,
3 5
where we used the substitution u = cos x. 2
We can always proceed this way if at least one of m and n in the

integrand cosm x sinn x is odd. Indeed, in that case, after separating
one factor from that odd power, an even power remains, and that can
be converted to the other trigonometric function using the identity
sin2 x + cos2 x = 1. If both m and n are even, then we can use that
identity right away.

Example 7.9. Compute cos4 x sin2 x dx.
Solution: We have
cos x sin x dx = cos4 x(1 − cos2 x) dx
4 2

= cos − cos6 x dx.
4

Now notethat we computed cos4 dx in Example 7.6. You are asked to
compute cos6 x in Exercise 42.4.2. The difference of these two results
then provides the solution of the present example. 2
42.2. Powers of tan and sec. When integrating a product of the form
tanm x secn x, we will use the identity sec2 x = tan2 x + 1 and the dif-
ferentiation rules (tan x) = sec2 x and (sec x) = sec x tan x.
There are two easy cases, namely, when m is odd (and n is at least
1) and when n ≥ 2 is even.
In the first case, that is, when m is odd and n ≥ 1, we separate one
factor of tan x sec x and express the remaining factors in terms of sec x
by the identity −1 + sec2 x = tan2 x. Then we substitute u = sec x,
which leads to dudx
= tan x sec x.

Example 7.10. Compute tan3 x sec x dx.
Solution: Following the strategy explained above, we have

tan x sec x dx = tan2 x tan x sec x dx
3

= (−1 + sec2 x) tan x sec x dx

= (−1 + u2 ) du
u3
= −u + +C
3
sec3 x
= − sec x + + C.
3
2
42. TRIGONOMETRIC INTEGRALS 35
In the second case, that is, when n ≥ 2 is even, we separate one

factor of sec2 x, express the remaining factors in terms of tan x using
the identity sec2 x = 1 + tan2 x, and substitute u = tan x, which leads
to du
dx
= sec2 x.

Example 7.11. Compute sec4 x dx.
Solution: We have

4
sec x dx = sec2 x sec2 x dx
= (1 + tan2 x) sec2 x dx
= (1 + u2 ) du
u3
=u+ +C
3
tan3 x
= tan x + + C.
3
2
If we are not in these two easy cases, then there is no recipe that
will always work. We then need to have a separate strategy for each
problem. We will show examples of that in Exercises 42.4.6 and 42.4.7.
42.3. Some Other Trigonometric

If our goal is to compute
Integrals. in-
tegrals of the form cos mx sin nx dx, cos mx cos nx dx, and sin mx
sin nx dx, then we can often make use of the following identities:
1 1
(7.8) sin a cos b = sin(a − b) + sin(a + b),
2 2
1 1
(7.9) cos a cos b = cos(a − b) + cos(a + b),
2 2
1 1
(7.10) cos(a − b) − cos(a + b).
sin a sin b =
2 2

Example 7.12. Compute cos 3x cos 5x dx.
Solution: Using (7.9) with a = 3x and b = 5x and noting that
cos −2x = cos 2x, we get that cos 3x cos 5x = 12 cos 2x + 12 cos 8x, and
so

1 1
cos 3x cos 5x dx = cos 2x + cos 8x dx
2 2
1 1
= sin 2x + sin 8x + C.
4 16
42.4. Exercises.

(1) Compute sin3 x dx.
(2) Compute cos6 x dx.
(3) Compute sin3 x cos2 x dx.
(4) Compute tan2 x sec4 x dx.
(5) Compute tan3 x sec5 x dx.
(6) Compute tan5 x by separating one factor of tan2 x in the
integrand and expressing it in terms of sec2 x.
(7) Compute sec3 x dx using integration by parts, with u (x) =
sec2 x and v(x) = sec x.
43. Trigonometric Substitution

43.1. Reversing the Technique of Substitutions. Let us assume that we
want to compute the area of a circle by viewing one-fourth of that circle
as the domain under a curve. Let r be the radius of the circle, and let
us place the center of the circle at the origin. Then the northeastern
quarter of the circle, shown in√Figure 7.1, is just the domain under the
graph of the function f (x) = r2 − x2 , where x ranges from 0 to r. In
other words, we need to compute the integral
r√
(7.11) r2 − x2 dx.
0
In Chapter 5, we presented the technique of integration by substi-

tution. This technique worked in situations when the best way to com-
pute an integral was to define a simple function of x, such as y(x) = x2 ,
and then continue the integration in terms of that new variable y.
In order to compute the integral in (7.11), we use the reverse of
the strategy mentioned in the previous paragraph. We define another
variable y so that x is a simple function f of y. It is important to
Figure 7.1. The northeastern quadrant of the unit circle.

43. TRIGONOMETRIC SUBSTITUTION 37
define f and y so that f is one-to-one, since that assures that f (y) = x

is equivalent to f −1 (x) = y.
In computing the integral in (7.11), we can set x = r sin y. Then
dx/dy = r cos y, and the limits of integration are y = 0 and y = π/2.
This yields
r√ π/2
r2 − x2 dx = r2 − r2 sin2 y r cos y dy
0 0
π/2
=r 2
1 − sin2 y
0
π/2
2
=r cos2 y dy
0
π/2
2 y + sin 2y
=r
4 0
2π
=r .
4

Note that we could write cos y for 1 − sin2 y, since 0 ≤ y ≤ π/2,
and in that interval, cos y is nonnegative.
We point out that by converting the indeterminate integral
y + sin 2y
r2 back to a function of x, we get that
4
√
r2 x r2 √
r2 − x2 dx = · sin−1 + · x 1 − x2 .
4 r 2
The result that we are going to compute in the next example will be
useful in the next section, when we will learn a technique to integrate
rational functions.

Example 7.13. Compute the integral (1+x1 2 )2 dx.
Solution: We use the substitution x = tan y. Then y = tan−1 (x), and

so dy/dx = 1/(1 + x2 ), and hence dy = dx/(1 + x2 ). This yields

1 1
2 2
dx = dy
(1 + x ) 1 + x2

1
= dy
1 + tan2 y

= cos2 y dy
y sin 2y
= +
2 4
y sin y cos y
= +
2 2
1 1 x
= · tan−1 (x) + · 2 .
2 2 x +1
The last step is justified since
x tan y
(7.12) = = tan y cos2 y = sin y cos y.
2
x +1 1 + tan2 y
2
Figure 7.2 illustrates this trigonometric argument.

Example 7.14. Compute the integral √x12 −1 .
Solution: The denominator reminds us of the trigonometric identity
tan2 y = sec2 y − 1, and so, if y ∈ [0, π/2), then tan y = sec2 y − 1.
Therefore, we use the substitution x = sec y. Then dx/dy = tan y sec y.
Hence, we have

1 1
√ = dx
x −1
2
sec y − 1
2

1
= dx
tan y

tan y · sec y
= dy
tan y

= sec y dy
= ln| sec y + tan y|
√
= ln|x + x2 − 1|.
2
Figure 7.3 illustrates this trigonometric argument.
Figure 7.2. Some expressions from (7.12).

43. TRIGONOMETRIC SUBSTITUTION 39
Figure 7.3. Some expressions occuring in the solution

of Example 7.14.
43.2. Summary of the Most Frequently Used Trigonometric Substitutions.

The three examples that we have seen so far in this section show the
three most frequently used reverse substitutions. That is,
√
(i) To compute r2 − x2 dx, use the reverse substitution x =
r sin y.
(ii) To compute integrals involving (r2 + x2 ) under a root sign or
in the denominator of a fraction, use the reverse substitution
x = r tan y. √
(iii) To compute x2 − r2 dx, use the reverse substitution x =
r sec y.
Finally, a word of caution. The availability of the method of reverse
substitution does not mean that this method is always the best one
to compute an integral that contains a square root sign. One of the
following exercises can be solved by another method faster (and, no,
we are not revealing which one).
43.3. Exercises.
(1) Use the method presented in this section to compute the area
of an ellipse determined by the equation
x2 y 2
+ 2 = 1.
a2 b
√
√1 − 4x dx.
(2) Compute 2
(3) Compute 2
1x + x dx.
(4) Compute √ dx.
x−5
(5) Compute √1 dx.
√x2 x2 −4
(6) Compute x − 2x dx.
2
44. Integrating Rational Functions

44.1. Introduction. Recall that a rational function is the ratio of two
polynomials, such as
P (x) 3x + 5
R(x) = = 2 .
Q(x) 2x + 4x + 9
Integrating rational functions is relatively simple, because most of these
functions can be obtained as sums of even simpler functions. If the
degree of P (x) is at least as large as the degree of Q(x), then we can
divide P (x) by Q(x), getting a polynomial as a quotient, and possibly
a remainder. That is, if the degree of P is at least as large as the
degree of Q, then there exist polynomials P1 (x) and P2 (x) such that
the degree of P2 (x) is less than the degree of Q(x) and
P (x) P1 Q( x) + P2 (x) P2 (x)
R(x) = = = P1 (x) + .
Q(x) Q(x) Q(x)
As P1 (x) is a polynomial, it is easy to integrate. Therefore, the diffi-
culty of integrating R(x) lies in integrating RQ(x)
2 (x)
, which is a rational
function whose denominator is of higher degree than its numerator.
For this reason, in the rest of this section, we focus on integrating
rational functions with that property, that is, when the degree of the
denominator is higher than the degree of the numerator.
x3 +2x+1
Example 7.15. Let R(x) = x2 −x+1
. Then dividing P (x) by Q(x)
using long division, we get
P (x) = (x + 1)(x2 − x + 1) + 2x,
so
P (x) 2x
R(x) = =x+1+ 2 ,
Q(x) x −x+1
2x
and integrating Q(x) boils down to integrating x2 −x+1 .
44.2. Breaking Up the Denominator. In order to decide how to break

up a rational function R(x) into the sum of simpler terms, we analyze
the denominator Q(x) of R(x). A theorem in complex analysis, some-
times called the fundamental theorem of algebra, implies that if q(x)
is a polynomial whose coefficients are real numbers, then q(x) can be
written as a product of polynomials that are of degree 1 or 2.
This decomposition, or factorization, of Q(x) will determine the
way in which we break up our rational function into the sum of simpler
terms. There are several cases to distinguish, based on the factorization
of Q(x).
44. INTEGRATING RATIONAL FUNCTIONS 41
44.2.1. Distinct Linear Factors. The easiest case is when Q(x) factors
into the product of polynomials of degree 1, and each of these terms
occurs only once.
1
Example 7.16. Compute x2 +3x+2 dx.
Solution: Note that x2 +3x+2 = (x+1)(x+2). Using that observation,
we are looking for real numbers A and B such that
1 A B
(7.13) 2
= +
x + 3x + 2 x+1 x+2
as functions, that is, such that (7.13) holds for all real numbers x.
Multiplying both sides by x2 + 3x + 2, we get
(7.14) 1 = A(x + 2) + B(x + 1).
If (7.14) holds for all real numbers x, it must hold for x = −1 and
x = −2 as well. However, if x = −1, then (7.14) reduces to 1 = A,
and if x = −2, then (7.14) reduces to 1 = −B. So we conclude that
A = 1 and B = −1 are the numbers we wanted to find. It is now easy
to compute the requested integral as follows:

1 1 1
2
dx = dx − dx
x + 3x + 2 x+1 x+2
= ln(x + 1) − ln(x + 2) + C.
2
The above method can always be applied if Q(x) factors into a
product of linear polynomials, each of which occurs only once. In
particular, if Q(x) decomposes as a(x − a1 )(x − a2 ) · · · (x − ak ), then
we can decompose R(x) into a sum of the form
A1 A2 Ak
+ + ··· + .
x − a1 x − a2 x − ak
After determining the numbers Ai , we can integrate each of the above
k summands.
44.2.2. Repeated Linear Factors. The next case is when Q(x) factors
into linear terms, but some of these terms occur more than once.
2x+7
Example 7.17. Compute (x+1) 2 (x−1) dx.
Solution: Just as in the previous case, we decompose the integrand

into a sum of simpler fractions. We are looking for real numbers A, B,
and C such that
2x + 7 A B C
= + + .
(x + 1)2 (x − 1) x + 1 (x + 1)2 x − 1
Multiplying both sides by the denominator of the left-hand side, we

get
2x + 7 = A(x + 1)(x − 1) + B(x − 1) + C(x + 1)2 .
Substituting x = 1 in the last displayed equation yields 9 = 4C, so
C = 2.25. Substituting x = −1 yields 5 = −2B, so B = −2.5. Finally,
the coefficient of x2 on the left-hand side is 0, while on the right-hand
side, it is A + C. So A + C = 0, yielding A = −2.25.
Now we are in a position to compute the requested integral.

2x + 7 −2.25 −2.5 2.25
= dx + dx + dx
(x + 1)2 (x − 1) x+1 (x + 1)2 x−1

−2.25 −2.5 2.25
= dx + dx + dx
x+1 (x + 1)2 x−1
2.5
= −2.25 ln(x + 1) + + 2.25 ln(x − 1).
x+1
2
In general, if a term (x+a)k occurs in Q(x), then the partial fraction
decomposition of R(x) will contain one term with denominator (x + a)i
for each i ∈ {1, 2, . . . , k}. For instance, if Q(x) = (x+2)3 (x+5)2 (x−10),
then R(x) will have a partial fraction decomposition of the form
A1 A2 A3 A4 A5 A6
+ + + + + .
x + 2 (x + 2) 2 (x + 2) 3 x + 5 (x + 5) 2 x − 10
44.2.3. Distinct Quadratic Factors. The third case is when the factor-
ization of Q(x) contains some quadratic factors that are irreducible
(i.e., they are not the product of two linear polynomials with real co-
efficients), but none of these irreducible quadratic factors occurs more
than once. In that case, after obtaining the partial fraction decompo-
sition of R(x), we may have to resort to the formulas

1
= tan−1 x + C
x2 + 1
and
1 1 x
2 2
= tan−1 + C.
x +a a a
4x+2
Example 7.18. Compute the integral x3 +x 2 +x+1 dx.
Solution: It is easy to notice that setting x = −1 turns the denomi-

nator to 0; hence, the denominator is divisible by x + 1. Dividing the
denominator by x + 1, we get x2 + 1, so the denominator factors as
(x + 1)(x2 + 1). The factor x2 + 1 is irreducible (it is not divisible by
44. INTEGRATING RATIONAL FUNCTIONS 43
x−b for any real number b, since no real number b satisfies the equation
b2 + 1 = 0).
Therefore, we are looking for real numbers A, B, and C such that
4x + 2 A B Cx
(7.15) 3 2
= + 2 + 2 .
x +x +x+1 x+1 x +1 x +1
The reader is invited to verify that the third summand of the right-
hand side is necessary; that is, if the summand xCx 2 +1 is removed, then
no pair of real numbers (A, B) will satisfy (7.15).

In order to find the correct values of A, B, and C, multiply both
sides of (7.15) by (x + 1) · (x2 + 1) and rearrange, to get
4x + 2 = (A + C)x2 + (B + C)x + A + B.
The coefficient of x2 is 0 on the left-hand side, so it has to be 0 on the
right-hand side. Therefore, A + C = 0. Similarly, the coefficient of x is
4 on the left-hand side, so it has to be 4 on the right-hand side, forcing
B + C = 4. Similarly, the constant terms of the two sides have to be
equal, and, consequently, A + B = 2. Solving this system of equations,
we get A = −1, B = 3, and C = 1. Therefore,

4x + 2 1 1 x
3 2
dx = − dx + 3 2
dx + 2
dx
x +x +x+1 x+1 x +1 x +1
1
= ln(x + 1) + 3 tan−1 x + ln(x2 + 1).
2
2
In general, if x2 +ax+b is a quadratic factor in Q(x), then the partial
E
fraction decomposition will contain a summand of the form x2 +ax+b and
Fx
a summand of the form x2 +ax+b . Again, the latter is necessary, since
a rational fraction of the form x2E+F x
+ax+b
will not equal one of the form
E
x2 +ax+b
for any choice of E if F = 0.
44.2.4. Repeated Quadratic Factors. Finally, it can happen that the
factorization Q(x) contains irreducible quadratic factors, some of which
occur more than once.
3 2 +3x+7
Example 7.19. Compute the integral x x+2x 4 +2x2 +1 dx.
Solution: It is easy to see that the denominator factors as (x2 + 1)2 .
Hence, we are looking for real numbers A, B, C, and D such that
x3 + 2x2 + 3x + 7 A Bx C Dx
4 2
= 2 + 2 + 2 2
+ 2 .
x + 2x + 1 x + 1 x + 1 (x + 1) (x + 1)2
Multiplying both sides by x4 + 2x2 + 1 and rearranging, we get
x3 + 2x2 + 3x + 7 = Bx3 + Ax2 + (B + D)x + (A + C).
For each k, the coefficients of xk must be the same on both sides.

Hence, A = 2 and B = 1, so C = 5 and D = 2.
Now we can compute the requested integral using the preceding
partial fraction decomposition as follows:

x3 + 2x2 + 3x + 7
dx
x4 + 2x2 + 1

2 x 5 2x
= 2
+ 2 + 2 2
+ 2 dx
x + 1 x + 1 (x + 1) (x + 1)2
1 5x 5 1
= 2 · tan−1 x + ln(x2 + 1) + 2
+ tan−1 x − 2
2 2(x + 1) 2 x +1
1 1 5x − 2
= ln(x2 + 1) + 4.5 tan−1 x + · 2 .
2 2 x +1
1
Here we used the formula for (x2 +1) 2 that we computed in the last
section, in Example 7.13. 2

By now, the reader must know what the general version of the
technique of the preceding example is. If the factorization of Q(x)
contains (x2 + ax + b)k , then, for each integer i such that 1 ≤ i ≤ k,
the partial fraction decomposition of R(x) will contain a summand of
Ei Fi x
the form (x2 +ax+b) i and a summand of the form (x2 +ax+b)i .
44.3. Rationalizing Substitutions. There are situations when a function

that is not a rational function can be turned into one by an appropriate
substitution, and then it can be integrated by the methods presented
in this section. The most frequent scenario in which this happens is
when the integrand contains roots, but if those roots are replaced by
another variable, we get a rational function in that other variable.
√x
Example 7.20. Compute √x+1 dx.
√
Solution: We use the substitution x = y. Then dy/dx = 2√1 x = 2y 1
.
This leads to
√
x y
√ dx = 2y dy
x+1 y+1

2y 2
= dy
y+1

2
= 2(y − 1) + dy
y+1
45. STRATEGY OF INTEGRATION 45
= y 2 − 2y + 2 ln(y + 1)
√ √
= x − 2 x + 2 ln( x + 1).
2
Note that the computation would have been very similar if the
integrand √contained some√ other root of x. Indeed, if the integrand
√
contained r x instead of x, then we would have substituted y = r x,
and that would have turned the integrand into a rational function of
y. Indeed, y = x1/r implies
dy x(1/r)−1
= ,
dx r
dy y 1−r
= ,
dx r
and therefore
dx = ry r−1 dy.
In other words, dx is a equal to dy times a polynomial function of y,
so, indeed, the integrand will be a rational function of y.
44.4. Exercises.
5
(1) Compute dx.
x2 +5x+4
3
(2) Compute dx.
x3 +x2 −x−1
1
(3) Compute dx.
x4 +5x2 +4
1
(4) Compute x4 +4x2 +4
dx.
x2 +4
(5) Compute dx.
x3 −x
x+3
(6) Compute 3 dx.
x
√ +1
x+1
(7) Compute √ dx.
x−3
√
3x
(8) Compute √
3 x+2 dx.
45. Strategy of Integration

We presented various integration techniques in this chapter and
in some preceding chapters. The most general ones were integration
by parts and integration by substitution. The most frequently studied
special cases were related to trigonometric functions and their inverses.
Reverse substitution came up in some special cases. We also discussed
the integration of rational functions, using the technique of partial
fractions.
In short, we have learned a decent number of methods. For this
very reason, it is sometimes not obvious which method we should use
when trying to integrate a function. While there is no general rule, in

this section we will provide a few guidelines.
So let f be a function that is not equal to one of the functions
whose integral we either know offhand or have a deterministic method
to compute. That is, f is not a polynomial, f is not a rational function,
f is not the function f (x) = ax or f (x) = loga x for some positive real
number a, and f is not one of the basic trigonometric functions like
sin x or tan x. Let us also assume that simple algebra will not help,
that is, that f cannot be transformed into one of these elementary
functions by simple algebraic transformations. Then how do we decide
which method to use?
45.1. Substitution. The method that needs the least amount of work,
when it is available, is a simple substitution, so it is reasonable to
try to use that method first. There is a particularly good chance for
this approach to work when f is the composition of two functions, one
of which has a constant derivative, or when f is of the form f (x) =
h (g(x))g (x), since then f (x) = dh
dx
(x), and so f (x) dx = h(x). In the
language of substitutions, this means that substituting y = g(x) will
work, since

dy
f dx = h (g(x))g (x) dx = h (y) dx = h (y) dy.

dx
In other words, the integral of the composite function f is turned into
something simpler, the integral of the function h.
Example 7.21. Let f (x) = sin 2x. Then, using the substitution
y = 2x, we get that sin 2x dx = 12 sin y dy = − 12 cos y = − 12 cos 2x.
Example 7.22. Let f (x) = x23x+1 . Then we set y = x2 + 1, so
dy/dx = 2x. This leads to

3x 3x
2
dx = dx
x +1 y

3 1
= dy
2 y
3
= ln y
2
3
= ln(x2 + 1).
2

The reader should compute the integral sinn x cos x dx at this
point.
45. STRATEGY OF INTEGRATION 47
45.2. Integration by Parts. If f is the product of two functions, but

substitution does not seem to help, then integration by parts is the
logical next step. This technique is particularly useful when one of
the two functions whose product is f is made significantly simpler by
differentiation.

Example 7.23. Compute the integral xe−x dx.
Solution: Considering the integrand, we notice that substitution is

unlikely to help, since x and e−x are not closely related. On the other
hand, the integrand is a product, and one of the terms, x, is made
simpler by differentiation. Therefore, we choose the technique of in-
tegration by parts, with x = u and v = e−x . Then u = 1, while
v = −e−x , and we get

xe dx = −xe − e−x dx
−x −x
= −xe−x + e−x
= (1 − x)e−x .
45.3. Radicals. If the two most general methods (substitution and in-
tegration by parts) are not helpful, then it is quite possible that there is
a root sign in the integrand. In that case, there are two specific meth-
ods that we can try, reverse substitution and rationalizing substitution.
The easiest way to know when to use each of these two methods is to
remember the relatively few cases in which reverse substitution works
1
directly. As we have seen, these are the integrals involving r2 +x 2,
√ √
r − x , and
2 2 x − r . If the integrand does not contain any of
2 2
these functions, then it may be simpler to use

√
a rationalizing substitu-
x
tion, such as in computing the integral √x+4 dx. The exercises at the
end of this section will ask the reader to decide which method to use
for a few specific examples.
45.4. If Everything Else Fails. If none of our methods work, then it may
be that an unexpected transformation of the integrand may help, at
least with relating the integral to one that is not quite as challenging
to compute.
sin4 x 2
Example 7.24. Compute tan 2 x cos 2x dx.
Solution: We use the trigonometric identity tan x = sin x/ cos x, to

rewrite the integrand. We get

sin4 x
2
cos 2x dx = sin2 x cos2 x cos2 2x dx
2
tan x

1 2
= sin 2x cos2 2x dx
4

1
= sin2 4x dx,
16
which is easy to integrate with the method we learned for powers of
trigonometric functions. 2
It is important to point out that sometimes there is indeed no so-
lution; that is, there exist elementary functions f such that there is no
elementary function F (x) satisfying F (x) = f (x). Examples of such
2
functions f include ex , ex /x, and ln1x .
45.5. Exercises.
In all of the exercises below, compute the integral.

(1) x2 e−5x dx.
(2) √xx2 −1 dx.

(3) xx+13 +1 dx.
sin
(4) e x cos x dx.
x
(5) exe−1 dx.
1
(6) √x2 +4 dx.
1
(7) √x+4 dx.
1
(8) x ln x dx.
1
(9) x ln x·ln(ln x)
dx.
46. Integration Using Tables and Software Packages

46.1. Tables of Integrals. Tables of integrals can be found in many cal-
culus textbooks and on the Internet. The website www.integral-
table.com is a good example, and we will use it as a reference in
this subsection. (When we say “the table of integrals,” we mean that
table.)
No matter how extensive a table of integrals is, it cannot contain
all integrals. It is therefore important to know how to use these tables
to compute integrals that are not contained in the tables in the same
form.
The easiest case is when the integral to be computed is a special
case of a more general integral that is in the table.
46. INTEGRATION USING TABLES AND SOFTWARE PACKAGES 49

Example 7.25. Use the table of integrals to compute ln(x2 +9) dx.
Solution: Looking at the table of integrals found at the website
www.integral-table.com, we find that the integrand is a special case
of integral (45), with a = 3. Using the formula given in the table for
the general case with a = 3, we get the result
x
ln(x2 + 9) dx = x ln(x2 + 9) + 6 tan−1 − 2x + C.
3
2
Sometimes, we have to resort to integration by substitution to be
able to use the table of integrals.
√
Example 7.26. Use the table of integrals to compute 9 − 4x2 dx.
Solution: Taking a look at the √table of integrals, we find that formula
(30) provides a formula for a2 − x2 dx. In order to be able to use
that formula, we set y = 2x, which implies dy/dx = 2. Therefore,
√
1
9 − 4x dx =
2 9 − y 2 dy.
2
Now we can apply formula (30) from the table of integrals, to get

1 y 9 y
9 − y 2 dy = 9 − y 2 + tan−1 +C
2 4 2 9 − y2
x√ 9 2x
= 9 − 4x2 + tan−1 √ + C.
2 2 9 − 4x2
2
Sometimes we need to carry out some algebraic manipulation before
we can use the technique of substitutions in connection with using the
table of integrals.
2
Example 7.27. Use the table of integrals to compute √xx2+2x+1 +2x+10
dx.
Solution: There is no integral in the table of integrals that would im-
mediately stand out as one that is very similar to this one. The crucial
observation is that the substitution y = x+1 significantly
simplifies our
√ y2
integrand. That substitution leads to the integral 2 2
dy, which,
y +3
in turn, can be directly found in the table of integrals as item (36).
Substituting x back into the obtained formula, we get

x2 + 2x + 1
√ dx
x2 + 2x + 10
√
x2 + 2x + 10 9 √

= − ln x + 1 + x2 + 2x + 10 + C.
2 2
46.2. Software Packages. Computer software packages such as Maple

and Mathematica are very useful tools of integration. These packages
will compute the definite or indefinite integrals of a large class of func-
tions, then they will present the results in a form that is usually, but
not always, in the form the user expected. In this section, we show a
few examples of these unexpected results and explain how to interpret
them.
To start with a very basic example, type
int(xˆ2+3x,x);
into Maple. We get the answer 13 x3 + 32 x2 . This is the correct answer
having constant term 0. Experimenting with other functions, we note
that Maple always answers in this way, that is, without the constant
C at the end. It is important not to forget this if we will be using the
obtained function in some further computation.
Maple does not always provide the simplest form for the integral
that it computes.
For instance, if we ask Maple to compute the indef-
inite integral x(x2 + 3)6 dx, we get the output
1 14 3 12 27 10 135 8 405 6 729 4 729 2

(7.16) x + x + x + x + x + x + x.
14 2 2 2 2 2 2

However, it is very easy to compute x(x2 + 3)6 dx by hand, using
the substitution u = x2 . That substitution leads to the same solu-
1
tion, but in a much simpler form, namely, 14 (x2 + 3)7 . If we want
to verify that this result indeed agrees with the one given by Maple
and displayed in (7.16), we can ask Maple to expand the expression
1
H = 14 (x2 + 3)7 using the expand command. We see that the ex-
panded expression indeed agrees with the one given in (7.16), up to
the constant terms at the end.
There are other commands like expand that, are useful if we want
to transform the output of an integration software package. The com-
mands rationalize and simplify are examples of these.
There is often more than one way to express integrals involving
hyperbolic functions. 1A striking example is the following. If we ask
Maple to compute 1−x2 dx by typing
int(1/(1-xˆ2),x);
Maple returns the answer tanh−1 x. This is very surprising, since it is
not difficult to integrate the integrand as a rational function, with no
46. INTEGRATION USING TABLES AND SOFTWARE PACKAGES 51
hyperbolic functions involved. Indeed,

1 0.5 0.5
= − ,
1−x 2 x+1 x−1
and so

1 1 1 x+1
(7.17) dx = ln(x + 1) − ln(x − 1) = ln .
1−x 2 2 2 x−1
The result obtained by Maple actually agrees with the result given
in (7.17), even if that is not obvious. Indeed, if y = tanh−1 x, then,
by definition, x = (ey − e−y )/(ey + e−y ). Solving this equation for
y is not completely trivial, but at the end, it yields y = ln x+1 x−1
.
y
(Hint: Multiply both the numerator and the denominator by e to get
x = (e2y − 1)/(e2y + 1).)
Finally, when computing definite integrals, Maple sometimes an-
swers by using the acronyms
1 of some rare functions. For instance, if
2
we want to compute 0 sin (x ) dx by typing
int(exp(sin(xˆ2)),x=0..1).
then we get the answer
(1/2)*FresnelS(sqrt(2)/sqrt(Pi))*sqrt(2)*sqrt(Pi).
Here FresnelS refers to the Fresnel sine integral, a concept beyond
the scope of this book. If we simply want to know a numerical value
1 2
for 0 ex dx, we can type
evalf(int(sin(xˆ2),x=0..1))
instead. Maple outputs 0.4596976941 as the answer.
46.3. Exercises.

(1) Use the table of integrals to compute x ln(3x π+ 5)dx.
(2) Use the table of integrals to compute x cos 2 − x dx.
(3) Use the table of integrals to compute x+x+7 dx.
4x+5
x 2
(4) Use the Table of Integrals to compute √x6 +16 dx.

(5) Use2 your favorite
software package to compute xex dx,
x exdx, and x3 ex dx. Do you see a pattern? Try to guess
what x4 ex is, then verify your guess by using your software
package again.
1 1
(6) Let f (x) = √1−x 2 and let g(x) = 1−x2
. Clearly, f (x) =
g(x) for all x where these functions are defined. Compute
the integral of both functions with Maple. If the results seem
different, show that they are in fact equal.
47. Approximate Integration

Sometimes
b it is not possible to find the exact value of a definite
integral a f (x) dx. It could happen that we cannot find the antideriv-
ative of f (x) or that the antiderivative of f (x) is not an elementary
function. Or it could happen that f itself is not given by a formula,
but instead, f is given by its graph, which is plotted by a computer
program. In this case, we resort to methods of approximate integration.
47.1. Basic Approximation Methods. The key observation behind the

approximation methods is the fact that if f (x) ≥ 0 for x ∈ [a, b], then
b
f (x) dx is equal to the area below the graph of the function f on
a b
that interval. More precisely, a f (x) dx is equal to the area of the
domain bordered by the horizontal axis, the vertical lines x = a and
x = b, and the graph of f .
In order to estimate the area of this domain D, we cut D into small
vertical strips. To do so, we choose real numbers
a = x0 < x1 < · · · < xn = b
and then consider the vertical lines x = xi for all i. There are several
ways in which we can estimate the area of each strip. Let Si be the
strip bordered by the lines x = xi and x = xi+1 .
We could say that the area of Si is roughly equal to the area of
the rectangle whose base is the interval [xi−1 , xi ] and whose height is
f (xi−1 ). This is called the left-endpoint approximation. Or we could
say that the area of Si is roughly equal to the area of the rectangle
whose base is the interval [xi−1 , xi ] and whose height is f (xi ). This is
called the right-endpoint approximation. Or we could use f (x̄i ), the
value that f takes at the midpoint x̄i of the interval [xi−1 , xi ]. This is
called the midpoint approximation. Summing over the allowed values
of i (i.e., i ranges from 1 to n), we see that these three methods provide
b
the following three estimates for a f (x) dx.
(i) The left-endpoint approximation shows
b
n
(7.18) f (x) dx ≈ (xi − xi−1 )f (xi−1 ).
a i=1
(ii) The right-endpoint approximation shows

b
n
f (x) dx ≈ (xi − xi−1 )f (xi ).
a i=1
47. APPROXIMATE INTEGRATION 53
(iii) The midpoint approximation shows

b
n
f (x) dx ≈ (xi − xi−1 )f (x̄i ).
a i=1
As the above formulas suggest, it will be particularly easy to work
with these formulas if the points x1 , x2 , . . . , xn−1 split the interval [a, b]
into equal parts, since in that case xi − xi−1 = (b − a)/n for all i.
1 2
Example 7.28. Find the approximate value of 0 ex dx.
Solution: Let us use the left-endpoint method with n = 4 and x1 , x2 ,
and x3 splitting [0, 1] into four equal parts. That means that x1 = 1/4,
x2 = 1/2, and x3 = 3/4. Then (7.18) implies
1
2 1 0
ex dx ≈ e + e1/16 + e1/4 + e9/16 ≈ 1.2759,
0 4
since xi − xi−1 = 1/4 for all i.
If we use the right-endpoint method, with the same set of points
xi , we get
1
2 1 1/16
ex dx ≈ e + e1/4 + e9/16 + e ≈ 1.7055.
0 4
It is not surprising that the second method yields the larger result,
2
since the integrand ex is an increasing function, so f (xi ) > f (xi−1 ).
Figure 7.4. Left-endpoint method.

Figure 7.5. Right-endpoint method.
Furthermore, for each point x ∈ [xi−1 , xi ], we have f (xi−1 ) ≤ f (x) ≤

f (xi ). So the left-endpoint method underestimates the area of each
strip Si , while the right-endpoint method overestimates
1 x2 it. Therefore,
the area of D—and hence the correct value of 0 e dx—is between
the two values of 1.2759 and 1.7055 computed above. 2
Replacing the value of n = 4 by some larger number will result in
a more precise approximation (and more work). Using the midpoint
method will result in an approximation A that is closer to the actual
1 2
value of the integral 0 ex dx, but it is not completely obvious from
1 2 1 2
which side A approximates 0 ex dx, that is, whether A < 0 ex dx or
1 2
A > 0 ex dx.
47.2. More Advanced Approximation Methods.
47.2.1. Trapezoid Method. If the difference between f (xi−1 ) and f (xi )

is large, then estimating the area of Si by using rectangles could lead
to large errors. A more refined approach is to estimate the area of Si
by computing the area of the trapezoid whose vertices are the points
(xi−1 , 0), (xi , 0), f (xi ), and f (xi−1 ). We know that the area of this
trapezoid is the average length of its parallel sides times the distance
))(xi −xi−1 )
of those parallel sides from each other, that is, (f (xi )+f (xi−1
2
.
Figure 7.6. Trapezoid method.
Summing over all possible

b values of i, we get an estimate for all the
area of D, that is, for a f (x) dx. Indeed, we obtain the formula

n
b
(f (xi ) + f (xi−1 ))(xi − xi−1 )
f (x) dx = .
a i=1
2
In particular, if the xi are chosen so that they split the interval [a, b]
into n equal parts, then the last displayed equation simplifies to
b
b−a
n
f (x) dx = (f (xi ) + f (xi−1 ))
a 2n i=1
b−a
= (f (a) + 2f (x1 ) + 2f (x2 ) + · · · + 2f (xn−1 ) + f (b)) .
2n
Note that f (x0 ) = f (a) and f (xn ) = f (b) occur only once in the
sum in the last line since a and b are each part of only one of the
intervals [xi−1 , xi ].
Example 7.29. Use 1 the trapezoid method with n = 4 to find the
x2
approximate value of 0 e dx.
Solution: We will have x1 = 1/4, x2 = 1/2, and x3 = 3/4, just as in
Example 7.28. This yields
1
2 1 0
ex dx = e + 2e1/16 + 2e1/4 + 2e9/16 + e
0 8
= 1.4907.
2
Figure 7.7. Trapezoid method.
The alert reader may have noticed that the result we obtained is
precisely the average of the left-endpoint and right-endpoint approxi-
mations we obtained for the same integral in the previous section. (This
means that it is a better approximation than at least one of the two
earlier ones.) This is not an accident, and in Exercise 47.4.5, the reader
will be asked to prove that, under certain conditions, this phenomenon
will always occur.
47.2.2. Simpson’s Method. A similar method is Simpson’s method, in
which we use parabolas instead of straight lines for approximation. For
simplicity, let us now assume that the points xi split the interval [a, b]
into n equal parts, that is, xi − xi−1 = (b − a)/n. In order to simplify
the notation, let us set yi = f (xi ).
For any integer i ∈ [1, n−1], consider the points (xi−1 , yi−1 ), (xi , yi ),
and (xi+1 , yi+1 ). There is exactly one parabola pi of the form y =
Ax2 + Bx + C that contains these three points. It can then be proved
that the area under that parabola—more precisely, the area of the
domain Pi bordered by the horizontal axis, the vertical lines x = xi−1
and x = xi+1 and pi —is equal to
b−a
(7.19) (yi−1 + 4yi + yi+1 ) .
3n
If we summed (7.19) over all possible values of i, we would not get a
good estimate, since most points of the domain under the curve would
be part of two of the Pi . For instance, a point with a horizontal co-

ordinate between xi and xi+1 is part of both Pi and Pi+1 . Therefore,
we sum the last displayed equation over all even values of i, and, ac-
cordingly, we stipulate that n be an even number. This leads to the
following estimate.
Theorem 7.1 (Simpson’s Method). Let n be an even positive in-

teger. Then
b
b−a
f (x) dx ≈ (y0 + 4y1 + 2y2 + 4y3 + · · · + 2yn−2 + 4yn−1 + yn ) .
a 3n
1 Example 7.30. Use Simpson’s method with n = 4 to approximate

2
0
sin (x ) dx.
Solution: We have y0 = 0, y1 = sin(1/16), y2 = sin(1/4), y3 =

sin(9/16), and y4 = sin 1. So Simpson’s method yields
1 1
sin x2 dx ≈ (4 sin(1/16) + 2 sin(1/4) + 4 sin(9/16) + sin 1)
0 12
≈ 0.31.
2
Figure 7.8. Simpson’s method.

Note that this result confirms our intuition in that if x ∈ [0, 1], then
sin (x2 ) ≤ sin x, and so
1 1
2
sin x dx ≤ sin x = 1 − cos 1 ≈ 0.4597.
0 0
47.3. Bounds on the Error Term. The error term E of an approximation

is the difference between the number obtained by the approximation
and the actual value of the quantity that was approximated. (In this
b
section, that actual value is the value of a f (x) dx.) It goes without
saying that the smaller the absolute value of the error term, the better
the approximation is.
The field of numerical analysis studies the error terms of approx-
imation methods. The techniques of that field yield various bounds
on error terms. We collected some of these bounds in the following
theorem.
Theorem 7.2. Let f be a twice-differentiable function on [a, b] such
that |f (x)| ≤ M if x ∈ [a, b]. Then the following hold for the approxi-
b
mation methods used to compute a f (x).
(a) If ET is the error term of the trapezoid method, then
M (b − a)3
|ET | ≤ .
12n2
(b) If EM is the error term of the midpoint method, then
M (b − a)3
|EM | ≤ .
24n2
(c) If, for all x ∈ [a, b], the number f (4) (x) is defined and is at
most as large as the constant K, and ES is the error term of
Simpson’s method, then
K(b − a)5
|ES | ≤ .
180n4
Comparing the formulas of parts (a) and (b) of the previous the-
orem, we can conclude that the worst-case scenario of the midpoint
method is better than the worst-case scenario of the trapezoid method.
This, of course, does not mean that the midpoint method is always
better than the trapezoid method.
Example 7.31. Find an upper bound for the approximation ob-
tained in Example 7.29.
48. IMPROPER INTEGRALS 59
2
Solution: We apply part (a) of Theorem 7.2. We have f (x) = ex ,
2
so f (x) = ex (4x2 + 2). This is an increasing function on [0, 1], so its
maximum is taken at x = 1, showing that |f (x)| ≤ 6e. As in Example
7.29, we chose n = 4, so the previous theorem yields
M (b − a)3 6e
|ET | ≤ = ≈ 0.085.
12n 2 12 · 16
2
47.4. Exercises.
(1) Use n = 4 and the midpoint method to find the approximate
1 2
value of 0 ex dx.
(2) Use n = 4 and the trapezoid method to find the approximate
1 2
value of 0 e−x dx.
(3) Use n = 4 and Simpson’s method to find the approximate
1
value of 0 sin x2 dx.
(4) What value of n should we use in each of the preceding three
exercises to get an error term that is less than 10−6 ?
(5) Let us assume that the points x1 , x2 , . . . , xn−1 used for approx-
imate integration split the interval [a, b] into n equal segments.
Prove that the result obtained by the trapezoid method will be
the average of the left-endpoint method and the right-endpoint
method.
(6) How large is the error term of the approximation in exercise 1
in the worst case?
48. Improper Integrals

In our studies of integration, we have not dealt with definite in-
tegrals over infinite intervals, nor did we integrate functions over an
interval if the function was not defined in every point of that interval.
In this section, we will consider definite integrals of these kinds, which
are called improper integrals.
b
48.1. Infinite Intervals. For finite intervals, we have identified a
f (x) dx
with the area of the domain limited by the graph of f , the vertical lines
x = a and x = b, and the horizontal axis. We learned that, by the fun-
b
damental theorem of calculus, the equality a f (x) dx = F (b) − F (a)
holds, where F is an antiderivative of f .
Now let us consider the integral of f over the infinite interval [a, ∞).
b
Recalling
∞ that a
f (x) dx is equal to a certain area, we intuitively want
a
f (x) dx to equal the area of the domain bordered by the line x = a,
Figure 7.9. Area under the curve y = f (x) from x = a

to x = b.
the horizontal axis, and the graph of f . Note that this area may be a
finite number, even if it is not squeezed between two vertical lines. One
example of this is when f (x) = 0 if x >
∞N for some real number N .
Time has come to formally define a f (x) dx.
b
Definition 7.1. Let f be a function. If the integral a f (x) dx
b
exists for all b > a and limb→∞ a f (x) dx ∞= L exists as a (finite) real
∞ we say that the integral a f (x) dx is convergent, and
number, then
we write a f (x) dx = L.
b
∞ If lim b→∞ a
f (x) dx does not exist or is infinite, then we say that
a
f (x) dx is divergent.
Note that if F is an antiderivative of f , then
b
lim f (x) dx = lim (F (b) − F (a))
b→∞ a b→∞
( lim F (b)) − F (a).

b→∞
∞
Therefore, the integral a f (x) dx is convergent if and only if limb→∞
F (b) exists and is finite.
∞
Example 7.32. Let f (x) = x−2 . Compute 1
f (x) dx.
Figure 7.10. Area under the curve y = f (x) from 1 to ∞.
Solution: We have
∞ b
−2
x dx = lim x−2 dx
1 b→∞ 1
b
= lim −x−1 1
b→∞
1
= lim − + 1
b→∞ b
= 1.
∞
In particular, 1 f (x) dx is convergent. 2
Encouraged by the simple solution of the last example, we are going
∞
to compute the more general integral 1 xr for any real number r.
∞
Example 7.33. Let f (x) = xr . Compute 1 f (x) dx.
Solution: Let us first assume that r = −1. Then we have

∞ b
r
x dx = lim xr dx
1 b→∞ 1
b
1 r+1
= lim x .
b→∞ r + 1
1
If r > −1, then r + 1 > 0 and limx→∞xr+1 = ∞, so the limit in the

∞
last displayed row is infinite, and hence 1 xr dx is divergent.
If r < −1, then r + 1 < 0 and limx→∞ xr+1 = 0, so the limit in the
1 ∞
last displayed row is equal to r+1 , and hence 1 xr dx is convergent.
∞
If r = −1, then we need to compute 1 xr dx differently, since, in
a+1
that case, xa dx = xa+1 . Instead, we have
∞ b
−1
x dx = lim x−1 dx
1 b→∞ 1
= lim [ln x]b1
b→∞
= lim ln b = ∞.
b→∞
∞
Therefore, 1 x−1 dx is divergent. 2
Note that the results of the previous example prove the following
important theorem.
Theorem 7.3. Let r be a real number.

∞
(i) If r ≥ −1, then 1 xr dx is divergent.
∞
(ii) If r < −1, then 1 xr dx is convergent.
The following definition is not very surprising. It is the counterpart

of Definition 7.1.
Definition 7.2. Let f be a function and let b be a real number

b
such that, for all real numbers a < b, the integral a f (x) dx exists. If
L = lima→−∞ f (x) dx exists as a (finite) real number, then we say that
b b
the integral −∞ f (x) dx is convergent, and we write −∞ f (x) dx = L.
If lima→−∞ f (x) dx is infinite or if it does not exist, then we say that
b
−∞
The following definition makes it clear how and when we can define
an integral on the entire line of real numbers.
Definition 7.3. Let f be a function and let m be a real number

m ∞
such that both −∞ f (x) dx and m f (x) dx are convergent. Then we
∞
say that the integral −∞ f (x) dx is convergent and that
∞ m ∞
f (x) dx = f (x) dx + f (x) dx.
−∞ −∞ m
∞
Otherwise, we say that −∞
See Figure 7.11 for an illustration.

∞
Example 7.34. Compute −∞ e−x dx.
m ∞
Figure 7.11. −∞
f (x) dx is blue, while m
f (x) dx is orange.
0
Figure 7.12. −∞
e−x dx.
Solution:
∞ −x
We set m = 0 and apply 0 Definition
−x
7.3.
∞ −x
We get that
−∞
e dx is convergent if both of −∞ e dx and 0 e dx are con-
vergent. However,
0
e−x dx = lim [−e−x ]0a = 1 + ∞
−∞ a→−∞
∞
is divergent and therefore so is −∞ e−x . 2
0 −x
Figure 7.12 shows the domain whose area is equal to −∞ e dx.
The reader could ask how we knew that we needed to select 0, and
not some other real number, for the role of m, that is, to split the
real number line into two parts. The answer is that we did not, and
other choices of m would have given the same result since the integrand
converges to infinity as x goes to negative infinity. We chose m = 0

because it was convenient to do so.
Note that all improper integrals discussed in this section are called
Type 1 improper integrals.
48.2. Vertical Asymptotes. Sometimes we may want to compute the

integral of a function f on a finite interval [a, b] so that in some point
c ∈ [a, b], the function f has a vertical asymptote. An example is the
function f (x) = 1/(x2 − 4) on the interval [1, 3]. In this case, we use
b
the technique of limits to formally define a f (x) dx, as we did in the
previous section.
Definition 7.4. Let f be a function that is continuous on [a, b],
except for one point c ∈ [a, b]. Then we set
c t
(7.20) f (x) dx = lim− f (x) dx
a t→c a
and
b b
(7.21) f (x) dx = lim+ f (x) dx.
c t→c t
Furthermore, if both of the two limits displayed above exist and are
finite, we set
b c b
f (x) dx = f (x) dx + f (x) dx.
a a c
Note that if the only point c in which f is not continuous is one
of the endpoints of [a, b], then we only have to compute one of (7.20)
and (7.21), since the other integral is taken over a trivial interval and
is hence zero.
1
Example 7.35. Compute 0 x−1/2 dx.
Solution: As the only point in [0, 1] in which f (x) = x−1/2 is not
continuous is 0, we use formula (7.21) with c = 0 and b = 1.
We get
1 1
−1/2
x dx = lim+ x−1/2 dx
0 t→0 t
= lim+ [2x1/2 ]1t
t→0
= 2 − lim+ t1/2
t→0
=2−0
= 2.
1
Figure 7.13. 0
x−1/2 dx.
1
So the integralx−1/2 dx is convergent.
0
2
4
Example 7.36. Compute −1 x−2 dx.
Solution: We apply Definition 7.4 since the interval [−1, 4] has one
point, c = 0, where the integrand is not continuous. Therefore,
4 0 4
−2 −2
x dx = x dx + x−2 dx
−1 −1 0
t 4
−2
= lim− x dx + lim+ x−2 dx
t→0 −1 t→0 t
= lim [−x−1 ]t−1 + lim [−x−1 ]4t
t→0− t→0+
=∞+∞
= ∞.
So the integral in question is divergent. 4 2
Figure 7.14 shows the domain whose area is equal to 0 x−2 dx and
the correct way of breaking that interval up to two parts.
Note that we would have reached the wrong conclusion if we had
disregarded the fact that x−2 is not continuous at x = 0 and tried to
apply the fundamental theorem of calculus. Indeed, in that case, we
would have obtained the wrong result: [−x−1 ]4−1 = −1 4
− 1 = − 54 . This
result is incorrect, and the incorrect step was to apply the fundamental
theorem of calculus for a function that is not continuous in the entire
interval of integration.
The integrals that we have discussed in this section are called Type
2 improper integrals.
4
Figure 7.14. −1
x−2 dx.
48.3. Further Remarks.
48.3.1. Improper Integrals of Mixed Type. There are some integrals that
are improper for two reasons. They are taken over an infinite interval,
and that interval contains a point in which the function is not contin-
uous. In that case, we split up the interval of integration so that now
we have two integrals, one of which is of Type 1 and the other of which
is Type 2.
∞ 1
Example 7.37. Compute 0 (x−2) 2 dx.
Solution: We break up the interval [0, ∞) to the union of the two

intervals [0, 2] and [2, ∞), getting
∞ 3 ∞
1 1 1
dx = dx + dx.
0 (x − 2)2
0 (x − 2)
2
3 (x − 2)2
The first term on the right-hand side is an improper integral of Type
2, and the second term on the right-hand side is an improper integral
of Type 1. We can compute both by the methods presented earlier in
this section. 2
48.3.2. Comparison Test. Comparison tests for improper integrals work
very similarly to those for proper integrals.
Theorem 7.4. Let us assume that, for all x ≥ a, the chain of
inequalities 0 ≤ f (x) ≤ g(x) holds.
∞ ∞
(i) If a f (x) dx is divergent, then so is a g(x) dx.
∞ ∞
(ii) if a g(x) dx is convergent, then so is a f (x) dx.
∞
Example 7.38. Show that 3 x2 1ln x dx is convergent.
∞ 1
Figure 7.15. 0 (x−2)2
dx.
∞ 1
Figure 7.16. 3 x2 ln x
dx.
Solution: If x ≥ 3, then ln x > 1, so x2 ln x > x2 , and therefore

the integrand is less than x12 . See
∞ Figure 7.16 for an illustration. On
2
the other hand, we know that 3 1/x dx is convergent, so our claim
follows from the comparison test. 2
48.4. Exercises.
∞
(1) Is 1∞ sin x dx convergent or divergent?
−1.5
(2) Is 0.5 x dx convergent?
∞
(3) Is √ 1 dx convergent?
3∞ x−2
(4) Is x−2 dx convergent?
−∞
∞
(5) Is xe−x dx convergent?
0∞ 2
(6) Is xe−x dx convergent?
∞ 1
−∞
(7) Is 0 ex +x
dx convergent?
CHAPTER 8
Sequences and Series
49. Infinite Sequences

A sequence can be thought of as an ordered list of numbers a1 , a2 ,
..., an , an+1 , .... The subscript n indicates the position of a number an in
the sequence; for example, a1 is the first element, an is the nth element,
and so on.
Definition 8.1 (Sequence). A sequence is a function f defined on
the set of all positive integers; that is, it is a rule that assigns a number
to each positive integer. If f (n) = an for n = 1, 2, ..., it is customary
to denote the range of f by the symbol {an } or {an }∞ 1 .
So a sequence can be defined by specifying the rule an = f (n) to

calculate the nth term from an integer n. For example,
n n ∞ 1 2 3
an = ←→ = , , , ... ,
n+1 n+1 1 2 3 4
(−1)n (−1)n ∞ 1 1 1
an = ←→ = −1, , − , , ... ,
n n 1 2 3 4
n−1 ∞
an = q ←→ {q }0 = {1, q, q , q , ...}.
n 2 3
Sequences can also be defined recursively, that is, by a relation that al-
lows us to find an if am , m < n, are known. For example, the Fibonacci
sequence {fn } is defined by the recurrence relation
f1 = f2 = 1 , fn = fn−1 +fn−2 , n ≥ 3 ⇒ {fn } = {1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, ...}
Graphic representation of sequences. A sequence can be pictured sim-
ilarly to the graph of a function by plotting points (x, y) = (n, an ),
n = 1, 2, ..., on the xy plane. For example, the sequence an = n/(n + 1)
is the set of points on the graph y = x/(x + 1) corresponding to all
positive integer values of x, that is, x = 1, 2, ....
49.1. Limit of a Sequence. The sequence an = n/(n + 1) has the prop-

erty that the values an approach 1 as n becomes larger. Indeed, the
difference
n 1
1 − an = 1 − =
n+1 n+1
69
70 8. SEQUENCES AND SERIES
Figure 8.1. Set of points on the graph y = x/(x +

1) corresponding to integer values x = n. For large x,
x/(x+1) approaches 1 from below, and hence n/(n+1) =
1/(1+1/n) → 1 as n → ∞. The difference 1−n/(n+1) =
1/(n + 1) can be made smaller than any (small) number
ε > 0 for all n > N and some integer N .
decreases with increasing n and hence can be made smaller than any
preassigned positive number ε for all n > N , where N depends on ε.
For example, put ε = 10−2 . Then the condition 1 − an < ε implies that
1/(n + 1) < ε or 1/ε − 1 < n or 99 < n, that is, 1 − an < 10−2 for all
n > 99. If ε = 10−4 , then 1 − an < 10−4 for all n > N = 9999. In
other words, no matter how small ε is, there is only a finite number of
elements of the sequence that lie outside the interval (1 − ε, 1 + ε). In
this case, the sequence is said to converge to the limit value 1.
Definition 8.2 (Limit of a Sequence). A sequence {an } has the
limit a if, for every ε > 0, there is a corresponding integer N such that
|an − a| < ε for all n > N . In this case, the sequence is said to be
convergent, and one writes
lim an = a or an → a as n → ∞.
n→∞
If a sequence has no limit, it is called divergent.
One can say that a sequence {an } converges to a number a if and
only if every open interval containing a has all but finitely many of the
elements of {an }.
Theorem 8.1 (Uniqueness of the Limit). The limit of a convergent
sequence is unique:
lim an = a and lim an = a =⇒ a = a .
n→∞ n→∞
49. INFINITE SEQUENCES 71
Figure 8.2. Definition of the limit of a sequence. The

dots indicate numerical values an (vertical axis). The
integer n increases from left to right (horizontal axis).
The convergence of an to a number a means that, for
any small ε > 0, there is an integer N such that all the
numbers an , n > N , lie in the interval (a − ε, a + ε).
It is clear that N depends on ε. Generally, a smaller ε
requires a larger N .
Proof. Fix ε > 0. Then, by the definition of the limit, there are
numbers N and N such that |an − a| ≤ ε if n > N and |an − a | ≤ ε if
n > N . Hence, both inequalities hold for n > max(N, N ) and for all
such n:
0 ≤ |a − a | = |a − an + an − a | ≤ |an − a| + |an − a | < 2ε;
that is, the nonnegative number |a − a | is smaller than any preassigned
positive number, which means that |a − a | = 0 or a = a . 2
Since a sequence is a function defined on all positive integers, there
is a great deal of similarity between the asymptotic behavior of a func-
tion f (x) as x → ∞ and a sequence an = f (n).
Theorem 8.2 (Limits of Sequences and Functions). Let f be a
function on (0, ∞). Suppose that limx→∞ f (x) = a. If an = f (n),
where n is an integer, then limn→∞ an = a.
The validity of the theorem follows immediately from the definition
of the limit limx→∞ f (x) = a (i.e., given ε > 0, there is a corresponding
number M such that |f (x) − a| < ε for all x > M ) by noting that the
range of f (x) contains the sequence an = f (n).
Example 8.1. Find the limit of the sequence an = ln n/n if it exists
or show that the sequence is divergent.
Solution: Consider the function f (x) = ln x/x such that an = f (n)

for all positive integers. Hence,
ln n ln x 1/x
lim = lim = lim = 0,
n→ n x→∞ x x→∞ 1
where the indeterminate form ∞ ∞

arising from ln x/x as x → ∞ has
been resolved by means of l’Hospital’s rule. Note that l’Hospital’s rule
applies not to sequences but to functions of a real variable. 2
Following the analogy between the limits of sequences and func-
tions, one can select a particular class of divergent sequences.
Definition 8.3 (Infinite Limits). The limit limn→∞ an = ∞ means
that, for every positive number M , there is a corresponding integer N
such that an > M for all n > N . Similarly, the limit limn→∞ an = −∞
means that, for every negative number M , there is a corresponding
integer N such that an < M for all n > N .
Example 8.2. Analyze the convergence of the sequence an = 1/np ,
where p is real.
Solution: Put f (x) = 1/xp for x > 0. Then an = f (n) and therefore
⎧
1 1 ⎨ 0 if p > 0,
lim p = lim p = 1 if p = 0,
n→∞ n x→∞ x ⎩
∞ if p < 0.
2
Example 8.3. Analyze the convergence of the sequence an = q n ,
n = 0, 1, ..., where q is real.
Solution: Suppose q > 0. Put f (x) = q x = ex ln q . From the properties
of the exponential function, it follows that eax → ∞ if a = ln q > 0,
eax = 1 if a = ln q = 0, and eax → 0 if a = ln q < 0. Therefore,
an → ∞ if q > 1, an = 1 → 1 if q = 1, and an → 0 if 0 < q < 1. When
q = 0, an = 0. Suppose q < 0. Then q = −|q| and an = (−1)n |q|n =
(−1)n en ln|q| . If |q| < 1, then even and odd terms of the sequence
converge to 0: a2n = e2n ln|q| → 0 and a2n−1 = −e(2n−1) ln|q| → 0 as
n → ∞. When q = −1, the sequence an = (−1)n is divergent because
a2n = 1 and a2n−1 = −1; that is, the sequence oscillates between 1
and −1 for all n and an does not approach any number. Finally, if
q < −1, the sequence is divergent, too, because a2n = e2n ln|q| → ∞ but
a2n−1 = −e(2n−1) ln|q| → −∞. Moreover, it approaches neither ∞ nor
−∞ as it oscillates taking ever-increasing positive and negative values.
Thus, ⎧
⎨ 0 if q ∈ (−1, 1),
n
lim q = 1 if q = 1,
n→∞ ⎩
∞ if q > 1,
and the sequence does not converge if q ≤ −1. 2
49.2. Subsequences. Given a sequence {an }, consider a sequence {nk }

of positive integers such that n1 < n2 < n3 < · · · . Then the sequence
{ank }, k = 1, 2, ..., is called a subsequence of {an }. Recall that a se-
quence {an } converges to a number a if and only if every open interval
containing a has all but finitely many of the elements of {an }. There-
fore, {an } converges to a if and only if every subsequence of {an } con-
verges to a. This necessary and sufficient criterion for convergence has
already been used in Example 8.3. The sequence an = (−1)n does not
converge because it has two subsequences a2n = 1 and a2n−1 = −1,
which converge to different numbers, 1 = −1.
49.3. Limit Laws for Sequences. The limit laws for functions also hold
for sequences, and their proofs are similar. If {an } and {bn } converge
to numbers a and b, respectively, and c is a constant, then
lim (an + bn ) = lim an + lim bn = a + b,
n→∞ n→∞ n→∞
lim (can ) = c lim an = ca,
n→∞ n→∞
lim (an bn ) = lim an lim bn = ab,
n→∞ n→∞ n→∞
an limn→∞ an a
lim = = if b = 0,
n→∞ bn limn→∞ bn b
lim (an )p = ( lim an )p = ap if p > 0 and an > 0.
n→∞ n→∞
The squeeze theorem also applies to sequences.

Theorem 8.3 (Squeeze Theorem). If cn ≤ an ≤ bn for n > N and
limn→∞ bn = limn→∞ cn = a, then limn→∞ an = a, where a can also be
±∞.
√
Example 8.4. Find the limit of an = sin(π/ n).
√
√ Since −x ≤ sin x ≤ x if x ≥ 0, one has cn = −π/ n ≤
Solution:
an ≤ π/ n = bn√, where cn → 0 and bn → 0 as n → ∞. By the squeeze
theorem, sin(π/ n) → 0 as n → ∞. 2
Theorem 8.4. If limn→∞ |an | = 0, then limn→∞ an = 0.
Figure 8.3. The squeeze theorem. The dots indi-

cate numerical values (vertical axis) of the sequences bn
(blue), cn (black), and an (red). The integer n increases
from left to right (horizontal axis). The sequences bn and
cn converge to a number a. This means that the differ-
ences |bn −a| and |cn −a| can be made arbitrarily small for
all n ≥ N and some integer N . Since cn ≤ an ≤ bn , the
difference |an − a| is also arbitrarily small for all n ≥ N .
By the definition of the limit, the sequence an must con-
verge to a, too.
This theorem follows directly from the definition of the limit of a

sequence where a = 0.
Theorem 8.5. If an → a as n → ∞ and the function f is contin-
uous at a, then
lim f (an ) = f (a).
n→∞
This theorem asserts that if a continuous function is applied to the

terms of a convergent sequence, the result is also convergent.
Proof. The continuity of f at a means that limx→a f (x) = f (a)

or, by the definition of this limit, for any ε > 0, there is a corresponding
δ > 0 such that |f (x) − f (a)| < ε whenever |x − a| < δ. Having found
such δ, put ε = δ and, by the definition of the limit limn→∞ an = a,
for any such ε > 0, there is a corresponding integer N such that
|an − a| < ε = δ if n > N . Therefore, for any ε > 0, one can find a
corresponding integer N such that |f (an ) − f (a)| < ε for all n > N ,
which means that limn→∞ f (an ) = f (a). 2
Example 8.5. Find the limit of the sequence an = exp(1/n2 ).
Solution: Consider the sequence bn = 1/n2 . Then
1
lim bn = lim = 0.
n→∞ x→∞ x2
Put f (x) = e−x . Then an = f (bn ). By continuity of the exponential

function,
lim an = exp(− lim bn ) = e0 = 1.

n→∞ n→∞
49.4. Exercises.
(1) Find a formula for the general term an of the sequences:
1 1 1 1 1
{an } = 1, − , , − , , − , ... ,
3 5 7 9 11
1 1 1 1
{an } = 1, , , , , ... ,
2 4 8 16
1 2 3 4 5
{an } = − , , − , , − , ... .
4 7 10 13 16
In (2)–(13), determine whether the sequence converges or di-

verges. If it converges, find the limit.
(2) an = 2n .
(3) an = 2n − (−1)n 2n .
(4) an = (3 − 5n2 )/(1 + n2 ).
(5) an = tan[nπ/(2 + 4n)].
(6) an = sin2 [π(n2 + 2)/(2n2 + 5)].
(7) an = ln(an)/ln(bn), where a and b are positive numbers.
(8) an = np e−n , where p is real.
(9) an = n
cos(1/n).
(10) an = (n3 + 1)/(8n3 + 4n2 + 2n + 1).
(11) an = (ln n)p /n, where p > 0.
(12) tan−1 (n2 ).
an = √
(13) an = n2 + n − n.
50. Special Sequences

Theorem 8.6 (Special Sequences). Let p and q be real numbers.
√
(8.1) lim n p = 1 if p > 0,
n→∞
√
(8.2) lim n n = 1,
n→∞
nq
(8.3) lim = 0 if p > 1,
n→∞ pn
n!
(8.4) lim n = 0,
n→∞ n
qn
(8.5) lim = 0.
n→∞ n!
Proof.
√
(8.1). If p > 1, put an = n p − 1. Then an > 0 and, by the binomial
theorem,
1 + nan ≤ (1 + an )n = p.
Note that all terms in (1+an )n = 1+nan +n(n−1)an /2+· · ·+nann−1 +ann
are positive. So, by retaining only the first two terms, a smaller number
is obtained, that is, 1 + nan ≤ (1 + an )n . It follows from this inequality
that
p−1
0 < an ≤ .
n
√
By the squeeze theorem, an → 0 as n → ∞ and hence n p = an +1 → 1.
The case p = 1 is trivial. If 0 1. √
(8.2). Put an = n n − 1. Then an ≥ 0 and, by the binomial theorem,
n(n − 1) 2
n = (1 + an )n ≥ an .
2
Hence, for n ≥ 2,

2
0 ≤ an ≤ .
n−1
√
By the squeeze theorem, an → 0 or n n = an + 1 → 1 as n → 0.
(8.3). Consider the function f (x) = xq e−cx , where c > 0. By the
asymptotic property of the exponential function, f (x) → 0 as x → ∞
for any q; the exponential grows faster than any power function (which
50. SPECIAL SEQUENCES 77
has been proved in Calculus I). Since an = f (n) for c = ln p > 0 if

p > 1, one concludes that
nq
lim = lim nq e−n ln p = lim xq e−x ln p = 0.
n→∞ pn n→∞ x→∞
(8.4). The following inequality holds:

n! 1 · 2 · 3···n 1 2 3 n 1 1
an = = = · · ··· ≤ ⇔ 0 < an ≤ .
n n n · n · n···n n n n n n n
By the squeeze theorem, an → 0 as n → ∞.
(8.5). If q > 0, then there is a positive integer k such that k−1 ≤ q < k,
that is, k is the smallest positive integer such that q/k < 1. The
following inequality holds:
qn q q q q q q q q q qk
an = = ··· · · · ≤ q k−1 · · · ≤ q k−1 = .
n! 1 2 k−1 k n k n−1 n n n
k
By the squeeze theorem, 0 < an ≤ qn → 0 as n → ∞ and an converges
to 0. The case q = 0 is trivial. If q < 0, then |an | = |q n /n!| = |q|n /n! →
0 as n → ∞ and hence an converges to 0, too. 2
√
Example 8.6. Find the limit of an = n nq , where q > 1, if it exists
or show that the sequence diverges.
Solution:
√
n
√ √
lim nq = lim ( n n)q = ( lim n n)q = 1q = 1
n→∞ n→∞ n→∞
by (8.2) and the basic limit laws. 2
50.1. Monotonic Sequences.
Definition 8.4 (Monotonic Sequences). A sequence an is said to

be
monotonically increasing if an ≤ an+1 ,
monotonically decreasing if an ≥ an+1
for all n = 1, 2, ....
The class of monotonic sequences consists of the increasing and the
decreasing sequences.
Example 8.7. Show that the sequence an = n/(n2 + 1) is mono-
tonically decreasing.
Figure 8.4. The sequence on the left is monotonically

increasing, and the sequence on the right is monotoni-
cally decreasing.
Solution: The inequality an ≥ an+1 must be established. It is equiv-

alent to the following inequalities obtained by cross-multiplication:
n+1 n
≤ ⇔ (n + 1)(n2 + 1) ≤ n[(n + 1)2 + 1]
(n + 1)2 + 1 n2 + 1
⇔ n3 + n2 + n + 1 ≤ n3 + 2n2 + 2n
⇔ 1 ≤ n2 + n.
The latter inequality is true for n ≥ 1. Therefore, an+1 ≤ an (in fact,
the strict inequality an+1 < an holds as well), and the sequence is
monotonically decreasing. 2
Definition 8.5 (Bounded Sequence). A sequence is said to be
bounded above if there is a number M such that
an ≤ M for all n ≥ 1.
A sequence is said to be bounded below if there is a number m such
that
m ≤ an for all n ≥ 1.
A sequence is said to be bounded if it is bounded above and below:
m ≤ an ≤ M for all n ≥ 1.
For example, the sequence an = 1/n is bounded: 0 < an ≤ 1. The
sequence an = en is bounded below, but not above.
Completeness axiom for the set of real numbers. The completeness ax-
iom for the set of real numbers says that if S is a nonempty set of real
numbers that has an upper bound M (x ≤ M for all x ∈ S), then S
has a least upper bound. By definition, the number a is a least upper
upper bound of S if, for any ε > 0, a − ε is not an upper bound of
S. The least upper bound is called the supremum of S and denoted
sup S. Naturally, sup S ≤ M for any upper bound M of S. If S has
a lower bound m, then it also has the greatest lower bound, denoted
Figure 8.5. A bounded sequence. The dots indicate

numerical values of an (vertical axis). The integer n in-
creases from left to right (horizontal axis). All the num-
bers an lie in the interval: m ≤ an ≤ M .
inf S (the infimum of S). The number inf S is a lower bound of S such
that inf S + ε is not a lower bound of S for any positive ε > 0; that
is, m ≤ inf S for any lower bound of S. The completeness axiom is an
expression of the fact that there is no gap or hole in the real number
line.
Theorem 8.7 (Monotonic Sequence Theorem). Suppose {an } is
monotonic. Then {an } converges if and only if it is bounded.
Proof. Suppose an ≤ an+1 (the proof is analogous in the other
case). Let S be the range of {an }. If {an } is bounded, let a be the
least upper bound of S (it exists by the completeness axiom). Then
an ≤ a for all n ≥ 1. For every ε > 0, there is an integer N such that
a − ε < aN ≤ a;
otherwise, a − ε would be an upper bound of S. Since {an } increases,
the inequality n ≥ N implies that
a − ε < an ≤ a ⇐⇒ |a − an | < ε whenever n ≥ N,
which shows that {an } converges to s. 2
Example 8.8. Investigate the convergence of the sequence defined

by the recurrence relation a1 = 2 and an+1 = 12 (an + 3).
Solution: Let us compute the first few terms of the sequence a1 = 2,
a2 = 2.5, a3 = 2.75, and so on. The initial terms suggest that the
sequence is monotonically increasing, and one can try to prove this
property an ≤ an+1 for all n. A commonly used technique to do so
Figure 8.6. Monotonic sequence theorem. A bounded

monotonic sequence with numerical values indicated by
dots (vertical axis). The integer n increases from left to
right. If S = supn {an } is the least upper bound of all an ,
then, for any number ε > 0, S − ε is not an upper bound
of the sequence. Since an increases monotonically, there
is an integer N such that all the numbers an , n > N , are
greater than S −ε and hence lie in the interval (S −ε, S).
This means that an converges to S.
is mathematical induction. The statement is true for n = 1. Suppose

that the statement is true for n = k, then one has to prove that the
statement is also true for n = k + 1. If the proof goes through, then
starting with n = 1, one can establish the statement for n = 2, n = 3,
an so on. This is the basic idea of mathematical induction. Using the
recurrence relation,
1 1
ak+1 > ak =⇒ (ak+1 + 3) > (ak + 3) =⇒ ak+2 > ak+1 .
2 2
Thus, the sequence is indeed monotonically increasing. If it happens to
be bounded, then it converges. Again, mathematical induction turns
out to be helpful. The first terms suggest that an < 3. This is true for
n = 1. Suppose the inequality is true for n = k. Let us try to prove
that this assumption implies that the inequality holds for n = k + 1.
Using the recurrence relation,
1 1
ak < 3 =⇒ (ak + 3) < (3 + 3) =⇒ ak+1 < 3.
2 2
Thus, the sequence is monotonic and bounded and hence converges. If
the sequence an converges to a, then so does the sequence an+k for any
integer k (in the definition of the limit, change N to N + k to prove
this). Since the existence of the limit has been established, one can
take the limit of both sides of the recurrence relation

1 1
lim an+1 = ( lim an + 3) =⇒ a = (a + 3) =⇒ a = 3.
n→∞ 2 n→∞ 2
Thus, an → 3 as n → ∞. 2
Example 8.9. Investigate the
√ convergence √
of the sequence defined
by the recurrence relation a1 = 2 and an+1 = 2 + an .
Solution: The first few terms of the sequence suggest that the se-
√ √
quence is increasing: a1 = 2 < a2 = 2 + 2. Let us try to prove
the inequality an < an+1 by induction. Suppose it is true for n = k.
Then, by monotonicity of the square root function and the recurrence
relation,
√ √ √
ak < ak+1 ⇒ ak < ak+1 ⇒ 2 + ak < 2 + ak+1 ⇒ ak+1 < ak+2 .
The first terms of the sequence suggest that a1 < 3 and a2 < 3. Let us
try to prove that an < 3 for all n by induction. Suppose the inequality
holds for n = k. Then, by the recurrence relation,
√ √
ak < 3 =⇒ 2 + ak < 5 =⇒ 2 + ak < 5 < 3 =⇒ ak+1 < 3.
Thus, the sequence is monotonic and bounded, and hence it converges.
If its limit is a, then
√ √
lim an+1 = lim 2 + an = 2 + lim an ⇒ a = 2 + a ⇒ a = 2.
n→∞ n→∞ n→∞
50.2. Exercises.
In (1)–(5), find the limit of the sequence {an } or show that it does not
exist.
√
(1) an = n 2n2 + 3.
(2) an = cos2n (n2 )/n.
(3) an = nrn , where r is real.
(4) an = (2n
√ − 1)!!/(2n)n , where (2n − 1)!! = 1 · 3 · 5 · · · (2n − 1).
(5) an = n 3n + 5n .
In (6)–(10), determine whether the sequence is monotonic or not mono-
tonic. Is the sequence bounded?
(6) an = (−2)n .
(7) an = (−1)n n.
(8) an = ne−n .
(9) an = n + n1 .
(10) an = sin(qn)/n, where q is real.

In (11)–(15), find the limit of the sequence or show that it does not
exist.
(11) a1 = 1 and an+1 = 4 − an .
(12) a1 = 1 and an+1 = 1/(1 + an ).
(13) a1 = 1 and an+1 = 3 − 1/an .
(14) a1 = 2 and an+1 = 1/(3 − an ).
(15) a1 = 1 and an+1 = 1 + 1/(1 + an ).
(16) The size of an undisturbed fish population has been modeled
by the formula pn+1 = bpn /(a + pn ), where pn is the fish pop-
ulation after n years and a and b are positive constants that
depend on the species and the environment. Suppose that
p0 > 0. Show that pn+1 < (b/a)pn . Then prove that pn → 0
if a > b; that is, the population dies out. Finally, show that
pn → b − a if b > a.
Hint: Show that pn is increasing and bounded, 0 < pn b − a, then pn is decreasing and bounded,
pn > b − a.
51. Series
51.1. Basic Definitions and Notation. With a sequence {an }, one can
associate a sequence {sn }, where

n
sn = ak = a1 + a2 + · · · + an .
k=1
The symbol

∞
(8.6) an = a1 + a2 + a3 + · · ·
n=1
is called an infinite series, or just a series. The numbers sn are called

the partial sums of the series (8.6). The limits of summation are often
omitted to denote a series; that is, the symbol an also stands for an
infinite series. If {sn } converges to s, then the series is said to converge
and one writes
∞ n
an = s or lim ak = s.
n→∞
n=1 k=1
The number s is called the sum of the series. If the sequence of partial
sums {sn } diverges, the series is said to diverge. It should be under-
stood that s is the limit of a sequence of sums, and it is not obtained
merely by addition.
51. SERIES 83

For example, the sequence of partial sums for the series (−1)n
is s1 = −1, s2 = −1 + 1 = 0, s3 = s2 − 1 = −1, or, generally,
sn = ((−1)n − 1)/2. This sequence diverges as it has two subsequences
s2n = 0 and s2n−1 = −1, which converge to different numbers, 0 = −1.
If one simply uses addition, different values for the sum of the series
may be obtained:

∞
an =(a1 + a2 ) + (a3 + a4 ) + (a5 + a6 ) + · · · = 0 + 0 + · · · = 0,
n=1
∞
an =(a1 + a2 + a3 ) + (a4 + a5 + a6 ) + · · · = −1 − 1 − · · · = −∞,
n=1
∞
an =a1 + (a2 + a3 ) + (a4 + a5 ) + · · · = −1 + 0 + 0 + · · · = −1.
n=1
Generally, by grouping terms in the sum in different ways (according

to the associativity of addition), the sum is found to be any integer!
The reader is advised to verify this. Thus, the addition rules cannot
generally be applied to evaluate the sum of a series.
51.2. Geometric Series. Take a piece of rope of length 1 m. Cut it in

half. Keep one half and cut the other half in two pieces of equal length.
Keep doing this, that is, keeping one half and cutting the other half in
two equal-length pieces. The total length of the retained pieces is
1 1
∞
1 1 1 1 1 1
+ + + ··· = 1 + + + ··· = .
2 4 8 2 2 4 2 n=0 2n
This series must converge. The partial sum sn here is the total length of
retained pieces. The sequence {sn } is monotonically increasing (after
each cut piece of rope is added) and bounded by the total length 1. So
it converges. From the geometry, it is also clear that 1 − sn = 1/2n ,
where n is the number of cuts, and hence sn → 1 as one would expect
(the total length of the rope). So it is concluded
∞
1
= 2.
n=0
2n
This series is an example of the geometric series:

∞
1 + q + q + q + ··· =
2 3
qn,
n=0
where q is a number. The geometric series does not converge for any
value of q.
∞ n 8.8 (Convergence of a Geometric Series). A geometric

Theorem
series n=1 q converges if |q| < 1, and, in this case,

∞
1
qn = , |q| < 1,
n=0
1−q
and the series diverges otherwise.
Proof. If q = 1, the sequence of partial sums obviously diverges.
If q = 1, one has
sn = 1 + q + q 2 + · · · + q n−1 =⇒ qsn = q + q 2 + q 3 + · · · + q n .
Subtracting these equations, one infers
1 − qn
sn − qsn = 1 − q n =⇒ sn = .
1−q
Therefore,
1 − qn 1 1
lim sn = lim = − lim q n .
n→∞ n→∞ 1 − q 1 − q 1 − q n→∞
It has been found that the sequence an = q n converges only if |q| < 1,
and, in this case, q n → 0 as n → ∞. If |q| ≥ 1, the geometric series
diverges. 2
Example 8.10. Analyze the convergence of the series 4 − 83 + 16
9
−
32
27
+ ···.
Solution: The series can be written in the form 4q 0 + 4q 1 + 4q 2 + 4q 3 +
· · · , where q = −2/3. So its partial sums are four times the partial
sum of the geometric series with q = −2/3. Therefore,

∞
2 n
∞
2 n 4 12
4 − =4 − = 2 = .
n=1
3 n=1
3 1 − (− 3 ) 5
2
When real numbers are presented in decimal from, one often en-
counters a situation when a number has a repeated pattern of decimal
places. Take, for example, the number 1.2131313...; that is, the com-
bination 13 repeats itself in all decimal places starting in the second
decimal place.
Example 8.11. Is the number 1.2131313... rational or irrational?
If it is rational, write it as a ratio of integers.
51. SERIES 85
Solution: By definition of the decimal representation,

13 1
∞
13 13 13 n
1.2131313... = 1.2 + + + + · · · = 1.2 +
103 105 107 103 n=0 100
13 100 12 13 1201
= 1.2 + 3
= + = .
10 99 10 990 990
2
51.3. Necessary Condition for a Series to Converge. The following the-

orem follows from the limit laws applied to the sequences of partial
sums.

Theorem 8.9 (Properties of Series). Suppose that the series an
and bn are convergent and their sums are s and t, respectively. Let
c be a number. Then the series (an + bn ) and can converge and

(an + bn ) = an + bn = s + t , (can ) = c an = cs.
if {sn
Indeed, } and {tn } are the sequences of partial sums of the
series
a n and bn , respectively, then the partial sums of the series
(an + bn ) and (can ) are sn + tn and csn , respectively. By the limit
laws, sn + tn → s + t and csn → cs.
Note that the convergence
of
the series (an + bn ) does not imply
the convergence of an and bn .For example, put an = 1 and
bn = −1. The series (an + bn ) = 0 =0, while an= 1and
bn = (−1) diverge, and the equality (an + bn ) = an + bn
becomes meaningless (“0 = ∞ − ∞”). This shows that the rules of
algebra for finite sums are not generally applicable to series. Only
series from a special class of absolutely convergent series, discussed later,
behave pretty much as finite sums.
It is clear that every theorem about sequences can be stated in terms
of series by putting a1 = s1 and an = sn − sn−1 for n > 1 and vice
versa. In particular, if the series converges, that is, sn → s as n → ∞,
then one can take the limit on both sides of this recurrence relation
and conclude that limn→∞ an = limn→∞ (sn − sn−1 ) = s − s = 0; that is,
for a convergent series an , the sequence {an } necessarily converges
to 0.
Theorem 8.10 (Necessary Condition for a Series to Converge). If
the series an converges, then limn→∞ an = 0.
The converse is not generally true; that is, the condition limn→∞ an =
0 is not sufficient for a series to converge. However, it can still be used
as a test for divergence of a series.
Corollary 8.1 (Test for Divergence of a Series). If the limit

0, then the series
limn→∞ an does not exist or if limn→∞ an = an
diverges.
3
Example 8.12. Show that the series n /(3n3 + 1) diverges.
Solution:
n3 1 1
lim an = lim 3
= lim 1 = = 0,
n→∞ n→∞ 3n + 1 n→∞ 3 + 3 3
n
so the series diverges. 2

If the necessary condition is satisfied, the series may converge or
diverge. The sequence of partial sums has to be analyzed.

Example 8.13. Find the sum of the series ∞ 1
n=1 n(n+1) if it exists
or show that it does not exist.
Solution: The necessary condition for convergence is evidently satis-
fied. So the sequence of partial sums has to be analyzed for conver-
gence:

n
1 1
n
1
sn = = −
k=1
k(k + 1) k=1 k k + 1
1 1 1 1 1 1 1
= 1− + − + − + ··· + −
2 2 3 3 4 n n+1
1
=1− → 1 as n → ∞.
n+1
So the sequence {sn } converges to 1 and hence

∞
1
= 1.
n=1
n(n + 1)
2
This example is a particular case of a telescopic series.

Theorem 8.11 (Convergence of a Telescopic Series). A telescopic
series ∞n=1 n − an+1 ) converges if limn→∞ an = a, and, in this case,
(a

∞
(an − an+1 ) = a1 − a,
n=1
The proof is analogous to the above example and based on the fact
that the sequence of partial sums of a telescopic series sn = a1 − an+1
converges to a1 − a. The details are left to the reader as an exercise.
52. SERIES OF NONNEGATIVE TERMS 87
51.4. Exercises.
In (1)–(3), determine whether the geometric series converges or di-
verges.
∞
πn ∞
en
∞
(−5)n
(1) (2) (3)
n=0
3n+1 n=1
3n−1 n=0
32n
In (4)–(9), determine whether the series converges or diverges. If it

converges, find its sum. Here p is a positive number, p > 0.

∞
k2
∞
2 − 3n
∞
√ n
(4) (5) (6) p
n=1
k2 + k + 1 n=1
5n n=1

∞
∞
en
∞
4
(7) (sin p)n (8) (9) e−2n +
n=1 n=1
np n=1
n(n + 1)
In (10)–(12), determine whether the series converges or diverges by ex-

pressing it as a telescopic series. Find the sum of the series if it exists.

∞
1
∞
3
∞
n
(10) (11) (12) ln
n=2
n −1
2
n=1
2
n + 3n + 3 n=1
n+1
In (13) and (14), express the number as a ratio of integers
(13) 1.23232323....
(14) 1.53525252....
In (15)–(17), find the values of x for which the series converges. Find
the sum of the series for those values of x.
∞
xn ∞
sinn x ∞
(15) n
(16) n
(17) (x − 5)n
n=1
2 n=1
3 n=1
In (18) and (19), solve the equation.

∞
∞
−n
(18) (1 + x) =3 (19) enx = 9
n=2 n=0
52. Series of Nonnegative Terms

In many applications, the terms of a series decrease monotonically.
It appears that there is a relation between convergence of such series
and convergence of improper integrals over an interval [1, ∞). This
relation allows one to establish a necessary and sufficient condition for
series of nonnegative terms to converge.
52.1. The Integral Test. Suppose f (x) is a positive, continuous, mono-

tonically decreasing function on [1, ∞) such that f (x) → 0. Suppose
also that the improper integral
∞ a
f (x) dx = lim f (x) dx = If
1 a→∞ 0
exists. The value If is the area under ∞the graph y = f (x) over the
interval [1, ∞). Consider the series n=1 f (n). The necessary condi-
tion for convergence is fulfilled as f (n) → 0 as n → ∞. To investigate
the convergence of the series, one has to analyze the convergence of its
partial sums:
n
sn = f (k) = f (1) + f (2) + · · · + f (n).
k=1
Since the function f (x) monotonically decreases and is continuous on

every interval [k, k + 1], it attains its minimal and maximal values
f (k + 1) ≤ f (x) ≤ f (k) on this interval and therefore
k+1
(8.7) f (k + 1) ≤ f (x) dx ≤ f (k).
k
This inequality leads to the following upper and lower estimates of
the partial sums:
2 n n
sn ≤ f (1) + f (x) dx + · · · + f (x) dx = f (1) + f (x) dx,
1 n−1 1
2 3 n+1 n+1
sn ≥ f (x) dx + f (x) dx + · · · + f (x) dx = f (x) dx,
1 2 n 1
so that
n+1 n
(8.8) f (x) dx ≤ sn ≤ f (1) + f (x) for all n ≥ 1.
1 1
This inequality shows that the following theorem holds.
Figure 8.7. Integral test. An illustration of inequality (8.7).

Theorem 8.12 (Integral Test). Suppose f is a continuous, posi-

∞ decreasing function on [1, ∞) and let an = f (n). Then
tive,
∞
the series
a
n=1 n converges if and only if the improper integral 1
f (x) dx con-
verges. In other words,
∞ ∞
f (x) dx converges =⇒ f (n) converges,
1 n=1
∞
∞
f (x) dx diverges =⇒ f (n) diverges.
1 n=1
Proof. If the improper integral converges to a number If , then

by (8.8) the sequence of partial sums is bounded, sn ≤ f (1) + If , and
monotonically increases, sn ≤ sn + f (n + 1) = sn+1 . Therefore, it is
convergent. If the improper integral diverges,
n+1then, for any number
M > 0, there is an integer N such that 1 f (x) dx ≥ M for all
n > N . By the left inequality of (8.8), M ≤ sn for all n > N ; that is,
{sn } is a monotonically increasing, unbounded sequence and hence it
diverges. 2
Remark. Suppose that an = f (n), where f (x) is a function on

[1, ∞), such that it is continuous, positive, and decreasing on [N, ∞),
where N ≥ 1 is an integer. Then

∞ ∞
(8.9) an converges ⇐⇒ f (x) dx converges;
n=1 N
that is, the integral test applies even if the sequence an becomes mono-
tonically decreasing only for n ≥ N ≥ 1. This is easy to understand
by isolating the first N − 1 terms in the series

∞
∞
∞
an = a1 + a2 + · · · + aN −1 + an = a1 + a2 + · · · + aN −1 + bn ,
n=1 n=N n=1

where bn = aN +n−1 . Convergence of bn implies convergence of an
and vice versa as they differ by a number. Put bn = g(n), where
g(x) = f (x+N −1), which is a continuous, positive, decreasing function
on [1, ∞), and
∞ ∞ ∞
g(x) dx = f (x + N − 1) dx = f (u) du
1 1 N
by changing the integration variable u = x + N − 1.

52.2. Special Series of Nonnegative Terms.

Theorem 8.13. The p-series
∞
1
n=1
np
converges if p > 1 and diverges if p ≤ 1.
Proof. If p ≤ 0, the series diverges because the necessary condi-
tion for convergence is not fulfilled, an → ∞ if p < 0 and an = 1 = 0 if
p = 0. For p > 0, consider the function f (x) = x−p , which is positive,
continuous, and decreasing on [1, ∞), and
a
dx 1
p−1
1 − ap−1
1
if p = 1,
p
=
1 x ln a if p = 1.
So, by the integral test, the series converges if p > 1 because the
improper integral diverges if 0 1 (the
limit a → ∞ exists only if p > 1). 2
−p
Note that the series n diverges for all 0 1;
that is, this series defines a function on (1, ∞). This function is called
Riemann’s zeta function.
∞Example−3/28.14. Investigate the convergence of the series

n=1 (n + 2) .
Solution: The series can be written as
∞
1 ∞
1 1 ∞
1
3/2
= 3/2
= −1 − 3/2 + 3/2
.
n=1
(n + 2) n=3
n 2 n=1
n
The latter series is a p-series that converges for p = 3/2 > 1. 2
Theorem 8.14. The series
∞
1
n=2
n(ln n)p
converges if p > 1, and it diverges if p ≤ 1.
Proof. Consider the function g(x) = x(ln x)p for x > 1. Its de-
rivative reads g (x) = (ln x)p−1 (p + ln x). If p ≥ 0, then g (x) > 0 for
all x > 1 and g(x) increases, while its reciprocal f (x) = 1/g(x) should
decrease. If p < 0, then g (x) > 0 for all x > e−p and hence g(x) in-
creases, while f (x) = 1/g(x) decreases if x > e−p > 1. Thus, for any p,
there is an integer N such that the function f (x) = 1/[x(ln x)p ] is con-
tinuous, positive, and decreases on [N, ∞). By the integral test (8.9),
the series in question converges if and only if the improper integral
∞ ∞
dx du
p
= p
N x(ln x) ln N u
converges, where the integration variable has been changed, u = ln x,

du = dx/x. This integral diverges if p ≤ 1 and converges if p > 1, and
the conclusion of the theorem follows. 2
52.3. Estimate of the Sum. If a partial sum sn is used

to estimate the
sum of a convergent series of nonnegative terms f (n), how good
is such an estimate? The remainder s − sn has to be investigated to
answer this question.
Corollary 8.2 (Estimate of Sums). Suppose f is a continuous,
positive,
decreasing function on [1, ∞) and let an = f (n). If the series
an converges to a number s, then
∞ ∞
f (x) dx ≤ s − sn ≤ f (x) dx,
n+1 n
where {sn } is the sequence of partial sums.

Proof. The first inequality is obtained by taking the limit n → ∞
in (8.8) with the result
∞
∞ ∞
(8.10) f (x) dx ≤ an ≤ f (1) + f (x) dx,
1 n=1 1
which is a legitimate operation because (8.8) holds for all n and the
series converges (and so does the improper integral by the integral
test). The remainder estimate is obtained by subtracting (8.8) from
(8.10). Note the value of the improper integral does not coincide with
the sum; it only determines an interval (8.10) in which the sum of a
series lies. 2
∞
Example 8.15. Test the series n=1 (n2 + 1)−1 for convergence or
divergence. If it converges, estimate its sum.
Solution: Put f (x) = (x2 + 1)−1 , which is a continuous, positive,
de-
creasing function on [1, ∞), such that the series in question is f (n).
Therefore, the integral test applies, and the series converges because
∞ a
dx −1 π π π π
2
= lim tan x = lim tan−1 a − = − = .
1 x + 1 a→∞ 1 a→∞ 4 2 4 4
By (8.10), its sum lies in the interval π4 ≤ s ≤ f (1) + π4 = 12 + π4 . 2

Example 8.16. Test the series ∞ n=1 ne
−n
for convergence or di-
vergence. If it converges, estimate its sum.
Solution: Consider the function f (x) = xe−x . Since f (x) = e−x −

xe−x = (1 − x)e−x ≤ 0 if x ≥ 1, the function decreases on [1, ∞), and
the integral test applies to assess convergence of the series f (n):
∞ ∞ a ∞
−x −x −x 1 1 2
xe dx = − x de = − lim xe + e−x dx = + = ,
1 1 a→∞ 1 1 e e e
where the integration by parts has been used to evaluate the integral.
The series converges to a number s that lies in the interval 2e−1 ≤ s ≤
f (1) + 2e−1 = 3e−1 . 2
Example 8.17. Estimate values of Riemann’s zeta function ζ(p).

How many terms does one need to retain in the partial sum sn to ap-
proximate ζ(p) correct to N decimal places?
Solution:
∞Riemann’s zeta function is defined by the sum of the series
−p
ζ(p) = n=1 n . For p > 1,
∞
dx x1−p a a1−p 1 1
= lim = lim − = .
1 x p a→∞ 1 − p 1 a→∞ 1 − p 1−p p−1
Since f (1) = 1, by (8.10),
1 p
≤ ζ(p) ≤ .
p−1 p−1
By Corollary 8.2,
∞
dx 1
0 ≤ ζ(p + 1) − sn ≤ p+1
= p.
n x pn
If ζ(p + 1), p > 0, is to be approximated by sn correct to N decimal
places, then the remainder should be less than 5 · 10−N −1 , which yields
the condition on the number of terms: pn1 p < 5 · 10−N −1 or np >

10N +1 /(5p) or n ∼ p 10N +1 /(5p). 2
53. COMPARISON TESTS 93
52.4. Exercises.
In (1)–(9), determine whether the series converges or diverges.
∞
1
∞
(ln n)4
∞
1 − n ln n
(1) (2) (3)
n=1
n9/8 n=2
n n=2
n2

∞
n2 − 2n − 5
∞
1
∞
n
(4) (5) (6)
n=1
3n7/3 n=1
n − 4n + 5
2
n=1
n4 +1

∞
e1/n ∞
2n + 1
∞
tan−1 n
(7) (8) (9)
n=1
n2 n=1
n(n + 1) n=1
n2 + 1
In (10)–(14), determine the values of p for which the series is conver-
gent.
∞
1 ∞ ∞
(10) p
(11) n(1 + n 2 p
) (12) np e−n
n=3
n ln n(ln(ln n)) n=1 n=1

∞ ∞
p 1
(13) p ln n
, p > 0 (14) −
n=1 n=1
n n+1
(15) How many terms of the series in Theorem 8.14 would one need to
add to find its sum correct to N decimal places?
(16) Show that the sequence
1 1 1
an = 1 + + + · · · + − ln n
2 3 n
converges. The limit limn→∞ an = γ is called the Euler number.
Hints: (1) Use (8.8) to show that if sn is the partial sum of the harmonic
series, then sn ≤ 1 + ln n and hence an ≤ 1 (i.e., the sequence {an } is
bounded).
(2) Interpret an − an+1 as a difference of areas to show that {an } is
monotonic.
53. Comparison Tests

Consider the series

∞
∞
1
an = .
n=1 n=1
n4 + 1
This series has terms smaller than the corresponding terms of the con-
vergent p-series:
∞ ∞
1
bn =
n=1 n=1
n4

because an < bn forall n. If sn is the partial sum for an and tn is
the partial sum for bn , then sn < tn . Since tn converges to a number
t, it is bounded, tn < t, and hence sn < t; that is, the sequence {sn }
is monotonic and bounded, and therefore it converges. This line of
arguments admits a generalization.

Theorem 8.15 (Comparison Test). Suppose that an and bn
are series such that an ≥ 0 and bn ≥ 0 for all n ≥ N and some integer
N ≥ 1. Then

bn converges and an ≤ bn for all n ≥ N =⇒ an converges,

bn diverges and an ≥ bn for all n ≥ N =⇒ an diverges.
∞
Proof. The series ∞ n=1 an and n=N an differ by a number a1 +
a2 + · · · + aN −1 . So convergence of ∞
n=N an implies convergence of
∞
n=1 an and vice versa. Therefore, it is sufficient to consider the case
N = 1. The sequences of partial sums {sn }, sn = a1 + a2 + · · · + an ,
and {tn }, tn = b1 + b2 + · · · + bn , are
monotonically increasing sequences
because an ≥ 0 and bn ≥ 0. If bn converges, then tn → t as n →
∞ and tn ≤ t for all n. By the hypothesis an ≤ bn for all n ≥ 1,
and therefore sn ≤ tn ≤ t, which shows that {sn } is monotonic and
bounded and, hence, converges. If bn diverges, then tn → ∞. From
the hypothesis an ≥ bn , it follows that sn ≥ tn . Thus, sn → ∞ as
n → ∞. 2
When applying the comparison test, the convergence properties of
the series bn must be known. In many instances, a good choice is a
geometric series (Theorem 8.8), a p-series (Theorem 8.13), a telescopic
series (Theorem 8.11), and the series in Theorem 8.14.

Example 8.18. Test the series ∞ 3 2
n=1 (2n + 1)/(3n + n + 1) for
convergence.
Solution: Since an is a rational function of n, a convenient choice of
a series in the comparison test is a p-series:
2n + 1 2n + 1 2 1 1 1
3 2
< 3
= 2
+ .
3n + n + 1 3n 3n 3 n3
The series
∞
2n + 1 2 1
∞
1 1
∞
= +
n=1
3n3 3 n=1 n2 3 n=1 n3
converges as the sum of two convergent p-series. 2
∞ √ √
Example 8.19. Test the series n=1 ( n + 1− n) for convergence.
53. COMPARISON TESTS 95
Solution: One has

√ √ √ √
√ √ ( n + 1 − n)( n + 1 + n)
an = n + 1 − n = √ √
n+1+ n
1 1 1 1
=√ √ ≥√ √ = √ √ = bn .
n+1+ n 2n + n 1+ 2 n
√
The p-series 1/ n diverges and so does the series in question by the
comparison test. 2

Theorem 8.16 (Limit Comparison Test). Suppose that an and
bn are series with positive terms. Let c = limn→∞ (an /bn ).

• If c = 0 and bn converges,
then an converges.

• If 0 < c < ∞, then an convergesif only if bn converges.
• If c = ∞ and bn diverges, then an diverges.
Proof. If c = 0, then there is an integer N such that an /bn < 1
for all n > N by the definition ofthe limit. Hence, an < bn for all
n > N . If bn converges, then an converges by the comparison
test. If c ∈ (0, ∞), then, by the definition of the limit, for any number
c > ε > 0, there is an integer N such that
an
an
c − < ε ⇐⇒ m = c − ε < < c + ε = M for all n > N.
bn bn
Therefore,
mbn < an < M bn for all n > N.

By
the comparison test, convergence of bn implies convergence
of
an due to the inequality an < M b n . The divergence of b n implies
divergence of an , again by the comparison test as mbn < an . If
c = ∞, then, for any M > 0, there is an integer N such that an /bn >M
when n > N . The inequality
a n > M b n shows that divergence of bn
implies divergence of an by the comparison test. 2
It is often helpful to investigate the asymptotic behavior of an as
n → ∞ to identify a suitable bn in the limit comparison test.
√
Example 8.20. Test the series ∞ n=1 (2n 3/2
+ n)/ n6 + n4 + 1 for
convergence.
Solution: Let us find the asymptotic behavior of an as n → ∞. For
large n, the top of the ratio behaves as ∼ 2n3/2 , while the bottom of
the ratio behaves as ∼ (n6 )1/2 = n3 . Therefore,
2n3/2 + n 2n3/2 (1 − 2√1 n ) 2n3/2
an = √ = ∼ 3
= 2n−3/2 = bn
n6 + n4 + 1 1
n3 1 + n2 + n6 1 n
in the asymptotic region n → ∞. This shows that the ratio an /bn

converges
to c = 1 as n → ∞. By thelimit comparison
test, the series
an converges because the p-series bn = 2 n−3/2 converges. 2
√
Example 8.21. Test the series ∞ 5 n 3 n
n=1 (n + 3 )/ n + 5 for con-
vergence.
Solution: Recall that the power function increases more slowly than
the exponential function, that is, np q −n → 0 as n → ∞ for any q > 1
and any p. Hence, the asymptotic behavior of an is
3n (1 + n5 3−n ) 3n
an = n 3 −n
∼ n
= (3/5)n = bn .
5 (1 + n 5 ) 5
This shows that the ratio an /bn converges to c = 1 as n → ∞. By
the
limit comparison test, an converges because the geometric series
bn converges (q = 3/5 < 1). 2

53.1. Estimating
Sums. If a an converges by comparison with
series
a series bn , then the sum of an can be estimated by comparing

remainders for the series bn . Indeed, put an = sand bn= t.
Let {tn } and {sn } be the sequences of partial sums for bn and an ,
respectively. The remainders satisfy the inequality:
s − sn = an+1 + an+2 + · · · ≤ bn+1 + bn+2 + · · · = t − tn .
So the accuracy of the approximation s ≈ sn is the same or higher
than that of the approximation t ≈ tn . If, for example, one finds
that n = N is sufficient for the equality t = tN to be correct to a
specific number of decimal places, then s = sN is also correct to that
or even a higher number of decimal places. The remainder is easy to
estimate when bn = f (n), where the function f is simple to integrate,
∞
t − tn ≤ n f (x) dx.
Example 8.22. Determine
∞ how many terms are needed to estimate
the sum of the series n=1 tan−1 (n2 )/(n3 + 1) correct to five decimal
places.
Solution: The function tan−1 x is monotonically increasing for x > 0
approaching asymptotically the value π/2. Therefore,
tan−1 (n2 ) π 1 π 1
an = 3
≤ 3
≤ = bn .
n +1 2 n +1 2 n3
Hence,
∞ √
π dx π −6 π
s − sn ≤ t − tn ≤ 3
= 2 < 5 · 10 ⇒ n > √ 103 ≈ 396.
2 n x 4n 2 5
2
54. ALTERNATING SERIES 97
53.2. Exercises.
In (1)–(12), determine whether the series converges or diverges.

∞
n
∞
n(ln n)4
∞
cos2 (n)
(1) (2) (3)
n=1
n + n1/3 + 1
5/3
n=2
n2 + 1 n=2
n2
∞
1 + (−1)n
∞
1
∞
1 + 2n
(4) (5) √
3
(6)
n=1
n3/2 + 1 n=1
3
n +n+1 n=1
n2 + 2n
√
∞
e1/ n
∞
1
∞
n!
(7) (8) sin2 (9)
n=1
n+1 n=1
n n=1
nn
∞
1
∞
√
∞
n2
(10) (11) ( n n − 1)n (12)
n=1
n1+1/n n=1 n=1
n!
(13) How many terms does3 one need in the partial sum to estimate the
sum of the series ∞ n=1 sin n/(n 3
+ n) up to five decimal places?
(14) Consider a sequence {an }, where an can take any value from the
set {0, 1, 2, ..., p − 1}, where p > 1 is an integer. The meaning of the
representation of a number 0.a1 a3 a3 ... with base p is that
a1 a2 a3
(8.11) 0.a1 a3 a3 ... = + 2 + 3 + ··· .
p p p
When p = 10, the decimal system is obtained. The binary represen-
tation corresponds to p = 2. The Maya used p = 20 (the number of
fingers and toes). The Babylonians used p = 60. Show that the series
(8.11) always converges.
(15) Show that if an > 0 and an converges, then ln(1 + an ) con-
verges, too.
(16) Prove thatthe convergence of an , where an > 0, implies the
√
convergence
of an /n.
(17) If and if the sequence {bn } is monotonic and
an converges
bounded, prove that an bn converges.
54. Alternating Series

Definition 8.6 (Alternating Series). Let {bn } be a sequence of
nonnegative terms. The series

(−1)n−1 bn = b1 − b2 + b3 − b4 + b5 − · · ·
is called an alternating series.

For example, the series

1 1 1 1 (−1)n−1 ∞
(8.12) 1 − + − + + ··· =
2 3 4 5 n=1
n
is an alternating series. It is called the alternating harmonic series.
Theorem 8.17 (Alternating Series Test). If a sequence of positive
terms {bn } is monotonically
decreasing and limn→∞ bn = 0, then the
n−1
alternating series (−1) bn converges:
(i) bn+1 ≤ bn for all n
∞
=⇒ (−1)n−1 bn converges.
(ii) limn→∞ bn = 0
n=1
Proof. The convergence of the sequence of partial sums {sn } is

to be established. Consider a subsequence of even partial sums {s2k }.
One has s2 = b1 − b2 ≥ 0, s4 = s2 + (b3 − b4 ) ≥ s2 , and, in general,
s2k = s2(k−1) + (b2k−1 − b2k ) ≥ s2(k−1) ≥ s2(k−2) ≥ · · · ≥ s2 ≥ 0
by the monotonicity of the sequence {bn }. Thus, the subsequence {s2k }
is monotonically increasing. By regrouping the terms in a different way,
one can see that
s2k = b1 − (b2 − b3 ) − (b4 − b5 ) − · · · − (b2k−2 − b2k−1 ) − b2k ≤ b1
because all numbers in parentheses are nonnegative by hypothesis (i),
which shows that {s2k } is also bounded. Therefore, it converges by the
monotonic sequence theorem:
lim s2k = s.
k→∞
For the subsequence of odd partial sums s2k+1 = s2k + b2k+1 , one infers
by the limit laws and hypothesis (ii) that
lim s2k+1 = lim s2k + lim b2k+1 = s + 0 = s.
k→∞ k→∞ k→∞
The convergence of two particular subsequences of a sequence to the

same number s does not generally guarantee that the sequence con-
verges to s (all its subsequences should converge to s). By definition,
the limits of {s2k } and {s2k+1 } mean that, given any number ε > 0,
there are positive integers N1 and N2 such that |s2k − s| < ε if k > N1
and |s2k+1 − s| < ε if k > N2 . Put N = max(2N1 , 2N2 + 1). Then
|sn − s| < ε for all n > N , which means that sn → s as n → ∞. 2
By this test, the alternating harmonic series (8.12) converges be-
cause the sequence bn = 1/n is monotonically decreasing and converges
to 0.
Figure 8.8. Alternating series test. An illustration of

its proof where two subsequences, s2k and s2k−1 , of the
sequence sn of partial sums are analyzed for convergence.
∞
Example 8.23. Test the series n=1 sin(πn/2)/n for convergence.
Solution: One has sin(πn/2) = 1, 0, −1, 0, 1, ... for n = 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, ...,
respectively, or, in general, for odd n = 2k − 1, sin(πn/2) = (−1)k−1 ,
while for even n = 2k, sin(πn/2) = sin(πk) = 0. Thus, the series in
question is an alternating series:

∞
sin(πn/2)
∞
(−1)n−1
∞
1
= = (−1)n−1 bn , bn = .
n=1
n n=1
2n − 1 n=1
2n − 1
The sequence {bn } is monotonically decreasing and bn → 0 as n → ∞.

So the series converges by the alternating series test. 2
Remark. It should be noted that Theorem 8.17 provides only a
sufficient condition for an alternating series to converge. So there are
convergent alternating series that do not satisfy the hypotheses of Theo-
rem 8.17. For example, the alternating series with bn = sin2 (πn/q)/n2 ,
where q is an integer, is convergent by thecomparison test because
|(−1)n+1 bn | = bn ≤ 1/n2 and the p-series 1/n2 converges (see the
next section on absolutely conversing series). However, the sequence
{bn } is not monotonically decreasing because bn ≥ 0 and it has a zero
subsequence bkq = 0, k = 1, 2, .... So bn oscillates between the zero

sequence and the sequence 1/n2 .
Remark. Hypothesis (i) of Theorem 8.17 may be weakened
(i) bn+1 ≤ bn for all n ≥ N
for some integer N ≥ 1. Indeed,

∞
∞
(−1)n−1 bn = b1 − b2 + b3 − · · · − bN −1 + (−1)n−1 bn
n=1 n=N

∞
N −1
= b1 − b2 + b3 − · · · − bN −1 + (−1) (−1)n−1 cn ,
n=1

where cn = bn+N −1 . The series (−1)n−1 bn and ± (−1)n−1 cn differ
by a number, and therefore the convergence of one of them implies
the convergence of the other. The series (−1)n−1 cn converges by
Theorem 8.17 as cn+1 ≤ cn for all n and limn→∞ cn = limn→∞ bn+N −1 =
0.

Example 8.24. Test the series n=1 (−1)n−1 np /(n + 1) for conver-
gence if p < 1.
Solution: Here bn = np /(n + 1) and, for p < 1,
np np−1
lim bn = lim = lim = lim np−1 = 0.
n→∞ n→∞ n + 1 n→∞ 1 + 1 n→∞
n
So hypothesis (ii) of Theorem 8.17 is fulfilled. However, the mono-

tonicity of {bn } is not obvious. To investigate it, consider the function
f (x) = xp /(x + 1), where x ≥ 1. If f (x) monotonically decreases, then
so does the sequence bn = f (n). The condition f (x) ≤ 0 has to be
verified:
pxp−1 (x + 1) − xp
f (x) = ≤ 0 ⇐⇒ (p − 1)xp + pxp−1 ≤ 0
(x + 1)2
⇐⇒ p ≤ x(1 − p)
If p ≤ 0, this is true as x ≥ 1. If 0 N . So the series converges
for all p < 1. 2
54.1. Estimating Sums of Alternating Series. A partial sum sn of any

convergent alternating series can be used as an approximation of the
total sum s, but this is not of much use unless the accuracy of the
approximation is assessed. The following theorem asserts that the ab-

solute error of the approximation s ≈ sn does not exceed the value of
bn+1 .
Theorem 8.18 (Alternating Series Sum Estimation). If s =

n−1
(−1) bn is the sum of an alternating series that satisfies
(i) 0 ≤ bn+1 ≤ bn for all n and (ii) lim bn = 0,
n→∞
then |s − sn | ≤ bn+1 .
Proof. In the proof of the alternating series test, it was found that
the subsequence {s2k } approaches the limit value s from below, s2k ≤ s.
On the other hand, the subsequence {s2k−1 } approaches the limit value
s from above. Indeed, s1 = b1 , s3 = s1 − b2 + b3 ≤ s1 because b3 ≤ b2 ,
and, in general, s2k+1 = s2k−1 − b2k + b2k+1 ≤ s2k−1 ; that is, {s2k+1 }
is monotonically decreasing. This shows that the sequence of partial
sums sn oscillates around s so that the sum s always lies between any
two consecutive partial sums sn and sn+1 as depicted in Figure 8.8.
Hence,
|s − sn | ≤ |sn+1 − sn | = bn+1 .
2
Example 8.25. Estimate the number of terms in a partial sum
sn needed to approximate the sum of the alternating harmonic series
correct to N decimal places.
Solution: Here, bn = 1/n. Hence, the approximation s ≈ sn is correct
to N decimal places if the absolute error does not exceed 5 · 10−N −1 :
|s−sn | ≤ bn+1 < 5·10−N −1 or 1/(n+1) < 5·10−N −1 or n > 0.2·(10N −1).
2
Remark. If the monotonicity condition bn+1 ≤ bn holds only if
n ≥ N , the conclusion of Theorem 8.18 also holds onlyn−1if n ≥ N .
Indeed, in the notation from Remark 2, put t = (−1) cn , where
cn = bn+N −1 . Let tn be a partial sum for the series (−1)n−1 cn . Then
s = sN −1 + (−1)N −1 t and sn = sN −1 + (−1)N −1 tn−N +1 for n ≥ N .
Therefore,
|s − sn | = |t − tn−N +1 | ≤ cn−N +2 = bn+1 for all n ≥ N.
54.2. Exercises.
In (1)–(15), determine whether the series converges or diverges (here p
is real).
∞
(−1)n ∞
(−1)n n
∞
cos(nπ/2)
(1) (2) √ (3)
n=1
ln(n + 3) n=1
n3 + 1 n=1
n4/5

∞
(−1)n n
∞
(−1)n n ∞
(−1)n n3
(4) (5) (6)
n=1
(n3/2 + 1)2/3 n=2
(ln n)p n=1
2n
∞ n
(−1) (ln n) p ∞
π
∞
(−1)n n2
(7) (8) (−1)n sin (9)
n=2
n n=1
n n=1
n4 + 1

∞
(−1)n
∞
√ ∞
nn
(10) (11) (−1)n ( n n − 1)n (12) (−1)n
n=1
n1+1/n − n n=1 n=1
n!

∞
(−1)n
∞
(−1)n
∞
(−1)n (n2 + n + 1)
(13) (14) (15)
n=1
n+p n=1
np n=1
(2n + 3)2
In (16) and (17), find n for which the approximation by partial sums
s ≈ sn is correct to N decimal places for the series.

∞
(−1)n n
∞
(−1)n n1/3
(16) (17)
n=1
10n n=1
n1/3 + 6
(18) Prove that the sum of the alternating harmonic series is

∞
(−1)n−1
= ln 2.
n=1
n
Hint: Show that a partial sum of the alternating harmonic series is
s2n = h2n − hn , where hn = an + ln n and the sequence {an } is defined
in Exercise 52.4.16. Then use the result of the latter exercise to prove
that sn → ln 2 as n → ∞.
55. Ratio and Root Tests

55.1. Absolutely Convergent Series.

Definition 8.7 (Absolute Convergence). A series an is called
absolutely convergent if the series of absolute values |an | is convergent.
The absolute convergence is stronger than convergence, meaning
that there are convergent series that do not
converge absolutely. For
example, the alternating harmonic series an , an = (−1)n−1 /n, is
convergent, but not absolutely convergent because the series
of absolute
values |an | = 1/n is nothing but the harmonic series 1/n, which is
divergent (as a p−series with p = 1). On the other hand, the absolute
convergence implies convergence.
55. RATIO AND ROOT TESTS 103
Theorem 8.19 (Convergence and Absolute Convergence). Every

absolutely convergent series is convergent.
Proof. For any sequence {an }, the following inequality holds;
0 ≤ an + |an | ≤ 2|an |

because |an | is either an or −an . It shows that the series bn , where
bn= an + |an |, converges
by the comparison test because 2|an | =
2 |an | converges if a n converges absolutely. Hence, the series
an = bn − |an | converges as the difference of two convergent
series. 2

Example 8.26. Test the series [sin n − 2 cos(2n)]/n3/2 for abso-
lute convergence.
Solution: Making use of the inequality |A + B| ≤ |A| + |B| and the
properties that | sin x| ≤ 1 and | cos x| ≤ 1, one infers
| sin n − 2 cos(2n)| | sin n| + 2| cos(2n)| 3
|an | = 3/2
≤ 3/2
≤ 3/2 .
n n n

−3/2 |an | con-verges by comparison with the
The series of absolute values
convergent p−series 3 n (here p = 3/2 > 1). So the series in
question converges absolutely. 2

Definition 8.8 (Conditional Convergence). A series an is called
conditionally convergent if it is convergent but not absolutely conver-
gent.
Thus, all convergent series are separated into two classes of con-
ditionally convergent and absolutely convergent series. The key dif-
ference between properties of absolutely convergent and conditionally
convergent series is studied in the next section.
55.2. Ratio Test.

Theorem 8.20 (Ratio Test). Given a series an , suppose the
following limit exists:
a
n+1
lim = c,
n→∞ an
where c ≥ 0 or c = ∞.

• If c < 1, then an converges absolutely.
• If c > 1, then an diverges.
• If c = 1, then the test gives no information.
Proof. If c < 1, then the existence of the limit means that, for
any ε > 0, there is an integer N such that
a a
n+1 n+1
−ε < − c < ε =⇒ < c + ε = q < 1 for all n ≥ N.
an an
Note that since c is strictly less than 1, one can always take ε > 0
small enough so that the number q = c + ε < 1. In particular, put
n = N + k − 1, where k ≥ 2. Applying the inequality |an+1 | < q|an |
consecutively k times,
|aN +k | < q|aN +k−1 | < q 2 |aN +k−2 | < · · · < q k |aN | = |aN |q −N q N +k .
This shows that
(8.13) |an | < βq n , β = |aN |q −N , for all n ≥ N.

The series |an | converges
nby comparison withthe convergent geo-
n
metric series βq = β q because q < 1. So an converges abso-
lutely. If c > 1, then there is an integer N such that |an+1 |/|an | > 1 or
|an+1 | > |an | ≥ 0 for all n ≥ N . Hence, the necessary condition for a
series
to converge, an → 0 as n → ∞ does not hold; that is, the series
an diverges. If c = 1, it is sufficient, to give examples of aconvergent
and divergent series for which c = 1. Consider a p-series n−p . One
has
a np
n+1 1
c = lim = lim = lim =1
n→∞ an n→∞ (n + 1)p n→∞ (1 + 1/n)p
for any p. But a p-series converges if p > 1 and diverges otherwise. 2
∞Example 8.27. Find all values of p and q for which the series
p n
n=1 n q converges absolutely.
Solution: Here an = np q n . One has
a (n + 1)p |q|n+1 (1 + 1/n)p
n+1
c = lim = lim = |q| lim = |q|.
n→∞ an n→∞ np |q|n n→∞ 1
So, for |q| < 1 and any p, the series converges absolutely by the ratio
test. If q = ±1, the ratio test is inconclusive,and thesecases have
to be
studied by different means. If |q| = 1, then |an | = np = 1/n−p ,
which is a p-series that converges if −p > 1 or p < −1. Thus, the
series converges absolutely for all p if |q| < 1 and for p < −1 if q =
±1. Note that, for −1 ≤ p < 0 and q = −1, the series conditionally
converges (i.e., it is convergent but not absolutely
convergent). In this
case, it is a convergent alternating p-series (−1)n /n−p (see Exercise
54.2.14). 2
55.3. Root Test.

Theorem 8.21 (Root Test). Given a series an , suppose the fol-
lowing limit exists:
lim n |an | = c,
n→∞
where c ≥ 0 or c = ∞.

• If c < 1, then an converges absolutely.
• If c > 1, then an diverges.
• If c = 1, then the test gives no information.
Proof. If c < 1, then, as in the proof of the ratio test, the existence
of the limit means that, for any c < q < 1, there is an integer N such
that n
|an | < q =⇒ |an | < q n for all n ≥ N.

This shows that the series |an | converges by comparison with the
n
convergent geometric series q , 0 < q < 1. So an
converges
absolutely. If c > 1, then there exists an integer N such that n |an | > 1
for all n ≥ N , and hence the condition an → 0 as n → ∞ does
not
√ hold. The series an diverges. If c = 1, consider a p-series:
n √ −p −p
n = ( n) → 1 = 1 by Theorem 8.6. But a p-series converges
−p n
if p > 1 and diverges if p < 1. So the root test is inconclusive. 2

Example 8.28. Test the convergence of the series an , where
an =
[(2n2 + 5)/(3n2 + 2)]n .
Solution: Here |an | = an , and the absolute convergence is equivalent
to the convergence. One has
2n2 + 5 2 + 5/n2 2
lim n |an | = lim = lim = < 1.
n→∞ n→∞ 3n2 + 2 n→∞ 3 + 2/n2 3
So the series converges. 2
55.4. Oscillatory Behavior of Sequences in the Root and Ratio Tests. Con-
sider a sequence defined recursively by a1 = 1 and an+1 = 12 (sin n)an .
An attempt to test the convergence of an by the ratio test leads to
the sequence cn = |an+1 |/|an | = 12 | sin n| which does not converge as it
oscillates between 0 and 1/2. Similarly, the sequence used in the root
test may also exhibit oscillatory behavior and be nonconvergent, for
example, an = ( 2 sin n) so that cn = |an | = 12 | sin n|. The ratio and
1 n n
root tests, as stated in Theorems 8.20 and 8.21, assume the existence
of the limit cn → c. What can be said about the convergence of a series
when this limit does not exist?
To answer this question, recall that, in the proof of the ratio or

root test, the existence of limn→∞ cn = c < 1 has been used only to
establish the boundedness of the sequence cn ≤ q < 1 for all n ≥ N ,
which is sufficient for the series an to converge. But the boundedness
property does not imply the convergence! Evidently, the boundedness
condition holds in the above examples, cn = 12 | sin n| ≤ 12 < 1 for all
n. Similarly, the existence of the limit value c > 1 has only been used
to show that |an | ≥ 1 or |an | ≥ 1 for infinitely many
n
n to conclude
that the sequence {an } cannot converge to 0 and hence an diverges.
If |an+1 |/|an | ≥ 1 for all n ≥ N , then again {an } cannot converge to 0
(by the proof of the ratio test). Thus, the convergence of {cn } in the
root or ratio test is not really necessary.
Theorem 8.22 (Ratio and RootTests Refined). Given a series

n an , put cn = |an+1 |/|an | or cn = |an |. Then
n

cn ≤ q < 1 for all n ≥ N =⇒ an converges.

n
|an | ≥ 1 for infinitely many n
|an+1 | =⇒ an diverges
|an |
≥ 1 for all n ≥ N
for some integer N .
Root Test. If the limit of |an+1 |/|an | exists,

55.5. Wider Scope of the
then so does the limit of n
|an | and
|an+1 |
(8.14) lim n
|an | = lim .
n→∞ n→∞ |an |

The converse is not true; that is, the existence of the limit of n |an |
does not generally imply the existence of the limit of |an+1 |/|an | (the
latter may or may not exist). Furthermore, if the sequence |an | does
n
not converge, neither does |an+1 |/|an |. A proof of these assertions is

given in more advanced calculus courses. Thus, the ratio test has the
same predicting power as the root test only if |an+1 |/|an | converges.
In general, the root test (as in Theorem 8.22) has wider scope,
meaning that whenever the ratio test shows convergence, the root test
does, too, and whenever the root test is inconclusive, the ratio test
is, too. The subtlety to note here is that the converse of the latter
statement is not generally true; that is, the inconclusiveness of the ratio
test does not imply the inconclusiveness of the root test. The assertion
can be illustrated with the following example. Consider a convergent
series obtained from the sum of two geometric series in which the order
of summation is changed:

∞
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
∞
3
∞
an = + + 2 + 2 + 3 + 3 + · · · = k
+ k
= .
n=1
2 3 2 3 2 3 2 k=0 2 3 k=0 3 2
where the sum of a geometric series has been used (Theorem 8.8). Now
note that if n = 2k is even, then a2k = (1/3)k , and a2k−1 = (1/2)k if
n = 2k − 1 is odd. Take the subsequence of ratios for even n = 2k,
c2k = a2k+1 /a2k = (2/3)k /9. It converges to 0 as k → ∞. On the other
hand, the subsequence of ratios for odd n = 2k − 1 diverges: c2k−1 =
(3/2)k → ∞ as k → ∞. So the limit of cn does not exist; moreover,
the ratio test (as in Theorem 8.22) fails miserably because cn is not
even bounded.
√ The series converges √ test. Indeed, c2k =
by the root
√
2k a
√
2k = 1/ 2 < 1 and c2k−1 = a2k−1 = 1/ 3 < 1. Although the
2k−1
√ √
sequence cn does not converge√(it oscillates between 1/ 3 and 1/ 2),
it is bounded, cn ≤ q = 1/ 2 < 1 for all n, and hence the series
converges by Theorem 8.22. A similar example is given in Exercise
55.7.19. Thus, the ratio test is sensitive to the order of summation,
while this is not so for the root test.
55.6. When the Ratio Test Is Inconclusive.

Theorem 8.23 (De Morgan’s Ratio Test). Let an be a series in
which |an+1 |/|an | → 1 as n → ∞. The series converges absolutely if
a
n+1
lim n − 1 = b < −1.
n→∞ an
The proof of this theorem is left to the reader as an exercise (see
Exercise 55.7.18). Consider the asymptotic behavior of the ratio cn =
|an+1 |/|an | as n → ∞. The theorem asserts that if cn behaves as
cn ∼ 1 + b/n for large n (i.e., neglecting terms of order 1/np where
p > 1), then the series an converges if b < −1.
For a p-series, the ratio test is inconclusive (see the proof of the
ratio test). However, De Morgan’s test resolves the inconclusiveness.
Indeed, for large n,
np 1 p
cn = p
= p
∼1− .
(n + 1) (1 + 1/n) n
where the asymptotic behavior has been found from the linearization
f (x) = (1 + x)−p ∼ f (0) + f (0)x = 1 − px for small x = 1/n. So
b = −p and the series converges if b < −1 or p > 1.
This illustrates a basic technical trick to applying De Morgan’s test.
Suppose that there is a function f (x) such that |an+1 |/|an | = f (1/n).
If f is differentiable at x = 0, that is, f (x) ≈ f (0) + f (0)x as x → 0,

then
|an+1 |/|an | = f (1/n) ∼ f (0) + f (0)(1/n) = 1 + f (0)/n,

and the series an converges absolutely if f (0) < −1. Note that the
property f (0) = 1 follows from the inconclusiveness of the ratio test.
55.7. Exercises.
In (1)–(15), determine whether the series is absolutely convergent, con-
ditionally convergent, or divergent (here p is real).
∞
(−1)n
∞ ∞
n!
(1) √3
(2) n2 ( 23 )n (3) , p = 0
n=1
n n=1 n=1
pn

∞
pn
∞
(−1)n 21/n
∞
(−1)n np+3
(4) (5) (6)
n=1
n! n=2
np n=1
n!
∞
(−1)n (ln n)p ∞
(−1)n n ∞
n!
(7) (8) √
4
(9)
n=2
n n=1
n3 + 1 n=1
nn
∞
(−1)n ∞
2n3 + n n
∞
1 n2
(10) (11) (12) 1+
n=1
(ln n)p n=1
3n3 + 5 n=1
n

∞
n p
∞
2 · 4 · · · (2n)
(13) (14)
n=1
(ln n)n n=1
n!
∞
pn n!
(15)
n=1
5 · 8 · · · (3n + 2)

(16) For which integers p > 0 is the series ∞ 2
n=1 (n!) /(pn)! convergent?
(17) (Estimating sums). Given a series an with positive terms, put
c
n = an+1 /an . Suppose that c n → c < 1, that is, the series converges,
an = s. Let sn be a partial sum. Prove that
an+1
s − sn ≤
1 − cn+1
if {cn } is a decreasing sequence, and
an+1
s − sn ≤
1−c
if {cn } is an increasing sequence.
Hint: Use the geometric series as in the proof of the ratio test to
estimate the remainder s − sn = an+1 + an+2 + · · · .
(18) Prove De Morgan’s ratio test.
56. REARRANGEMENTS 109

Hints: Compare the series |an | with the convergent p-series bn ,
where bn = A/n and p = −(1 − b)/2 > 1 if b < −1. Show that
p
n(bn+1 /bn − 1) → b as n → ∞. Next, show that, by choosing the

constant A one can always make |an | < bn for all n.
(19) Consider a geometric series with q = 1/2 in which the order of
terms is changed by swapping terms in each consecutive pair:
1 1 1 1 1 1 1
a1 + a2 + a3 + · · · = + 1 + + + + + + + ··· .
2 8 4 32 16 128 64
Test the convergence of this series using the root and ratio tests.
56. Rearrangements
Here the difference between conditionally convergent and absolutely
convergent series is further refined through the concept of rearrange-
ment.
Definition 8.9 (Rearrangement). Let {kn }, n = 1, 2, ..., be an
integer-valued positive sequence in which every positive integer appears

only once (i.e., kn = kn if and
only if n = n ). Given a series
an ,
put an = akn . The series an is called a rearrangement of an .
For a finite sum, a rearrangement of its terms does not change the
value of the sum. This is not generally so for convergent series.
Consider an alternating p-series:
∞ ∞
(−1)n−1 1 1 1 1 1
(8.15) an = = 1 − + − + − + ··· .
n=1 n=1
n 2 3 4 5 6
The series is convergent but not absolutely convergent (its sum is s =
ln 2; see Exercise 54.2.18). One of its rearrangements reads
∞
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
(8.16) an = 1 + − + + − + + − + ···
n=1
3 2 5 7 4 9 11 6
in which two positive terms are always followed by one negative. Let
sn and sn be partial sums of (8.15) and (8.16), respectively. Put hn =
1 + 1/2 + · · · + 1/n (a partial sum of the harmonic series). Then
s2n = h2n − hn . Furthermore,
1 1 1 1 1 1 1
s3n = 1 + + + + · · · + − − − ··· −
3 5 7 4n − 1 2 4 2n
1 1 1 1 1 1
= h4n − − − · · · − − hn = h4n − h2n − hn
2 4 4n 2 2 2
1 1
= (h4n − h2n ) + (h2n − hn ) = s4n + s2n .
2 2
Taking the limit n → ∞ in this equality, one finds s = s + s/2 = 3s/2,

where s and s are the sums of (8.15) and (8.16), respectively. Thus,
a rearrangement of the series has changed its sum! This fact is not
specific to the example considered but inherent in all conditionally
convergent series. Terms of a conditionally convergent series occur
with different signs (positive and negative). By regrouping positive
and negative terms, it will be proved that the sum of a conditionally
convergent series can be made any number or ±∞. The analysis begins
by studying the properties of sums of positive and negative terms of a
conditionally convergent series.
Given a number x, put x± = (x ± |x|)/2. The number x+ = x if
x > 0 and x+ = 0 otherwise. Similarly, x− = x if x < 0 and x− = 0
otherwise.
+
− Lemma 8.1. Given a series a n , consider two series an and
an , where a±n = (a n ± |a n |)/2 (the series of positive and negative
terms). Then + −
(i) If an converges absolutely, then an and
+ an converge.
−
(ii) If an is conditionally convergent, then an and an diverge.

Proof. Let an = s < ∞ and |an | = t, where t < ∞ if an
converges absolutely and ± t = ∞ if it is conditionally convergent. Let
s±
n be partial sums of an , sn be partial sums of an , and tn be
partial sums of |an |. Since sn → s and tn → t as n → ∞, one infers
that
− −
n − an = an
a+ s+n − sn = sn s+ − s− = s
− =⇒ − =⇒
an + an = |an |
+ +
sn + sn = tn s+ + s− = t,

where s± are the limits of s± n . If ± then t < ∞
an converges absolutely,
±
and hence s = (t ± s)/2; that is, both series
an converge. If
an is conditionally convergent, then t = ∞, and both sequences s± n
diverge. 2

Theorem 8.24 (Riemann’s Rearrangement Theorem). Let an
be a series that converges, but not absolutely. Then, for any c that is a
real number or ±∞, there exists a rearrangement an whose sequence
of partial sums {sn } converges to c.

Proof. Let p1 , p2 , .... denote nonnegative terms of an in the
or-
der in which they occur, and let q1 , q2 , ... denote negative terms of an
in the order in which
+they occur. In the notation
of Lemma 8.1, the
series pn and an as well as qn and a− n may only differ by

zero terms (if some an = 0). So the series pn and qn diverge.
Consider the following rearrangement. Given a number c, take first
k1 terms pn , such that the number c lies between the partial sums
sk1 = p1 + p2 + · · · + pk1 and sk1 −1 ; that is, k1 is defined by the con-
dition sk1 − pk1 < c < sk1 or |c − sk1 | < pk1 . If c < 0, then skip this
first step. Next, take first m1 terms qn where m1 is the smallest integer
such that sk1 +m1 = sk1 + q1 + · · · + qm1 < c; that is, m1 is defined by the
condition sk1 +m1 + qm1 > c > sk1 +m1 or |c− sk1 +m1 | < |qm1 |. This can
always be done because partial sums of pn can be larger than any
number, while partial sums of qn can be smaller than any number
owing to the divergence of these series. So
s1 ≤sn ≤ sk1 , 1 ≤ n ≤ k1 , where |c − sk1 | < pk1 ,

sk1 ≥sn ≥ sk1 +m1 , k1 ≤ n ≤ k1 + m1 , where |c − sk1 +m1 | < |qk1 |,
Next, take k2 next terms pn , where k2 is the smallest integer such that
sk1 +m1 +k2 > c, and take m2 next terms qn , where m2 is the smallest
integer for which sk1 +m1 +k1 +m2 < c, and so on. At the nth step of the
procedure, let n1 be the integer for which the last term in sn1 is pkn
and let n2 be the integer for which the last term in sn2 is qmn , that
is, n2 = n1 + mn . The partial sums of the constructed rearrangement
oscillate about c, reaching local minima sn1 and local maxima sn1 :
sn1 ≤sn ≤ sn2 , n1 ≤ n ≤ n2 ,

(8.17) |c − sn1 | < pkn , |c − sn2 | < |qmn |.

By convergence of the series an , an → 0 as n → 0. Hence, pn and qn
also converge to 0 and so do the subsequences pkn → 0 and qmn → 0.
Thus, all local maxima and minima of the sequence of partial sum {sn }
converge to c by (8.17), which shows that sn → c. Finally, if c = ±∞,
one can take any divergent sequence cn → ∞ (or −∞) and construct a
rearrangement such that sk1 overshoots c1 and sk1 +m1 undershoots c1 ,
sk1 +m1 +k2 overshoots c2 and sk1 +m1 +k2 +m2 undershoots c2 , and so on.
Obviously, this sequence of partial sum diverges. 2
Absolutely convergent series have a drastically different property.

Theorem 8.25 (Rearrangement and Absolute Convergence).If a
series an converges absolutely, then every rearrangement of an
converges, and they all converge to the same sum
Proof. Let tn = |a1 | + |a2 | + · · · + |an | be a partial sum of the

series of absolute values. The sequence {tn } converges to a number t
by the hypothesis; that is, for any ε > 0, there is an integer N such
that |t − tn | < ε for all n > N . Therefore,

n
|ak | = |tn − tN +1 | = |tn − t + t − tN +1 |
k=N +1
≤ |tn − t| + |t − tN +1 | < 2ε.
So, by taking N large enough, the sum of any number of terms |ak |,
k > N , can be made smaller thanany preassigned positive number.
Let sn and sn be partial sums of an and its rearrangement an .

One can take n > N large enough such that sn contains a1 , a2 ,...,aN
(i.e., the integers 1, 2, ..., N are in the set of integers k1 , k2 , ..., kn in
the notations of Definition 8.9). Then the difference |sn − sn | contains
only terms |ak | with k > N (the terms a1 , a2 ,..., aN are cancelled).
Therefore, |sn − sn | < 2ε for all n > N . If sn → s and sn → s, then
|s − s| < 2ε, which shows that s = s because ε > 0 is arbitrary. 2
Thus, an absolutely convergent series is much like a finite sum. The
sum does not depend on the order in which the summation is carried
out. In contrast, the sum of a conditionally convergent series depends
on the summation order. This is the characteristic difference between
these two classes of convergent series.
56.1. Strategy for Testing Series. It would not be wise to apply tests for
convergence in a specific order to find one that finally works. Instead,
a proper strategy, as with integration, is to classify the series according
to its form. One should also keep in mind that a conclusion about the
convergence of a series can be reached
in different ways.
1. Special series. A series an coincides with (or is a combina-
tion of or is equivalent to) special series such as a p-series, alternating
p-series, geometric series, telescopic series, and so on. Their conver-
gence properties are known.
2. Series similar to special ones. If a series an has a form
that is similar to one of the special series, then one of the comparison
tests should be considered. For example, if an is a rational or alge-
braic function (contains roots of polynomials), then the series should
be compared with a p-series.
3. Necessary condition for convergence. It is is always easier
the condition an → 0 as n → ∞ than it is to investigate the
to check
series an for convergence. If the condition does not hold, the series
diverges.
4. Alternating series. If an = (−1)n bn , bn ≥ 0, then the alter-
nating series test is an obvious possibility.
5. Ratio and root tests. Absolute convergence implies conver-

gence. So, if the ratio or root test shows convergence, then the series in
question converges absolutely. If these tests show divergence, then the
series in question may still converge but not absolutely, and a further
investigation
is required. The root test is convenient for series of the
n
form (bn ) . The ratio test is convenient when an involves the facto-
rial n! or similar products of integers. The root test has a wider scope,
but it is more difficult to use. The ratio test is often inconclusive if an
is a rational or algebraic function (cn = |an+1 |/|an | → 1). In this case,
the asymptotic behavior of cn is rather easy to find, cn ∼ 1 + b/n as
n → ∞, and then use De Morgan’s test.
6. Series
∞ of nonnegative terms. If an = f (n) ≥ 0 and the
integral 1 f (x) dx is easy to evaluate, then the integral test is effective.
Also, it can ∞be used in combination with the comparison test: an ≤
f (n) and 1 f (x) dx converges and so is an , or f (n) ≤ an and
∞
1
f (x) dx diverges and so is an .

Example 8.29. Test the series (n + 1)/(n2 + n + 1) for conver-
gence.
Solution: For large n, the leading terms of the top and bottom of
the ratio are n and n2 , respectively. So an ∼ 1/n asymptotically for
large n. The series resembles the harmonic series, which diverges. It is
natural, then, to try to prove the divergence of the series by comparing
it with the harmonic series:
n+1 n n 1
2
> 2 ≥ 2 2 2
= .
n +n+1 n +n+1 n +n +n 2n
Thus, the series indeed diverges by comparison with the harmonic se-
ries. 2
n
Example 8.30. Test the series 3 /(2 · 4 · 6 · · · (2n)) for conver-
gence.
Solution: Each term an involves a factorial-like product of integers,
which suggests the use of the ratio test:
an+1 3n+1 2 · 4 · · · (2n) 3
= = → 0.
an 2 · 4 · · · (2n) · (2n + 2) 3 n 2n + 2
So, the series converges. 2
3/2
Example 8.31. Test the series sin(n2 )e−n for convergence.
Solution: One has
3/2 3/2
|an | = | sin(n2 )|e−n ≤ e−n ≤ e−n .
∞
The series e−n converges by the integral test: 1 e−x dx = 1/e < ∞.
Hence, the series in question converges absolutely. Alternatively, the
3/2
convergence of bn , where bn = e−n , can be established by the root
√ 1/2
test: n bn = e−n → 0 < 1 as n → ∞. 2
Example 8.32. Put hn = 1 + 1/2 + · · · + 1/n (a partial sum of
the harmonic series). Investigate the convergence of np e−qhn , where
p = q.
Solution: The ratio test is inconclusive:
an+1 (n + 1)p e−qhn+1 (n + 1)p −q(hn+1 −hn ) (1 + n1 )p − n+1
q
= = e = e → 1.
an np e−qhn np 1
To apply De Morgan’s test, the asymptotic behavior of an+1 /an has
to be investigated. Put f (x) = (1 + x)p exp(−qx/(1 + x)) so that
an+1 /an = f (1/n). Using the linearization near x = 0, (1+x)p ∼ 1+px,
and exp(−qx/(1+x)) ∼ 1−qx/(1+x) ∼ 1−qx, the asymptotic behavior
is obtained:
an+1 p−q
f (x) ∼ (1 + px)(1 − qx) ∼ 1 + (p − q)x =⇒ ∼1+ .
an n
Thus, the series converges if p − q < −1 or p < q − 1. Of course, one
could simply calculate f (0) = p − q, but this is a bit more involved
than the above procedure for finding the asymptotic behavior. 2
56.2. Exercises.
In (1)–(15), test the series for convergence or divergence (here p is real).

∞
1
∞
n
∞
np p2n
(1) √ (2) (−1) n
(3)
n=1
n + 2n n=1
2n + 3 n=1
n!
∞
n!
∞
(−1)n ln n
(4) (5)
n=1
2 · 5 · 8 · · · (3n − 1) n=2
np
∞
(2n + 3)n
∞
1 · 3 · 5 · · · (2n − 1)
(6) (7) (−1)n
n=1
(3n2 + 1)n/2 n=1
2 · 4 · 6 · · · (2n)

∞
∞
1
∞
sin(1/n)
(8) tan(πn + 1/n) (9) (10)
n=1 n=2
(ln n)ln n n=1
np
∞
n n2
∞
∞
n!
(11) , p > 0 (12) ( n p2 − 1)n (13)
n=1
n+p n=1 n=1
enp
∞
np n−1 ∞
√
(14) , |p| < 1 (15) ( n
p − 1) , p ≥ 0
n=1
pn − (1 − 1/n)n n=1
57. POWER SERIES 115
57. Power Series

Definition 8.10 (Power Series). Given a sequence {cn }, the series
∞
cn xn = c0 + c1 x + c2 x2 + c3 x3 + · · ·
n=0
is called a power series in the variable x. The numbers cn are called
the coefficients of the series.
In general, the series will converge or diverge, depending on the
choice of x. The power series always converges for x = 0 to the number
c0 .

Example 8.33. For what values of x does the power series ∞ n
n=0 x /n
converge?
Solution: By the root test,

n |x | |x|
n
= √n
→ |x| as n → ∞.
n n
So the series converges for all −1 < x < −1 and diverges as x > 1
or x < −1. The root test is inconclusive for x = ±1. These values
have to be investigated by different
means. For x = 1, the power series
becomes the harmonic series x = n−1,
1/n, which is divergent. For
the power series becomes the alternating harmonic series (−1) /n,
which is convergent. Thus, the power series converges if x ∈ [−1, 1)
and diverges otherwise. 2
Given a number a, consider a power series in the variable y = x − a:

∞ ∞
n
cn y = cn (x − a)n .
n=0 n=0
It is also called a power series centered at a or a power series about a.
Let S be the set of all values of x for which a power series in x con-
verges and let Sa be the set of all values of x for which the corresponding
power series in (x − a) converges. What is the relation between S and
Sa ? Since the series are obtained from one another by merely shifting
the value of the variable by a number a, x → x − a, the set Sa is
therefore obtained by adding the number a to every element of S:
(8.18) x ∈ Sa ⇐⇒ x − a ∈ S =⇒ Sa = {x | x − a ∈ S}.

For example, the series ∞ n=0 (x − 2) /n converges if x − 2 ∈ [−1, 1)
n
or x ∈ [1, 3) and diverges otherwise by Example 8.33. Thus, the prob-

lem of finding the set Sa is equivalent to the problem of finding the
set S.
57.1. Power Series as a Function. Suppose that a power series in x

converges on a set S. Then it defines a function on S:

f (x) = cn xn , x ∈ S.
n=0
The set S is called the domain of such a function. Functions defined

by power series are most common in applications. Many of them have
special notations (like elementary functions sin, cos, exp, etc.). Their
properties are well studied. In what follows, it will be shown that
familiar elementary functions such as sin x, cos x, and exp x, etc can
also be represented as power series.
Example 8.34. Find the domain of the Bessel function of order 0
that is defined by the power series
(−1)n
J0 (x) = 2n (n!)2
x2n ,
n=0
2
where, by common convention, 0! = 1.
Solution: Since an = cn x2n contains the factorial, the ratio test is
more convenient:
|an+1 | |cn+1 | 22n (n!)2 x2
= x2 = x2 2(n+1) = →0
|an | |cn | 2 ((n + 1)!)2 22 (n + 1)2
as n → ∞. So the series converges for all x. 2
Values of a function defined by a power series can be estimated by
partial sums that are polynomials in the variable x:

n
f (x) ≈ fn (x) = ck xk = c 0 + c1 x + c2 x2 + · · · + cn xn .
k=0
Thus, partial sums define a sequence of polynomials that converges to

the function on S, fn (x) → f (x) for all x ∈ S. The accuracy of
the approximation is determined by the remainder Rn (x) = f (x) −
fn (x). The accuracy assessment is discussed in Section 8.59. Since the
remainder Rn (x) is a function on S, the error of the approximation is
not generally uniform; that is, it depends on x.
57.2. Radius of Convergence. The set S on which a power series is

convergent is an important characteristic and its properties have to be
studied.
Lemma 8.2 (Properties of a Power Series). (i). If a power series

cn xn converges when x = b = 0, then it converges whenever |x| < |b|.

(ii). If a power series cn xn diverges when x = d = 0, then it diverges
whenever |x| > |d|.
n
Proof. If cn b converges, then, by the necessary condition for
convergence, cn b → 0 as n → ∞. This means, in particular, that, for
n
ε = 1, there exists an integer N such that |cn bn | < ε = 1 for all n > N .
Thus, for n > N ,
c bn x n x n x n
n
|cn xn | = n = |cn bn | < .
b b b
n
which shows that the series cn x converges by comparison with the
geometric series q , where q = x/b and |x/b| < 1 or |x| < |b|.
n
Suppose that c n dn
diverges. If x is any number such that |x| > |d|,
n
then cn x cannot
converge because, by part (i) of the lemma, the
n
convergence
of c n x implies the convergence of cn dn . Therefore,
n
cn x diverges. 2
This lemma allows us to establish the following description of the
set S.
Theorem8.26 (Convergence Properties of a Power Series). For a
power series cn xn , there are only three possibilities:
(i) The series converges only when x = 0.
(ii) The series converges for all x.
(iii) There is a positive number R such that the series converges if
|x| < R and diverges if |x| > R.
Proof. Suppose that neither case 1 nor case 2 is true. Then there
are numbers b = 0 and d = 0 such that the power series converges for
x = b and diverges for x = d. By Lemma 8.2, the set of convergence
S lies in the interval |x| ≤ |d| for all x ∈ S. This shows that |d| is an
upper bound for the set S. By the completeness axiom, S has a least
upper bound R = sup S. If |x| > R, then x ∈ S, and n
cn x diverges.
If |x| < R, then |x| is not an upper bound for S, and there exists a
number b ∈ S such that b > |x|. Since b ∈ S, n
cn x converges by
Lemma 8.2. 2
Theorem 8.26 shows that a power series converges in a single open
interval (−R, R) and diverges outside this interval. The set S may or
may not include the points x = ±R. This question requires a special
investigation just like in Example 8.33. So the number R is character-
istic for convergence properties of a power series.
Definition 8.11 (Radius
of Convergence). The radius of conver-
gence of a power series cn xn is a positive number R > 0 such that
the series converges in the open interval (−R, R) and diverges outside
it. A power series is said to have a zero radius of convergence, R = 0,
if it converges only when x = 0. A power series is said to have an
infinite radius of convergence, R = ∞, if it converges for all values of
x.
The ratio or root test can be used to determine the radius of con-
vergence.
Corollary 8.3 (Radius of Convergence of a Power Series). Given
a power series cn xn ,
|cn+1 | 1
if lim =α =⇒ R= ,
n→∞ |cn | α
1
if lim n |cn | = α =⇒ R= ,
n→∞ α
where R = 0 if α = ∞ and R = ∞ if α = 0.
Proof. Put an = cn xn in the ratio test (Theorem 8.20). Then
|an+1 |/|an | = |x||cn+1 |/|cn | → |x|α. The series converges if |x|α < 1,
which shows that R = 1/α. Similarly, using the root test (Theorem
8.21), |an | = |x| n |cn | → |x|α < 1, which shows that R = 1/α.
n
2
Remark. If the sequences in Corollary 8.3 do not converge, then
Theorem 8.22 should be used, where an = cn xn .
Once the radius of convergence has been found and 0 < R < ∞,
the cases x = ±R have to be investigated by some other means (as the
root or ratio test is inconclusive in this case) to determine the interval
of convergence S of a power series.
Example 8.35. Find the radius ofn convergence and the √interval of
convergence of the power series cn x , where cn = (−q)n / n + 1 and
q > 0.
Solution:
√
|cn+1 | qn+1
n+1 n+1 1 + 1/n
=√ =q =q → q = α.
|cn | n+2 qn n+2 1 + 2/n
√
Therefore, R = 1/α = 1/q. If x = −1/q, then cn xn = (−1)n / n+1=
n
(−1) bn . The sequence bn converges monotonically to 0 so that (−1)n bn
converges
√ by the = −1/q, then cn xn =
√ alternating series test.If x 1/2
1/ n + 1 > 1/ √2n, n ≥ 1. The p-series 1/n diverges (p = 1/2 <
1) so that 1/ n + 1 diverges by the comparison test. Thus, the
interval of convergence is S = [−1/q, 1/q). 2
Example 8.36. Find the radius 2of convergence and the interval of
n n
convergence of the power series n (x + 1) /q , where q > 0.

Solution: Put y = x + 1. If S is the interval of convergence of cn y n ,
where cn = n2 /q n , then the interval of convergence in question is ob-
tained by adding −1 to all numbers in S according to the rule (8.18).
By Corollary 8.3,
1√n 1 √ 1
n
|cn | = n2 = ( n n)2 → = α.
q q q

So R = 1/α = q. If y = q, then cn y n = n2 , and the series n2 diverges
(an = n2 does not converge to 0). If y = −q, then cn xn = (−1)n n2 ,
and the series diverges because an = (−1)n n2 , does not converge to 0.
The series converges only if |y| = |x + 1| < q, and hence the interval of
convergence is x ∈ (−q − 1, q − 1) (the interval (−q, q) shifted by −1).
2
57.3. Exercises.
In (1)–(12), find the radius of convergence and the interval of conver-
gence of the power series.
∞ ∞
2n n ∞
√
n
(1) 3 n
nx (2) 3
x (3) ( 2 − 1)n x2n
n=0 n=0
n n=1

∞
1 ∞
1
(4) (−1) nn
xn (5) p
(x − 2)n , p > 0
n=2
2 ln n n=1
n

∞
√
∞ 2
nn +1
(6) n(x + 1) n
(7) (−1) 3
(x − 1)n
n=0 n=1
n +3

∞
(4x + 1)n ∞
xn
(8) (9)
n=1
n2 n=1
1 · 3 · 5 · · · (2n − 1)

∞
nx 2 2n ∞
(n!)k n
(10). (11) x , k > 0 (integer)
n=1
2 · 4 · · · (2n) n=0
(kn)!

∞ n
4
(12) (x + 3)n
n=0
n!
(13) Let p < q be real numbers. Give examples of power series whose
intervals of convergence are (p, q), [p, q], (p, q], and [p, q).
(14) The Airy function is defined by the power series
x3 x6 x9
A(x) = 1 + + + + ··· .
2·3 2·3·5·6 2·3·5·6·8·9
Find its domain.

(15) A function f is defined by the power series
f (x) = p + qx + px2 + qx3 + px4 + qx5 + · · · ;
that is, its coefficients c2k = p and c2k−1 = q, where p and q are real.
Find the domain of f and an explicit expression of f (x) (the sum of
the series).
(16) If f (x) = cn xn , where cn+4 = cn for all n ≥ 0, find the domain
of f and a formulafor f (x).
(17) Power series cn xn and bn xn have the radii of convergence
R1
and R2 , respectively. What is the radius of convergence of (cn +
bn )xn ?
(18) Suppose that the radius of convergence of cn xn is R. What is
kn
the radius of convergence of cn x , where k > 0 is an integer?
58. Representation of Functions as Power Series

Consider a power series

∞
1 − x + x − x + x + ··· =
2 4 6 8
(−1)n x2n .
n=0
It is a geometric series with q = −x , and therefore it converges for

2
all |q| = x2 < 1 or x ∈ (−1, 1). Using the formula for the sum of a
geometric series, one infers that
1 ∞
= 1 − x + x + ··· =
2 4
(−1)n x2n for all − 1 < x < 1,
1 + x2 n=0
This shows that the function 1/(1 + x2 ) can be represented as a power

series in the open interval (−1, 1). Note that this representation is valid
only in the interval of convergence of the power series despite the fact
that the function 1/(1 + x2 ) is defined on the entire real line.
In general, one can construct a representation of a function by a
power series in (x − a) for some a. The interval of validity of this
representation depends on the choice of a.
Example 8.37. Find a representation of 1/x as a power series in
(x − a), a > 0, and determine the interval of its validity.
Solution: Put y = x − a. The function can be rewritten in a form
that resembles the sum of a geometric series:
1 y n (−1)n
∞ ∞
1 1
= = − = n+1
(x − a)n , x ∈ (0, 2a).
x a(1 + y/a) a n=0 a n=0
a
58. REPRESENTATION OF FUNCTIONS AS POWER SERIES 121
The geometric series converges if |q| = | − y/a| = |y|/a < 1, and hence
this representation is valid only if −a < y < a or −a < x − a < a or
0 < x < 2a. 2
58.1. Differentiation and Integration

of Power Series. The formula for
the sum of a power series cn xn is often complicated and, in most
cases, cannot even be found explicitly. How can functions defined by a
power series be differentiated and integrated? If a function is a finite
sum f (x) = u1 (x) + · · · + un (x), then the derivative is the sum of

f = u1 + · · · + un and, similarly, the integral is the sum of
derivatives
integrals f dx = u1 dx + · · · + un dx. This is not generally true
for infinite sums. As an example, consider a function defined by the
series
∞ ∞
sin(nx)
f (x) = un (x) = 2
.
n=1 n=1
n
By comparison with a p-series, |un (x)| = | sin(nx)|/n2 ≤ 1/n2 , this
series converges for all x because 1/n2 converges. If the series is

sum, that is, term-by-term, un (x) =
differentiated just like a finite
cos(nx)/n, then the series un (x) diverges for x = 2πk for any integer
k as the harmonic series 1/n. So f (2πk) does not exist. Thus,
although the terms un (x) are differentiable functions in the interval of
convergence of the series un , the series of derivatives un may not
converge and hence f = un may not be differentiable everywhere in
its domain.
It appears that if un (x) = cn (x − a)n , that is, un (x) is a power
series, then the term-by-term differentiation or integration is justified.
A proof of this assertion is beyond the scope of this course.
Theorem 8.27 (Differentiation and Integration of Power Series).
If the power series cn (x − a)n has a nonzero radius of convergence
R > 0, then the function f defined by

∞
f (x) = c0 + c1 (x − a) + c2 (x − a)2 + · · · = cn (x − a)n
n=0
is differentiable (and therefore continuous) on the interval (a−R, a+R)

and

∞

f (x) = c1 + 2c2 (x − a) + 3c3 (x − a) + · · · =
2
ncn (x − a)n−1 ,
n=1
∞
(x − a)2
(x − a)n+1
f (x) dx = C + c0 (x − a) + c1 + · · ·=C + cn .
2 n=0
n + 1
The radii of convergence of these power series are both R.

Thus, for power series, the differentiation or integration and the
summation can be carried out in any order:
d d
cn (x − a)n = [cn (x − a)n ],
dx dx

cn (x − a)n dx = [cn (x − a)n ] dx.
Remark. Theorem 8.27 states that the radius of convergence of

a power series does not change after differentiation or integration of
the series. This does not mean that the interval of convergence does
not change. It may happen that the original series converges at an
endpoint, whereas the differentiated series diverges there.
∞ 8.38.
Example Find the intervals of convergence for f , f , and f
if f (x) = n=1 xn /n2 .
√
n √
Solution: Here cn = 1/n2 and hence n |cn | = 1/ n2 = (1/ n n)2 →
1 = α. So the radius of convergence is R = 1/α = 1. For x = ±1,
the series is a p-series 1/n2 that converges (p = 2 > 1). Thus, f (x)
is defined on the closed∞ interval x ∈ [−1, 1]. By Theorem 8.27, the
derivatives f (x) = n=1 x /n and f (x) = ∞
n−1
n=2 (n−1)x
n−2
/n have

the
same radius of convergence R = 1. For x = −1, the series f (−1) =
n−1
(−1) /n is the alternating
harmonic series that converges, whereas
the series f (−1) = (−1)n (n − 1)/n diverges because the sequence of
its terms does not converge to 0: |(−1)n (n − 1)/n| = 1 − 1/n → 1 = 0.

For x = 1, the series f (1) = 1/n is the harmonic series and hence
diverges. The series f (1) = (n − 1)/n also diverges ((n − 1)/n does
not converge to 0). Thus, the intervals of convergence for f , f , and f
are, respectively, [−1, 1], [−1, 1), and (−1, 1). 2
The term-by-term integration of a power series can be used to ob-
tain a power series representation of antiderivatives.
Example 8.39. Find a power series representation for tan−1 x.
Solution:

∞
∞
−1 dx 2 n x2n+1
tan x= = (−x ) dx = C + (−1)n+1 .
1 + x2 n=0 n=0
2n + 1
Since tan−1 0 = 0, the integration constant C satisfies the condition
0 = C + 0 or C = 0. The geometric series with q = −x2 converges if
|q| < 1. Hence, the radius of convergence of the series for tan−1 x is
R = 1 (the power series representation is valid for x ∈ (−1, 1)). 2
√
In particular, the number 1/ 3 is less than the radius of conver-
√
gence of the power series for tan−1 x. So the number tan−1 (1/ 3)√=
π/6 can be written as the numerical series by substituting x = 1/ 3
into the power series for tan−1 x. This leads to the following represen-
tation of the number π:
√ ∞
(−1)n
π=2 3 .
n=0
(2n + 1)3n
58.2. Power Series and Differential Equations. A power series represen-

tation is often used to solve differential equations. The relation between
a function f (x), its argument x, and its derivatives f (x), f (x), and
so on is called a differential equation. A function f (x) that satisfies a
differential equation is generally difficult to find in a closed form. A
power series representation turns out to be helpful. Since in this repre-
sentation a function is defined by a sequence {cn }, f (x) = cn xn , and
so are its derivatives f (k) (x), a differential equation imposes conditions
on cn that are solved recursively.
Example 8.40. Find a power series representation of the solution
of the equation f (x) = f (x) and determine its radius of convergence.

Solution: Put f (x) = cn xn and hence f (x) = ncn xn−1 . Then
the equation f = f gives
c1 + 2c2 x + 3c3 x2 + 4c4 x3 + · · · = c0 + c1 x + c2 x2 + c3 x3 + · · · .
By matching the coefficients at the monomial terms 1, x, x2 , x3 , and
so on, one finds:
c1 c2 cn−1
c0 = c1 c2 = , c3 = , ..., cn = .
2 3 n
Using the latter relation recursively:
1 1 1 c0
cn = cn−1 = cn−2 = cn−3 = · · · = .
n n(n − 1) n(n − 1)(n − 2) n!
∞ n
So f (x) = c0 n=0 x /n!, where c0 is a constant (the equation is satis-
fied for any choice of c0 ). By the ratio test, the series converges for all
x (so R = ∞). Indeed, cn = 1/n! and cn+1 /cn = 1/(n + 1) → 0 = α
and hence R = 1/α = ∞. 2
For this simple differential equation, it is not difficult to find f (x) =
c0 ex by recalling the properties of the exponential function: (ex ) = ex .
The condition f (0) = e0 = 1 determines the constant c0 = 1. Thus,
the exponential function has the following power series representation:

x x2 x3 xn ∞
(8.19) x
e =1+ + + + ··· = .
1! 2! 3! n=0
n!
The series converges on the entire real line. In particular, the number
e has the following series representation:
1 1 1 1 ∞
e=1+ + + + ··· = .
1! 2! 3! n=0
n!
58.3. Approximation of Definite Integrals. If an indefinite integral of

b
f (x) is difficult to obtain, then the evaluation of the integral a f (x) dx
poses a problem. A power series representation offers a simple way to
approximate the value of the integral. Suppose that f (x) = cn xn
for −R < x < R. By Theorem 8.27, for any −R < a < b < R,
b b bn+1 an+1
f (x) dx = cn xn dx = cn − cn
a a n+1 n+1
n
b k+1 n
a k+1
≈ ck − ck .
k=0
k + 1 k=0
k + 1
Errors of the approximation of the series sum by finite sums have been
discussed earlier.
Example 8.41. How many terms does one need in the power series
2
approximation of the integral of f (x) = e−x over the interval [0, 1] to
make the absolute error smaller than 10−5 ?
2
Solution: Note first that the indefinite integral e−x dx cannot be
expressed in elementary functions! So a direct use of the
−xfundamental
2
theorem of calculus becomes problematic. However, e dx can be
represented as a power series that converges on the entire real line by
replacing x in (8.19) by (−x2 ). One has
1 ∞ ∞ n
−x2 (−1)k 1 2k (−1)k (−1)k
e dx = x dx = ≈ .
0 k=0
k! 0 k=0
k!(2k + 1) k=0
k!(2k + 1)
To determine n in the finite sum approximation of the series, recall
the alternating series estimation theorem (Theorem 8.18), where bn =
1/(n!(2n + 1)):
1 n
(−1)k
−x2 1
e dx − ≤ bn+1 = < 10−5 .
0 k=0
k!(2k + 1) (n + 1)!(2n + 3)
A direct calculation shows that b7 ≈ 1.32 · 10−5 and b8 ≈ 1.46 · 10−6 .

So n = 7 is sufficient to approximate the integral with the required
accuracy. 2
58.4. Exercises.
In (1)–(3), find a power series representation for the function and de-
termine the interval of convergence.
1 x x+1
(1) f (x) = (2) f (x) = (3) f (x) =
1 − x4 3x2 +2 −x−1
2x2
In (4)–(6), use differentiation to find a power series representation for
the function and determine the interval of convergence.
1 x3 1
(4) f (x) = (5) f (x) = (6) f (x) =
(1 + x)2 (1 − 4x2 )2 (1 + x4 )3
In (7)–(9), use integration to find a power series representation for the
function and determine the radius of convergence.
1 + x2
(7) f (x) = ln(1+x) (8) f (x) = ln (9) f (x) = tan−1 (3x)
1 − x2
In (10)–(12), find a power series representation for the indefinite inte-
gral and determine the radius of convergence.
x
ln(1 − x) e −1−x
(10) dx (11) dx (12) tan−1 (x2 ) dx
x x2
(13) Find a power series representation for sin x and cos x using the
differential equation f +f = 0. Determine the interval of convergence.
(14) Show that the Bessel function of order 0 defined in Example 8.34
satisfies the differential equation:
x2 J0 (x) + xJ0 (x) + x2 J0 (x) = 0.
In (15)–(17), use differentiation or integration to find the sum of the
series.
∞ ∞ ∞
xn+1
(15) nx n−1
(16) n(n − 1)x n−2
(17)
n=1 n=2 n=0
n+1
In (18)–(20), how many terms does one need in a power series approx-
imation to evaluate the integral with the absolute error not exceeding
10−6 ?
1 1 −x 1/2
dx e −1
(18) 8
(19) dx (20) ln(1 + x4 ) dx
0 1+x 0 x 0
(21) Find the radius of convergence of the hypergeometric series:

ab a(a + 1)b(b + 1) 2 a(a + 1)(a + 2)b(b + 1)(b + 2) 3
1+ x+ x + x +· · · ,
1! c 2! c(c + 1) 3! c(c + 1)(c + 2)
where a, b, and c are reals. Use De Morgan’s test to determine the
interval of convergence.
59. Taylor Series

59.1. Real Analytic Functions. Suppose a function f is represented by
a power series (R > 0):

∞
f (x) = c0 + c1 (x − a) + c2 (x − a) + · · · =
2
cn (x − a)n , |x − a| < R.
n=0
(k)
By Theorem 8.27, its derivatives f (x) can obtained by the term-by-
term differentiation of the series, and the resulting series has the same
convergence radius R. Evidently, f (a) = c0 . What is the significance
of the other coefficients cn ? The derivative f is given by
f (x) = c1 + 2c2 (x − a) + 3c3 (x − a)2 + · · · + kck (x − a)k−1 + · · · ,
which shows that f (a) = c1 . The second derivative is
f (x) = 2c2 + 3 · 2c3 (x − a) + · · · + k(k − 1)ck (x − a)k−2 + · · · .
Therefore, f (a) = 2c2 . After k such steps,
f (k) (x) = k(k − 1) · · · 2 · 1 ck + (k + 1)k(k − 1) · · · 2 ck+1 (x − a) + · · · ,
and hence f (k) (a) = k!ck or ck = f (k) (a)/k!. This proves the following
theorem.
Theorem 8.28 (Significance of Power Series Coefficients). If f has
a power series representation

f (x) = cn (x − a)n , |x − a| < R,
n=0
for some a and R > 0, then its coefficients are

f (n) (a)
cn = .
n!
Definition 8.12 (Real Analytic Functions). A function f on an

analytic if, for any a ∈ I, it has a power
open interval I is said to be
series representation f (x) = cn (x − a)n that converges in some open
interval (a − δ, a + δ) ⊂ I, where δ > 0.
59. TAYLOR SERIES 127
The class of analytic functions plays a significant role in applica-

tions. Their properties are discussed next.
Theorem 8.29 (Power Series Representation of Analytic Func-
tions). A function f that is analytic on an open interval I has the
power series representation

∞
f (n) (a)
(8.20) f (x) = (x − a)n
n=0
n!
for any a ∈ I that converges in an open subinterval of I that includes
a.
This theorem follows from Definition 8.12 and Theorem 8.28.
In Example 8.37 it was found that
1 (−1)n
∞
(8.21) = n+1
(x − a)n , x ∈ (0, 2a).
x n=0 a
This shows that the function f (x) = 1/x is analytic for all x > 0
because a can be any positive number; that is, the function has a
power series representation that converges in an open subinterval of
(0, ∞) containing any a > 0. Similarly, the analyticity of f (x) = 1/x
can be established for all x < 0.
It is important to emphasize that a power series for an analytic
function does not necessarily converge on the entire domain of the
function. But an analytic function can always be represented by a
convergent power series in a neighborhood of every point of its domain.
Equation (8.21) illustrates the point.
Theorem 8.30 (Properties of Analytic Functions).
(i) The sums and products of analytic functions are analytic.
(ii) The reciprocal 1/f of an analytic function f is analytic if f is
nowhere zero.
(iii) The composition f (g(x)) of analytic functions f and g is analytic.
(iv). Analytic functions are differentiable infinitely many times.
A proof of properties (i)–(iii) is given in more advanced calculus
courses. Property (iv) follows from Theorem 8.27. Its converse is
not generally true; that is, there are functions that are differentiable
infinitely many times at a point, but they cannot be represented by a
power series that converges in an open interval that includes this point.
As an example, consider the function
2
f (x) = e−1/x if x = 0 and f (0) = 0.
2
The function is continuous at x = 0 because limx→0 e−1/x = limu→∞ e−u
= 0 = f (0). It is differentiable at x = 0 because
2
f (x) − f (0) e−1/x
f (0) = lim = lim = 0.
x→0 x x→0 x
The first equality is the definition of f (0). The last limit is established
by investigating the left and right limits x → 0± with the help of the
substitution x = 1/u → ±∞ as x → 0± ; the left and right limits
2
coincide because ue−u → 0 as u → ±∞ (the exponential function
decreases faster than any power function). In a similar fashion, it can
be proved that f (n) (0) = 0 for all n (see Exercise 59.5.24). Thus, f (x)
has no power series representation cn xn in a neighborhood of x = 0
because, if it did, then, by Theorem 8.29 the function should have been
identically 0 in some interval (−δ, δ), δ > 0, (as f (n) (0) = 0 for all n),
which is not true (f (x) = 0 for all x = 0). Hence, the function is not
analytic at x = 0.
59.2. Taylor and Maclaurin Series.

Definition 8.13 (Taylor and Maclaurin Series). The series in
(8.20) is called the Taylor series of a function f at a (or about a,
or centered at a). The special case of the Taylor series when a = 0 is
called the Maclaurin series of a function f .
The Taylor series of the exponential function ex about x = 0 is
given by (8.19). The series converges for all x; that is, its radius of
convergence is R = ∞.
Trigonometric functions. Consider the Maclaurin series of f (x) =
sin x. One has f (x) = (sin x) = cos x and f (x) = (cos x) = − sin x.
Hence,
f (2n) (x) = (−1)n sin x , f (2n+1) (x) = (−1)n−1 cos x,
and f (2n) (0) = 0, f (2n+1) (0) = (−1)n−1 . So
∞
(−1)n−1 x2n+1 x3 x5
sin x = =x− + + ··· , R = ∞.
n=0
(2n + 1)! 3! 5!
By the ratio test, |cn+1 |/|cn | = (2n + 1)!/(2n + 3)! = 1/[(2n + 2)(2n +
3)] → 0 = α, and the radius of convergence is R = 1/α = ∞. The
series converges on the entire real line.
The Maclaurin series for f (x) = cos x is obtained by differentiating
∞
(−1)n−1 x2n x2 x4
cos x = (sin x) = =1− + + ··· , R = ∞.
n=0
(2n)! 2! 4!
By Theorem 8.27 it also converges on the entire real line.
Binomial series. Let f (x) = (1 + x)p , where p is any real number.

Its derivatives are f (x) = p(1 + x)p−1 , f (x) = p(p − 1)(1 + x)p−2 , and,
in general,
f (n) (x) = p(p − 1) · · · (p − n + 1)(1 + x)p−n .
The Maclaurin series for (1 + x)p is called the binomial series. The
traditional notation for its coefficients is
f (n) (0) p(p − 1) · · · (p − n + 1) p
cn = = = .
n! n! n
These numbers are called the binomial coefficients. The binomial series
and its radius of convergence are

∞
p p p(p − 1) 2
p
(1 + x) = xn = 1 + x+ x + ··· , R = 1.
n 1! 2!
n=0
The coefficients satisfy the recurrence relation cn+1 = cn (p−n)/(n+1).

Therefore, by the ratio test, |cn+1 |/|cn | = |p−n|/(n+1) = |1−p/n|/(1+
1/n) → 1 = α as n → ∞. Hence, R = 1/α = 1.
59.3. Taylor Series of Analytic Functions. Every analytic function in a

neighborhood of any point is represented by the Taylor series about
that point. If the Taylor series converges on the entire real line, then
the function is analytic everywhere. In particular, the exponential ex
and trigonometric functions sin x and cos x are analytic everywhere.
Moreover, the properties of analytic functions stated in Theorem 8.30
allows us to add, multiply, and make a composition of the Taylor se-
ries (on the common intervals of their convergence) just like ordinary
sums to obtain the Taylor series representation of the sums, products,
and compositions of analytic functions. These are extremely useful
properties in applications.
Example 8.42. Find first four terms of the Taylor series for the
function f (x) = exp(tan−1 x) about x = 0.
Solution: Calculation of the derivatives of such a function is rather
tedious. Instead, note that ex and tan−1 x are both analytic in a neigh-
borhood of x = 0. So the composition of their Taylor series (see (8.19)
and Example 8.39) gives the sought-after Taylor series. Only monomi-
als 1, x, x2 , and x3 have to be retained when calculating the compo-
sition. This implies that it is sufficient to retain two leading terms in
the Taylor series tan−1 x = x − x3 /3 + · · · and four leading terms in

the Taylor series (8.19) of the exponential function:
−1 1 2 1 3
etan x
= 1 + tan−1 x +
tan−1 x + tan−1 (x) + · · ·
2 6
x3 1 x3 2 1 x3 3
= 1+ x − + ··· + x − + ··· + x − + ··· + ···
3 2 3 6 3
x3 1 1
=1+ x− + x2 + x3 + · · ·
3 2 6
1 2 1 3
= 1 + x + x − x + ··· .
2 6
2
59.4. Approximations by Taylor Polynomials. An analytic function f can

be approximated by a finite sum of the Taylor series:

n
f (k) (a)
f (x) ≈ (x − a)k = Tn (x).
k=0
k!
The polynomial Tn (x) is called the Taylor polynomial about a. The

convergence of the Taylor series guarantees that the remainder con-
verges to 0:
Rn (x) = f (x) − Tn (x) → 0 as n → ∞ for all |x − a| < R,
where R is the radius of convergence of the Taylor series. The accuracy
of the Taylor polynomial approximation for a function is assessed in
Taylor’s theorem discussed in Calculus I. Here it is restated in a slightly
different form.
Theorem 8.31 (Taylor’s Theorem). Suppose a function f is ana-
lytic near a and let Tn (x) be its Taylor polynomials about a. Then, for
every n and any |x − a| < R, where R is the radius of convergence of
the Taylor series for f about a, there exists a point ξ between a and x
such that
f (n+1) (ξ)
Rn (x) = f (x) − Tn (x) = (x − a)n+1 .
(n + 1)!
Proof. Given a number x, |x − a| < R, let M be a number defined
by
f (x) = Tn (x) + M (x − a)n+1 .
Consider the function
g(t) = f (t) − Tn (t) − M (t − a)n+1 , where |t − a| < R.
Since the (n + 1)th derivative of a polynomial of degree n vanishes and

hence g (n+1) (t) = f (n+1) (t) − n!M , the proof will be complete if one can
show that g (n+1) (ξ) = 0 for some ξ between x and a (the latter would
imply that M = f (n+1) (ξ)/n!). By the definition of Taylor polynomials,
f (k) (a) = Tn (a) for k = 0, 1, ..., n, and hence g(a) = g (a) = · · · =
(k)
g (n) (a) = 0. The function g(t) is differentiable and g(x) = g(a) = 0

by the choice of M ; therefore, by Rolle’s theorem, there is a number
t1 between x and a such that g (t1 ) = 0. Similarly, the function g (t)
is differentiable and g (t1 ) = g (a) = 0; hence, there is a number t2
between t1 and a such that g (t2 ) = 0. After n + 1 steps of this
procedure, one arrives at the conclusion that g (n+1) (tn+1 ) = 0 for some
number tn+1 = ξ between tn and a, that is, between x and a. 2
Corollary 8.4 (Taylor’s Inequality). If |f (n+1)(x) | ≤ Mn for
|x − a| ≤ d < R, then the remainder of the Taylor series satisfies
the inequality
Mn
|Rn (x)| ≤ |x − a|n+1 for |x − a| ≤ d < R.
(n + 1)!
Since ξ in Taylor’s theorem lies between x and a, one has |f (n+1) (ξ)| ≤
Mn for |x − a| ≤ d, and the conclusion of the corollary follows. All
derivatives of an analytic function are continuous and, hence, attain
their maximal and minimal values on any closed interval |x − a| ≤ d.
So Mn = max |f (n+1) (x)| on |x − a| ≤ d.
Example 8.43. Find an upper bound on the error of the Taylor
polynomial approximation about x = 0 for the function f (x) = sin x.
Solution: The Maclaurin series for sin x contains only odd powers of
x and so are the Taylor polynomials. Since f (2n+2) (x) = (−1)n+1 sin x,
one has |f (2n+2) (x)| = | sin x| ≤ 1 = M2n+1 uniformly for all x and all
n and hence
|x|2n+2

sin x − T2n+1 (x) ≤ .
(2n + 2)!
2
This example shows that, although the error converges to 0 for all
x, for a fixed n it grows with increasing |x|. This implies that Taylor
polynomials of higher degrees are needed to achieve the same accuracy
for large |x| as for smaller |x| (see Fig. 8.9). To avoid using high-degree
Taylor polynomials to approximate the function at large |x|, one can
use Taylor polynomials about some a close to the range of x in which
the approximation is needed.
Figure 8.9. An illustration of an approximation of

f (x) = sin x (the dashed red curve) by its Taylor poly-
nomials at x = 0 (the solid blue curve). As n increases,
Tn (x) approaches f (x) = sin x. The approximation be-
comes better in a larger interval for a larger n in accor-
dance with the analysis of Example 8.43.
59.5. Exercises.
In (1)–(5), find the Maclaurin series for the function and the radius of
convergence.
(1) ln(1+x) (2) tan x (3) sinh x (4) cosh x (5) x6 +2x5 −x3 +x−3
In (6)–(9), find the Taylor series for the function about a and the radius
of convergence.
√
(6) cos x , a = π (7) 1/ x , a = 4
(8) sin x , a = π/2 (9) (1 + x)2/3 , a = 7
In (10)–(13), use Maclaurin series for basic functions to find the Maclau-
rin series for the function.
x x − sin x
(10) x cos(x2 /2) (11) √ 3
(12) 3
(13) x2 tan−1 (x2 )
1+x 4 x
In (14)–(17), use the products and composition of the Maclaurin series

for basic functions to find the first three non-vanishing terms of the
Maclaurin series for the function.
(14) sin(π(cos x)) (15) esin x (16) tan−1 x ln(1 + x) (17) ln(cos x)
(18) Find the first five nonvanishing terms of the Maclaurin series for
f (x) = ex / cos x.
Hint: Put f (x) = c0 + c1 x + · · · + c4 x4 + · · · , then use the product of
the Maclaurin series to find the coefficients from ex = f (x) cos x.
In (19)–(21), find the degree of a Taylor polynomial to approximate
the integrand so that the error of approximating the integral does not
exceed 10−4 .
1/2 1 x 1/2
−1 2 e −1
(19) tan (x ) dx (20) dx (21) (1 + x4 )1/4 dx
0 0 x 0
In (21)–(23), find the sum of the series.
∞
(−1)n π 2n ∞
(−1)n 3n (ln 2)2 (ln 2)3
(21) (22) (23) 1−ln 2+ − +· · ·
n=0
62n (2n)! n=0
2n n! 2! 3!
2
(24) (i) For the function f (x) = e−1/x if x = 0 and f (0) = 0, show
that f (n) (0) = 0 for all n and hence f cannot be represented as a power
series near 0. (ii) Let f (x) = e−1/x if x > 0 and f (x) = 0 if x ≤ 0. Is
this function analytic everywhere?
CHAPTER 9
Further Applications of Integration
60. Arc Length

60.1. The Length of a Curve. We have seen various applications of in-
tegration to the computation of the area of a domain and to the com-
putation of the volume of a solid. It is perhaps more surprising that
we can also use integration to compute the length of a curve between
two given points. This may sound counterintuitive at first, since in
the applications we have seen so far, integration was used to compute
some parameter of an object that existed in a higher dimension than
the function that was being integrated.
Let f be a function so that, on the interval [a, b], the derivative f
of f exists and is a continuous function. We would like to know the
length of the curve of f , starting at the point A = (a, f (a)) and ending
at the point B = (b, f (b)).
Intuitively, we can imagine that we lay a rope over the graph of f
between the two endpoints, mark A and B on the rope, then straighten
that rope out, and measure the distance between them.
A more formal definition, which is useful in the actual computation
of the length of the curve, is the following. Cut the interval [a, b]
into n equal parts, using points a = x0 < x1 < · · · < xn = b. Let
Pi = (xi , f (xi )) = f (xi , yi ). Let |Pi−1 Pi | denote the length of the
straight line segment from Pi−1 to Pi . Then the sum

n
(9.1) Kn = |Pi−1 Pi |
i=1
is a little bit smaller than the length of the curve since the points
Pi−1 and Pi are on the curve and the straight line is the shortest path
between them.
If we keep refining the subdivision of the interval [a, b] by having n
go to infinity, then it can be proved that limn→∞ Kn exists. We define
that limit to be the length of the curve of f from A to B. See Figure
9.1 for an illustration. Note that in the case when the graph of f is
a straight line segment between A and B, this definition is just the
length of that segment, so our definition extends our previous notion
of length.
135
136 9. FURTHER APPLICATIONS OF INTEGRATION
Figure 9.1. Arc length as a limit.
Let us now return to (9.1) in order to compute limn→∞ Kn . Let

(b − a)/n = (xi − xi−1 )/n = ∆x. Note that then

|Pi−1 Pi | = (xi − xi−1 )2 + (yi − yi−1 )2

(yi − yi−1 )2
= (∆x)2 + (∆x)2
(xi − xi−1 )2

(yi − yi−1 )2
= ∆x 1 + .
(xi − xi−1 )2
Now observe that since f is continuous, the intermediate value

theorem implies that there is a real number x∗i ∈ [xi−1 , xi ] such that
yi −yi−1
xi −xi−1
= f (x∗i ). Hence, the previous chain of equalities yields

|Pi−1 Pi | = ∆x 1 + f (x∗i )2 .
Summing over all i, we get

n

Kn = ∆x 1 + f (x∗i )2 .
i=1
As n goes to infinity, the left-hand side, by definition, converges to the

length of the curve of f between Aand B, while the right-hand side,
b
being a Riemann sum, converges to a 1 + f (x)2 dx. Hence, we have
proved the following theorem.
Theorem 9.1. If f is a continuous function on the interval [a, b],
then the length of the graph of f (x) from the point (a, f (a)) to the point
60. ARC LENGTH 137
Figure 9.2. The curve of f (x) = 23 x3/2 .
(b, f (b)) is equal to

b
L= 1 + f (x)2 dx.
a
Example 9.1. Find the length of the curve of f (x) = 23 x3/2 from
(0, 0) to (1, 2/3). See Figure 9.2 for an illustration.
√
Solution: We have f (x) = x, so f is a continuous function on [0, 1],
and therefore Theorem 9.1 applies. Using that theorem, we obtain
1
√
L= 1 + ( x)2 dx
0
1
√
= 1 + x dx
0
1
2 3/2
= (1 + x)
3
√ 0
4 2 2
= − .
3 3
2
Note that the result is remarkably close to the length√of the straight
line that connects the two points in question, which is 13/3.
We can use our new technique to verify a classic formula.
Example 9.2. Use Theorem 9.1 to compute the circumference of a
circle of radius 1.
Solution: Let us place the center of the unit circle at the origin. Then
the boundary of the circle is the set of points satisfying x2 + y 2 = 1.
Figure 9.3. One quarter of the unit circle.
We want to use Theorem 9.1, so we need a part of the circle where

that satisfies the vertical line test (so y is a function of f ) and where
the tangent line to the circle is never vertical (so that f (x) exists).
For instance,
√
we can choose the quarter of√the circle that starts in the
point − √2 and ends in the point − √22 . See Figure 9.3 for an
2
illustration. On that part of the curve, f (x) = − √1−x

x
2 is continuous,
so Theorem 9.1 implies

√
2/2
L= √
1 + f (x)2 dx
− 2/2
2/2
√
x2
= √
1+ dx
− 2/2 1 − x2
√2/2
1
= √
√ dx
− 2/2 1 − x2
√
= [sin−1 x]−√2/2
2/2
= π/2.
This implies that the circumference of the full circle is four times this
much, that is, 2π. 2
61. SURFACE AREA 139
60.2. Remarks. Recall that in the first paragraph of this section, we

discussed why it may seem counterintuitive that integration plays a role
in the computation of arc lengths. Now we can see that the purported
contradiction explained there is resolved by the fact that the integrand
in Theorem 9.1 contains f , not f .
Compared to other formulas we learned in our earlier studies of
integration, it is relatively rare thatthe formula given by Theorem 9.1
b
can be explicitly computed, since a 1 + f (x)2 dx is often difficult
to handle. Therefore, we must often resort to approximate integration
while computing arc lengths.
60.3. Exercises.
(1) Find the length of the curve f (x) = x2 /2 between the points
given by x = 0 and x = 1.
3
(2) Find the length of the curve f (x) = x3 + 4x between the points
given by x = 2 and x = 4.
(3) Find the length of the curve f (x) = ln(cos x) between the
points given by x = 0 and x = π/4.
(4) Prove that Theorem 9.1 provides the correct value for the arc
length of f when f is a linear function.
(5) Use a method of approximate integration to estimate the length
of the curve of f (x) = ex as from (0, 1) to (1, e).
(6) Use a method of approximate integration to estimate the length
of f (x) = sin x from (0, 0) to (π, 0).
61. Surface Area

61.1. The Definition of Surface Area. In the last section, we defined the
length of a curve, and deduced a formula for the computation of that
length. Let us now take a curve, say of a function f (x) = y, where
x ∈ [a, b] and f is continuous on [a, b]. Let us rotate this curve around
the horizontal axis, as shown in Figure 9.4. What is the area of the
obtained surface of revolution?
The definition of the area in question, and its computation, will be
quite similar to what we have discussed in the previous section for the
arc length.
Cut the interval [a, b] into n equal parts, using points
a = x0 < x1 < · · · < xn = b.
Let Pi = (xi , f (xi )) = f (xi , yi ) and let li = |Pi−1 Pi | denote the length
of the straight line segment from Pi−1 to Pi . As we rotate the curve
of f around the horizontal axis, the rotation of the segment Pi−1 Pi
Figure 9.4. A surface obtained by rotating a curve.
Figure 9.5. Approximating a surface of revolution.
results in the lateral surface Sn,i of a truncated cone with slant height
li and radii yi−1 and yi . See Figure 9.5 for an illustration. It is then
not difficult to prove that the area of Sn,i is equal to
(9.2) A(Sn,i ) = π(yi−1 + yi )li .
As n goes to infinity, the sum of the areas of the surfaces Sn,i approxi-
mates what we intuitively think of as the area of the surface obtained
by rotating the curve.
In fact, it can be proved that the limit

n
n
(9.3) S(A) = lim Sn,i = lim π(yi−1 + yi )li
n→∞ n→∞
i=1 i=1
exists. We define this limit to be the area of the surface of revolution

obtained when the curve of f is rotated around the horizontal axis,
with x ∈ [a, b].
In order to compute this surface area, recall from the last section
thatthere exists a real number x∗i ∈ [xi−1 , xi ] such that li = |Pi−1 Pi | =
∆x 1 + f (x∗i )2 . Also note that, since f is continuous, small changes
in x lead to small changes in f (x) = y, so if n is large enough, then
f (x∗i ) ≈ f (xi ) = yi and f (x∗i ) ≈ f (xi−1 ) = yi−1 . Therefore, (9.3)
implies

n

(9.4) S(A) = lim 2πf (x∗i ) ∆x 1 + f (x∗i )2 ,
n→∞
i=1
where ∆x = (b − a)/n. Now notice that the last expression obtained

for S(A) is the
limit of a Riemann sum, that is, an integral (of the
function 2πf (x) 1 + f (x)2 ). This means that we proved the following
theorem.
Theorem 9.2. Let f be a function that f is continuous on the

interval [a, b]. Let S be the surface obtained by rotating the curve y =
f (x), where x ∈ [a, b], around the horizontal axis.
Then the area of S is
b
A(S) = 2πf (x) 1 + f (x)2 dx.
a
Example 9.3. Compute the surface area of a sphere of radius r.
Solution: Such a sphere can√be obtained by rotating the semicircle

given by the equation f (x) = r2 − x2 around the horizontal axis. See
Figure 9.6 for an illustration.
Figure 9.6. A sphere as a surface of revolution.
Theorem 9.2 then yields

r √ x2
A(S) = 2π r2 − x2 ·
1+ 2 dx
−r r − x2
r √
r2
= 2π r2 − x2 · dx
−r r 2 − x2
r
= 2rπ dx
−r
= [2rπx]r−r
= 4r2 π.
61.2. Variations. If we rotate our curve around the vertical axis instead
of the horizontal axis, then most of the previous argument remains
valid. The only difference is that when the point Pi = (xi , yi ) is rotated,
it is rotated in a circle of radius xi , not yi . This leads to the following
theorem.
Theorem 9.3. Let f be a function such that f is continuous on

the interval [a, b]. Let S be the surface obtained by rotating the curve
y = f (x), where x ∈ [a, b], around the vertical axis.
Then the area of S is
b
A(S) = 2πx 1 + f (x)2 dx.
a
Note that the f (x) term in the integrand of Theorem 9.2 is replaced
by x.
Example 9.4. Rotate the curve given by y = f (x) = x2 /2, with

x ∈ [0, 1], around the vertical axis. Find the area of the obtained sur-
face.
Figure 9.7. The curve of y = x2 /2 and the surface

obtained by its rotation.
Solution: Theorem 9.3 implies

1 √
A(S) = 2πx 1 + x2 dx
0
1
1 2 3/2
= 2π (x + 1)
3
√ 0
2 2−1
= 2π ·
3
≈ 0.6095.
2
Note that another way of writing the result of Theorem 9.2 is

b 2
dy
A(S) = 2πf (x) 1 + dx.
a dx
By interchanging the roles of x and y, this implies that, for curves given
by an equation g(y) = x, the following holds.
Theorem 9.4. Let g be a function such that g is continuous on
x = g(y), where y ∈ [a, b], around the vertical axis.
Then the area of S is given by

b 2
dx
A(S) = 2πg(y) 1 + dy.
a dy
While the surface area of a cone can be computed by elementary
methods, it is elucidating to compute it with our new method and see
that the result is what we expect it to be.
Example 9.5. Find the surface area of a right cone of base radius
R and height h.
Solution: The base circle of the cone has area R2 π. In order to com-
pute the lateral surface, note that the lateral surface can be obtained by
rotating the line segment given by the equation x = − Ry h
+ R = g(y),
where y ∈ [0, h], around the vertical axis. Therefore, Theorem 9.4
applies, and for the lateral surface area, it yields
h
Ry R2
A(S) = 2π · − +R 1 + 2 dy
0 h h
h
R2 + h2 y2
= 2πR − +y
h2 2h
√ 0
= πR R + h 2 2
= πRs,
√
where s = R2 + h2 is the slant height of the cone.
So the total surface area of the cone is the sum of the area of its
base plus the area of its lateral surface, that is, R2 π+πRs = πR(R+s).
2
Theorem 9.4 also has a version that applies to curves given as func-
tions of y that are rotated around the horizontal axis.
Theorem 9.5. Let g be a function such that g is continuous on
x = g(y), where y ∈ [a, b], around the horizontal axis.
Then the area of S is given by

b 2
dx
A(S) = 2πy 1 + dy.
a dy
Note that for the computation of some surface areas, we will have
a choice of two theorems discussed in this section. The reader is en-
couraged to describe the curves whose rotations lead to such surfaces.
62. APPLICATIONS TO PHYSICS AND ENGINEERING 145
61.3. Exercises.
(1) Compute the surface area obtained by rotating the curve y =
ex , for x ∈ [0, 1], around the horizontal
√ axis.
(2) Rotate the curve of y = f (x) = x, where x ∈ [0, 1], around
the vertical axis. Find the surface area.
(3) Rotate the curve of y = f (x) = tan x, where x ∈ [0, π/4],
around the vertical axis. Find the surface area.
(4) Rotate the curve of y = f (x) = x3 , where x ∈ [0, 1], around
the horizontal axis. Find the surface area.
(5) Rotate the curve of x = g(y) = 32 (y + 1)3/2 , where y ∈ [2, 3],
around the horizontal axis. Find the surface area.
(6) Solve Example 9.5 using Theorem 9.3.
62. Applications to Physics and Engineering

62.1. Center of Mass.
62.1.1. One-Dimensional Systems. Let us assume that we have two

objects of mass m1 and m2 placed on the line of real numbers, at
points x1 and x2 , respectively. We want to find the point xg such that
if we place a fulcrum under the interval [x1 , x2 ] at xg , the objects at the
endpoints of the interval will balance. See Figure 9.8 for an illustration.
We assume that the interval [x1 , x2 ], or the stick representing it, has
negligible mass.
If m1 = m2 , then we clearly have xg = (x1 + x2 )/2. Otherwise,
we make use of the well-known fact of physics that the interval will
balance if the moments on the two sides of the fulcrum are equal, that
is, when
(9.5) m1 (xg − x1 ) = m2 (x2 − xg )
holds. Solving (9.5) for xg , we get
m1 x1 + m2 x2
(9.6) xg = .
m1 + m2
Figure 9.8. Center of mass.

The point xg of the real line is called the center of mass or center of
gravity of the system described above, that is, the system of an object
of mass m1 at x1 and an object of mass m2 at x2 . The moment of an
object with respect to a point P is the mass of the object times the
distance of the object from P . In particular, in the above system, the
two objects had moments m1 x1 and m2 x2 with respect to the origin.
So the total system had moment m1 x1 + m2 x2 . Note that if we replace
the two objects by a simple object of mass m1 + m2 placed at xg , then
the moment of the system about the origin does not change. This is an
important property that only the center of mass has, and therefore we
repeat it. If we concentrate the total mass of the system at the center
of mass, the moment of the system with respect to the origin will not
change.
If we consider a system of k distinct objects of mass m1 , m2 , . . . , mk
placed at points x1 , x2 , . . . , xk along the horizontal axis, then we can use
an analogous argument to show that the center of mass of the system
is at
k
mi xi
(9.7) xg = i=1k
.
i=1 mi
62.2. Two-Dimensional Systems.
62.2.1. Discrete Two-Dimensional Systems. Let us now consider the

more general case when the k objects of mass m1 , m2 , . . . , mk are placed
in points (x1 , y1 ), (x2 , y2 ), . . . , (xk , yk ) of the plane. We would like to
find the center of mass (xg , yg ) of this system. In other words, we
assume that a plate of negligible mass is placed under our system, and
we want to find the point (xg , yg ) with the property that if we place a
fulcrum under the plate at that point, the plate will balance.
Using methods similar to the one-dimensional case, it can be proved
that the plate will balance if the fulcrum is placed at (xg , yg ) with
k k
i=1 mi xi mi yi
(9.8) xg = k and yg = i=1
k
.
i=1 m i i=1 m i
This corresponds to the intuitively appropriate concept that the

plate will balance if
it balances both “horizontally” and “vertically.”
The sum Mx = ki=1 mi yi is called the moment of the system with
respect to the x axis. This name is due to the fact if we tried to
balance the system on the x axis, the larger the number Mx , the more
would the weights of the system rotate the plate. Similarly, the sum

My = ki=1 mi xi is called the moment of the system with respect to the
y axis.
62.2.2. Symmetry Lines. Now let us consider the continuous version of

the problem. Let P be a plate and let us try to find the center of mass
of P . (We no longer assume that the mass of the plate is negligible; in
fact, that mass is the object of our study now.) Let us assume, for the
rest of this chapter, that the mass of P is uniformly distributed over
P . Let us also assume that the density of the material of which P is
made is 1. That is, the mass of a unit square within P is 1.
Sometimes we can find the center of mass of P without computa-
tion. A symmetry line of P is a straight line t such that the image of
P when reflected through t is P itself. That implies that the two parts
into which t cuts P are congruent, and the plate balances on the line
t. Consequently, the center of mass C of P must be on t, since if we
concentrate the entire mass of P in C, it still has to balance on the line
P.
The argument of the previous paragraph shows that the center of
mass of P must be on every symmetry line of P . So if P has more
than one symmetry line, then these symmetry lines must all intersect
in one point, namely, in the center of mass of P . In this case, we obtain
the center of mass of P as the intersection of any two symmetry lines
of P . For example, we can find the center of mass of a circle, ellipse,
rectangle, or rhombus in this way.
62.2.3. A Formula for Continuous Two-Dimensional Systems. Let us keep

the conditions from the previous section and let us impose the new con-
dition that P is a “domain under a curve”; that is, the borders of P are
the vertical lines x = a and x = b, the horizontal axis, and the graph
of the continuous function f (x) = y.
We would like to use formula (9.8) to find the approximate location
of the center of mass of P . Let us cut the interval [a, b] into n equal
parts, using the intermediate points a = x0 < x1 < x2 < · · · < xn = b,
and let ∆x = (b − a)/n. The vertical lines x = xi cut P into n vertical
stripes. Let Si be the ith such stripe. The area, and hence the mass,
of Si is close to ∆x · f (x∗i ), where x∗i is the midpoint (xi−1 + xi )/2 of
the interval [xi−1 , xi ]. So we are approximating Si by a rectangle Ri .
Let us concentrate the entire mass of Ri in the center of mass of Ri ,
that is, at (x∗i , f (x∗i )/2).
Now we can compute the moment of the obtained system of n ob-
jects with respect to the x axis. Note that the mass of Ri is equal to
the area of Ri , that is, ∆xf (x∗i ). So we have

n
n
Mx (n) = mi yi = ∆x · f (x∗i ) · f (x∗i )/2.
i=1 i=1
The right-hand side is a Riemann sum, so, as n goes to infinity,

it will converge to the corresponding integral, while the left-hand side
will converge to the moment Mx of the original plate with respect to
the x axis.
This yields
b
1
(9.9) Mx = f (x)2 dx.
a 2
A similar argument using horizontal stripes instead of vertical ones
shows that
b
(9.10) My = xf (x) dx.
a
Finally, now that the moments of P are known, it is straightforward

to compute the coordinates of the center of mass of P . Indeed, the
center of mass is the unique point (xg , yg ) with the property that if
b
the entire mass A = a f (x) dx of P is placed in that point, then the
moments of this one-object system are identical to the moments of P .
In other words, Mx = yg A and My = xg A. Therefore, xg = My /A
and yg = Mx /A, which means that formulas (9.9) and (9.10) imply the
following theorem.
Theorem 9.6. Let f be a function such that f (x) ≥ 0 if x ∈ [a, b].
Let D be a domain whose borders are the vertical lines x = a and x = b,
the horizontal axis, and the curve of the function f (x) = y. Let A(D)
denote the area of D.
Let xg and yg be the coordinates of the center of mass of D. Then
we have
b b 1
a
xf (x) dx a 2
[f (x)]2 dx
xg = and yg = .
A(D) A(D)
Example 9.6. Find the coordinates of the center of mass of the
quarter of the unit circle that is in the northeastern quadrant.
Note that if we asked the same question for the entire unit circle,
the answer would obviously be that xg = yg = 0, since the center of
gravity of any domain must be on all symmetry lines. If we asked the
same question for the half of the unit circle that is in the northern
half-plane, then xg = 0 would clearly hold, since the vertical axis is a

symmetry line of that semicircle.
Solution: (of Example 9.6): Note that the domain D in question has
a symmetry line, namely, the line determined by the equation x = y.
So the center of gravity of D is on that line, that is, xg = y√g . Therefore,
it suffices to compute one of xg and yg . We have f (x) = 1 − x2 = y,
so yg is somewhat easier to compute. Theorem 9.6 yields
1 1
· (1 − x2 ) dx
yg = 0 2
π/4
1
2 x3
= · x−
π 3 0
2 2
= ·
π 3
4
= .
3π
So the center of gravity of the quarter of the unit circle in the north-
4
eastern quadrant is at ( 3π 4
, 3π ). See Figure 9.9 for an illustration. 2
Note that 4/(3π) ≈ 0.424. This makes perfect sense since this
shows that the center of gravity of D is closer to the horizontal axis
(the bottom of the quarter circle) than to the y = 1 line (the top of
Figure 9.9. The center of mass of a quarter of the unit circle.

the quarter circle). That is reasonable, since the bottom of D is wider

than the top of D, so it constitutes a larger portion of the total weight
of D than the top of D.
Example 9.7. Find the center of gravity of the domain D whose
borders are the vertical lines x = 0 and x = 1, the horizontal axis, and
the graph of the function f (x) = x2 = y.
Solution: The domain D in question does not have a symmetry line,
so we must use Theorem 9.6 to compute both of xg and yg . We have
b
xf (x) dx
xg = a
A(D)
1
x · x2 dx
= 10
0
x2 dx
[x4 /4]10
=
[x3 /3]10
3
=
4
and
b 1
a 2
[f (x)]2 dx
yg =
A(D)
1
(x4 /2) dx
0
=
1/3
[x5 /10]10
=
1/3
3
= .
10
So the center of gravity of D is at (0.75, 0.3). This agrees with our
intuition, since the bottom of D is larger than its top, and the left-hand
side of D is smaller than the right-hand side of D. See Figure 9.10 for
an illustration. 2
62.3. Exercises.
(1) Find the center of mass of the unit semicircle that lies in the
northern half-plane.
(2) Find the center of mass of the plate whose borders are the lines
x = 0 and x = π/2, the graph of the function f (x) = sin y,
and the horizontal axis.
63. APPLICATIONS TO ECONOMICS AND THE LIFE SCIENCES 151
(3) Find the center of mass of the plate whose borders are the
vertical lines x = 1 and x = 2, the horizontal axis, and the
graph of the function f (x) = ln x.
(4) Find the center of mass of the plate whose borders are the
vertical lines x = 1 and x = 2, the horizontal axis, and the
graph of the function f (x) = ex .
(5) Find the center of mass of the trapezoid whose vertices are at
(0, 0), (15, 0), (1, 1), and (8, 1).
(6) An object consists of two squares. The first is the square
with vertices (0, 0), (0, 2), (2, 0), and (2, 2), and the other is
the square with vertices (0, 2), (1, 2), (0, 3), and (1, 3). The
density of the material of the small square is twice the density
of the material of the large square. Where is the center of mass
of this object?
63. Applications to Economics and the Life Sciences

63.1. Consumer Surplus. Let us consider the problem of pricing some
merchandise whose value is highly subjective; that is, it is worth more
to some customers than to others. Examples of this could be tickets
for various sporting events, air line tickets to vacation destinations, or
popular books.
Let p(x) be the demand function of this commodity. That is, p(x)
is the price that will result in selling x units of the commodity. Lower
prices usually lead to higher sales therefore, p(x) is usually a decreasing
function as illustrated in Figure 9.11.
The area under the graph of p represents the total revenue the
company could possibly have, if it managed to charge each customer
Figure 9.10. Center of mass of the area defined in Ex-

ample 9.7.
Figure 9.11. The demand function p(x) of a commodity.
the maximum price that that customer is willing to pay. Indeed, if the
highest amount anyone is willing to pay for one unit is p(x1 ), and x1
customers are willing to pay that price, then the revenue coming from
these most enthused customers is x1 p(x1 ), which is the area of the
domain under the graph of p that is between the vertical lines x = 0
and y = x1 . We could continue in this way, noting that if the second
highest price that some customers are willing to pay is p(x2 ), and there
are x2 −x1 people who are willing to pay this price (not including those
who are willing to pay even p(x1 )), then the revenue from them will
be (x2 − x1 )p(x2 ). This is the area of the domain under the graph of p
that is between the lines x = x1 and x = x2 , and so on.
If the seller decides to set one fixed price p(z), then the seller will
sell z items, for a total revenue of zp(z) (the area of the rectangle R
bordered by the two coordinate axes and the lines x = z and y = p(z)).
This means that the customers who would have paid an even higher
price for these goods have saved money. Besides losing that potential
revenue, the seller also loses revenue by not getting any purchases from
customers who were willing to pay some amount, but not z, for one
unit.
Let xn be the number of items that the seller can sell at the lowest
price at which the seller is still willing to sell these items. It is a direct
consequence of the above discussion that the total amount saved by all
customers who bought the item at z dollars is the area under the curve
of p but above the rectangle R, that is,

n
(9.11) (p(xi ) − z)(xi − xi−1 ).
i=1
If the number n of prices at which various customers are willing to

buy goes to infinity, then the Riemann sum in (9.11) approaches the
definite integral
z
(9.12) CS = (p(x) − z) dx.
0
In economics, CS is called the customer surplus for the given commod-

ity.
Similarly, the integral
∞
p(x) dx
z
is the amount of missed revenue, that is, the money the company could
have received from buyers who found the product too expensive. Note
that this is the area of the domain under the graph of p, but on the
right of R.
Example 9.8. Tickets for a certain flight are normally priced at
$300, and in an average month, 500 tickets are sold. Research shows
that, for every $10 that the price is reduced, the number of tickets sold
goes up by 20. Find the demand curve and compute the consumer
surplus for these tickets if the price is set at $240.
Solution: If the airline wants to sell x tickets, then the price that the
airline needs to charge is
x − 500 x − 500
p(x) = 300 − 10 · = 300 − .
20 2
Indeed, in order to sell x−500 extra tickets, the airline needs to decrease
its price by $10 for each 20 pack of extra tickets.
If the price is set at z = $240, then formula (9.12) shows that the
customer surplus is
240
CS = (p(x) − 240) dx
0
240
x − 500
= 60 − dx
0 2
240
x
= 310 − dx
0 2
= 60, 000.
So customers would save a total of $60,000 in an average month if the
price of the tickets were set at $240. 2
63.2. Survival and Renewal.
Example 9.9. Let us assume that there are currently 30,000 people
in the United States who have a certain illness. Let us also assume
that we know that the fraction of that population who will still have the
illness t months from now is given by the function f (t) = e−0.05t . We
also know that every month 1000 new patients will get the illness. How
many people in the United States will have the illness in 20 months?
Solution: Clearly, f (20) = e−1 = 0.368 of the people who currently
have the illness will still have it 20 months from now. Now we have
to compute the number of people who will get the illness between now
(t = 0) and 20 months from now (t = 20) and will still be ill 20 months
from now.
Subdivide the interval [0, 20] into n equal subintervals using the
points
0 = t0 < t1 < · · · < tn = 20.
Set 20/n = ∆t. Then, for all i, there are 1000 · ∆t people who will get
the illness during the time period [ti−1 , ti ). That means that 20 months
from now, in other words, approximately 20 − ti−1 months from getting
the illness, the fraction of them who will still have the illness will be
f (20 − ti−1 ). So their number will be about 1000 · ∆t · f (20 − ti−1 ).
Summing over all allowed values of i, we get that the total number of
people in the United States who will have the illness 20 months from
now is

n
30, 000 · f (20) + 1000 · ∆t · f (20 − ti−1 ).
i=1
We recognize that the above sum is a Riemann sum, so, as n goes to
infinity, the above expression converges to
20
D = 30, 000 · f (20) + 1000f (20 − t) dt
0
20
−1
= 30, 000 · e + 1000 e0.05t−1 dt
0
≈ 11, 036.38 + 12, 642.41
≈ 23, 679.
So 20 months from now, 23,679 people in the United States will
still have the illness. 2
Note that the result of the previous example shows that the number
of people in the United States who have the illness will decrease during
the next 20 months. Try to find an intuitive explanation for that fact
that does not involve integration.
63.3. Exercises.
(1) A country currently has a population of 80 million people and

a natural growth rate of 1.5 percent. The natural growth g of
the population in a given year is computed as the difference
between the number of births and the number of deaths in that
year, while the natural growth rate for that year is g divided
by the size of the population at the beginning of that year.
Let us assume that each year 1.1 million people emigrate
from this country. If the current trends continue, how large
will the population of this country be in 20 years?
(2) A country currently has a population of 80 million people and
a natural growth rate of −0.5 percent. Let us assume that
each year 0.35 million people immigrate to this country. If the
current trends continue, how large will the population of this
country be in 20 years?
(3) We deposit $100,000 into a bank account, where it will earn
an annual interest of 5 percent. The interest is compounded
continuously, so in t years, the original deposit will be worth
f (t) = $100, 000 · 1.05t . Each year, we deposit $2000 to this
same account in a continuous manner. What will our account
balance be in 15 years?
(4) We deposit $100,000 into a bank account, where it will earn
an annual interest of 5 percent. The interest is compounded
continuously. Each year, we withdraw a total of $4000 in a
continuous manner. What will our account balance be in 20
years?
(5) Tickets to a certain section of the arena for a basketball game
usually cost $50. This results in the sales of 1000 tickets. For
every dollar that the price is dropped, the number of tickets
sold goes up 1 percent. Find the demand function for these
tickets and compute the consumer surplus if the tickets are
sold at $40.
(6) Let S(x) be the supply function for a certain commodity. That
is, S(x) is the price that one unit of the commodity has to cost
in order to attract enough sellers to provide x units for sale.
Note that S(x) is an increasing function, since a higher
price is needed to attract more sellers.
Let us assume that the units are sold at a fixed price T =

S(t). That means that the sellers who would be willing to
sell at a lower price are making a profit. The total amount of
the profit made by all sellers is sometimes called the producer
surplus. Prove that the producer surplus for this commodity
can be computed by the formula
t
(T − S(x)) dx.
0
64. Probability
The word “probability” is often used in informal conversations, even
if it is sometimes not clear what the speaker means by that word. It
turns out that there are two distinct concepts of probability. These two
concepts complement each other in that they are applicable in different
circumstances, and use very different methods.
64.1. Discrete Probability. Let us say that we are tossing a fair coin
four times. What is the probability that we will get at least three
heads?
This is a situation in which the event that we study, that is, the
sequence of four coin tosses, has only a finite number of outcomes.
Indeed, there are 24 possible outcomes, since each coin toss has two
outcomes (heads or tails), and the coin is tossed four times.
Among these 16 possible outcomes, five are favorable outcomes,
namely, HHHH, HHHT , HHT H, HT HH, and T HHH. Further-
more, each single outcome (favorable or not) is equally likely to occur,
since the coin is fair, and the result of each coin toss is equally likely
to be heads or tails.
In this situation, that is, when the number of all possible outcomes
is finite, and each outcome is equally likely to occur, define
Number of favorable outcomes
(9.13) Probability of event = ,
Number of all outcomes
which, in our example, shows that the probability of getting at least
three heads is 5/16.
Probabilities defined by formula (9.13) are called discrete proba-
bilities. The formula is applicable only when the number of possible
outcomes is finite. If we want to apply this formula in complicated
situations, we need advanced techniques to count the number of all
64. PROBABILITY 157
outcomes and the number of favorable outcomes. The fascinating dis-

cipline studying those techniques is called enumerative combinatorics,
and will not be discussed in this book.
64.2. Continuous Probability. Let us say we want to know the probabil-

ity that during the next calendar year the city of Gainesville, Florida,
will have more than 40 inches of precipitation, or we want to know the
probability that Gainesville will have less than 50 inches of precipita-
tion, or that Gainesville will have at least 42 but at most 48 inches of
precipitation.
In this case, formula (9.13) is not applicable, since both the number
of favorable outcomes and all outcomes is infinite. Indeed, the amount
of precipitation in Gainesville next year can be any nonnegative real
number. Furthermore, not all outcomes are equally likely. Receiving
very little or very much precipitation is far less likely than receiving
close to the usual amount. We need a totally different approach. Our
approach, while different from the one in the previous section, shares
some of the most important features of that approach. For instance,
the probability of an event that is certain to happen will be 1, while
the probability of an event that never happens will be 0.
Similar situations occur when we want to know the probability that
a certain device will work for more than t years, or that a randomly
selected person weighs more than p pounds but less than q pounds, or
that the blood pressure of a randomly selected person is below a given
value. The quantities mentioned here are called random variables.
We would like to define the probability F (a) that the amount X
of precipitation in Gainesville next year will be at most a inches. This
probability will sometimes be denoted by P (X ≤ a).
While we do not yet know how to compute F (a), we know that the
function F has to satisfy the following requirements:
(1) We will have F (a1 ) ≤ F (a2 ) if a1 < a2 . In other words, F is
increasing. Indeed, if X ≤ a1 , then X ≤ a2 since a1 < a2 .
(2) We will have lima→∞ F (a) = 1, since the amount of precipita-
tion is always finite.
(3) The function F (a) is a continuous function, since a little bit
of change in a will only mean a little bit of change in F (a) =
P (X ≤ a). We sometimes refer to this fact by saying that X
is a continuous random variable.
Note that the function F is called the distribution of the random
variable X.
Figure 9.12. The probability P (a ≤ X ≤ b) as an area.
It can be proved that if F has all these properties, then there exists
a unique function f : R → R that has the following properties:
a
(a) For all a ∈ R, we have −∞ f (x) dx = F (a) = P (X ≤ a).
∞
(b) The equality −∞ f (x) dx = 1 holds.
(c) For all real numbers x, the inequality f (x) ≥ 0 holds.
If f is the unique function described by the three properties above,
then f is called the probability density function, or simply density func-
tion, of the continuous random variable X.
Note that property (a) above implies that, for all real numbers
a < b, the equality
b
(9.14) P (a ≤ X ≤ b) = f (x) dx
a
holds. In other words, P (a ≤ X ≤ b) is equal to the area of the domain

between the graph of the density function f , the horizontal axis, and
the vertical lines x = a and x = b. See Figure 9.12 for an illustration.
Indeed, we have
P (a ≤ X ≤ b) = P (X ≤ b) − P (X ≤ a)
= F (b) − F (a)
b a
= f (x) dx − f (x) dx
−∞ −∞
b
= f (x) dx.
a
64. PROBABILITY 159
Figure 9.13. The graph of the function f in Example 9.10.
Example 9.10. Let the continuous random variable X have density

function ⎧
⎨ 0 if x,
f (x) = 6x(1 − x) if 0 ≤ x ≤ 1 ,
⎩
0 if x > 1.
Verify that f is indeed a density function and compute the proba-
bility P (0.3 ≤ X ≤ 0.6).
Solution: In order to see that f is indeed a density function, we
must verify that its definite integral, taken over the entire line of real
numbers, is equal to 1. This is not difficult, since f (x) = 0 outside the
interval [0, 1]. This leads to
∞ 1 2 1
x x3 1
f (x) dx = 6 x − x dx = 6
2
− = 6 · = 1.
−∞ 0 2 3 0 6
So f is indeed a valid density function.
We can use formula (9.14) to compute the requested probability.
We get
0.6
P (0.3 ≤ X ≤ 0.6) = f (x) dx
0.3
0.6
=6 x − x2 dx
0.3
2
0.6
x x3
=6 −
2 3 0.3
= 6(0.108 − 0.036)
= 0.432.
Figure 9.14. λ = 1 (red), λ = 1.5 (blue), λ = 2 (orange).
2
64.2.1. Exponential Distribution. Consider the following density func-
tion. Let λ be a positive real number and let

0 if x < 0,
(9.15) f (x) =
λe−λx if 0 ≤ x .
We see that f is a decreasing function on the interval [0, ∞). Figure
9.14 shows how the speed at which f decreases depends on the param-
eter λ.
It turns out that this density function is a very frequently occurring
one. Therefore, it has a name. It is called the exponential density func-
tion with parameter λ. Using the right constant λ and under the right
circumstances, it can be used in many scenarios, typically connected
to waiting times. For instance, it could be used to measure the proba-
bility that, given a starting moment, a given cell phone will ring in less
than t minutes, or that, at a given location, it will start raining in less
than h hours, or that, given a random store, a customer will enter in
s seconds. The exponential density function will give a good approxi-
mation to compute these probabilities if the mentioned processes take
place at a roughly constant rate. That is, we should choose a part of
the day when that given cell phone receives calls at roughly constant
frequency, a season when it rains at that location at roughly constant
time periods, or a time of day when customers enter that store at a
roughly constant rate.
Example 9.11. The probability that a certain kind of new refrig-
erator will need a major repair in x years is given by the exponential
64. PROBABILITY 161
density function with parameter λ = 1/9. What is the probability that

a new refrigerator will not need a major repair for 10 years?
Solution: First, we compute the probability that the refrigerator will
need a major repair in 10 years. Let X denote the number of years
passing before the first major repair is needed. Then that probability is
10
P (X < 10) = f (x) dx
−∞
10
1 −x/9
= e dx
0 9
= [−e−x/9 ]10
0
= 1 − e−10/9
= 0.671.
Therefore, the probability that the refrigerator will not need a major
repair in 10 years is P (X ≥ 10) = 1 − 0.671 = 0.329. 2
64.2.2. Mean. If we want to compute the average weight of a per-
son selected from a given population of n people, we can simply take
the weights a1 , a2 , . . . , an of those people and compute their arithmetic
mean, or average, that is, the real number
a1 + a2 + · · · + an
A= .
n
This could take a very long time if n is a very large number. If the data
are given in a more organized form, we may be able to save some time.
In particular, if we know that there are b1 people in the population
whose weight is x1 , there are b2 people whose weight is x2 , and so on,
then we can compute the average weight of the population as
b 1 x 1 + b2 x 2 + · · · + bk x k
(9.16) A= ,
b 1 + b2 + · · · + bk
since this fraction is the total weight of the population divided by the
number of people in the population.
Now note that pi = bi /(b1 + b2 + · · · + bk ) is just the probability that
a randomly selected person of this population has weight xi . Therefore,
(9.16) is equivalent to
(9.17) p 1 x1 + p2 x2 + · · · + pk xk .
Theoretically, the weight of a person can take infinitely many val-
ues since the measuring scale can be always be more precise. It is not
difficult to prove that, as k goes to infinity, the sum in (9.17) will turn
into a Riemann sum, and the weights xi will be measured by a contin-

uous random variable X, and the probabilities pi will be expressible by
the definite integrals of a density function. This leads to the following
definition.
Definition 9.1. Let f be the density function of the continuous
random variable X. Then the value of
∞
µ(X) = tf (t) dt
−∞
is called the average value or mean or expected value of X.
Example 9.12. Let X be the continuous random variable whose
density function is the exponential density function with parameter λ
that we defined in (9.15). Then µ(X) = 1/λ.
Solution: Using Definition 9.1, we have
∞
µ(X) = tf (t) dt
−∞
∞
= λte−λt dt
0 ∞
−λt 1 −λt
= −te − e
λ 0
1
= .
λ
2
In other words, the parameter and the mean of an exponential dis-
tribution are reciprocals of each other. In view of this, we can reformu-
late the result of Example 9.11 as follows. If the average time before a
new refrigerator needs a major repair is 9 years, then the probability
that a refrigerator will not need a major repair for 10 years is 0.329.
64.2.3. Normal Distribution. Let µ be a real number and let σ be pos-
itive real number. Consider the density function
1 (x − µ)2
f (x) = √ exp .
σ 2π 2σ 2
The distribution defined by this density function is called the nor-
mal distribution with parameters µ and σ. This distribution is denoted
by N (µ, σ). In particular, if µ = 0 and σ = 1, then the obtained
distribution N (0, 1) is called the standard normal distribution.
Plotting the graph of f for various values of µ and σ, we see that
the graph has a bell curve; its highest point is reached when x = µ,
64. PROBABILITY 163
Figure 9.15. σ = 1 (red), σ = 1.5 (orange), σ = 2

(green), and σ = 2.5 (blue).
and it increases on the left of that and decreases on the right of that.
The smaller the value of σ, the steeper is the rise and fall of the graph
of f . See Figure 9.15 for an illustration.
It can be proved that µ is precisely the mean of N (µ, σ). The
constant σ is called the standard deviation of N (µ, σ). It measures how
spread out the values of our variable X are. (The precise definition is
that σ is the square root of the mean of (X − µ)2 .)
Many scenarios are modeled by a normal distribution, such as test
scores, athletic results, or annual snowfall at a given location.
Example 9.13. In an average year, Northtown gets 10 feet of snow,

with a standard deviation of 2 feet. What is the probability that, in a
random year, Northtown gets between 9 and 12 feet of snow if snowfall
is modeled by a normal distribution?
Solution: Let X denote the snowfall in a random year in Northtown.

We need to find the probability P (9 ≤ X ≤ 12). As snowfall is modeled
by a normal distribution, the given parameters imply that that must
be the distribution N (10, 2). Therefore, by formula (9.14), we have
12
1 (x − 10)2
P (9 ≤ X ≤ 12) = √ exp
9 σ 2π 8
= 0.5326,
where the definite integral has to be computed by some approximation

2
method (or a software package) since e−x has no antiderivative among
elementary functions. 2
64.3. Exercises.
(1) For which value of c will f (x) = cx4 be a density function on
[0, 1]?
(2) Let X be a random variable whose density function is 0 outside
the interval [0, 1] and satisfies f (x) = 2x for x ∈ [0, 1]. Prove
that f is indeed a density function, and compute the mean of
X.
(3) Let us say that the lifetime of a bicycle tire (measured in
months) has an exponential distribution with λ = −7. What
is the probability that a tire will last between five and eight
months?
(4) The average score on an exam is 100 points. In order to pass,
a student cannot be more than 2 standard deviations below
the average. If the scores have a normal distribution with a
standard deviation of 6, how large a fraction of the students
will pass the exam?
(5) Using the conditions of Example 9.13, what is the probability
that Northtown will get less than 5 feet of snow in a given
year?
(6) Let X be the random variable that counts the goals scored
by an offensive soccer player of a certain elite league during
an entire season. An offensive player is considered exceptional
if he the number of goals he scores exceeds the average of all
offensive players by at least 3 standard deviations. Let us say
that X has distribution N (33, 3). What percentage of offensive
players is considered exceptional?
CHAPTER 10
Planar Curves
65. Parametric Curves

Every point in a plane can be defined as an ordered pair of real num-
bers (x, y) called the rectangular or Cartesian coordinates. A graph of
a function f is the set points in a plane whose coordinates satisfy
the condition y = f (x). The graph gives a simple example of a planar
curve. More generally, a planar curve can be defined as the set of points
whose coordinates satisfy the condition F (x, y) = 0 called the Carte-
sian equation of a curve. In many instances, an equation F (x, y) = 0
has multiple solutions for every given x. For example, consider the
circle of unit radius:
√
(10.1) x2 + y 2 = 1 =⇒ y = ± 1 − x2 , x ∈ [−1, 1].
√
√ 1−x
The two solutions represent two semicircles. The graph y = 2
is the semicircle above the x axis, while the graph y = − 1 − x is 2
the semicircle below the x axis. The union of the two graphs is the full
circle. This example shows a deficiency in describing planar curves by
the graph of a function because the curves cannot always be represented
as the graph of a single function.
On the other hand, (10.1) admits a different solution:
(10.2) x2 + y 2 = 1 =⇒ x = cos t , y = sin t , t ∈ [0, 2π],
which immediately follows from the trigonometric identity cos2 t +
sin2 t = 1 for all values of t.
This representation means that a point of the coordinate plane is
assigned to every value of t ∈ [0, 2π] by the rule (x, y) = (cos t, sin t).
The coordinates of points of the circle are functions of a third variable
called a parameter. As t changes, the point (cos t, sin t) traces out the
circle of unit radius centered at the origin in the plane. The parame-
ter t has a simple geometrical interpretation. It is the angle counted
counterclockwise from the positive x axis to a ray from the origin on
which the point (cos t, sin t) lies. This observation admits a natural
generalization.
Definition 10.1 (Parametric curves). Let x(t) and y(t) be contin-
uous functions on [a, b]. A parametric curve in the coordinate plane is
165
166 10. PLANAR CURVES
Figure 10.1. Circle: x(t) = cos t, y(t) = sin t.
Figure 10.2. Parametric curve. As t increases from a

to b, the point (x(t), y(t)) traces out a curve in the xy
plane.
the set of points satisfying the conditions, called the parametric equa-
tions,
x = x(t) , y = y(t) , t ∈ [a, b].
The points (x(a), y(a)) and (x(b), y(b)) are called the initial and ter-
minal points of the curve, respectively.
The graph of a function f is a particular example of a parametric
curve: x = t, y = f (t).
65. PARAMETRIC CURVES 167
Figure 10.3. The spiral x = t cos t, y = t sin t, t ∈

[0, 2π]. The distance from the origin R = x2 + y 2 = t
increases linearly as the angle t, counted counterclock-
wise from the positive x axis, increases from 0 to 2π.
Parametric curves are common in everyday life. The position of a

particle in a plane is defined by its rectangular coordinates (x, y) in the
plane. When the particle moves, its coordinates become functions of
time t so that the parametric curve x = x(t), y = y(t) is the trajectory
of the particle. The particle moves in a specific direction along its
trajectory. The particle may repeat its trajectory (or some portions of
it) multiple times.
Example 10.1. Sketch the curve with the parametric equations x =
t cos t, y = t sin t, t ∈ [0, 2π].
Solution: A basic approach to visualize the shape of a parametric
curve is to plot points (x(tk ), y(tk )), k = 1, 2, ..., n, corresponding to
successive values of t: t1 < t2 < · · · < tn . For n large enough, a fairly
good picture of the curve emerges. This approach can be followed
here, and the reader is advised to do so, for example, tk = 2πk/n,
k = 0, 1, ..., n. However, there is another way in part specific to this
very problem. Note that x2 + y 2 = t2 so that the equations may be
written in the form of the parametric equations of the circle x = R cos t,
y = R sin t, where the radius increases linearly with t, R = R(t) =
t. The parameter t can be viewed as the angle between a ray from
the origin and the positive x axis counted counterclockwise. Thus,

the curve has the following interpretation. As the point (x(t), y(t))
rotates about the origin, the distance R between it and the origin
increases linearly with the rotation angle. Such a motion occurs along
an unwinding spiral. In the interval t ∈ [0, 2π], the spiral makes one
full turn from the initial point (0, 0) to the terminal point (2π, 0). 2
65.1. Parametric Curves and Curves as Point Sets. If a curve is defined

as a point set in the coordinate plane, for example, by the Cartesian
equation F (x, y) = 0, then there are many parametric equations that
describe it. For example, the circle (10.1) may also be described by the
following parametric equations:
(10.3)
x2 + y 2 = 1 =⇒ x = cos(3τ ) , y = − sin(3τ ) , τ ∈ [0, 2π].
What is the difference between (10.2) and (10.3)? First, note that,
as the parameter t in (10.2) increases, the point (cos t, sin t) traces out
the circle counterclockwise (the initial point (1, 0) moves upward as y =
sin t > 0 for 0 < t < π/2). In contrast, the point (cos(3τ ), − sin(3τ ))
does so clockwise with increasing τ (the initial point (1, 0) moves down-
ward as y = − sin(3τ ) for 0 < τ < π/6). Second, as t ranges over the
interval [0, 2π], the point (cos t, sin t) traces out the circle only once,
while the point (cos(3τ ), − sin(3τ )) winds about the origin three times
because the period of the trigonometric functions involved is 2π/3, so
the point returns to the initial point (τ = 0) three times when τ = 2π/3,
τ = 4π/3, and τ = 6π/3 = 2π. Third, there is a relation between the
parameters t and τ : t = −3τ .
This example illustrates the main differences between curves defined
as a point set by the Cartesian equation F (x, y) = 0 and parametric
curves.
• A parametric curve C is oriented ; that is, the point (x(t), y(t))
traces out C in a particular direction (from the initial to the
terminal point).
• A parametric curve may repeat itself multiple times.
• Parametric equations describing the same point set in the
plane differ by the choice of parameter; that is, if (x(t), y(t))
and (X(τ ), Y (τ )) trace out the same point set C in the plane,
then there is a function g(τ ) such that X(τ ) = x(g(τ )) and
Y (τ ) = y(g(τ )). The change of the parameter t = g(τ ) is
called a reparameterization of a curve C.
A good mechanical analogy is the motion of a particle. A paramet-

ric curve describes the actual motion, that is, how fast and in which
direction the particle moves along its trajectory defined as a point set.
Example 10.2. Suppose a curve C is described by the parametric
equations x = x(t), y = y(t) if t ∈ [a, b]. Find the parametric equations
of C such that the curve is traced out backward, that is, from the point
(x(b), y(b)) to (x(a), y(a)) (the initial and terminal points are swapped).
Solution: One has to find a new parameter τ , t = g(τ ), such that
g(b) = a and g(a) = b. When τ increases from a to b, the parameter
t decreases from b to a, and the sought-after parametric equations are
obtained by the composition X(τ ) = x(g(τ )) and Y (τ ) = y(g(τ )). The
simplest possibility is to look for a linear relation between t and τ ,
g(τ ) = c + dτ . The coefficients c and d are fixed by the conditions
g(a) = b or b = c + da and g(b) = a or a = c + db. Therefore, by
subtracting these equations, b − a = (c + da) − (c + db) = −(b − a)d or
d = −1. By adding these equations with d = −1, b+a = (c−a)+(c−b)
or c = a + b. Hence, t = (a + b) − τ , so that the parametric equations
of C with reversed orientation are
x = x(a + b − τ ) , y = y(a + b − τ ) , τ ∈ [a, b].
For example, if C is the circle oriented counterclockwise as in (10.2),
then the same circle oriented clockwise is described by x = cos(2π −
τ ) = cos τ , y = sin(2π − τ ) = − sin τ , τ ∈ [0, 2π]. 2
65.2. The Cycloid. The curve traced by a fixed point on the circum-
ference of a circle as the circle rolls along a straight line is called a
cycloid (see Figure 10.4). To find its parametric equations, suppose
that the circle has a radius R and it rolls along the x axis. Let the
fixed point P on the circumference be initially at the origin so that the
center of the circle is positioned at the point (0, R) (on the y axis). Let
CP denote the straight line segment between the center of the circle C
and P . Initially, CP is perpendicular to the x axis. As the circle rolls,
the segment CP rotates about the center of the circle. Therefore, it is
natural to choose the angle of rotation θ as a parameter. The coordi-
nates of P are functions of θ to be found. If the circle rolls a distance
D so that its center is at (D, R), then the arc length Rθ of the part
of the circle between P and the touch point T has to be equal to D,
that is, D = Rθ. Let Q be a point on the segment CT such that P Q
and CT are perpendicular. Consider the right-angled triangle CP Q.
Its hypotenuse CP has length |CP | = R, and the lengths of its catheti
are |CQ| = |CP | cos θ = R cos θ and |P Q| = |CP | sin θ = R sin θ. Let
Figure 10.4. Definition of a cycloid. A disk of radius

R is rolling along the x axis. A curve traced out by a
fixed point on its edge is called a cycloid.
Figure 10.5. Overall shape of a cycloid.
(x, y) be coordinates of the point P . The parametric equations of the

cycloid are
x = D − |P Q| = Rθ − R sin θ = R(θ − sin θ).
y = R − |CQ| = R − R cos θ = R(1 − cos θ).
It looks like an upward arc over the interval 0 ≤ x ≤ 2πR, with max-
imal height ymax = 2R (θ = π/2), and the arc repeats itself over the
next interval of the length of circumference 2πR and so on.
Remark. In 1696, the Swiss mathematician Johann Bernoulli
posed the brachistochrone problem: Find the curve along which a parti-
cle will slide (without friction) in the shortest time (under the influence
of gravity) from a point A to a lower point B not directly beneath A.
The particle will take the least time sliding from A to B if the curve is
a part of an inverted arch of a cycloid.
65.3. Families of Curves. Different values of R define different cycloids.

In general, if the parametric equations contain a numerical parameter,
then the parametric equations define a family of curves; each family
member corresponds to a particular value of the numerical parameter.
Example 10.3. Investigate the family of curves with the parametric

equations x = a cos t, y = b sin(2t), t ∈ [0, 2π], where a and b are
positive numbers.
Solution: Consider first the simplest case a = b = 1. The function

x(t) = cos t has a period of 2π, and y(t) = sin(2t) has a period of
π. The initial point is (x(0), y(0)) = (1, 0). As t increases, the point
moves upward so that x(t) decreases (becomes less than 1), while y(t)
increases, reaching its maximum value 1 at t = π/4. After that, y(t)
begins to decrease, while x(t) continues to decrease. At t = π/2, the
point arrives at the origin and passes through it into the third quadrant
so that x(t) and y(t) continue to decrease. When t = 3π/4, y(t) attains
the minimum value −1 and begins to increase for t > 3π/4, while
x(t) = cos t is still decreasing toward its minimal value −1, which is
reached at t = π, and the curve crosses the x axis moving into the
second quadrant. In the second quadrant π < t < 3π/2, x(t) increases
toward 0, while y(t) first reaches its maximum value 1 at t = π + π/4
(the curve touches the horizontal line y = 1) and then decreases to
0. The curve passes the origin again at t = 3π/2 and moves into the
fourth quadrant, where it again touches the horizontal line y = −1 at
t = 3π/2 + π/4 and at t = 2π it arrives at the initial point. The shape
of the curve resembles the infinity sign (∞) embedded into the square
bounded by the lines y = ±1 and x = ±1 so that it touches each of
the horizontal sides y = ±1 twice and each of the vertical sides x = ±1
once. If a and b are arbitrary, the transformation x → ax stretches
(a > 1) or compresses (a < 1) any geometrical set horizontally in the
coordinate plane. The transformation y → by does the same but in the
vertical direction. So the family of curves consists of curves of the ∞
shape stretched to fit into the rectangle bounded by the lines x = ±a
and y = ±b. 2
65.4. Exercises.
In (1)–(9), sketch the curve by plotting its points. Include the arrow
showing the orientation of the curve. Eliminate the parameter to find
a Cartesian equation of the curve.
√
(1) x = 1 + 2t , y = 3 − t (2) x = t , y = 2 − t (3) x = t2 , y = t3
(4) x = 1 + 2et , y = 3 − et (5) x = cosh t , y = sinh t
(6) x = 2 sin t , y = 3 cos t (7) x = 2 − 3 cos t , y = −1 + sin t
(8) x = cos t , y = sin(4t) (9) x = t2 sin t , y = t2 cos t
(10) The curves x = a sin(nt), y = b cos t, where n is a positive integer,
are called Lissajous figures. Investigate how these curves depend on a,
b, and n.
(11) Consider a disk of radius R. Let P be a point on the disk at a
distance b from its center. Find the parametric equations of the curve
traced out by the point P as the disk rolls along a straight line. The
curve is called a trochoid. Are the equations well defined if b > R.
Sketch the curve for b < R, b = R, and b > R.
(12) The swallowtail catastrophe curves are defined by the parametric
equations x = 2ct − 4t3 , y = −ct2 + 3t4 . Sketch these curves for a few
values of c. What features do the curves have in common? How do
they change when c increases?
66. Calculus with Parametric Curves
66.1. Tangent Line to a Parametric Curve. Consider a parametric curve
x = x(t), y = y(t), where the functions x(t) and y(t) are continu-
ously differentiable and the derivatives x (t) and y (t) do not vanish
simultaneously for any t. Such parametric curves are called smooth.
Theorem 10.1 (Tangent Line to a Smooth Curve). A smooth para-
metric curve x = x(t), y = y(t) has a tangent line at any point (x0 , y0 ),
and its equation is
(10.4) x (t0 )(y − y0 ) − y (t0 )(x − x0 ) = 0,
where (x0 , y0 ) = (x(t0 ), y(t0 )).
Proof. Take a point of the curve (x0 , y0 ) = (x(t0 ), y(t0 )) corre-
sponding to a particular value t = t0 . Suppose that x (t0 ) = 0. Then,
by the continuity of x (t), there is a neighborhood Iδ = (t0 − δ, t0 + δ)
for some δ > 0 such that x (t) = 0 for all t ∈ Iδ ; that is, the de-
rivative is either positive or negative in Iδ . By the inverse function
theorem (studied in Calculus I), there is an inverse function t = f (x)
that is differentiable in some open interval that contains x0 . Substi-
tuting t = f (x) into the second parametric equation y = y(t), one
obtains that near the point (x0 , y0 ) the curve can be represented as a
part of the graph y = F (x) such that y0 = F (x0 ). The function F is
66. CALCULUS WITH PARAMETRIC CURVES 173
differentiable as the composition of two differentiable functions. The

derivative F (x0 ) determines the slope of the tangent to the graph, and
the equation of the tangent line reads
(10.5) y = y0 + F (x0 )(x − x0 ).
By construction,
y = F (x) =⇒ y(t) = F (x(t)) for all t ∈ Iδ .
Differentiation of this equation with respect to t by means of the chain
rule yields
y (t) y (t0 )
y (t) = F (x(t))x (t) =⇒ F (x(t)) = =⇒ F
(x 0 ) = .
x (t) x (t0 )
Substituting this equation into (10.5) , the latter can be written in
the form (10.4). If x (t0 ) = 0, then y (t0 ) = 0 by the definition of
a smooth curve so that there is a differentiable inverse t = g(y) and
hence x = G(y) = x(g(y)). Similar arguments lead to the conclusion
that the tangent line to the graph x = G(y) has the form (10.4). The
details are left to the reader as an exercise. 2
The rule for calculating the slope of the tangent line can also be
obtained by means of the concept of the differential. Recall that the
differentials of two related quantities y = F (x) are proportional: dy =
F (x) dx. On the other hand, x = x(t), y = y(t) and therefore dx =
x (t) dt and dy = y (t) dt. Hence,
dy dy
y (t)
F (x) = = dt
= .
dx dx
dt
x (t)
These manipulations with differentials are based on a tacit assumption
that, for a smooth curve x = x(t), y = y(t), there exists a differentiable
function F such that y = F (x). In the proof of the tangent line the-
orem, this has been shown to be true as a consequence of the inverse
function theorem. The use of the differentials establishes the following
helpful rules to calculate the derivatives:
d d
d dt 1 d d dt 1 d
= = and = = .
dx dx
dt
x (t) dt dy dy
dt
y (t) dt
66.2. Concavity of a Parametric Curve. The concavity of a graph y =

F (x) is determined by the sign of the second derivative F (x). If
F (x) > 0, the graph is concave downward, and it is concave upward if
F (x) < 0. If y(t) and x(t) are twice differentiable, then the concavity
of the curve can be determined:

y
d2 y d dy 1 d dy x y x − x y
= = = = .
d2 x dx dx x dt dx x (x )3
Example 10.4. A curve C is defined by the parametric equations
x = t2 , y = t3 − 3t.
(i) Show that C has two tangent lines at the point (3, 0).
(ii) Find the points on C where the tangent line is horizontal or vertical.
(iii) Determine where the curve is concave upward or downward.
Solution: √(i) Note that y(t) = t(t2 − 3) = 0 has three solutions t = 0
and t = ± 3. But the curve has only two √ points of intersection with
the x axis, (0, 0) and (3, 0), because x(± 3) = 3; that is, the curve is
self-intersecting at the point (3, 0). This explains why the curve may
have√ two tangent
√ lines. One√has x (t) = 2t and y (t) = 3t2 − 3 so that
x (± 3) = ±2
√ 3 and√y (± 3) = 6. So the slopes of the tangent lines

are (y /x )(± 3) = ± 3, and the equations of the lines read
√ √
y = 3 (x − 3) and y = − 3 (x − 3).
(ii) The tangent line becomes horizontal when y (t) = 3t2 − 3 = 0
(see Eq. (10.4)). This happens when t = ±1. Thus, the tangent
line is horizontal at the points (1, ±2). The tangent line is vertical if
x (t) = 2t = 0 or t = 0. So the tangent line is vertical at the origin
(0, 0).
(iii) The second derivative is
d2 y 1 d dy 1 d 3t2 − 3 3 d 1 3 1
2
= = = t− = 1+ 2 .
dx x dt dx 2t dt 2t 4t dt t 4t t
This equation shows that the curve is concave downward if t > 0 (the
second derivative is positive) and the curve is concave upward if t < 0
(the second derivative is negative). 2
66.3. Cusps of Planar Curves. Consider a curve defined by the Carte-

sian equation x2 − y 3 = 0. This equation can be solved for y, y = x2/3 ,
such that dy/dx = 23 x−1/3 . For x > 0, the slope of the tangent line
diverges, y (x) → ∞ as x → 0+ (as x approaches to 0 from the right).
For x < 0, it also diverges, y (x) → −∞ as x → 0− (as x approaches 0
from the left). The two branches of the curve (x > 0 and x < 0) are
joined at x = 0 and have a common tangent line, which is the vertical
line x = 0 (the y axis) in this case, but the slope suffers a jump dis-
continuity (from −∞ to ∞). So the curve is not smooth at x = 0 and
Figure 10.6. Plot of y = x2/3 . The curve has a cusp at

the origin.
exhibits a horn like shape near x = 0. Such a point of a planar curve

is called a cusp.
A parametric curve x = x(t), y = y(t) may have cusps even though
both derivatives x (t) and y (t) are continuous for all t. For example,
consider the parametric curve x = t3 , y = t2 . For all values of t,
x2 − y 3 = 0. So this curve coincides with that discussed above and has
a cusp at the origin (t = 0). The derivatives x (t) = 3t2 and y (t) = 2t
are continuous everywhere, and, in particular, x (0) = y (0) = 0 at the
cusp point. Despite the continuity of the derivatives, the slope of the
curve is not defined since dy/dx = y /x is an undetermined form 00 .
A closer investigation shows that the slope y (t)/x (t) = 23 t−1 suffers
a jump discontinuity (from −∞ to +∞ as t changes from negative to
positive). The definition of a smooth parametric curve requires that
the derivatives x (t) and y (t) are continuous and do not vanish simul-
taneously at any t. A rationale for the latter condition is to eliminate
possible cusps that may occur at points where both derivatives vanish.
Furthermore, consider the curve x = t2 , y = t3 . The slope dy/dx =
y /x = 32 t is continuous everywhere and, in particular, at t = 0, where
x (0) = y (0) = 0. Nevertheless, the curve has a cusp at the origin. To
see this, let us investigate the Cartesian equation of this curve x3 −y 2 =
0, which can be solved for x, x = y 2/3 . Therefore, the derivative
dx/dy = 23 y −1/3 exhibits a jump discontinuity from −∞ to ∞ as y
changes from negative to positive. The two branches of the curve (y > 0
and y < 0) have a common tangent line (the horizontal line y = 0),
but at their joining point a cusp is formed. Note also that the rate
dx/dy = x /y = 23 t−1 suffers a familiar infinite jump discontinuity, thus
indicating a cusp. This example shows that both rates dy/dx = y /x
Figure 10.7. The curve x = t2 , y = t3 . The derivatives

x (0) = y (0) = 0 vanish at t = 0. The curve has a cusp
at the point (x(0), y(0)) = (0, 0).
and dx/dy = x /y must be studied to determine whether there is a

cusp at the point where y = x = 0.
Example 10.5. Find the tangent line to the astroid defined by the
parametric equation x = a cos3 t, y = a sin3 t, t ∈ [0, 2π] at the points
t = π/4. Determine the points where the tangent line is horizontal
and vertical. Is the curve smooth? Specify the regions of upward and
downward concavity. Use the results to sketch the curve.
Solution: The slope of the tangent line at a generic point is
dy 1 d 1
= y=− 3a sin2 t cos t = − tan t.
dx x dt 3a cos2 t sin t
The value t = π/4 corresponds to √ the point x = a/23/2 , y = a/23/2
because sin(π/4) = cos(π/4) = 1/ 2, and the slope at this point is
−1. So the tangent line is
a a a
y = √ − x− √ or y = √ − x.
2 2 2 2 2
The slope dy/dt = − tan t vanishes at t = 0 and t = π so the tangent
line is horizontal (y = 0) at the points (±a, 0). However, the derivatives
x (t) = −3a cos2 t sin t and y (t) = 3a sin2 t cos t vanish simultaneously
at t = 0 and t = π. The inverse slope dx/dy = 1/(dy/dx) = − cot t

exhibits an infinite jump discontinuity at t = 0 and t = π, so the
curve has cusps at (±a, 0) and hence it is not smooth at these points.
The slope dy/dx is infinite at t = π/2 and t = 3π/2. Therefore, the
curve has a vertical tangent line (x = 0) at (0, ±a). However, the slope
dy/dx = − tan t has an infinite jump discontinuity at t = π/2 and
t = 3π/2. So the curve has cusps and is not smooth at (0, ±a). Note
also that both derivatives x and y vanish at these points. Thus, the
curve consists of four smooth pieces, and the curve has cusps at the
joining points of its smooth pieces. The second derivative
d2 y 1 d dy 1 1
= = (tan t) =
d2 x x dt dx 3a cos2 t sin t 3a sin t cos4 t
is positive if sin t > 0 (or y > 0) and negative if sin t < 0 (or y < 0). So
the two branches of the curve above the x axis are concave downward,
while the two branches below it are concave upward. The curves look
like a square with vertices (±a, 0), (0, ±a) whose sides are bent inward
toward the origin. 2
66.4. Exercises.
In (1) and (2), find an equation of the tangent line(s) to the curve at
the given point. Sketch the curve and the tangent(s).
(1) x = t2 + t , y = 4 sin t , (0, 0)
(2) x = sin t + sin(2t) , y = cos t + cos(2t) , (1, −1)
In (3)–(6), investigate the concavity of the curve.

(3) x = t3 − 12t , y = t2 − 1 (4) x = sin(2t) , y = cos t
(5) x = t − ln t , y = t + ln t
2 2
(6) x = 3 sin t3 , y = 2 cos t3
(7) Investigate the slope of the trochoid x = Rφ−b sin φ, y = R−b cos φ
in terms of φ. Find the condition on the parameters R and b such that
the trochoid has vertical tangent lines.
(8) At what points on the curve x = 2t3 , y = 1 + 4t − t2 does the
tangent line have slope 1?
(9) Find equations of the tangents to the curve x = 2t3 + 1, y = 3t2 + 1
that pass through the point (3, 4).
In (10)–(12). Investigate whether the curve has cusps or not. If it does,
find their position. Sketch the curve.
(10) x = t3 , y = t3 (11) x = t5 , y = t2 (12) x = (t2 −1)3 , y = (t3 −1)2
67. Polar Coordinates

A point on a plane is described by an ordered pair of numbers
(x0 , y0 ) in the rectangular coordinate system. This description implies
a geometrical procedure to obtain the point as the intersection of two
mutually perpendicular lines x = x0 and y = y0 . The set of vertical
and horizontal lines form a rectangular grid in a plane. There are other
possibilities to label points on a plane by ordered pair of numbers. Here
the polar coordinate system is introduced, which is more convenient for
many purposes.
Fix a point O on a plane. Let P be a point on the plane. A
horizontal ray from O is called the polar axis, and the point O is called
the origin or pole. Let θ be the angle between the polar axis and the
ray OP from O through P . The angle θ is counted counterclockwise
from the polar axis. The position of the point P on the ray OP is
uniquely determined by the distance r = |OP |. Thus, any point P on
a plane is uniquely associated with the ordered pair (r, θ), and r, θ are
called the polar coordinates of P . The coordinate r is called the radial
variable, and θ is called the polar angle.
All points on the plane that have the same value of the radial vari-
able form a circle of radius r centered at the origin (all points that have
the same distance from the origin). All points on the plane that have
the same value of the polar angle form a ray (a half-line bounded by the
Figure 10.8. Definition of the polar coordinates in a

plane. r is the distance |OP |, and θ is the angle counted
counterclockwise from the horizontal ray outgoing from
O to the right. The rectangular coordinates of a point P
are related to the polar ones as x = r cos θ, y = r sin θ.
67. POLAR COORDINATES 179
origin). So a point P with polar coordinates (r, θ) is the intersection

of the circle of radius r and the ray that makes the angle θ with the
polar axis. Concentric circles and rays originating from the center of
the circles form a polar grid in a plane (see Figure 10.9).
To represent all points of a plane, the radial variable has to range
over the interval r ∈ [0, ∞), while the polar angle takes its values in
the interval [0, 2π) because any ray from the origin does not change
after rotation about the origin through the angle 2π. It is convenient,
though, to let θ range over the whole real line. Positive values of θ
correspond to rotation angles counted counterclockwise, while negative
values of θ are associated with rotation angles counted clockwise. All
pairs (r, θ) with a fixed value of r and values of θ different by integer
multiples of 2π represent the same points of the plane. For example,
the ordered pairs (r, θ) = (1, −π) and (1, π) correspond to the same
point. Indeed, both points are on the circle of unit radius. The ray
θ = π is obtained from the polar axis by counterclockwise rotation
of the latter through the angle π. But the same ray is obtained by
rotating the polar axis through the angle π clockwise; that is, the rays
θ = π and θ = −π coincide.
Figure 10.9. Polar grid. Coordinate curves of the po-

lar coordinates. The curves of constant values of r are
concentric circles. The curves of constant values of θ are
rays outgoing from the origin.
Furthermore, the meaning of the radial variable r can be extended

to the case in which r is negative by agreeing that the pairs (−r, θ) and
(r, θ + π), r > 0, represent the same point. Geometrically, the points
(±r, θ) lie on a line through the origin at the same distance |r| from the
origin but on the opposite sides of the origin. With this agreement on
extending the meaning of the polar coordinates, each point on a plane
may be represented by countably many pairs:
(10.6) (r, θ) ⇐⇒ (r, θ + 2πn) or (−r, θ + (2n + 1)π),
where n is an integer.
67.1. Rectangular and Polar Coordinates. Suppose that the polar axis
is set so that it coincides with the positive x axis of the rectangular
coordinate system. Every point on the plane is either described by
the rectangular coordinates (x, y) or the polar coordinates (r, θ). It is
easy to find the relation between the polar and rectangular coordinates
of a point P by examining the rectangle with the diagonal OP . Its
horizontal and vertical sides have lengths x and y, respectively. The
length of the diagonal is r. The angle between the horizontal side and
the diagonal is θ. Therefore, cos θ = x/r and sin θ = y/r, or
y
x = r cos θ , y = r sin θ ⇐⇒ r2 = x2 + y 2 , tan θ = .
x
These relations allow us to convert the polar coordinates of a point to
rectangular coordinates and vice versa.
Example 10.6. Find the rectangular coordinates of a point whose
polar coordinates are (2, π/6). Find the polar coordinates of a point
with rectangular coordinates (−1, 1).
√
Solution:
√ For r = 2 and θ = π/6, one has x =√2 cos(π/6) = 2 3/2 =
3 and y = 2 sin(π/6) = 2/2 =√1, so (x, y) = ( 3, 1). For x = −1 and
y = 1, one has r2 = 2 or r = 2 and tan θ = −1. The point (−1, 1)
lies in the second quadrant, that is, π/2 ≤ θ ≤ π. Therefore, θ = 3π/4.
Alternatively, one can take θ = 3π/4 − 2π = −5π/4. 2
67.2. Polar Graphs. A polar graph is a curve defined by the equation

r = f (θ) or, more generally, F (r, θ) = 0. It consists of all points that
have at least one polar representation (r, θ) that satisfies the equation.
Here polar coordinates are understood in the extended sense of (10.6)
when they are allowed to take any value.
The simplest polar graph is defined by a constant function r = a,
where a is real. Since r represents the distance from the origin, the
pairs (|a|, θ) form a circle of radius |a| centered at the origin. Similarly,
the graph θ = b, where b is real, is the set of all points (r, b), where
r ranges over the real axis, which is the line through the origin that
makes an angle b radians with the polar axis. Notice that the points
(r, b), r > 0, and (r, b), r < 0, lie in the opposite quadrants relative to
the origin as the pairs (r, b) and (−r, b + π) represent the same point.
In general, the shape of a polar graph can be determined by plotting
points (f (θk ), θk ), k = 1, 2, ..., n, for a set of successively increasing
values of θ, θ1 < θ2 < · · · < θn ; that is, one takes a set of rays θ = θk
and marks the point on each ray at a distance rk = f (θk ) from the
origin.
Example 10.7. Describe the curve r = 2 cos θ.
Solution: By converting the polar graph equation to rectangular co-
ordinates, one finds:
r = 2 cos θ ⇔ r2 = 2r cos θ ⇔ x2 + y 2 = 2x ⇔ (x − 1)2 + y 2 = 1.
The latter equation is obtained by completing the squares. It represents
a circle with center (1, 0) and radius 1. Note also that by looking at
the graph of the cosine function, one can see that the point (2 cos θ, θ)
gets closer to the origin when θ changes from 0 to π/2 (the first quad-
rant), reaching the origin at θ = π/2. This gives the upper part of
the circle. A similar behavior is observed when θ changes from 0 to
−π/2 (the lower part of the circle in the fourth quadrant). In the in-
tervals (−π, −π/2) and (π/2, π), the radial variable is negative. The
representation (r, θ) is equivalent to (−r, θ ± π). Therefore, the points
(2 cos θ, θ) and (−2 cos θ, θ + π) = (2 cos(θ + π), θ + π) are the same
for θ ∈ [−π, −π/2]. But the latter set can also be described by the
pairs (2 cos θ, θ) if θ ∈ [0, π/2]. Similarly, the set traced out by the pair
(2 cos θ, θ) for θ ∈ [π/2, π] is the same as when θ ∈ [−π/2, 0]. So the
pair (2 cos θ, θ) traces out the same set (the circle) each time θ ranges
an interval of length π. 2
Example 10.8. Describe the shape of the curve r = θ, θ ≥ 0.
Solution: The point (θ, θ) lies on the ray that makes an angle θ with
the polar axis and is a distance r = θ from the origin. As the ray rotates
counterclockwise about the origin with increasing θ, the distance of the
point from the origin increases proportionally. So the curve is a spiral
unwinding counterclockwise. 2
67.3. Symmetry of Polar Graphs. When sketching polar graphs, it it is

helpful to take advantage of symmetry, just like when plotting graphs
Figure 10.10. Polar curve r = θ. It is a spiral because

the distance from the origin r increases with the angle θ
as the point rotates about the origin through the angle
θ.
y = f (x) for symmetric (f (−x) = f (x)) or skew-symmetric (f (−x) =

−f (x)) functions.
(i) If a polar equation is unchanged when θ is replaced by −θ,
the curve is symmetric about the polar axis. Note that the
transformation (r, θ) → (r, −θ) means that (x, y) → (x, −y),
which is the reflection about the x axis (or the polar axis).
(ii) If a polar equation is unchanged when (r, θ) is replaced by
(−r, θ) or by (r, θ + π), the curve is symmetric about the ori-
gin. Again, these transformations are equivalent to (x, y) →
(−x, −y), which is the reflection about the origin.
(iii) If the equation is unchanged under the transformation (r, θ) →
(r, π − θ), then the curve is symmetric about the vertical line
θ = π/2. In the rectangular coordinates, this transformation
is (x, y) → (x, −y), which is the reflection about the y axis.
Example 10.9. Describe the cardioid r = 1 + sin θ.
Solution: The equation is unchanged under θ → π − θ so the curve
is symmetric about the vertical axis (the y axis). It is sufficient to
investigate the curve in the interval θ ∈ [−π/2, π/2] (in the fourth and
first quadrants). Consider a ray that rotates counterclockwise from
θ = −π/2 to θ = π/2 (from the negative y axis to the positive y
axis). When θ = −π/2, r = 0. As θ increases from −π/2 to 0 (the
fourth quadrant), the distance from the origin r = 1 + sin θ increases
Figure 10.11. The cardioid r = 1 + sin θ.
monotonically from 0 to 1 (r = 1 on the polar axis). In the interval

[0, π/2] (the first quadrant), the distance from the origin r continues to
increase monotonically and reaches its maximal value 2 on the vertical
axis. 2
67.4. Tangent to a Polar Graph. To find a tangent line to a polar graph

r = f (θ), the polar angle is viewed as a parameter so that the para-
metric equations of the graph are
x = r cos θ = f (θ) cos θ , y = r sin θ = f (θ) sin θ.
By the product rule for the derivative,
dy dy
dθ f (θ) sin θ + f (θ) cos θ
= = .
dx dx
dθ
f (θ) cos θ − f (θ) sin θ
In particular, if the curve passes through the origin, r = 0, the equation
for the slope at the origin is simplified
dy dr
= tan θ if = f (θ) = 0.
dx dθ
Note that if f (θ) = 0, then the slope is an undetermined form 00
because x (θ) = y (θ) = 0 for any value of θ such that f (θ) = f (θ) = 0.
This means that the curve may have a cusp at the origin and hence is
not smooth.
Example 10.10. Find the slope of the cardioid r = 1 + sin θ in
terms of θ. Investigate the behavior of the cardioid near the origin.
Solution: Here f (θ) = 1 + sin θ and f (θ) = cos θ. This leads to the
slope
dy cos θ sin θ + (1 + sin θ) cos θ cos θ(1 + 2 sin θ)
= = .
dx cos θ − (1 + sin θ) sin θ
2 (1 + sin θ)(1 − 2 sin θ)
where the identity cos2 θ = 1−sin2 θ has been used to transform the de-
nominator. The cardioid passes through the origin as θ passes through
−π/2. The slope dy/dx is undetermined because the numerator and
denominator of the ratio vanish at θ = −π/2 (both derivatives dx/dθ
and dy/dθ vanish). The left and right limits have to be investigated to
see if the slope has a jump discontinuity thus indicating a cusp. The
numerator vanishes because of the factor cos θ, while the denominator
vanishes because of the factor (1 + sin θ). Hence,
dy 1 cos θ 1 − sin θ
lim =− lim ± =− lim ± = ∓∞,
θ→(−π/2)± dx 3 θ→(−π/2) 1 + sin θ 3 θ→(−π/2) cos θ
where l’Hospital’s rule has been used to resolve the undetermined form
0
0
and the property that tan θ → ∓∞ as θ → (−π/2)± has been invoked
to find the limit. The cardioid has a vertical tangent line at the origin.
The slope has an infinite jump discontinuity, meaning that the cardioid
has a cusp at the origin (see Figure 10.11). 2
67.5. Exercises.
In (1)–(3), convert the polar graph equation to a Cartesian equation
and sketch the curve.
(1) r = 4 sin θ (2) r = tan θ sec θ (3) r = 2 sin θ − 4 cos θ
In (4)–(12), sketch the curve with the given polar equation.
(4) r = θ , θ ≤ 0 (5) r = ln θ , θ ≥ 1 (6) r2 − 3r + 2 = 0
(7) r = 4 cos(6θ) (8) r2 = 9 sin(2θ) (9) r = 1 + 2 cos(2θ)
(10) r = 2 + sin(3θ) (11) r = 1 + 2 sin(3θ) (12) r2 θ = 1
(13) Sketch the curve (x2 + y 2 )2 = 4x2 y 2 . Hint: Use polar coordinates.
(14) Investigate the dependence of the shape of the curve r = cos(nθ)
as the integer n increases. What happens if n is not an integer?
(15) Show that the curve r = 1 + a sin θ has an inner loop when |a| > 1
and find the range of θ that corresponds to the inner loop.
(16) For what values of a is the curve r = 1 + a sin θ smooth?
In (17) and (18), find the slope of the tangent line to the given curve
at the point specified by the value of θ and give an equation of the
68. PARAMETRIC CURVES: THE ARC LENGTH AND SURFACE AREA 185
tangent line.
(17) r = 2 sin θ , θ = π/3 (18) r = 1 − 2 cos θ , θ = π/6
(19) Show that the curves r = a sin θ and r = a cos θ intersect at right
angles.
68. Parametric Curves: The Arc Length and Surface Area

68.1. Arc Length of a Smooth Curve. Let C be a smooth curve defined
by the parametric equations x = x(t), y = y(t), where t ∈ [a, b].
Suppose that C is traversed exactly once as t increases from a to b
and consider a partition of the interval [a, b] such that t0 = a and
tk = t0 + k ∆t, k = 0, 1, 2, ..., n, are the endpoints of the partition
intervals of width ∆t = (b − a)/n. Then the points Pk with coordinates
(x(tk ), y(tk )) lie on the curve so that P0 and Pn are the initial and
terminal points, respectively. The curve C can be approximated by a
polygonal path with vertices Pk . By definition, the length L of C is
the limit of the lengths of these approximating polygons as n → ∞:

n
(10.7) L = lim |Pk−1 Pk |,
n→∞
k=1
provided the limit exists, and, in this case, the curve is called measur-
able.
Figure 10.12. The arc length of a smooth parametric

curve is approximated by the length of n straight line
segments connecting points on the curve. The arc length
is defined in (10.7) as the limit n → ∞.
By the mean value theorem, when applied to the functions x(t) and
y(t) on the interval [tk−1 , tk ], there are numbers t∗k and t∗∗
k in (tk−1 , tk )
such that
∆xk = x(tk )−x(tk−1 ) = x (t∗k ) ∆t , ∆yk = y(tk )−y(tk−1 ) = y (t∗∗
k ) ∆t.
Therefore,

|Pk−1 Pk | = (∆xk )2 + (∆yk )2 = (x (t∗k ))2 + (y (t∗∗ 2
k )) ∆t.
The
sum in (10.7) resembles a Riemann sum for the function F∗ (t) =
(x (t))2 + (y (t))2 . It is not exactly a Riemann sum because tk = t∗∗
k
in general. However, if x (t) and y (t) are continuous, it can be shown
that the limit (10.7) is the same as if t∗k and t∗∗ k were equal, namely, L
is the integral of F (t) over [a, b].
Theorem 10.2 (Arc Length of a Curve). If a curve C is described
by the parametric equations x = x(t), y = y(t), t ∈ [a, b], where x (t)
and y (t) are continuous on [a, b] and C is traversed exactly once as t
increases from a to b, then the length of C is
b
dx 2 dy 2
L= + dt.
a dt dt
If C is a graph y = f (x), then x = t, y = f (t), and dx = dt, and
the length is given by the familiar expression
b
dy 2
L= 1+ dt.
a dx
It is convenient to introduce the arc length of an infinitesimal segment
of a curve (the differential of the arc length)
b
2 2
ds
ds = (dx) + (dy) =⇒ L = ds = dt.
C a dt

The symbol C means the summation over infinitesimal segments of the
curve S (the integral along a curve C) and expresses a simple fact that
the total length is the sum of the lengths of its (infinitesimal) pieces.
68.2. Independence of Parameterization. By its very definition, the arc

length is independent of the parameterization of the curve. If a curve
C is defined as a point set, then any parametric equations can be used
to evaluate the arc length. Let C be traced out only once by x = x(t),
y = y(t), where t ∈ [a, b], and by x = X(τ ), y = Y (τ ), where τ ∈ [α, β].
As noted, there is a relation between the parameters t and τ , τ = g(t),
such that g(t) increases from α to β as t increases from a to b, that
is, dτ
dt
= g (t) ≥ 0, such that x(t) = X(g(t)) and y(t) = Y (g(t)).
Therefore, the integrals (10.7) corresponding to different parametric
equations of the same curve are related by a change of the integration
variable:
b b
dx 2 dy 2 dx dτ 2 dy dτ 2
L= + dt = + dt
dt dt dτ dt dτ dt
b β
a a
dx 2 dy 2 dτ dx 2 dy 2
= + dt = + dτ.
a dτ dτ dt α dτ dτ
Thus, the arc length is independent of the curve parameterization and
can be computed in any suitable parameterization of the curve.
A circle of radius R is described by the parametric equations x =
R cos t, y = R sin t, t ∈ [0, 2π]. Then dx = −R sin t dt and dy =
R cos t dt. Hence, ds2 = (R sin t dt)2 +(R cos t dt)2 = R2 (sin2 t+cos2 t) dt2
= R2 dt2 , or ds = R dt, and
2π 2π
L= ds = R dt = R dt = 2πR.
C 0 0
Example 10.11. Find the length of one arch of the cycloid

x = R(φ − sin φ), y = R(1 − cos φ).
Solution: According to the description of the cycloid, one arch cor-
responds to the interval φ ∈ [0, 2π]. The arc length differential ds is
found as follows:
dx = R(1 − cos φ) dφ , dy = R sin φ dφ,
ds2 = dx2 + dy 2 = [(1 − cos φ)2 + sin2 φ]R2 dφ2
= [1 − 2 cos φ + cos2 φ + sin2 φ]R2 dφ2 = (2 − 2 cos φ)R2 dφ2 .

ds = 2(1 − cos φ) R dφ.

To evaluate the integral of 2(1 − cos φ), the double-angle identity is
invoked, sin2 (φ/2) = (1−cos φ)/2. Since 0 ≤ φ/2 ≤ π when φ ∈ [0, 2π],
the sinus is nonnegative, sin(φ/2) ≥√ 0, in the integration interval, and
hence, after taking the square root ( u2 = |u|), the absolute value can
be omitted. Thus,
2π 2π
2
L=R 4 sin (φ/2) dφ = 2R sin(φ/2) dφ
0 0
2π

= 2R[−2 cos(φ/2)] = 8R.
0
2
68.3. Area of a Planar Region. The area under the curve y = f (x)
b
and above the interval x ∈ [a, b] is given by A = a f (x) dx, where
f (x) ≥ 0. Suppose that the curve is also described by parametric
equations x = x(t), y = y(t), so that the function x(t) is one-to-one.
Then, by changing the integration variable, dx = x (t) dt and
b β
A= y dx = y(t)x (t) dt.
a α
The new integration limits are found as usual. When x = a, t is either

α or β, and when x = b, t is the remaining value.
Example 10.12. Find the area under one arch of the cycloid x =
R(φ − sin φ), y = R(1 − cos φ).
Solution: When φ ∈ [0, 2π], x ∈ [0, 2πR] for one arch of the cycloid,
and y(φ) ≥ 0. Using the differential dx found in the previous example,
2πR 2π
A= y dx = R 2
(1 − cos φ)2 dφ
0 0
2π
= R2 (1 − 2 cos φ + cos2 φ) dφ
0
2π 2π
2 2
=R 1
[1 + 2 (1 + cos(2φ))] dφ = R (1 + 12 ) dφ = 3πR2 ,
0 0
2π 2π
where 0 cos φ dφ = 0 and 0
cos(2φ) dφ = 0 by the 2π periodicity of
the cosine function. 2
68.4. Surface Area of Axially Symmetric Surfaces. An axially symmetric

surface is a surface symmetric relative to rotations about a line. Such a
line is called the symmetry axis. For example, a cylinder is symmetric
relative to rotations about its axis, a sphere is symmetric relative to
rotations about its diameter, and so on. An axially symmetric surface
is swept by a planar curve when the latter is rotated about a line. A
cylinder of radius R and height h is obtained by revolving a straight line
segment of length h about a line parallel to the segment at a distance
R. A sphere of radius R is obtained by revolving a circle of radius R
about its diameter.
Let ds be the arc length of an infinitesimal segment of a smooth
curve C positioned at a point (x, y). If the distance between the point
(x, y) and the symmetry axis is R(x, y), then the area dA of the part
of the surface swept by the curve segment when the latter is rotated
about the symmetry axis is the area of a cylinder of radius R(x, y) and
height ds:
dA = 2πR(x, y) ds.
The total surface area is the sum of areas of all such parts of the surface
b
ds
(10.8) A = 2π R(x, y) ds = 2π R(x(t), y(t)) dt,
C a dt
where x = x(t), y = y(t), a ≤ t ≤ b are parametric equations of C.

Here it is again assumed that the point (x(t), y(t)) traces out the curve
C only once as t increases from a to b. In particular, if the symmetry
axis coincides with the x axis, then R(x, y) = |y| (the distance of the
Figure 10.13. A surface is obtained by rotation of a

smooth curve about a vertical line. If ds is the arc length
of an infinitesimal segment of the curve at a point P
and R is the distance of the point P from the rotation
axis, then the surface area swept by the curve segment
is dA = 2πR ds (the surface area of a cylinder of radius
R and height ds).
point (x, y) to the x axis) and

b
dx 2 dy 2
A = 2π |y| ds = 2π |y(t)| + dt.
C a dt dt
Example 10.13. Find the area of the surface obtained by revolving
one arch of the cycloid x = R(φ − sin φ), y = R(1 − cos φ) about the x
axis.
Solution: The differential of the arc length of the cycloid has been
computed in Example 10.11. Since y(t) ≥ 0 here, the absolute value
may be omitted and
2π
A = 2π y ds = 2π R(1 − cos φ) 2(1 − cos φ) R dφ
C 0
2π π
2 3 2
= 8πR sin (φ/2) dφ = 16πR sin3 u du
0 0
π 1
= 16πR 2
(1 − cos u) sin u du = 16πR
2 2
(1 − z 2 ) dz
0 −1
1 64πR2

= 16πR2 (z − z 3 /3) = .
−1 3
where the double-angle identity has been used again, sin2 (φ/2) = (1 −
cos φ)/2, and then two successive changes of the integration variable
have been done to evaluate the integral, u = φ/2 ∈ [0, π] and z =
cos u ∈ [−1, 1]. 2
68.5. Exercises.
In (1)–(3), find the arc length of the curve.
(1) x = 2 + 3t2 , y = 1 − 2t3 between the points (2, 1) and (5, −1).
(2) x = 3 sin t − sin(3t), y = 3 cos t − cos(3t), 0 ≤ t ≤ π.
(3) x = t/(1 + t), y = ln(1 + t) between the points (0, 0) and (2/3, ln 3).
(4) Find the area of the region enclosed by the curve x = a cos3 t,
y = a sin3 t (the astroid).
(5) Find the area of the region enclosed by the curve x = a cos t, y =
b sin t (an ellipse). √
(6) Find the area enclosed by the curve x = t2 − 2t, y = t and the y
axis.
In (7)–(10), find the area of a surface generated by rotating the given
curve about the specified axis. Sketch the surface.
(7) x = a cos3 t, y = a sin3 t (about the x axis).
(8) x2 + y 2 = a2 (about the y axis).
(9) x = t3 , y = t2 , 0 ≤ t ≤ 1 (about the x axis).
69. AREAS AND ARC LENGTHS IN POLAR COORDINATES 191
(10) x = et − t, y = 4et/2 , 0 ≤ t ≤ 1 (about the y axis).

(11) Let V be the volume a solid bounded by an axially symmetric
surface. Show that V = π C [R(x, y)]2 ds, where C is the curve whose
revolution about the symmetry axis gives the boundary surface and
R(x, y) is defined in (10.8). Find the volume of the solid bounded by
the surface described in Example 10.13.
69. Areas and Arc Lengths in Polar Coordinates

69.1. Area of a Planar Region.
Theorem 10.3 (Area of a Planar Region in Polar Coordinates).
Let a planar region D be bounded by two rays from the origin θ = a,
θ = b and a polar graph r = f (θ), where f (θ) ≥ 0, that is,
D = {(r, θ) | 0 ≤ r ≤ f (θ) , a ≤ θ ≤ b}.
Then the area of D is
b
1
A= [f (θ)]2 dθ.
2 a
Proof. Consider a partition of the interval [a, b] by points θk =

a + k ∆θ, k = 0, 1, ..., n, where ∆θ = (b − a)/n. Let mk and Mk
be the minimum and maximum values of f on [θk−1 , θk ]. Recall that a
continuous function f always attains its maximum and minimum values
on a closed interval. The area ∆Ak of the planar region bounded by
the rays θ = θk−1 , θ = θk and the polar graph r = f (θ) is not less than
the area of the disk sector with radius r = mk and angle ∆θ and is not
greater than the area of the disk sector with radius r = Mk and angle
∆θ. The area of a sector of a disk with radius R and angle φ radians
is A = 12 R2 φ. Therefore,
1 2 1
mk ∆θ ≤ ∆Ak ≤ Mk2 ∆θ,
2 2
and the total area A of the planar region in question satisfies the in-
equality
1 2 1 2
n n n
L
An = m ∆θ ≤ A ≤ M ∆θ = An ,U
A= ∆Ak ,
2 k=1 k 2 k=1 k k=1
which is true for any n. Let F (θ) = 12 [f (θ)]2 . The function F is con-
tinuous on [a, b]. Then 12 m2k and 21 Mk2 are the minimum and maximum
values of F on the partition interval [θk−1 , θk ]. This shows that the
lower and upper bounds, ALn and AUn , are lower and upper sums for
the function F on [a, b]. By the definition of the definite integral and
integrability of a continuous function (see Calculus I), the upper and

b
lower sums converge to the integral of F over [a, b], ALn → a F dθ and
b b
AUn → a F dθ as n → ∞. The conclusion of the theorem, A = a F dθ,
follows from the squeeze principle. 2
Example 10.14. Find the area enclosed by one loop of the four-leaf
rose r = cos(2θ).
Solution: Note that r = 1 when θ = 0, which is the maximal value of

r. The function cos(2θ) has two roots θ = ±π/4 that are the nearest
to θ = 0. Hence, one loop corresponds to the interval θ ∈ [−π/4, π/4].
The area is

1 π/4 2 1 π/4
A= cos (2θ) dθ = [1 + cos(4θ)] dθ
2 −π/4 4 −π/4
π/4
1 π
= [θ + 4 sin(4θ)]
1
= .
4 −π/4 8
2
Let D be a planar region that lies between two polar graphs r =
f (θ) and r = g(θ) such that f (θ) ≥ g(θ) ≥ 0 if θ ∈ [a, b] and 0 <
b − a ≤ 2π; that is, D is the set of points whose polar coordinates
satisfy the inequalities:
D = {(r, θ) | 0 ≤ g(θ) ≤ r ≤ f (θ) , a ≤ θ ≤ b}.
Then the area of D is given by

b b b
1 1 1
A= [f (θ)] dθ −
2 2
[g(θ)] dθ = [f (θ)]2 − [g(θ)]2 dθ.
2 a 2 a 2 a
Example 10.15. Find the area of a region D bounded by the car-

dioid r = 1 + sin θ and the circle r = 3/2 that lies above the polar axis
(in the first and second quadrants).
Solution: The polar graphs r = 1 + sin θ = f (θ) and r = 3/2 = g(θ)

are intersecting when f (θ) = g(θ) or 1 + sin θ = 3/2 or sin θ = 1/2.
Since the region D lies in the first two quadrants, that is, 0 ≤ θ ≤ π,
the values of θ for the points of intersection have to be chosen as θ =
π/6 = a and θ = π − π/6 = b. Therefore,
D = {(r, θ) | 3/2 ≤ r ≤ 1 + sin θ , π/6 ≤ θ ≤ 5π/6},

and hence the area of D is

1 b 1 b 5
A= [(1 + sin θ) − 4 ] dθ =
2 9
[− 4 + 2 sin θ + sin2 θ] dθ
2 a 2 a

1 b 5
= [− 4 + 2 sin θ + 12 (1 − cos(2θ))] dθ
2 a

1 b 3
= [− 4 + 2 sin θ − 12 cos(2θ)] dθ
2 a
5π/6 9√3 − 2π

= 2 [− 4 θ − 2 cos θ − 4 sin(2θ)]
1 3 1
= .
π/6 8
2
Remark. When finding points of intersection of two polar graphs,
r = f (θ) and r = g(θ), by solving the equation f (θ) = g(θ), one
has to keep in mind that a single point has many representations as
described in (10.6). So some of the pairs (f (θ), θ), where θ ranges
over solutions of the equation f (θ) = g(θ), may correspond to the
same point. To select distinct points, all pairs (f (θ), θ) satisfying the
intersection condition can be transformed by means of (10.6) so that
r ∈ [0, ∞) and θ ∈ [0, 2π). In this range of polar coordinates, there is
a one-to-one correspondence between points on a plane and pairs (r, θ)
with just one exception when r = 0; all the pairs (0, θ) correspond to
the origin of the polar coordinate system.
69.2. Arc Length. Suppose that a curve C is traversed by the point

(r, θ) = (f (θ), θ) only once as θ increases from a to b. Choosing θ
as a parameter, the curve is described by the parametric equations
x = r cos θ, y = r sin θ, where r = f (θ). To find the arc length of C,
one has to find the relation between the arc length differential ds and
dθ. One has
dr dr
dx = cos θ − r sin θ dθ , dy = sin θ + r cos θ dθ
dθ dθ
Therefore,
dr 2 dr 2
2 2
ds =dx + dy = 2
cos θ − r sin θ + sin θ + r cos θ dθ2
dθ dθ
dr 2
= (cos2 θ + sin2 θ) + r2 (cos2 θ + sin2 θ) dθ2
dθ
dr 2
= + r2 dθ2 .
dθ
The arc length of the curve C is

b b
ds dr 2
L= ds = dθ = r2 + dθ.
C a dθ a dθ
where r = f (θ) and b > a.
Example 10.16. Find the length of the cardioid r = 1 + sin θ.
Solution: One has
dr 2
r2 + = (1 + sin θ)2 + (cos θ)2 = 2(1 + sin θ),
dθ
where the trigonometric identity sin2 θ + cos2 θ = 1 has been used. The
cardioid is traversed once if θ ∈ [−π, π]. Therefore, the length is
√ π√ √ π/2 √
L= 2 1 + sin θ dθ = 2 2 1 + sin θ dθ,
−π −π/2
since the cardioid is symmetric about the vertical line (the y axis).
This integral can be evaluated by the substitution
u = 1 + sin θ ∈ [0, 2]

so
that du = cos θ dθ, where cos θ = 1 − sin 2
θ = 1 − (u − 1)2 =
u(2 − u). Hence,
√
√ 2 u √ 2 du √ √ 2

L=2 2 du = 2 2 √ = −4 2 2 − u = 8.
0 u(2 − u) 0 2−u 0
69.3. Surface Area. If a surface is obtained by rotating a polar graph

r = f (θ) about a line, the (10.8) can be used to find the area of the
surface where the distance R(x, y) and the arc length differential ds
have to be expressed in the polar coordinates with r = f (θ).
Example 10.17. Find the area of the surface obtained by rotating
the cardioid r = 1 + sin θ about its symmetry axis.
Solution: The symmetry axis of the cardioid is the y axis. So the
distance from the y axis to a point (x, y) is R(x, y) = |x|. The surface
can be obtained by rotating the part of the cardioid that lies in the
fourth and first quadrants, that is, x ≥ 0 or θ ∈ [−π/2, π/2]. Since
x = r cos θ, the surface area is
π/2
ds
A = 2π |x| ds = 2π r cos θ dθ
C −π/2 dθ
π/2
dr 2
= 2π r cos θ r2 + dθ.
−π/2 dθ
The derivative ds/dθ has been calculated in the previous example.

Therefore,
√ π/2 3/2
√ 1
A = 2π 2 (1 + sin θ) cos θ dθ = 2π 2 (1 + u)3/2 du
−π/2 −1
√ (1 + u)5/2 1
32π
= 2π 2 = ,
5/2 −1 5
where the substitution u = sin θ has been made to evaluate the
integral. 2
69.4. Exercises.
In (1)–(4), sketch the curve and find the area that it encloses.
(1) r = 4 cos(2θ) (2) r = a(1 + cos θ) (3) r = 2 − cos(2θ)
(4) r2 = 4 cos(2θ)
In (5)–(7), sketch the curve and find the area of one loop of the curve.
(5). r = 9 sin(3θ) (6) r = 1+2 sin θ (inner loop) (7) r = 2 cos θ−sec θ
In (8) and (9), find the area of the region that lies inside the first curve
and outside the second curve. Sketch the curves.
(8) r = 2 sin θ , r = 1 (9) r = 3 cos θ , r = 1 + cos θ
In (10)–(13), find the area of the region bounded by the curves. Sketch
the region.
(10) r = 2θ , r = θ , θ ∈ [0, 2π] (11) r2 = sin(2θ) , r2 = cos(2θ)
(12) r = 2a sin θ , r = 2b cos θ , a, b > 0
(13) r = 3 + 2 cos θ , r = 3 + 2 sin θ
(14) Find the area inside the larger loop and outside the smaller loop
of the limaçon r = 1/2 − cos θ.
In (15)–(17), sketch the curve and find its length.
(15) r = 2a sin θ (16) r = θ , θ ∈ [0, 2π] (17) r = a + cos θ , a ≥ 1
In (18)–(20), find the area of the surface obtained by rotating the curve
about the specified axis. Sketch the surface.
(18) r = a > 0 about a line through the origin.
(19) r = 2a cos θ, a > 0, (i) about the y axis and (ii) about the x axis.
(20) r2 = cos(2θ) about the polar axis.
(21) θ = a and 0 ≤ r ≤ R, where 0 < a < π/2 and R > 0 about the
polar axis.
70. Conic Sections

Consider two intersecting lines in space, L1 and L2 . A surface swept
by the line L2 when it is rotated about the line L1 is a circular double
cone. The line L1 is the symmetry axis of the cone. The point of inter-
section of the lines is called the vertex of a cone. Any plane that does
not pass through the vertex intersects the cone along a curve. It ap-
pears that all such curves fall into three types as shown in Figure 10.14.
If the curve of intersection is a loop, then it is an ellipse. If the plane
is parallel to the line L2 , then the curve is a parabola. If the plane
is parallel to the axis of the cone, then the curve is a hyperbola. The
curves of intersection of a plane and a cone are called conic sections,
or conics. They have a pure geometrical description, which will be
presented here.
Remark. A trajectory of any massive object in the solar system
(e.g., comet, asteroid, planet) is a conic section—that is, a parabola,
hyperbola, or ellipse. This fact follows from Newton’s Law of Gravity
and will be proved in Calculus III.
70.1. Parabolas. A parabola is the set of points in a plane that are

equidistant from a fixed point F (called the focus) and a fixed line
Figure 10.14. Conic sections are curves that are in-

tersections of a cone with various planes. The shape of
a conic section depends on the orientation of the plane
relative to the cone symmetry axis.
70. CONIC SECTIONS 197
Figure 10.15. Left: Geometrical description of a

parabola as a set of points P in a plane that are equidis-
tant from a fixed point F , called the focus, and a fixed
line called the directrix (a horizontal line in the figure).
Right: A circular paraboloid is the surface obtained by
rotating a parabola about the line through its focus and
perpendicular to its directrix.
(called the directrix). Let P be a point in a plane. Consider the line

through P that is perpendicular to the directrix and let Q be the point
of their intersection. Then P lies on a parabola if |F P | = |QP |. This
condition is used to derive the equation of a parabola.
A particularly simple equation of a parabola is obtained if the co-
ordinate system is set so that the y axis coincides with the line through
the focus and perpendicular to the directrix. The origin O is chosen
so that F = (0, p) and hence the parabola contains the origin O, while
the directrix is the line y = −p parallel to the x axis (the origin is
|p| from F and from the directrix). If P = (x, y), then
at distance
|F P | = x2 + (y − p)2 , the point Q has the coordinates (x, −p), and
|P Q| = (y + p)2 . An equation of the parabola with focus (0, p) and
directrix y = −p is
|F P |2 = |P Q|2 =⇒ x2 + (y − p)2 = (y + p)2 ⇐⇒ x2 = 4py.
In the 16th century, Galileo showed that the path of a projectile that is
shot into the air at an angle to the ground is a parabola. The surface
obtained by rotating a parabola about its symmetry axis is called a
paraboloid. If a source of light is placed at the focus of a paraboloid
mirror, then, after the reflection, the light forms a beam parallel to the
symmetry axis. This fact is used to design flashlights, headlights, and
so on. Conversely, a beam of light parallel to the symmetry axis of a

paraboloid mirror will be focused to the focus point after the reflection,
which is used to design reflecting telescopes.
70.2. Ellipses. An ellipse is the set of points in a plane, the sum of

whose distances from two fixed points F1 and F2 is a constant. The
fixed points are called foci (plural of focus). Let P be a point on a
plane. Then P belongs to an ellipse if |P F1 | + |P F2 | = 2a, where a > 0
is a constant (the factor 2 is chosen for convenience to be seen later).
Evidently, |F1 F2 | < 2a; otherwise, no ellipse exists.
A particularly simple equation of an ellipse is obtained when the
coordinate system is set so that the foci lie on the x axis and have
the coordinates F1 = (−c, 0) and F2 = (c, 0), where |c| < a. Let
be a point in a plane. Then |P F1 | = (x + c) + y and
P = (x, y) 2 2
|P F2 | = (x − c)2 + y 2 . The point P is on an ellipse if
|P F1 | + |P F2 | = 2a ⇐⇒ |P F2 | = 2a − |P F1 |,
(10.9) |P F2 |2 = (2a − |P F1 |)2 = 4a2 − 4a|P F1 | + |P F1 |2 ,
16a2 |P F1 |2 = (4a2 + |P F1 |2 − |P F2 |2 )2 .
These transformations serve only one purpose, that is, to get rid of
the square roots. Note that now all the distances are squared. So
|P F1 |2 − |P F2 |2 = (x + c)2 + y 2 − (x − c)2 − y 2 = 4cx. The substitution
of the latter into the condition (10.9) yields
16a2 [(x+c)2 +y 2 ] = (4a2 +4cx)2 ⇔ (a2 −c2 )x2 +a2 y 2 = a2 (a2 −c2 ).
By dividing both sides of this equation by a2 (a2 − c2 ), an equation of

an ellipse with foci (±a, 0) becomes
x2 y 2
+ 2 = 1,
a2 b
where b2 = a2 − c2 so that a ≥ b > 0. The ellipse intersects the x axis
at (±a, 0) and the y axis at (0, ±b) (called the vertices of an ellipse).
The line segment joining the points (±a, 0) is called the major axis.
If the foci of an ellipse are located on the y axis, then x and y are
swapped in this equation, and the major axis lies on the y axis. This
shows that the restriction a ≥ b can be dropped in the ellipse equation.
In particular, an ellipse becomes a circle of radius a if a = b.
One of Kepler’s laws is that the orbits of the planets in the solar
system are ellipses with the Sun at one focus.
Figure 10.16. Left: An ellipse is the set of points in a

plane, the sum of whose distances from two fixed points
F1 and F2 (the foci) is a constant. Right: A circular
ellipsoid is the surface obtained by rotating an ellipse
about the line through its foci.
70.3. Hyperbolas. A hyperbola is the set of all points in a plane, the

difference of whose distances from two fixed points F1 and F2 (the foci)
is a constant. For any point P on a hyperbola, |P F1 | − |P F2 | = ±2a
(as the difference of the distances can be negative). Let the foci be at
(±c, 0). Following the same procedure used to derive an equation of an
ellipse, an equation of a hyperbola with foci (±c, 0) is found to be
x2 y 2
− 2 = 1,
a2 b
2 2 2
where c = a + b . The details are left to the reader as an exercise.
This equation shows that x2 /a2 ≥ 1 for any y, that is, x ≥ a or
x ≤ −a. A hyperbola therefore has two branches. The branch in
x ≤ −a intersects the x axis at x = −a, while the branch in x ≥ a
does so at x = a. The points (±a, 0) are called vertices. Furthermore,
in the asymptotic region |x| → ∞, a hyperbola has slant asymptotes
y = ±(b/a)x. Indeed,

x2 b|x| a2 b|x| a2 b|x|
y = ±b 2
− 1 = ± 1 − 2
≈ ± 1 − 2
→±
a a x a 2x a
√
as |x| → ∞. Here the linearization 1 + u ≈ 1 + u/2 has been used to
obtain the asymptotic behavior for small u = −a2 /x2 → 0.
Figure 10.17. Left: A hyperbola is the set of all points

in a plane, the difference of whose distances from two
fixed points F1 and F2 (the foci) is a constant. Top
right: A circular hyperboloid of one sheet is the surface
obtained by rotating a hyperbola about the line through
the midpoint of the segment F1 F2 and perpendicular to
it (the vertical line in the left panel). Bottom right: A
circular hyperboloid of two sheets is the surface obtained
by rotating a hyperbola about the line through its foci
(the horizontal line in the left panel).
If the foci of a hyperbola are on the y axis, then, by reversing the

roles of x and y, it follows that the hyperbola
y 2 x2
− 2 =1
a2 b
has foci (0, ±c), where c2 = a2 + b2 , vertices (0, ±a), and slant asymp-
totes y = ±(a/b)x.
70.4. Shifted Conics. Consider a curve defined by a quadratic Carte-

sian equation
Ay 2 + Bx2 + αy + βx + γ = 0.
Suppose that A = 0 and B = 0. By completing the squares, this

equation can be transformed to the standard form
α 2 β 2 α2 β2
A y− +B x− = + −γ =d
2A 2B 4A 4B
or
(y − y0 )2 (x − x0 )2
+ = 1,
A/d B/d
where x0 = β/(2B) and y0 = α/(2A), provided d = 0. Depending
on the signs of A/d and B/d, this equation describes either an ellipse
or a hyperbola as if the origin was moved to the point (x0 , y0 ). If
A/d and B/d are both negative, then the equation has no solution.
If either A or B vanishes, but not both, then the quadratic Cartesian
equation describes a parabola (the details are left to the reader as an
exercise). If A = B = 0, the the equation describes a straight line.
If d = 0, solutions
of the equation form a set of two straight lines,
y − y0 = ± −(B/A)(x − x0 ), through the point (x0 , y0 ), provided
AB < 0. When solutions of the Cartesian equation form a hyperbola
(d = 0, AB < 0), these lines are its slant asymptotes.
70.5. Conic Sections in Polar Coordinates. The following theorem offers

a uniform description of conic sections.
Theorem 10.4 (Conic Sections). Let F be a fixed point (called the
focus) and L be a fixed line (called the directrix) in a plane. Let e be a
fixed positive number (called the eccentricity). The set of points P in
the plane whose the ratio of the distance from F to the distance from
L is the constant e is a conic section. The conic is
(1) an ellipse if e < 1
|P F |
(2) a parabola if e = 1 e= .
(3) a hyperbola if e > 1 |P L|
Proof. Set the coordinate system so that F is at the origin and

the directrix is parallel to the y axis and d units to the right. Thus,
the directrix has the equation x = d > 0 and is perpendicular to the
polar axis. If the point P has polar coordinates
(r, θ) and rectangular
coordinates (x, y), then |P F | = r = x + y and |P L| = d − x =
2 2
d−r cos θ. The condition |P F | = e|P L| yields the equation r = e(d−x).

By squaring it, one infers a quadratic Cartesian equation
x2 + y 2 = e2 (d − x)2 ⇔ (1 − e2 )x2 + y 2 + 2e2 dx − e2 d = 0,
which has been investigated in the preceding section. If e = 1, then
the equation describes the shifted parabola y 2 = −2d(x − 1/2). When
e = 1, by completing the squares, this equation is brought to the

standard form
e2 d 2 y2 e2 d2
x+ + = .
1 − e2 1 − e2 (1 − e2 )2
If e < 1, then all the coefficients are positive, and the equation describes
a shifted ellipse
(x − x0 )2 y 2 b2 e2 d2 e2 d
+ = 1 , a2
= , b 2
= , x 0 = = −c,
a2 b2 1 − e2 1 − e2 e2 − 1
where c is the distance from the origin to the foci of the ellipse, c2 =
a2 − b2 . The eccentricity is then e = c/a. Similarly, if e > 1, then the
coefficients have opposite signs, and the equation describes a shifted
hyperbola
(x − x0 )2 y 2 c
− 2 = 1, e= , c 2 = a2 + b 2 .
a2 b a
2
In the beginning of the proof, the polar equation for conic sections
was given as r = e(d − r cos θ). If the directrix is chosen to be to the
left of the focus as x = −d, then cos θ is replaced by − cos θ in the polar
equation. If the directrix is chosen to be parallel to the polar axis as
y = ±d, then the conic sections are r = e(d ± y) = e(d ± r sin θ). These
equations can be solved for r to obtain conic sections as polar graphs.
Corollary 10.5 (Conics in Polar Coordinates). A polar equation
of the form
ed ed
r= or r=
1 ± e cos θ 1 ± e sin θ
represents a conic section of eccentricity e. The conic section is an
ellipse if e < 1, a parabola if e = 1, and a hyperbola if e > 1.
70.6. Exercises.
In (1)–(9), classify the conic section. Find the vertices, foci (or focus),
directrix, and asymptotes (if the curve is a hyperbola). Sketch the
curve.
(1) y 2 = 16x (2) x2 = −4y (3) y + 12x − 2x2 = 18
(4) x2 + 4y 2 = 16 (5) 9x2 − 18x + 4y 2 = 27
(6) x2 + 3y 2 + 2x − 12y + 10 = 0 (7) 4x2 − 9y 2 = 36
(8) y 2 − 2y = 4x2 + 3 (9) y 2 − 4x2 + 2y + 16x + 3 = 0
In (10) A long-range radio navigation system uses two radio stations,

located at points A and B along the coastline, that transmit simulta-
neous signals to a ship located at point P in the sea. The onboard
computer converts the time difference in receiving these signals into a
distance difference |P A| − |P B|. This locates the ship on one branch
of a hyperbola. Suppose that station B is located D miles from station
A. A ship receives the signal from B τ microseconds (µs) before it
receives the signal from A. The signal travels with the speed of light,
c = 980 ft/µs. How far off the coastline is the ship? If the coordinate
system is set so that the line AB coincides with the x axis and A is at
the origin, find the coordinates of the ship as functions of τ .
In (11)–(13), classify the conic section. Find the eccentricity, an equa-
tion of the directrix, and sketch the conic.
8 10 1
(11) r = (12) r = (13) r =
4 + sin θ 2 − 5 cos θ 3 + 3 cos θ
(14) Show that the conic sections r = a/(1−cos θ) and r = b/(1+cos θ)
intersect at right angles.
(15) The orbit of Halley’s Comet, last seen in 1986 and due to return
in 2062, is an ellipse with eccentricity 0.97 and one focus at the Sun.
The length of its major axis is 36.18 AU. An astronomical unit (AU)
is the mean distance between the Earth and the Sun, about 93 million
miles. Find a polar equation for the orbit of Halley’s Comet. What is
the maximal and minimal distance from the comet to the Sun?

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Concepts in Calculus II

UNIVERSITY PRESS OF FLORIDA

Orange Grove Texts Plus

Miklós Bóna and Sergei Shabanov

University Press of Florida

This work is licensed under a modiﬁed Creative Commons Attribution-Noncommercial-No

University Press of Florida

Chapter 6. Applications of Integration 1

62. Applications to Physics and Engineering 145

36. The Area Between Curves

See Figure 6.1 for an illustration of the content of Theorem 6.1.

Example 6.1. Compute the area A(D) of the domain D whose

Solution: In order to see that Theorem 6.1 is applicable, we must

Figure 6.1. Area enclosed by f (x) and g(x) between

Figure 6.2. Area enclosed by the graphs of f (x) = x3 +

and this is clearly true since x ≥ 2, so x2 ≥ 4, and x − 1 ≥ 1, forcing

Therefore, Theorem 6.1 applies, and we have

36.2. Intersecting Curves. Sometimes, the points a and b are deter-

Figure 6.3. Area enclosed by the graphs of f (x) and

f (x) − g(x) = (x2 + 3x + 5) − (2x2 + 7x + 8)

since x + 3 ≥ 0 and x + 1 ≤ 0. Therefore, if x ∈ [−3, −1], then

Note that Theorem 6.1 is a special case of Theorem 6.2, namely,

Example 6.3. Let f (x) = x3 + 3x2 + 2x and let g(x) = x3 + x2 .

Figure 6.4. Graphs of f (x) and g(x) on [−2, 1].

Solution: In order to use Theorem 6.2, we need to compute |f (x) −

Figure 6.5. Graph of |f (x) − g(x)| on [−2, 1].

Figure 6.6. Graph of y 2 = x and x = 4.

Figure 6.7. The volume of S is deﬁned by V (S) = A(P )h.

plate of Pi are on the planes x = xi−1 and x = xi , respectively, and the

As n goes to inﬁnity, the Riemann sum on the right-hand side of

On the other hand, by the deﬁnition of the deﬁnite integral, we have

where A(t) is the area of the intersection of S and the plane x = t.

Theorem 6.3. Let S be a solid located between the planes x = a

Example 6.5. Compute the volume of the ball B whose center is

Figure 6.8. The volume of the ball B approximated by cylinders.

Now we can use Theorem 6.3 to compute the volume of B. We get

Example 6.6. Let S be the right circular cone whose symmetry

The intersection of the plane y = t and S is a circle. The radius rt

Figure 6.9. Right circular cone.

them. This happens particularly often when S is obtained by rotating

Example 6.7. Let D be the domain between the two curves y =

while for the outer radius, this yields

Therefore, the area of the annular ring that is the intersection of S

Now we can apply Theorem 6.4 to compute V (S). We obtain

Theorem 6.6. Let S be a solid between the planes y = a and y = b

37.4. A Solid Not Obtained by Revolution. While volumes of revolution

Example 6.8. Let S be a pyramid whose base is a square of side

Solution: The ﬁrst step is to place S in a coordinate system so that

Figure 6.10. Pyramid.

Figure 6.10 for an illustration. So A(t) = a2 (h − t)2 /h2 , and Theorem

(6) Compute the volume of a regular tetrahedron of side length z.

38. Cylindrical Shells

Figure 6.11. Single cylindrical shell.

If C1 and C2 both have height h and Ci has radius ri , then the

which lies below the curve of f (x) = y from x = a to x = b, about the

a = x0 < x1 < · · · < xn−1 < xn = b.

V (Si ) = f (x∗i ) ∆x 2πx∗i ,

since the union of the shells Si has roughly identical volume to S.

Theorem 6.7. The volume V (S) of the solid obtained by rotating

Example 6.9. Compute the volume of the solid S obtained by ro-

Figure 6.12. (a) The curve of y = 3x3 − x4 and (b) the

Solution: By Theorem 6.7, we have

Example 6.10. Let S be the solid obtained by rotating the domain

Solution: We can decompose S into cylindrical shells whose center